Alloy Selection for COLD FORMING Stainless steels and high-temperature alloys are available today for virtually any cold heading, forming, upsetting, or extruding operation. Part I covers stainless steel alloys; Part II July AM&P) will cover high-temperature and specialty alloys. Douglas G. Frick Carpenter Tecnology Corporation Renting, Penson ally grades of stainless steel and other Fake oieecbonceagadiorvir tually every cold heading, forming, upset- ting, and extruding operation. They are necessary forthe growing number of fastener com- ponents that must have the corrosion resistance and strength to withstand harsh environments, high operating temperatures, and great pressures, as well as requirements for special magnetic properties (Big. 1). For all such components, alloy selection has also been governed by the need to reduce part costs and secondary machining operations, thus im- proving productivity. ‘This article cliscusses selection guidelines, de- fines alloy classes, and describes the applications _mest suitable foreach alloy class. Selection guidelines ‘The manufacturer who meets required material specifications has no problem selecting the right stainless steel or high-temperature alloy for a heading job. However, if no specifications are pro- vided, the producer may determine the best alloy by means of an orderly, four-step process. “The following questions, in order of importance, should be answered: 1, How much corrosion resistance is required? 2 What strength is needed, considering that me- chanical properties may be affected by heading and heat treatment? 3. Which of the alloys meeting corrosion and strength requirements offer the best headability? 4. How available is the alloy? ‘Twoadditional variables should be considered. One is part complexity, which determines the severity of upset or extrusion. The second is the heading wire coating. Especially in the case of an alloy not easily headed, the coating is essential in facilitating forming and providing reasonable tool life. Alloy classes Before examining corrosion resistance asa scloc- tion requirement, a brief review of the stainless steels and high-temperature alloy classes may be helpful, particularly as they pertain to heading and forming, * AISI 400 series: The simplest stainless steels con- tain a minimum of about 11% chromium, in acc tion to iron. They generally are known as the AISI 400 series of stainless steels and, clepending on the chromium and carbon contents, may be marten- or ferritic. The martensitic alloys, which typi cally contain more than 0.08% carbon, are harden able by heat treatment. Type 410 stainless fa typical martensitic alloy in this series. Increasing chromium or reducing carbon results ina ferrtic stainless steel, which cannot be hard ceed by heat treatment. Increasing chromium also increases corrosion resistance. Type 430 stainless (18% chromium), a typical alloy in this family, is more corrosion resistant than Type 410 stainless (12% chromium). * AISI 300 series: The AISI 300 series provides a significant improvement in corrosion resistance. Nickel is the most important alloying element in the 300 series, which inclu types such as Custom Flo 302HQ, Type 304, and Type 205 stainless steels ‘These are the 188 stainless steels, containing about 18% chromium and a minimum of 8% nickel. They are austenitic alloys that are not hardened by heat treatment, but they do work-harden by cold ‘working, Molybdenum may be added for greater resistance to chloride pitting (Type 316). Stil other alloying elements may be added to enhance fabri- cation characteristics. For example, the 3 to 4% Fig. 1— These are some ofthe many fasteners cold formed of specialty grades of steels and high-temperature alos ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES /JUNE 2003re a 3 $l Pe i” => i ee 2 = . * Cold wad pent . Fig. 2— Typ work adn rates of Frac speed cod nda stan less les demonstrat the influence of alloy composition. Relative headability of common stainless steels* Typical maximum tensile strength, Typical Alloy 5% cold work, MPa (ksi) workshardening rate 430 599 (86) 07 410 21 () 09 No. 10 572 (83) 14 302HQ 572,63) 13 305 641 (83) 15 316 685 (95) 16 304 655 (95) 1s 304 Mod. 59 (100) 18 Pitren 758(110) 18. st oy mn aoa ado it Waring a ince oe gor pt ct a gh ng copper in Custom Flo 302HQ lowers the work- Ne eicingrne tusimprotinghesdtiy + AISI 200 series: Type 204-Cu alloy, a 200 series austenitic stainless is a recent low-nickel alterma~ tive to 18.8 stainless Type 304. The 3% copper in ‘Type 204-Cualloy gives italower work-hardening rate and better headability than other high- manganese, nitrogen-strengthened alloys. High nitrogen content maintains the austenitic structure of the 200 series grade, giving it higher annealed yield and tensile strength than stainless Type 304, ‘with similar headabilty. Fasteners that have been made from Type 204- Cualloy have remained nonmagnetic after cold forming, and have been less susceptible to galling than fasteners formed from high-nickel 300 series alloys. Although properties are similar to those of Type 304 stainless, the cost of Type 204-Cu alloy is virtually unaffected by fluctuations in nickel prices. ‘The low-nickel alloy can be considered as a re- placement for Type 304 stainless in fasteners that require high strength and good formability. * Precpitation-hardening alloys: Another stainless steel category includes the age-hardening or pre- Cipitation-hardening alloys, such as the following Carpenter alloys: Custom 630 (17Cr4Ni) stainless, 15-7PH stainless, Project 70+ 15Cr-5Ni stainless, Custom 450 and Custom 455 stainless, anel Armeo’s PHI3-8Mo alloy. They provide corrosion resistance atstrength levels above those ofthe 300 or 400 series stainless steels, + High-temperature alloys The high-temperature alloys comprise a separate classification. Included in this group are grades such as Carpenter Pyromet Alloy 718, Pyromet Alloy A-286, Pyromet Alloy '882, and Carpenter Waspaloy. Like the precipita- tion-hardening grades, these alloys require much more specialized heading techniques and consid- erably more energy to head. “Another grade used in specialized applications is Carpenter Ni-Cu Alloy 400. This alloy has rela- tively high strength and toughness overa wide tem- perature range. With its relatively low work-hard- ‘ening rate, this material is easy tohead. Headability of various alloys The heading process is defined as forming the head ona fastener by upsetting. Headability is de- termined by the alloy’s mechanical properties and its work-hardening rate, the rate at which me~ chanical properties are increased by cold working, Tensile strength alone is not a reliable measure of headability, Because chemical composition de- termines the alloy’s work-hardening rate. Two al- loys with different compositions and the same an- nealed tensile strength may have different work-hardening rates. I the two alloys are cold- worked by indie drawing, the one with the higher work-hardening rate will have higher yield and tensile strengths. Consequently it will be more dif- ficult to head because more force will be needed to shape the part. Headability depends greatly on the ratio of yield strength to ultimate tensile strength. Yield strength must be exceeded before material can flow; how- cever, the ultimate tensile strength cannot be ex- ceeded or the part will crack Stainless graces in the 400 series cold head much like carbon and low alloy steels. Type 430 stainless, with the lowest work-hardening rate, is the easiest tocold form, and Type 440-C stainless is the most difficult. N-Cu-400 alloy, listed in the high-tem- perature specialty alloys section, offers headability ‘comparable to that of Type 430 stainless. ‘The 200 series stainless stols are somewhat more difficult to cold form than the 400 series, because alloys in the 300 group have higher werk-hard- ‘ening rates (Fig. and the table). Stainless alloys in the 300 series require more energy to head than the 400 series. Carpenter No.10 stainless and Custom Flo 302HQ stainless, with the lowest work hard- ‘ening rates in the 300 series, are the easiest to head. Although Type 304 Modified (Type SOSH) i ess headable than Type 304, its high work-hardening rate is an asset for fasteners requiring high-strength threads, Type 304 Modified, which has been used in construction type fasteners, can be cold worked to about HRC 40 to 45, ‘The precipitation hardening stainless steels and high-temperature alloys are generally more diffi- cult to head because of the alloying elements that impart overall greater strength at cold working tem peratures In the case of PH stainless steels such as ‘Custom 630 stainless (17Cr-4Ni), PHI3-8Mo stain- less, and Custom 455 stainless, formability usually can be optimized if the materia is in the overaged 32 ‘ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES /JUNE 2003condition. For example, Custom 630 stainless, with the lowest yield strength and tensile strength, has best formability when in the H1150M condition. Material processed by this method must be subse- quently solution-treafed before aging to reach max- imum tensile strength Some stainless steels offer cold heaclers max- mum fabricating characteristics for components that require secondary operations such as ma- chining, Carpenter 302HQ-FM stainless is a good example of how certain grades can be modified to ‘meet specific property requirements. This alloy combines the headabilty of Type 202HQ stainless with the free-machining benefits of Type 303 stain- less. Itcan be cold headed into a variety of parts, then easily machined in secondary operations such as drilling slotting, and tapping, Type 409Cb stainless the automotive industry for muffler hangers and brackets, catalytic converter weld wire, and in ‘oxygen-sensor components. Type 409CB-FM, a free- ‘machining variation, has been chosen to improve fabrication performance and tool life where sec- “ondary machining operations are required. ‘Advances in steelmaking technology now make itpossible to modify composition and processes to ‘meet more specific requirements, New techniques facilitate better contro of grain size, yield strength, shear strength, and surface finish. However, to jus- tify the cost of such modifications the usual caveat applies —the volume needed mist be significant Selection diagram To simplify selection of the best alloy for a heading or forming job, Carpenter has developed proprietary method which plots relative corrosion resistance and headability. Fig, 3 shows a diagram in which 27 stainless steels and high tempera- ture /specialty alloys are positioned in accordance with these two key characteristics. ‘To choose an alloy, simply move up for better headability, and tothe right for better corrosion re- sistance. The drawing indicates that stainless Type 409C’, stainless Type 430, and Ni-Cui Alloy 400 have the best headability, while Waspaloy has the highest corrosion resistance. No. 10 stainless ane Custom Flo 302HQ stainless provide a good com- bination of headabilty and corrosion resistance. Obviously, some tradeoffs may be made int selection process, because each application has its ‘own special requirements. When considering costs, the best choice is the lowest cost alloy that provides the properties needed. Relative corrosion resistance shown on the dia~ ‘gram should be considered only a general guide. For Corrosion resistance to specific environments, con- sult with the alloy supplier. In general, if corrosion resistance is relatively similar select the alloy offering the best combination of headabilty and cost * Siainess Type 409Ciand stainless Type 430 offer the best formability ofall the stainless steels, with slightly ess corrosion resistance than stainless Type 304. Their formability is similar to that of low alloy steels, which are easy tolhead. Stainless Type 40Cb hhas been used for a variety of automotive applica- rE ie ae % ln Tea me | Le | 2a) Lae es ‘ pa i z rea) [a FE Be ee Fig. 3— Relative corrsion resistance ad ondabiliy of commonly ede ta les steels and high-temperatureAspecalty alloys, "Trademark of Armco In. tions (mentioned earlier) and stainless Type 430 hhas boen selected for many types of fasteners and bolts * Type 410 is ahandenable tainkessstee! with the ‘same tensile strength capability as stainless Type 481 when heat treated. Itis less corrosion resistant than stainless Type 431, and has been used! most often for sheet metal screws, bolts, and fasteners exposed to atmospheric conditions * Carpenter TrimRite stainless, specified for self drilling construction fasteners, has better corrasion resistance than stainless Type 410, the strength of stainless Type 420, and corrosion resistance of stain- less Type 430. * No. 10 Type 384) stainless and Custom Flo 302HQ stainless offer excellent headabilty and corrosion resistance for severely formed parts. No. 10stain- less, with its high nickel content, remains nonmag- netic after cold working, The 302HQ alloy, which becomes slightly magnetic after cold work, s more readily available than No. 10 stainless. * The 302H1Q-FM stainless is a machinable modi- fication of 3021 stainless that s suitable for both heading and subsequent machining. It has been run in bar form on automatic screw machines to produce parts where thread rolling or cold form tapping operations are critical. Similarly, 409Cb- FMstainless, a modification of 409Cb stainless, of- {ers good formabilty with improved machinability in secondary operations. * Type 05 sinless s suitable for severely formed parts and fasteners made in multiple heading stages. In addition to its good formabilty, the alloy is also useful for parts that must remain nonmagnetic after cold working, This grade resists corrosion by severe atmospheres nitric acid, and fooctstus, + Type 316 stainless isan easily formed alloy that has superior corrosion resistance, and resistance to pitting corrosion in particular. It isa good choice for fasteners for the chemical process industries. + Type 308 stainless, which resists severe corro- sion and corrodents such as nitric acid, s frequently selected for fasteners with simple heead design: ‘Type 304 modified stainless isthe alloy of choice for construction type fasteners. Composition ofthis ‘grace canbe adjusted to reduce the work-hardening ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES /JUNE 2003rate for fasteners that require more severe forming, * Type 20-Cu stainless can be considered for ap- plications where high strength and good formability are required. In addition, the allay mightbe appro- priate for fastener applications that are currently made of Type 304 stainless, Type 204-Cui stainless offers two additional advantages — fasteners made from the alloy remain nonmagnetic after cold forming, and they are ess susceptible to galling than fasteners formed from high-nickel 300 series alloys. * Type 431 stainless car be heat treated to hi strength than Type 304. While Type 431 has slightly less corrosion resistance than Type 304, ithas the best corrosion resistance ofall the hardenable grades. Tt has been applied in marine fasteners and aircraft fas- teners requiring corrosion resistance and toughness. * Type 321 annd Type 347 are also austenitic stain- less steels that can be cold formed. They resist cor- rosion and heat, and are suitable for aircraft fas: tener service at 800 to 1500°F (427 to 816°O), Corrosion resistant alloys * Carpenter 20CB-3 stainless should be considered for fasteners or parts that require resistance to chlo- ride stress corrosion cracking, hot sulfuric acid, and /or many aggressive environments that readily attack Type 316 stainless * Precipitation hardening alloys should be considered if more strength is needed than possible in an alloy such as Type 431. The tradeoff to their typically high ‘mechanical properties is somewhat less formability * Custom 450 stainless is an age-harclenable steel that can be cold formed in the solution-annealed condition. It has the very good corrosion charac teristics of Type 304, along with considerably higher strength capability after aging, It may be harclened toapproximately HRC 50, * Custer 630 (17Cr-4Ni) stainless is a precipitation hardenable stee! offering high strength and hard- ress with excellent corrosion resistance. Its strength level is similar to that of Custom 455 stainless. * 15Cr-5Ni stainless isa martensitic age-harden- able stainless with strength and corrosion resistance similar to that of Custom 620 stainless, but with im- proved forgeability and transverse toughness, © 15-7PH stainless is a precipitation hardening stainless that is more easily formed in the annealed condition because of its austenitic structure. It is ca- pable of high strength via cold working and/or thermal treatment to a martensitic structure. 15- 7PH stainless has been used to produce rivets for erospace applications. * Type 440-C stainless, which derives its harden ability and high tensile strength from heat treat- ment, is the most difficult of all stainless steels to head. thas been used primarily in applications in which balls are headed for stainless bearings. Ml For more information: Douglas G. Frick Specalist~ Col Technical Serviees, Carpenter Technology Corp. P.O. Box 14662, Reading, PA 19612-4662; tel: 610/208-2526) fax-610/736-7298; e-mail dfrickeeartech.com, Circle 20 or visit www.adinfo.ce