CHAPTER-II

POWER LAUNCHING AND COUPLING

INTRODUCTION
In an optical fiber link, the two major system criteria are
(i) How to launch optical power into a particular fiber from some type of luminescent
source and
(ii) How to couple optical power from one fiber into another.

 Coupling Efficiency ():

✓ It is defined as a measure of the amount of optical power emitted from a source that can
be coupled into a fiber

PF
=
PS

Where, PF - Power coupled into fiber and

Ps - Power emitted from light source.
✓ The launching or coupling efficiency depends on the type of fiber that is attached to the
sources and on the coupling process.

 Flylead (or) Pigtail:

✓ Many source suppliers offer devices with. a short length of optical fiber (1m or less)
already attached in an optimum power - coupling configuration. This section of fiber is
generally referred to as a flylead or pigtail .
✓ The flylead sources reduce many power -launching problems and make the couplig
easier.

❖ Source to fiber power launching:

Launching of optical power from a source into fiber depends on (i) Numerical
aperture
(ii) Core size
(iii) Refractive index profile
(iv) Core cladding index difference of the fiber.
(v) Radiance
(vi) Alignment between source and fiber and
 (
v
LENSING
i SCHEMES FOR COUPLING IMPROVEMENT
i
Introduction
)
 W
Law of Brightness:
a
v ✓ If the source emitting area is larger than the fiber core area then maximum optical

e power is coupled into the fiber. This is a result of fundamental energy and radiance
conservation principles. If also known as the law of brightness.

l
✓ If the emitting area of the source is smaller than the core area, miniature lens may be
e
placed between the source and the fiber to improve the power - coupling efficiency.
n
g ✓ The function of the microlens is to magnify the emitting area of the source to match
t exactly the core area of the fiber end face.
h
✓ If the emitting area is increased by the magnification/actor 'M', then the solid angle
within which optical power is coupled to the fiber from the LED source is also
increased by the same factor.

Lensing Schemes
(a) Rounded – end fiber:

Fig. Rounded end fiber

The fiber itself rounded known as rounded end fiber. Here, whole radiation from LED emitting
area is incident fully on the fiber end surface.
(b) Non imaging microsphere:

Fig. Non imaging microsphere

A small glass sphere (non imaging microsphere) is contact with both the fiber and the source.

(c)Imaging sphere:

Fig. Imaging sphere

A large spherical lens is used to image the source on the core area of the source.

(d)Cylindrical lens:

Fig. Cylindrical lens

 Cylindrical lenses are generally formed from a short section of fiber.

(e) Spherical – surface LED and spherical – ended fiber:

Fig. Spherical – surfaced LED and spherical – ended fiber.

(f) Taper – ended fiber:

Fig. Taper – ended fiber

✓ If the width of taper ended fiber is equal to width of the emitting surface of the LED, the
maximum coupling efficiency is achieved.

✓ All the above techniques can improve the source - to - fiber coupling efficiency, they also
create additional complexities .

✓ One problem is that the lens size is similar to the source and fiber - core dimensions, which
introduces fabrication and handling difficulties.

✓ In case of the taper ended fiber, the mechanical alignment must be carried out with greater
precision.
Non Imaging Microsphere

Fig. Schematic diagram of an LED emitter with a microsphere lens

✓ Non imaging microsphere is one of the most efficiency lensing methods.

• Practical assumptions:
- The spherical lens has a refractive index of about 2.0.
- The outside medium is air (n = 1.0) and
- The emitting area is circular.

✓ To collimate the output from the LED, the emitting surface should be located at the focal point
of the lens. The focal point can be found from the Gaussian lens formula.
n n’ n’ – n
+ = …(1)
s q r
Where s - object distance
q - image distance
s and q are measured from the lens surface.
n - refractive index of the lens
n' - refractive index of the outside medium and
r - radius of curvature of the lens surface.

✓ The focal point for the right -hand surface of the lens can be found with the following sign
convertions.
• Light travels from left to right.
 • Object distances are measured as positive to the left of a vertex and negative to
the right.
• Image distances are measured as positive to the right of a vertex and negative
to the left.
• All convex surfaces encountered by the light have a positive radius of
curvature and concave surfaces have a negative radius of curvature .

• To find the focal point for the right - hand Surface of the lens:

i. When ‘s’ is measured from point B. At q =  r = - RL, n = 2.0 and n’ = 1.0 equation (1)
becomes,

s = f = 2RL …(2)

Thus, the focal point is located on the lens surface at point A.

ii. If LED is placed to the lens surface, thus results in a magnification "M" of emitting area.
This is given by the ratio of the cross - sectional area of the lens to that of the emitting area.
RL2 RL
M= = 2 …(3)
rs2 rs

iii. With the lens the optical power PL that can be coupled into a full aperture angle "28" is
given by
2
RL
PL = PS Sin2θ …(4)
rS

Where Ps is the total output power from the LED without the lens.

•
iv. The maximum coupling efficiency  max is determined
e radius 'a' and numerical aperture NA, the maximum coupling efficiency max is given by
v. b
Coupling efficiency of a fiber with NA = 0.20 and core radius a = 25m.
y
2 rs
a for > NA
(NA)2 a
f rs
max = …(5)
i rs
b 1 for  NA
a
e
r

s
i
z
e
.

F
o
r

a
Fig
f
Coupling efficiency of a fiber with NA = 0.20 and core radius a = 25 µm.
i
vi.
b When the radius of the emitting area is larger than the fiber radius, no improvement in
coupling efficiency is possible with a lens .
e
rvii. The fig. Shows the coupling efficiency of a surface emitting LED as a function of the
emitting area diameter.
c
o
r
 Laser Diode - to - Fiber Coupling
The angular output distribution of the laser is greater than the fiber acceptance angle and the
laser emitting area is much smaller than the fiber core, spherical or cylindrical lens or optical fiber
tapers are used to improve coupling efficiency between edge - emitting laser diodes and optical
fibers.

FIBER - TO - FIBER JOINTS

Introduction

✓ Optical fiber link is used Optical fiber link is used for both jointing and termination of the
transmission medium. Generally, number of intermediate fiber connections or joints is dependent
upon the link length.

✓ Inter connecting the fibers in a low - loss manner is the basic requirement any fiber optic system
installation. The interconnections occur at

- Optical source
- Photo detector
- Intermediate points within a cable where two fibers are jointed.
- Points where two cables are connected.

 Two major categories of fiber joint:

✓ Fiber Splices:

These are semi permanent or permanent joints which find major us in most optical fiber
telecommunication systems.
✓ Demountable fiber connectors or simple connectors:

These are removable joints which allow easy, fast, manual coupling and uncoupling of fibers.

 Optical power losses at the joints depend on the following parameter:

- Input power distribution at the joint.

- The length of the fiber between the optical source and the joint.
 -Geometrical and waveguide characteristics of the two fiber ends and
-Fiber end face qualities
e
The
n optical
✓ dThe optical power coupled from one fiber to another is limited by the number of modes that
can propagate in each fiber.
✓ - For a graded – index fiber with a core radius “a” a cladding index “n2” with
f 2
aPropagation constant k = then the total number of modes can be found from be
c 
e found from

a
q M = K2  [n2 (r) - n22]r dr ….(1)
0
u
a Where,
n(r) – defines the variation in the refractive index profile of the core.
l a
✓ Equation (1) can be written as M = K  NA2 (r) r dr
2
…(2)
i 0 
a r
t
= K2 NA2 (0)  1 - r dr …(3)
i 0 a

e
Where, NA (0) – Axial numerical aperture and
s
 - index profile of the core.

 Fiber - to - fiber coupling efficiency (F):

✓ The fraction of energy coupled from one fiber to other fiber is proportional to the
common mode volume Mcomm. (If a uniform distribution of energy over the modes is
assumed.)
✓ The fiber – to – fiber coupling efficiency F is given by
Mcomm
F = …(4)
ME

Where, ME is the number of modes in the emitting fiber.

 F The fiber – to – fiber coupling loss LF is given by
i LF = -10 log F …(5)
b
e Where, F – fiber to fiber coupling efficiency
r

–
Mechanical Misalignment
t
o ❖ Introduction:
✓ Radiation losses result from mechanical misalignments because the· radiation cone of the
–
emitting fiber does not match the acceptance cone of the receiving fiber.
f ✓ The diameter of fiber is few micrometers hence the microscopic alignment is required.
i ✓ The magnitude of radiation loss depends on the degree of misalignment.
b
e
r ❖ Types of mechanical misalignment:

c ❖ Lateral misalignment:
o
u Lateral or axial misalignment occurs when the axes of two fibers are separated by
p distance 'd'.
l
i
n
g

l
o
s
s Fig.(a) Lateral or axial
:
❖ Longitudinal misalignment:
T
Longitudinal misalignment occurs when the fibers have the same axis but have a
gap s between their end faces.
 Fig. (b) Longitudinal misalignment

❖ Angular misalignment:

Fig. (c) Angular misalignment

Angular misalignment occurs when two fiber axes form an angle '' between fiber end
faces, which is no longer parallel .

❖ Coupling loss of axial misalignment:

✓ The axial or lateral misalignment is most common in practice causing considerable

power loss. The axial offset reduces the common core area of two fiber and faces.

Fig. Axial offset reduces the common – core area of the two fiber end faces.
 ✓ The optical power coupled from one fiber to another is proportional to common area
Acomm of the two fiber cores. It is given by
d d2 1
Acomm = 2a2 arc cos -d a2 - 2 …(6)
2a 4

Where, a is core radius of fiber.

d is separation of core fiber.

✓ For the step – index fiber, the coupling efficiency is simply the ratio of the common –
core area of the core end – face area.
Acomm
F.step = …(7)
a 2
1
2 d d 2 2

= arc cos - 1- d …(8)

2a
 2a πa

Fig. Core overlap region for two identical parabolic graded – index fibers with an
axial separation d. Points x1 and x2 are arbitrary points of symmetry in areas A1
and A2.

✓ The figure shows the butt joint of the two parabolic graded – index fibers with axial offset d.
The overlap region must be considered separately for the areas A1 and A2.
Power at area A1:
✓ In area A1 the numerical aperture is limited by that 0/ the emitting fiber, whereas in area
A2 the numerical aperture of the receiving fiber is smaller than that o/the emitting fiber.
✓ The vertical dashed line separating the two areas is the locus of points where the numerical
apertures are equal. θ1 a
✓ The received power P1 in area A1 is P1 = 2 ∫ ∫ P(r) r dr dθ
0 

θ1 a 2
= 2 P(0) ∫ ∫ 1- r r dr dθ …(9)
0  a

Where, P(r) – Optical power density at a point r on the fiber end and
P (0) – Power density at the core axis (or) axial power density.

Fig. Area and limits of integration for the common – core area of two
parabolic graded – index fibers.

✓ The limits of integration can be estimated from the above figure.

d
r1 = and
2cos θ
d
θ1 = arc cos then
2a

a2 d 2
d d2
P1 = P(0) arc cos - 1- d 5-
2 2a 2a 6a 2a2 …(10)
 ❖ Power at area A2:

✓ In area A2 the emitting fiber has a larger numerical aperture than the receiving fiber. This means
that the receiving fiber will accept only that fraction of the emitted optical power that falls within its
own numerical aperture. This power can be found easily from symmetry considerations.
✓ The optical power accepted by the receiving fiber at any point x2 in area A2 is equal to that emitted
from the symmetrical point x1 in area A1. Because of equal numerical aperture and the total power PT
accepted by the fiber is
1
2
2
d d d d2
2
PT= 2P1 = a P(0) arc cos - 1 - 2a 5- …(11)
2a 6a 2a2

✓ Already we known
πa2
Total power from emitting fiber P = P(0)
2
2P
P(0) = …(12)
πa2
Substitute equation (12) in equation (11)

2 1
2 d 2 d d2
PT = P arc cos - 1- d 5-
π 2a 2a 6a 2a2 …(13)

✓ When the axial misalignment d is small compared with the core radius a. (d < a).
8d
Equation (12) can be approximated by PT  P 1 – …(14)
3πa
❖ Coupling loss:

✓ The coupling loss for the offset given by equation (12) and (13) is

PT …(15)
LF = - 10log F = -10 log
P
 ❖ Coupling loss of longitudinal misalignment:

Fig. Loss effect when the fiber ends are separated longitudinally by a gaps.

Figure illustrates the loss effect when the finer ends are separated longitudinally by a gap “s”.

✓ For a step – index fiber, the loss occurring is given by

a
LF = - 10 log
…(16)
a + s tan θ c

Where, θc is the critical acceptance angle of the fiber.

❖ Coupling loss of angular misalignment:

For two step – index fibers that have an angular misalignment “θ”, the optical power loss at the
joint
1 1 1
- P (1 – P ) 2 1/2
– arc sin P
2 π π
LF = - 10log cos θ … (17)
1 1 1
-q y(1 – y2)1/2 + arc siny +
π π 2

cos θc (1 – cos θ)
Where, P =
sin θc sin θ

cos3 θc
q= and
(cos2 θc – sin2θ)3/2
 cos2θc (1 – cosθ) – sin2 θ
y=
sin θc cos θc sin θ

Fiber - Related Losses

✓ The fiber - to - fiber coupling loss also causes due to differences in geometrical and fiber
characteristics.
✓ These includes
- Core diameter variation.
- Core - area ellipticity
- Numerical aperture
- Refractive - index profile and
- Core - cladding concentricity .

✓ The user has less control over these variations since they are related to manufacturing process .
✓ If the emitter fiber radius "aE" and receiving fiber radius "aR" are not equal but the axial
numerical apertures, and the index profiles are equal [NAE (0) = NAR (0) and E = R], then coupling
loss is
aR 2
- 10log for aR <aE
aE
Lr (a) = …(18)

0 for aR ≥ aE

✓ If aE = aR and E = R but NAE (0) ≠ NAR (0) then

2
NAR(0)
- 10log for NAR (0) < NAE (0)
NaE (0)
LF (NA) = …(19)

0 for NAR (0) ≥ NAE (0)

If aE = aR and NAE (0) = NAR (0) but R ≠ E then

R (E + 2) 2

-10 log for R < E

E (R + 2)
LF () = … (20)

0 for R ≥ E
Fiber End - Face Preparation
✓ Fiber end faces must be prepared before they are connected or spliced. To
avoid light deflection or scattered at the joint, the fiber ends must be flat,
perpendicular to the fiber axis, and smooth.
✓ End - preparation techniques used extensively include
( i ). Sawing
( ii ). Grinding
( iii ). Polishing and
( iv ). Controlled fracture.
✓ Abrasive techniques are used for grinding and polishing, to polish the
fib end face .
✓ The end face is polished with each successive abrasive until all tl1
scratches are removed and they become smooth. The number of abrasive
used depends on the degree of smoothness that is desired .

❖ Controlled –fracture techniques are based on score – and - break-

methods for cleaving fiber

Fig. . Controlled - fracture procedure for fiber end

preparation.
The process involves following steps
-The fiber to be cleaved is first scratched to create a stress concentration at
the surface.
-The fiber is then bent over a curved form while tension is simultaneously
applied to produces a stress distribution across the fiber.
-The maximum stress occurs at the scratch point, so that a crack starts to
propagate through the fiber .

❖ If the stress distribution across the crack is not properly controlled, the
fiber can fork into several cracks, various types of defects can be
introduced in the fiber.
 Lip - This is a sharp protrusion from 3 cleaved fiber edge that
prevents the cores from coming in close contact.
Roll off - This is opposite condition to lipping. This is a rounding off of
the edge of a fiber. It is also known as break over and can cause high
insertion or splice loss.
Chip - Break at the end of a cleaved fiber.
Hackle - Severe irregularities across the fiber end face.
Mist - Less severe hackle.

Spiral or step - Abrupt changes in the end face surface topology.

Shattering - This is the result of an uncontrolled fracture and has no

definable cleavage or surface characteristics.

FIBER SPLICING
Introduction
✓ A fiber splice is a permanent or semi-permanent joint between two fibers. And the
process of joining two fibers is called as splicing.
✓ The splicing are used to create long optical links or in situations where frequent
connection and disconnection are not needed.
✓ The factors to be considered in splicing are
- Geometrical difference between two fibers.
- Fiber misalignments at the joint and
- Mechanical strength of the splice.

Splicing Techniques

Three splicing techniques are generally used

✓ Fusion splice
✓ V - groove mechanical splice and
✓ Elastic tube splice

Fusion Splicing:
14.
✓ Fusion splices are made by thermally bonding together prepared fiber ends
✓ In this method, the fiber ends are first prealigned and butted together. This is done either
in a grooved fiber holder or under a microscope with micromanipulators.
 Fig. Fusion splicing of optical fibers .

✓ The butt joint is then heated with an electric arc or a laser pulse so that the ends are
momentarily melted and bonded together. This technique can produce very low splice
losses (typically averaging less than O.06dB).

Figures :
(1) Initial setting:

(2) Arrangement of smooth surface by prefusion :

 (3) Pressed together :

(4) Accomplishment of splice:

Fig. . Electric arc fusion splicing

❖ V - groove splice technique:

 Fig. V-groove splices

V - groove splices formed by sandwiching the butted fiber ends between a V-groove glass
substrate and a flat glass retainer plate.
✓ The prepared fiber ends are first butted together in a V - shaped groove. They are then bonded
together with an adhesive or are held in place by means of a cover plate.
✓ The V - shaped channel can be either a grooved Silicon, Plastic, Ceramic, or Metal substrate.
✓ The splice loss depends strongly on the fiber size and eccentricity (the position of the relative to
the center of the fiber) .

❖ Elastic - tube splice:

✓ The elastic - tube splice is a unique device that automatically performs lateral,
longitudinal and angular alignment.
✓ It splices multimode fibers to give losses in the same range as commercial fusion
splices, but much less equipment and skill are needed.
✓ The device is made up of an elastic material. The central hole diameter is slightly
smaller than that of the fiber to be spliced and is tapered on each for easy fiber
insertion.
 Fig. Schematic of an elastic - tube splice .
✓ The fiber expands the hole diameter when it is inserted so that the elastic material exerts a
symmetrical force on the fiber. This allows accurate and automatic alignment of axes of the
two fibers to be joined .
✓ In this method the fibers to be spliced do not have to be equal in diameter. Because each
fiber moves into position independently relative to the tube axis.

Splicing Single - Mode Fibers

✓ In single - mode fibers the lateral (axial) offset loss presents the most serious
misalignment. This loss depends on the shape of the propagation mode .
✓ The loss between the identical fibers for a gaussian - shaped beams is given by

2
LSM1;lat = -10 log exp - d
w .. (1)

Where, spot size w is the mode-field radius and

d is the lateral displacement.
✓ The spot size is only a few micrometers in single - mode fibers .
✓ For angular misalignment in single-mode fibers, the loss at a wavelength 

2
…(2)
LSM;ang = - 10log exp - πn2 Wθ

 Where, n2 – Refractive index of the cladding and
0 – Angular misalignment in radius
s
✓ For a gap s with a material of index n3, and letting G = , the gap loss for identical
Kw2
Single – mode fiber splices is

2 2
64n1 n3
LSM.gap = - 10 log …(3)
(n1 + n3)4 (G2 +4)

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 1

A single-mode has a normalized frequency  = 2.40, a core refractive index n1 = 1.47, a cladding
refractive index n2 = 1.465, and a core diameter 2a = µm. Let us find the insertion losses of a fiber
joint having a lateral offset of 1 µm and find the loss at a joint having an angular misalignment of
1o at a 1300-nm wavelength?

Solution:
(i) Mode-field diameter W = a (0.65 + 1.619V-3/2 + 2.879V-6)
= 4.5 [0.65 + 1.619(2.40)-3/2 + 2.879 (2.40)-6]

W = 4.95 µm

(ii) Lateral loss in the single – mode fiber

2

LSM; lat = - 10 log exp - d

w

= - 10log exp (-0.040)

= - 10 log (0.960)
= - 10 (-0.0178)

LSM; lat = 0.18dB

(iii) For angular misalignment in single – mode fibers, the loss at a wavelength  is
57 deg = 1rad
2
πn2 Wθ
LSM; ang = -10 log exp - 1
 1o = = 0.0175
57

2
π(1.465)(4.95)(0.0175)
= - 10log exp -
1.3

LSM;ang = 0.41dB

Problem 2
Two graded index fibers are misaligned with an axial offset of d=0.3a. Find out the fraction of
optical power coupled from the first fiber into the second fiber?
Solution 1
2
2 d d
d2 d2
Total received power PT = P arc cos - 1- 5-
π 2a 2a 6a 2a2

Where, P is the power in emitting fiber.

PT 2 1 0.15 (0.3)2
= arc cos (0.15) – [1-(0.15)2]2 3 5-
P π 2
1
2 2
2 d d
d d2
Total received power PT = P arc cos - 1- 5-
π 2a 2a 6a 2a2

Where, P is the power in emitting fiber.

PT 2 1 0.15 (0.3)2
= arc cos (0.15) – [1-(0.15)2]2 3 5-
P π 2

2
 = { 1.420 – (0.98716) (0.05) (4.955)}
π

 arc cos (0.15)

-1
2  cos (0.15)
= { 1.420 – 0.2445} Use calculator in radian mode
π  1.420

2
= [ 1.1755]
π

PT
= 0.748
P

(or)
PT
10 log = - 1.27 dB
T

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are the factors that should be considered before implementing optical fiber?

(i) Launching of optical power into a particular fiber that light source.
(ii) Coupling of optical power from one fiber to another.
2. What is coupling efficiency?

It is defined as a measure of the amount of optical power emitted from that can be coupled
into a fiber.
The flylead sources reduce many power launching problems and make the coupling easier.

3. State the law of brightness?

If the source emitting area is larger than the fiber core area, when the resulting optical power
coupled into the fiber is the maximum that can be achieved. This is a result of fundamental energy
and radiance conservation principles.
 4. Mention any four factors which affect the power launched into the fiber?

(a) Core radius of the fiber.

(b) Radiation pattern of the source
(c) Alignment between source and fiber.
(d) Numerical aperture of the fiber.

5. Distinguish between splice and connector?

Splice is a permanent joint and the bonding formed is permanent.
Connector is a temporary joint or demountable joint. Splice loss is very small when
it is compared with connector loss.

6.What are the possible types of misalignment which may occurs when jointing optical fibers?
(i) Longitudinal misalignment
(ii) Lateral misalignment
(iii) Angular misalignment

7. What are the techniques used for end - preparation?

Saving, grinding and polishing, and controlled - fracture techniques are used for end - preparation.

8. What are the functions of the micro lens ?

The function of the micro lens is to magnify the emitting area of the source to match exactly
the core area of the fiber end face.

9. Name the improvements of lensing scheme?

The lensing schemes, are used to improve optical source - to - fiber coupling
efficiency are
(i) Rounded - end fiber
(ii) Non imaging microsphere
(iii) Image sphere
(iv) Cylindrical lens
(v) Spherical- surfaced LED and spherical- ended fiber and
(vi) Taper - ended fiber.
10. What do you meant by laser diode to fiber coupling?
The angular output distribution of the laser is greater than the fiber acceptance angle and the
laser emitting area is much smaller than the fiber core, spherical or cylindrical lens or optical fiber
tapers are used to improve coupling efficiency between edge emitting laser diodes and optical
fibers. This is known as laser diode - to - fiber coupling.

11. What are the parameters on which optical power losses depends?

Optical power losses at the joints depend on the following parameters.

- Input power distribution at the joint

- The length of the fiber between the optical source and the joint.
- Geometrical and waveguide characteristics of the two fiber ends and
- Fiber end face qualities.

12.. Define fiber - to -fiber coupling loss

Fiber - to - fiber coupling loss LF is given by

LF = -l0lognf
Where, nf is the fiber to fiber coupling efficiency.

13. What is axial misalingment?

Lateral or axial misalignment occurs when the axes of two fibers are separated by distance d.

I4. Define longitudinal misalignment.

Longitudinal misalignment occurs when the fibers have the same axis but have a gap s
between their end faces.

15. Define angular misalignment.

Angular misalignment occurs when two fiber axes from an angle '8' between fiber end faces.

16. Name the factors which are responsible for fiber to fiber coupling loss.
The fiber - to - fiber coupling losses are due to differences in geometrical and fiber
characteristics. These include core diameter variation, core - area ellipticity, numerical aperture,
 refractive - index profile and core - cladding concentricity.

17. Mention the steps involve in controlled fracture.

The steps involved in controlled - fracture are
(i) The fiber to be cleaved is first scratched to create a stress concentration at the surface.
(ii) The fiber is then bent over a curved form while tension is simultaneously applied to
produces a stress distribution across the fiber.
(iii) The maximum stress occurs at the scratch point so that a crack starts to propagate through
the fiber.

18. What are the factors of splicing?

The factors to be considered in splicing are

-Geometrical difference between two fibers.
-Fiber misalignments at the joint and
-Mechanical strength of the splice.

19.What are the techniques used in splicing?

Three splicing techniques are generally used

- Fusion splice
-V - groove mechanical splice and
-Elastic tube splice.

20. Give a note on loss at a wavelength.

For angular misalignment in single - mode fibers, the loss at a wavelength 
.

LSM;ang= -10 log exp -  n2w0



Where,
n2 - Refractive index of the cladding.
 - Angular misalignment in radius and w - Mode field
radius.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the different lensing schemes used for coupling improvement?
2. Discuss the different misalignment losses and their magnitudes?
3. Give an account on different types of splices and their merits and demerits?
4. Explain the different splicelosses and their measurement?
5. Give the expressions for various fiber - related losses?
6. Discuss about fiber to fiber joint?
7. Explain controlled fracture technique of clearing?

*==*==*==*==*