Basic concepts

Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

AERO 480 and MECH 6091:

Flight Control Systems
Lecture 5: Modeling the Quadrotor UAV

Prof. Youmin Zhang

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Concordia University
1515 St. Catherine W., EV 12-103
Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 2W1
Tel: (514) 848-2424 ext. 5225
Email: ymzhang@encs.concordia.ca
Webpage: http://users.encs.concordia.ca/~ymzhang/

Prof. Youmin Zhang 1/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

How it looks like ?

Prof. Youmin Zhang 2/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Some stuff to read

Most of the material of these Lecture Notes are derived from the Master’s
Thesis of T. Bresciani (Chapter 3).
T. Bresciani
Modelling, identification and control of a quadrotor helicopter
Master’s Thesis, 2008. Department of Automatic Control, Lund University (available online).

More about the modeling of the quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) in
the PhD Thesis of A. Hably (Chapter 3).
A. Hably
Approches bornées pour la commande des drones
PhD Thesis, 2007. Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble (available online : in French).

More advanced subjects such as pitch and roll rotor damping and blade flap-
ping.
P. Pounds, R. Mahony, P. Corke
Modelling and control of a large quadrotor robot
Control Engineering Practice, 2010, 18(7), pp. 691-699 (available online).

Prof. Youmin Zhang 3/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Outline

1 Basic concepts

2 Some preliminaries
Kinematics
Dynamics

3 Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor

The model in the B-frame
The model in the H-frame
Simplified model
Relation between the movements and the rotors

4 Conclusion

Prof. Youmin Zhang 4/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

The quadrotor : how it works ? (1/2)

Four rotors in a cross configuration.
Rotor axes of rotation are fixed and parallel.
Propellers have fixed-pitch blades and their air flows point downwards.
Structure is quite rigid and the only the propeller speeds vary.
Front and the rear propellers rotate clockwise, the left and the right
ones rotate counterclockwise => no need for a tail rotor (needed in the
standard helicopter).

T3
Left T2
zB Front
Ω3 yB Ω2
T1 xB
Rear OB T4
Ω1 Right
Ω4
Prof. Youmin Zhang 5/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

The quadrotor : how it works ? (2/2)

The frame (OB , xB , yB , zB ) is a body-fixed frame and Ωi (i = 1, · · · , 4) represent
the angular speed of the propellers. For each propeller, two arrows are drawn :
the curved one represents the direction of rotation, the other one represents
the generated thrust.

In hovering condition, all the propellers have the same speed (i.e. Ω1 = Ω2 =
Ω3 = Ω4 = ΩH ) to counterbalance the acceleration due to gravity. Thus, the
quadrotor performs stationary flight and no forces or torques move it from its
position.

Even though the quadrotor has 6 degrees of freedom (DOF), it is equipped just
with four propellers, hence it is not possible to reach a desired set-point for all
the DOF, but at maximum four. However, thanks to its structure, it is quite easy
to chose the four best controllable variables and to decouple them to make
the control of it easier. The four tasks of a quadrotor are thus related to the
four basic movements which allow the helicopter to reach a certain height and
attitude.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 6/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Throttle U1
The throttle is provided by increasing (or decreasing) all the propeller speeds
by the same amount. It leads to a vertical force wrt the body-fixed frame which
raises or lowers the quadrotor. In this case, the speed of each propeller equals
to ΩH + ∆A with ∆A is a positive variable which represents an increment wrt
the constant ΩH .
If the helicopter is in horizontal position, the vertical direction of the inertial
frame and that one of the body-fixed frame coincide. Otherwise the provided
thrust generates both vertical and horizontal accelerations in the inertial frame.

T3
Left &z& T2
zB Front
ΩH+∆A yB
ΩH+∆A
T1 xB
Rear OB T4
ΩH+∆A Right
ΩH+∆A

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 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Roll U2

This command is provided by increasing (or decreasing) the left propeller

speed and by decreasing (or increasing) the right one. It leads to a torque
wrt the xB axis which makes the quadrotor turn. The overall vertical thrust is
the same as in hovering, hence this command leads only to a roll angle acce-
leration. The Figure shows the roll command on a quadrotor sketch.

T3
Left &&
φ T2
Front
ΩH+∆A yB zB
ΩH
T1 xB
Rear OB T4
ΩH Right
Ω H - ∆B

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 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Pitch U3
This command is very similar to the roll and is provided by increasing (or
decreasing) the rear propeller speed and by decreasing (or increasing) the
front one. It leads to a torque wrt the yB axis which makes the quadrotor turn.
The overall vertical thrust is the same as in hovering, hence this command
leads only to a pitch angle acceleration. The Figure shows the pitch command
on a quadrotor sketch.

T3
Left θ&&z T2
Front
ΩH yB B
ΩH - ∆B
T1 xB
Rear OB T4
ΩH+∆A Right
ΩH

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 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Yaw U4
This command is provided by increasing (or decreasing) the front-rear propel-
lers’ speed and by decreasing (or increasing) that of the left-right couple. It
leads to a torque wrt the zB axis which makes the quadrotor turn. The yaw
movement is generated thanks to the fact that the left-right propellers rotate
clockwise while the front-rear ones rotate counterclockwise. Hence, when the
overall torque is unbalanced, the helicopter turns on itself around zB . The total
vertical thrust is the same as in hovering, hence this command leads only to a
yaw angle acceleration.

T3
Left &&
ψ T2
Front
ΩH+∆A yB zB
ΩH - ∆B
T1 xB
Rear OB T4
ΩH - ∆B Right
ΩH+∆A
Prof. Youmin Zhang 10/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Kinematics and dynamics

These slides describe the basic equations that identify a 6 DOF rigid body
by using Newton-Euler formulation. The rigid body model can be evaluated
according to kinematics and dynamics equations.

Kinematics :
Kinematics is a branch of mechanics which studies the motion of a body or a
system of bodies without consideration of the forces/moments acting on it.

Dynamics :
Dynamics is a branch of mechanics which studies the effects of forces and
torques on the motion of a body or a system of bodies.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 11/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Inertial and body-fixed frames

To describe the motion of a 6 degrees of freedom (DOF) rigid body, it is usual
to define two reference frames :
Earth inertial frame (E-frame)
Body-fixed frame (B-frame)

zB

xB
zE OB

OE XE yB

xE
yE
Prof. Youmin Zhang 12/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

The inertial frame and its components

Inertial frame :
The E-frame (OE , xE , yE , zE ) is chosen as the inertial right-hand reference. xE
points toward the North, yE points toward the West, zE points upwards wrt the
earth and OE is the axis origin. This frame is used to define the linear position
X E and the angular position ΘE of the rigid body.

Linear position X E :
X E = [x y z]T is determined by the coordinates of the vector between the
origin of the B-frame and that of the E-frame wrt the E-frame.

Angular position :
The angular position (or attitude) ΘE = [φ θ ψ]T of the body is defined as the
orientation of the B-frame wrt the E-frame. This is given by three consecutive
rotations about the main axes to take the E-frame into the B-frame. For this
purpose, we use Euler angles : roll φ, pitch θ, and yaw ψ.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 13/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

The body frame and its components

Body frame :
The B-frame (OB , xB , yB , zB ) is attached to the body where OB is generally
chosen to coincide with its center of mass. This reference is right-hand too
and it is used to define the linear velocity V B , the angular velocity ω B , the
forces F B and the torques τ B .

Linear velocity :
The linear velocity V B is expressed in the body-fixed frame. Its components
are V B = [u v w]T .

Angular velocity :
The angular velocity ω B is expressed in the body-fixed frame. Its components
are ω B = [p q r ]T .

Prof. Youmin Zhang 14/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Linear and angular positions and velocities

It is possible to combine linear and angular quantities to give a complete re-

presentation of the body in the space. Two vectors can be defined : the gene-
ralized position ξ E and the generalized velocity ν B :
    T
T T
ξE = XE ΘE = [x y z φ θ ψ]T (1)

and
 T  T  T
νB = VB ωB = [u v w p q r ]T (2)

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 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Rotation matrix (1/2)

The angular position ΘE = [φ θ ψ]T of the body is defined as the orientation
of the B-frame wrt the E-frame. This is given by three consecutive rotations
about the main axes to take the E-frame into the B-frame. First, rotation about
the zE axis of an angle ψ (yaw). Second, rotation about the y1 axis of an angle
θ (pitch) and third, rotation about the x2 axis of the angle φ (roll).

zE z1 z1
z2 z2
ψ yB
zB
y1 y1
xE x1 θ y2 y2
yE φ
x1 xB
x2 x2

F IGURE – The three consecutive rotations

Prof. Youmin Zhang 16/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Rotation matrix (2/2)

These three rotations allow to define three rotation matrices given by :
     
cψ −sψ 0 cθ 0 sθ 1 0 0
R(ψ, z) = sψ cψ 0 ; R(θ, y ) =  0 1 0  ; R(φ, x) = 0 cφ −sφ  ,
0 0 1 −sθ 0 cθ 0 sφ cφ

where ck and sk denote respectively cos(k ) and sin(k ). Appendix A

A rotation matrix RΘ can be obtained by post-multiplying the three basic rota-

tion matrices in the following order RΘ = R(ψ, z)R(θ, y )R(φ, x) to give :
 
cψ cθ −sψ cφ + cψ sθ sφ sψ sφ + cψ sθ cφ
RΘ = sψ cθ cψ cφ + sψ sθ sφ −cψ sφ + sψ sθ cφ  ; (3)
−sθ cθ sφ cθ cφ
The relation between the linear velocity in the B-frame V B and that in the E-
frame V E involves the rotation matrix RΘ according to :

V E = Ẋ E = RΘ V B (4)
Prof. Youmin Zhang 17/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Transfer matrix
Similarly to the linear velocity, the angular velocity in the E-frame (or Euler
rates) Θ̇E can be related to the one in the B-frame ω B thanks to the transfer
matrix TΘ :

Θ̇E = TΘ ω B or ω B = TΘ−1 Θ̇E (5)

E
The transfer matrix TΘ can be determined by resolving the Euler rates Θ̇ into
the B-frame as shown in the following :

         
p φ̇ 0 0 φ̇
−1 −1 −1 −1
q  = 0 + R(φ, x) θ̇  + R(φ, x) R(θ, y )  0  = TΘ  θ̇  (6)
r 0 0 ψ̇ ψ̇
Thus :
   
1 0 −sθ 1 sφ tθ cφ tθ
TΘ−1 = 0 cφ cθ sφ  and TΘ = 0 cφ −sφ  (7)
0 −sφ cθ cφ 0 sφ /cθ cφ /cθ
Appendix B

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 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Finally ! The kinematics

Finally, it is possible to describe Equations (4) and (5) in one equation that
relates the derivative of the generalized position on the E-frame ξ˙E to the ge-
neralized velocity in the B-frame ν B . This transformation is possible thanks to
the generalized matrix JΘ :
 E  E 
RΘ 03×3 V B
 
Ẋ V
ξ˙E = = = = JΘ ν B (8)
Θ̇E Θ̇E 03×3 TΘ ωB

Prof. Youmin Zhang 19/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Dynamics in the B-frame : why in the B-frame ?

There are several techniques which can be used to derive the equations of a
rigid body with 6 DOF. The Newton-Euler formulation will be used here.

The equations of motion are more conveniently formulated in the body-fixed

frame because of the following reasons :

The inertia matrix is time-invariant.

Advantage of body symmetry can be taken to simplify the equations.
Measurements taken on-board are easily converted to body-fixed frame.
Control forces are almost always given in body-fixed frame.

The decision to describe the equations of motion in the B-frame trades-off

complexity in the acceleration terms for relative simplicity in the force terms.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 20/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Assumptions for the modeling in the B-frame

Two assumptions have been done in this approach :

The first one states that the origin of the body-fixed frame is coincident
with the center of mass of the body. Otherwise, another point (COM)
should have been taken into account and it would have considerably
complicated the body equations.
The second one specifies that the axes of the B-frame coincide with the
body principal axes of inertia. In this case the inertia matrix J is diagonal
and, once again, the body equations become easier.

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 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Linear motion
From the Euler’s first axiom of the Newton’s second law, one can derive the
linear components of the body motion :

M Ẍ E = FE (9)
 
M d RΘ V B /dt = RΘ F B
(10)
 
M ṘΘ V B + RΘ V̇ B = RΘ F B (11)
 
M RΘ ω B × V B + RΘ V̇ B = RΘ F B (12)
 
MRΘ ω B × V B + V̇ B = RΘ F B (13)
 
M ω B × V B + V̇ B = FB (14)

where M is the body mass, Ẍ E is the linear acceleration vector wrt the E-
frame, F E is the forces in the E-frame, V̇ B is the linear acceleration vector in
the B-frame and ṘΘ is the rotation matrix derivative. The symbol ‘×’ denotes
the vector product (cross product).
Prof. Youmin Zhang 22/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Angular motion
The angular components of the body motion can be derived from the Euler’s
second axiom of the Newton’s second law :
J Θ̈E = τE (15)
 
J d TΘ ω B /dt = TΘ τ B
(16)
 
J ṪΘ ω B + TΘ ω̇ B = TΘ τ B (17)
 
J TΘ ω B × ω B + TΘ ω̇ B = TΘ τ B (18)
 
JTΘ ω B × ω B + ω̇ B = TΘ τ B (19)
 
J ω B × ω B + ω̇ B = τB (20)
 
ω B × Jω B + J ω̇ B = τB (21)

where J is the body inertia matrix in the B-frame, Θ̈E is the body angular
acceleration vector wrt the E-frame, ω̇ B is the body angular acceleration vector
in the B-frame and τ E is the system torques wrt the E-frame.
Prof. Youmin Zhang 23/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries Kinematics
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Dynamics
Conclusion

Finally ! The dynamics

By putting together Equations (14) and (21), it is possible to describe the mo-
tion of a 6 DOF body :
   B
ω × MV B


  B 
MI3×3 03×3 V̇ B

F
+ = B (22)
03×3 J ω̇ B ω B × Jω B τ
A generalized force vector Λ can be defined according to :
    T
T T
Λ = FB τB = [Fx Fy Fz τx τy τz ]T . (23)

Therefore, it is possible to rewrite Equation (22) as :

MB ν̇ B + CB (ν B )ν B = Λ, (24)
B
where ν̇ is the generalized acceleration vector wrt the B-frame. MB is the
system inertia matrix and CB (ν B ) is the Coriolis-centripetal matrix, both wrt
the B-frame.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 24/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Modeling the quadrotor

The quadrotor model can be derived starting from the generic 6 DOF rigid-
body equation obtained in the previous section. The kinematics of a general 6
DOF rigid-body :

ξ˙E = JΘ ν B , (25)
˙E B
where ξ is the generalized velocity vector wrt the E-frame, ν (or simply ν)
is the generalized velocity vector wrt the B-frame and JΘ is the generalized
matrix.

The dynamics of a generic 6 DOF rigid-body are given by :

MB ν̇ + CB (ν)ν = Λ, (26)
where ν̇ is the generalized acceleration vector wrt the B-frame. MB is the sys-
tem inertia matrix and CB (ν) is the Coriolis-centripetal matrix, both wrt the
B-frame.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 25/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Modeling the quadrotor : inertia matrix

The system inertia matrix MB is given by :

 
M 0 0 0 0 0
 0 M 0 0 0 0

 
MI3×3 03×3 0 0 M 0 0 0
MB = =  (27)
03×3 J 0 0
 0 Jxx 0 0 
0 0 0 0 Jyy 0
0 0 0 0 0 Jzz
MB is diagonal and constant thanks to the assumptions made for the modeling
in the B-frame.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 26/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Modeling the quadrotor : Coriolis-centripetal matrix

The Coriolis-centripetal matrix CB (ν) is given by :
 
0 0 0 0 Mw −Mv
0 0 0 −Mw 0 Mu 
 
0 0 0 Mv −Mu 0 
CB (ν) =   (28)
0 0 0 0 Jzz r −Jyy q 

0 0 0 −Jzz r 0 Jxx p 
0 0 0 Jyy q −Jxx p 0

After giving the inertia matrix MB and the Coriolis-centripetal matrix CB (ν)
(which by the way still general and not specific to the quadrotor) of :

MB ν̇ + CB (ν)ν = Λ (29)

It is time to investigate Λ specifically to the quadrotor helicopter system. Λ

can be divided into three components according to the nature of the quadrotor
contributions.
Prof. Youmin Zhang 27/55
 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Modeling the quadrotor : first component of Λ

The first component is the gravitational vector GB (ξ) given from the accelera-
tion due to gravity g. It is easy to understand that gravity affects only the linear
and not the angular equations since it is a force and not a torque. The vector
GB (ξ) can be derived as follows :

 
 Mg sin θ
 
0  −Mg cos θ sin φ 
 B   −1 E  T 
 
FG RΘ FG R 0  = −Mg cos θ cos φ (30)
 Θ
   
GB (ξ) = = =
03×1 03×1  −Mg    0 

03×1  0 
0

where FGB is the gravitational force in the B-frame and FGE is that in the E-frame.
Furthermore, since RΘ is an orthogonal normalized matrix, its inverted RΘ−1 is
equal to the transposed one RΘT .

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 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Modeling the quadrotor : second component of Λ (1/2)

The second component takes into account the gyroscopic effects produced by
the propeller rotation. Since two of them are rotating clockwise and the other
two counter-clockwise, there is an overall imbalance when the algebraic sum
of the rotor speeds is not equal to zero. If, in addition, the roll or pitch rates are
also different than zero, the quadrotor experiences a gyroscopic torque :

03×1 03×1
   
        
OB (ν)Ω =  X
 4 0 =
  −q 

− B k
JTP ω × 0
    (−1) Ωk  JTP p Ω
 
k =1 1 0
 
0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 
= JTP  Ω (31)
q
 −q q −q 

−p p −p p 
0 0 0 0

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 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Modeling the quadrotor : second component of Λ (2/2)

It is easy to see that the gyroscopic effects produced by the propeller rotation
are only related to the angular and not the linear equations.

OB (ν) is the gyroscopic propeller matrix and JTP is the total rotational moment
of inertia around the propeller axis.

Ω and Ω are respectively the overall propellers’ speed and the propellers’
speed vector defined as follows :

Ω = −Ω1 + Ω2 − Ω3 + Ω4 (32)
and

Ω = [Ω1 Ω2 Ω3 Ω4 ]T (33)

where Ωi (i = 1, · · · , 4) is the i th propeller speed.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 30/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Modeling the quadrotor : third component of Λ

The third component takes into account the forces and torques directly produ-
ced by the main movement inputs. The action of the movement vector on the
quadrotor dynamics is then given by :
 
0
0
 
U1 
UB =  
U2  (34)
 
U3 
U4
where U1 , U2 , U3 and U4 are the movement vector components (i.e. the throt-
tle, roll, pitch and yaw).

Prof. Youmin Zhang 31/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Finally ! The model in the B-frame

From Equation (29), it is possible to describe the quadrotor dynamics by consi-
dering the three components :

MB ν̇ + CB (ν)ν = GB (ξ) + OB (ν)Ω + UB (35)

By rearranging Equation (35) it is possible to isolate the derivative of the ge-
neralized velocity vector ν̇ as follows :

ν̇ = MB−1 (−CB (ν)ν + GB (ξ) + OB (ν)Ω + UB ) (36)

This latter expression can be expanded as follows :

Jyy − Jzz JTP U2
u̇ = (vr − wq) + g sin θ ; ṗ = qr − q Ω+
Jxx Jxx Jxx
Jzz − Jxx JTP U3
v̇ = (wp − ur ) − g cos θ sin φ ; q̇ = pr + p Ω+
Jyy Jyy Jyy
U1 Jxx − Jyy U4
ẇ = (uq − vp) − g cos θ cos φ + ; ṙ = pq + (37)
M Jzz Jzz

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 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

The model in the H-frame : why and how ?

The quadrotor dynamics (37) are written in the B-frame. This frame is widely
used in 6 DOF rigid body equations.
However, in the case of the quadrotor, it can be useful to express the dynamics
wrt a hybrid coordinate system (H-frame) composed of linear equations in the
E-frame and angular equations in the B-frame. This new reference is adopted
because it is easy to express the dynamics combined with the control and
in particular for the vertical position in the earth inertial frame. The quadrotor
generalized velocity vector wrt the H-frame is :
 T  T  T
ζ= Ẋ E
ω B
= [ẋ ẏ ż p q r ]T (38)

The dynamics of the system in the H-frame can be written as follows :

MH ζ̇ + CH (ζ)ζ = GH + OH (ζ)Ω + UH (39)

where ζ̇ is the quadrotor generalized acceleration vector wrt the H-frame.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 33/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

The model in the H-frame : components (1/2)

The system inertia matrix MH in the H-frame is equal to that in the B-frame MH
= MB . This is not the case for the Coriolis-centripetal matrix CH (ζ) :
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 
   
03×3 03×3 0 0 0 0 0 0 
CH (ζ) = B =  (40)
03×3 −S(Jω ) 0
 0 0 0 Jzz r −Jyy q 

0 0 0 −Jzz r 0 Jxx p 
0 0 0 Jyy q −Jxx p 0
The gravitational vector wrt the H-frame affects only the third equation and not
the three linear equations :
 
0
 E   0 
 
FG −Mg 
GH = =  0 
 (41)
03×1  
 0 
0
Prof. Youmin Zhang 34/55
 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

The model in the H-frame : components (2/2)

The gyroscopic effects produced by the propeller is unvaried because it af-

fects only the angular equations referred to the B-frame. Then, the gyroscopic
propeller matrix wrt the H-frame OH (ζ) = OB (ν).

The movement vector wrt the H-frame UH is different from the one in the B-
frame because the input U1 affects all the three linear equations through the
rotation matrix RΘ :
 
(sin ψ sin φ + cos ψ sin θ cos φ) U1
(sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ) U1 
   
RΘ 03×3  (cos θ cos φ) U1 
UH = UB =   (42)
03×3 I3×3 
 U 2


 U3 
U4

Prof. Youmin Zhang 35/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Finally ! The model in the H-frame

By rearranging Equation (39), it is possible to isolate the derivative of the ge-

neralized velocity vector wrt the H-frame ζ̇ :

ζ̇ = MH−1 (−CH (ζ)ζ + GH + OH (ζ)Ω + UH ) (43)

This latter expression can be expanded as follows :

U1 Jyy − Jzz JTP U2
ẍ = (sin ψ sin φ + cos ψ sin θ cos φ) ; ṗ = qr − q Ω+
M Jxx Jxx Jxx
U1 Jzz − Jxx JTP U3
ÿ = (sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ) ; q̇ = pr + p Ω+
M Jyy Jyy Jyy
U1 Jxx − Jyy U4
z̈ = −g + (cos θ cos φ) ; ṙ = pq + (44)
M Jzz Jzz
where U1 , U2 , U3 and U4 are the same as before and Ω is given in (32).

Prof. Youmin Zhang 36/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

Assumptions for the simplified model

The quadrotor dynamics can be simplified to provide an easy control design.
Equation (44) can be rearranged according to the following considerations :
The angular components are quite complex because several variables
have been taken into account. Most of those come from cross coupling of
angular speeds (gyroscopic effects and Coriolis-centripetal form). Since
the motion of the quadrotor can be assumed close to the hovering condi-
tion, small angular changes occur (especially for roll and pitch). It follows
that these terms can be simplified because they are smaller than the
main ones.
The angular accelerations are referred to the angles of the quadrotor
measured in its fixed body frame. They are not equal to the accelera-
tion of the Euler angles which determines the attitude in the earth frame.
The transfer matrix TΘ (reported in Equation (7)) defines the relation bet-
ween the angular velocities in the earth frame and those in the body-fixed
frame. Since in hovering condition TΘ is close to the identity matrix, the
acceleration equations have been referred directly to the Euler angular
accelerations.
Prof. Youmin Zhang 37/55
 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

The simplified model

As a conclusion, the simplified quadrotor dynamics can be written as :
U1 U2
ẍ = (sin ψ sin φ + cos ψ sin θ cos φ) ; φ̈ =
M Jxx
U1 U3
ÿ = (sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ) ; θ̈ = (45)
M Jyy
U1 U4
z̈ = −g + (cos θ cos φ) ; ψ̈ =
M Jzz
Another simplified model can be obtained by assuming hovering conditions
(U1 = Mg), no yawing (ψ = 0) and small roll and pitch angles :
U2
ẍ = θg ; φ̈ =
Jxx
U3
ÿ = −φg ; θ̈ = (46)
Jyy
U1 U4
z̈ = −g + ; ψ̈ =
M Jzz

Prof. Youmin Zhang 38/55

 Basic concepts The model in the B-frame
Some preliminaries The model in the H-frame
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor Simplified model
Conclusion Relation between the movements and the rotors

The relations for the Qball-X4

The relations between the movements and the thrusts are :
U1 = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
U2 = L(T3 − T4 )
, (47)
U3 = L(T1 − T2 )
U4 = Kyaw (T1 + T2 − T3 − T4 )

with Kyaw is a constant, L is the distance from the rotor to the center of mass
and Ti (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) are the thrusts generated by the rotors.

The Qball-X4 actuators are brushless motors driven by PWM inputs ui (i =

1, 2, 3, 4). The relation between the thrust and the PWM input (or motor dyna-
mics) is :
w
Ti = K ui (48)
s+w
with K is a positive gain and w is the actuator bandwidth.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 39/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Concluding remarks : Qball model in one slide

The Qball dynamics are :
U1 U2
ẍ = (sin ψ sin φ + cos ψ sin θ cos φ) ; φ̈ =
M Jxx
U1 U3
ÿ = (sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ) ; θ̈ = (49)
M Jyy
U1 U4
z̈ = −g + (cos θ cos φ) ; ψ̈ =
M Jzz
with
U1 = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
U2 = L(T3 − T4 )
, (50)
U3 = L(T1 − T2 )
U4 = Kyaw (T1 + T2 − T3 − T4 )
and
w
Ti = K ui (51)
s+w
Prof. Youmin Zhang 40/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Concluding remarks : drag terms

The models given in the B-frame and H-frame (Equations (37) and (44) res-
pectively) are the most commonly employed. For simplification reasons, some
aerodynamic effects have been ignored in our study such as drag effects,
blade flapping, airflow disruption, etc.

Taking the drag effects into consideration [2006-Xu], quadrotor dynamics are :
U1 k1 U2 k4
ẍ = (sin ψ sin φ + cos ψ sin θ cos φ) − ẋ φ̈ = −L θ̇
M M Jxx Jxx
U1 k2 U3 k5
ÿ = (sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ) − ẏ φ̈ = −L φ̇ (52)
M M Jyy Jyy
U1 k3 U4 k 6
z̈ = −g + (cos θ cos φ) − ż ψ̈ = − ψ̇
M M Jzz Jzz
where ki (i = 1, · · · , 6) are the drag coefficients.
R. Xu and Umit Ozguner
Sliding Mode Control of a Quadrotor Helicopter
Proceedings of the 45th IEEE Conference on Decision & Control. 2006, pages 4957-4962.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 41/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Concluding remarks : blade flapping

Blade flapping have a significant effect on the dynamics of quadrotor vehicles.
In translational flight, the advancing blade of a rotor sees a higher effective ve-
locity relative to the air than the retreating one. This results in a difference in lift
between the two rotors, causing the rotor blades to flap up and down once per
revolution. This flapping of the blades tilts the rotor plane back away from the
direction of motion and affects the vehicle stability in attitude [2007-Hoffmann].

G. M. Hoffmann, H. Huang, S.L. Waslander and C.J. Tomlin

Quadrotor Helicopter Flight Dynamics and Control : Theory and Experiment
AIAA GNC. 20-23 August 2007, Hilton Head, South Carolina.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 42/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Concluding remarks : Questions on quadrotor

modeling and on how to control the quadrotor ?

Questions : Can you recognize the differences and si-

milarities of the model of a quadrotor from a fixed-wing
aircraft and the way of derivation of the quadrotor mo-
dele from what we covered in previous lectures ?
How to control a quadrotor and a fixed-wing aircraft :
To learn more in the late stage of this course, and learn
and practice more in the labs.

Prof. Youmin Zhang 43/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix A : Rotation matrix by polar coordinates (1/2)

Consider a two dimensional vector v . F1 is a fixed inertial frame and F2 is a
frame fixed to v (equivalent to a body-fixed frame).

v
r
α

F2 F1
The components of v can be written in terms of polar coordinates as :
    "
F F #
F1 F2
vx 1 vx 2 r cos α
v =v =   =   = (53)
F F
vy 1 vy 2 r sin α

Prof. Youmin Zhang 44/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix A : Rotation matrix by polar coordinates (2/2)

Suppose that the vector v rotates by an angles ψ around z (the body-fixed
F F
frame F2 will rotate with v ). The components vx 2 and vy 2 of v in F2 do not
change. What are the components of v in F1 ?

v
r F2
α
ψ
F1
 F  "
vx 1
# " #
r cos (α + ψ) r (cos α cos ψ − sin α sin ψ)
v F1 =   = =
F r sin (α + ψ) r (sin α cos ψ + cos α sin ψ)
vy 1
 
" #  F2
cos ψ − sin ψ r cos α cos ψ − sin ψ vx 
    
cos ψ − sin ψ F2
= = = v
sin ψ cos ψ r sin α sin ψ cos ψ F sin ψ cos ψ
vy 2
Prof. Youmin Zhang Return 45/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix A : Rotation matrix by Cartesian coordinates

Consider a two dimensional vector v . F1 is a fixed inertial frame and F2 is a
frame fixed to v (equivalent to a body-fixed frame). Suppose that the vector v
rotates by an angles ψ around z. What are the components of v in F1 ?

ν Fy cos(ψ )
2
ν xF sin(ψ )
2
F2
F2
ν x
ν Fy
2 v F2 ψ
ν y

ν xF
2 ν Fy sin (ψ )
2
ν xF cos (ψ )
2
F1
F2 F1
 F   F F
  
vx 1 vx 2 cos ψ − vy 2 sin ψ  F2
− sin ψ vx 
  
 = cos ψ cos ψ − sin ψ F2
v F1 = = = v
F F F sin ψ cos ψ F sin ψ cos ψ
vy 1 vx 2 sin ψ + vy 2 cos ψ vy 2
Return

Prof. Youmin Zhang 46/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix B : Transfer matrix (1/3)

The time rate of change of Euler’s angles (i.e. φ̇, θ̇, ψ̇) are the angular velocity
components directed along x2 (same as xB ), y1 (same as y2 ) and zE (same as
z1 ) respectively.

zE z1 z1
ψ̇ z2 z2
ψ zB yB

y1 θ̇ y1 φ̇
xE x1 y2 y2
θ φ
yE
x1 xB
x2 x2

The resultant angular velocity of the body with respect to the B-frame is
 B  B  B
ω B = φ̇~ex2 + θ̇~ey1 + ψ̇~ezE (54)

where ~ex2 , ~ey1 and ~ezE are the unit vectors along the respective coordinate
directions.
Prof. Youmin Zhang 47/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix B : Transfer matrix (2/3)

The transfer matrix can be obtained by projecting each of φ̇~ex2 , θ̇~ey1 and ψ̇~ezE
h iT
in the B-frame. The projection of φ̇~ex2 is φ̇~exB or φ̇ 0 0 . The projection of
θ̇~ey1 in the body frame is :
      
 B  B 0 1 0 0 0 0
θ̇~ey1 = θ̇~ey2 = R(φ, x)−1 θ̇  = 0 cos φ sin φ  θ̇  =  cos φ  θ̇
0 0 − sin φ cos φ 0 − sin φ

zE z1 z1
ψ̇ z2 z2
ψ zB yB

y1 θ̇ y1 φ̇
xE x1 y2 y2
θ φ
yE
x1 xB
x2 x2

Prof. Youmin Zhang 48/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix B : Transfer matrix (3/3)

The projection of ψ̇~ezE in the intermediate frame (O2 , x2 , y2 , z2 ) is :
      
 Int  Int 0 cos θ 0 − sin θ 0 − sin θ
−1
ψ̇~ezE = ψ̇~ez1 = R(θ, y )  0  =  0 1 0   0  =  0  ψ̇
ψ̇ sin θ 0 cos θ ψ̇ cos θ
 Int
The projection of ψ̇~ezE in the Body frame is : Return

   
 B  Int − sin θ − sin θ
−1 −1 
ψ̇~ezE = R(φ, x) ψ̇~ezE = R(φ, x) 0  ψ̇ =  cos θ sin φ  ψ̇
cos θ cos θ cos φ
zE z1 z1
ψ̇ z2 z2
ψ zB yB

y1 θ̇ y1 φ̇
xE x1 y2 y2
θ φ
yE
x1 xB
x2 x2

Prof. Youmin Zhang 49/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix C : Nomenclature (1/6)

(OB , xB , yB , zB ) : body-fixed frame (B-frame),

(OE , xE , yE , zE ) : inertial or Earth frame (E-frame),

Ωi (i = 1, · · · , 4) : angular speed of the propellers,

U1 , U2 , U3 , U4 : throttle, roll, pitch and roll movements,

X E = [x y z]T : linear position in the E-frame,

ΘE = [φ θ ψ]T : angular position (Euler angles) in the E-frame,

V B = [u v w]T : linear velocity in the B-frame,

ω B = [p q r ]T : angular velocity in the B-frame,

F B = [Fx Fy Fz ]T : forces in the B-frame,

Prof. Youmin Zhang 50/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix C : Nomenclature (2/6)

τ B = [τx τy τz ]T : torques in the B-frame,
h
T
T iT
ξE = XE ΘE : generalized position in the E-frame,

h
T
T iT
νB = VB ωB : generalized velocity in the B-frame,

RΘ : rotation matrix from B-frame to E-frame (linear),

TΘ : transfer matrix from B-frame to E-frame (angular),

Θ̇E : angular velocity in the E-frame (or Euler rates),

JΘ : generalized matrix,

M: body mass,

Prof. Youmin Zhang 51/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix C : Nomenclature (3/6)

Ẍ E : linear acceleration vector in the E-frame,

FE : forces in the E-frame,

V̇ B : linear acceleration vector in the B-frame,

ṘΘ : the rotation matrix derivative,

J: the body inertia matrix in the B-frame,

Θ̈E : body angular acceleration vector in the E-frame,

ω̇ B : body angular acceleration vector in the B-frame,

τE : system torques in the E-frame,

Prof. Youmin Zhang 52/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix C : Nomenclature (4/6)

h
T
T iT
Λ= FB τB : generalized force vector,

MB : the system inertia matrix in the B-frame,

CB (ν) : the Coriolis-centripetal matrix in the B-frame,

S(.) : the skew-symmetric operator,

GB (ξ) : gravitational vector,

FGB : gravitational force in the B-frame,

FGE : gravitational force in the E-frame,

OB (ν) : gyroscopic propeller matrix,

Prof. Youmin Zhang 53/55

 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix C : Nomenclature (5/6)

JTP : total rotational moment of inertia around the propeller axis,

Ω: the overall propellers’ speed,

ζ: the quadrotor generalized velocity vector in the H-frame,

ζ̇ : the quadrotor generalized acceleration vector in the H-frame,

MH : system inertia matrix in the H-frame,

CH (ζ) : Coriolis-centripetal matrix in the H-frame,

UB : the movement vector in the B-frame,

UH : the movement vector in the H-frame,

L: distance between the centers of the quadrotor and the propeller,

Prof. Youmin Zhang 54/55
 Basic concepts
Some preliminaries
Newton-Euler model of the quadrotor
Conclusion

Appendix C : Nomenclature (6/6)

Ti (i = 1, · · · , 4) : thrust generated by the i th propeller,

ui (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) : PWM inputs to the rotors,

w: actuator bandwidth,

: ,

: ,

: ,

: ,

Prof. Youmin Zhang 55/55