INTRODUCTION – INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY
The present course will deal with the traditional parts of speech, in particular with the grammatical
categories/inflectional categories traditionally associated with the major parts of speech such as tense, aspect, mood,
for the verb (number, gender, case, determination for nouns, pronouns etc, comparison for adjectives and adverbs).
Language as an object of study has been approached from different perspectives: traditional (descriptive;
meant to observe and enumerate aspects of language); structuralist (descriptive; an attempt to reflect the systematic
character of language); generative (language is a body of rules by means of which all the sentences can be
obtained).
The structure of language can be analyzed in terms of levels of representation. For any utterance there are:
- a phonological level – strings of phonemes
- a morphological level – morphemes and words
- a syntactic level – phrases and sentences
- a semantic level – semantic concepts: events, objects, states, processes
“Morphology” is a term based on the Greek words morphe (=form/structure) and logie (=account/study). In
fact, the term can apply to any domain of human activity that studies the structure or form of something. In
linguistics, morphology is the sub-discipline that accounts for the internal structure of words.
There are two types of complexity of word-structure: one is due to the presence of inflections and another
due to the presences of derivational elements. Both operations add extra elements to what is known as the base.
Derivation refers to word formation processes such as affixation, compounding and conversion.
Derivational processes typically induce a change in the lexical category of the item they operate on and even
introduce new meanings (-er adds the meaning of agent/instrument).
Inflection encompasses the grammatical categories/markers for number, gender, case, person, tense, aspect,
mood and comparison. It is defined as “a change in the form of a word to express its relation to other words in the
sentence”. Inflectional operations do not change the category they operate on (goes or grammars are just variants of
one and the same word go and grammar). Actually, they are formal markers that help us delimit the lexical category
of a word, i.e. the parts of speech. In this respect, lexical items (words) that are distributionally similar (i.e. have the
same distributional properties) form classes. (Traditionalists: parts of speech, structuralists: form/morpheme classes;
generativists: lexical categories). All these terms are intended to designate elements from the same pool – N, V, A,
Adv, P etc. – but the different terms are associated with the theoretical frames in which they were used and, hence,
with methods of doing lg. research specific for that theoretical framework.
Inflectional affixes have the following characteristics:
- They produce closure upon words (can no longer attach a derivational element to them)
- Inflected forms are organized in paradigms, i.e. they are in complementary distribution; for instance,
nouns occurs in pairs hat – hats, book – books.
- The elements of a paradigm may evince the phenomenon of suppletion – one of the forms is not
phonologically related to the other: went for go, better for good.
- A paradigm can be defective – lacks a form: can - *cans, trousers - *trouser.
- Inflections are formal markers (semantically they are empty, abstract); they help us delimit the lexical
category of the word to which they attach. In other words, each lexical category (major part of speech) is
characterized by specific inflectional markers. Case, number, gender, and determination characterize nouns.
Tense, aspect, mood, number and person characterize verbs. Person, number and –in some cases – gender
characterize pronouns. Adjectives and adverbs are characterized by comparison. Although all of them lack
descriptive content, they pass on the descriptive content of the category they depend on.
Traditional approaches:
The basic unit of analysis was the word. Words operated as signs, i.e. as instruments for the description and
understanding of reality. They were classified into parts of speech and set into paradigms of declension and
conjugation.
Traditional theories described words in terms of the traditional list of Aristotelian categories. Aristotle assumed that
the physical world consisted of things (substances), which had certain properties (called accidents). Transferred to
morphology, the substance of a word (its meaning) had to be distinguished from its accidents, i.e. the different forms
it assumed in linguistic context. Thus, certain accidental categories were considered to be typical for particular parts
of speech: nouns (inflected for case, number, gender; verbs for tense, number, person, mood, aspect). Hence, what
are traditionally referred to as grammatical categories correspond to the accidental categories, and this explains the
older term ‘accidence’ for what is also known as inflectional variation.
The Aristotelian opposition matter vs. form also helped grammarians distinguish between major and minor parts of
speech. Only major parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs) were meaningful. The other parts of
speech (conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, quantifiers, etc.) known as minor parts of speech did not
signify anything of themselves but merely contributed to the total meaning of sentences by imposing upon them a
certain form or organization.
Thus, in delimiting parts of speech, traditionalist grammars, called ‘notional’, employed three criteria: meaning,
inflectional variation and syntactic function. Meaning was basic and it was correlated with the other two criteria.
The last two criteria are based on formal properties, so they define parts of speech in terms of their distribution.
Notional definitions were incorrect in that they were circular – a term was explained by resorting to the same term.
For instance, the noun was defined as the name of a living being or lifeless thing. But ‘virtue’ is neither a lifeless
being, nor a living being, the only reason for saying that ‘virtue’ is a thing is that the word that refers to it is a noun.
Structuralist approaches:
It is a formal approach. Language was regarded as a system of relations, the elements of which had no validity
independently of the relations of equivalence and contrast that held between them (syntagmatic and paradigmatic
relations). It excluded meaning from its analysis and was based only on the distribution of the items analyzed. In
structuralism, the lexical items (the traditional major parts of speech) and the grammatical items (typically the minor
parts of speech and inflectional affixes) are distinguished in terms of paradigmatic oppositions and fall into two
classes: open vs. closed classes of items.
Open classes (nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs) have large numbers of items and new members can be added by
coining or borrowing.
Closed classes (conjunctions, prepositions, determiners, pronouns, etc. and inflectional affixes) include terms that
have no descriptive content, having a fixed/limited number of items.
Generative approaches:
They are similar to the structuralists approaches in the sense that the lexical/grammatical categories can be defined
only through their roles in the rules and principles of grammar.
NB grammatical categories in generative approaches no longer refer to inflectional markers, but to syntactic
categories (sentence, noun phrase, verb phrase etc.). Generative grammars operate with two types of categories:
lexical and grammatical/syntactic categories. Lexical categories (N, V, A) coincide with the traditional parts of
speech and the structuralist open classes, and grammatical categories (NP, VP, AP) correspond to phrases or
syntagms – specific sequences of words.
Each lexical category has a corresponding syntactic phrase - N → NP. In other words, syntactic phrases are
projections of lexical categories. Then we translate the syntactic information in N → NP into functional information
(i.e. the subcategorisation frame [_ NP] which is characteristic of a transitive verb is converted into functional
information by stating that direct objects are characteristic of transitive verbs).
According to this theoretical model, it is not lexical categories (N, V, A etc.) that correspond to semantic
categories, but major syntactic categories (NP, VP, AP etc.) The syntactic categories are in a relation of
correspondence with semantic categories such as events, processes, states, individual objects etc. We shall clarify
this later on when we discuss number, aspect etc. As we shall see, events are represented by the syntactic category of
verb phrase, e.g. read a novel, paint a picture. Objects will be represented by the syntactic category of noun phrases:
the chair, a chair, my chair, this chair etc. In other words, the ontological (semantic) categories are represented by
major syntactic phrases, not by lexical categories.
The lexical categories are defined in terms of features to be found in their lexical entries in the lexicon.
These features include morpho-syntactic categories, i.e. inflections.
Various parts of speech display certain categorical similarities, which can be represented in terms of shared
features.
The most important opposition for the parts of speech system is the opposition between verbal and nominal
categories. Parts of speech are analyzed along the dimension [+/- V] or [+/- N]. The [+/- N] categories (A, N) are
marked for gender, number and case, while the [+/- V] categories are not characterized by these features. Adjectives
and adverbs share the inflectional/functional category of comparison.
Another important opposition is between lexical categories and functional categories. This opposition is in part
the same as the structural distinction between open classes (N, V, A etc.) and closed classes (Determiner, Inflection,
Complementizer etc) of items. The open classes are defined as classes with descriptive/semantic content (N, V, A)
containing indefinitely many items and which allow conscious coining, borrowing etc. On the other hand, functional
categories include free morphemes: determiners, quantifiers, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, complementizers etc. and
bound morphemes/inflectional affixes: inflections for tense, aspect, agreement/number. Hence the term ‘functional
categories’ covers minor parts of speech and inflectional categories. They form a closed set of items which
- never occur alone,
- have a unique Complement and can’t be separated from it,
- lack descriptive semantic content,
- act as operators placing the Complement in time, in the world
- are heads of lexical categories.
Information expressed by inflection is not always dictated by syntactic structure. There are two types of inflection:
- Inherent/morphological inflection (not required by the syntactic context): number with nouns and pronouns,
person for pronouns, gender for nouns.
- Contextual/syntactic (which follows from syntax): number and person in verbs, case in nouns.
For instance:
They are running in the field now.
He is running home now.
They – 3rd p.pl. – information contained in the lexical meaning of they. Hence, inherent.
Are running vs. is running is contextual information provided by the context in which the verb is used and triggered
by the presence of an agreement between the subject and the verb.
Gender for nouns is inherent. E.g. queen.
Case for nouns is contextual (triggered by the type of verb – double transitive as in ask somebody a
question or a verb with dative and accusative as in lend money to someone).
THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT
Aspect – a notion of time, distinct from tense, which describes the internal temporal structure of events
What Tense and Aspect have in common: both are functional categories delimiting the lexical category Verb, they
are related morpho-syntactically (realized by verb inflections and auxiliaries) and semantically (both partake of the
notion Time but in distinct ways).
Where Tense and Aspect differ:
Tense – represents the chronological order of events in time as perceived by the speaker at the moment of speaking;
it locates the time of the event in the sentence relative to NOW
Aspect – gives info about the contour of the event as viewed by the speaker at a given moment in time
Traditional grammars: aspect is used for the perfective – imperfective opposition, referring to different ways of
viewing the internal temporal constituency of a situation
The perfective – provides a holistic view upon the event, looking at the situation from outside
The imperfective – is concerned with the internal phases of the situation, it looks at the situation from inside
Current approaches: aspect covers two perspectives. It is still used to refer to the presentation of events through
grammaticized viewpoints such as the perfective and the imperfective (viewpoint / grammatical aspect). In addition,
the term also refers to the inherent temporal structuring of the situations themselves, internal event structure or
Aktionsart (situation/eventuality-type aspect). Situation/eventuality type aspect refers to the classification of verbal
expressions into states, activities, achievements, accomplishments and semelfactives (how we conceive of situations
or states of affairs).
Both viewpoint aspect and situation type aspect convey info about temporal factors such as the beginning, end and
duration of a state of affairs/situation. However, we need to draw a clear line between them as situation types and
viewpoint aspect are realized differently in the grammar of language, i.e. they differ in their linguistic expression:
- viewpoint aspect (perfective vs imperfective) is signaled by a grammatical morpheme in English (be-ing);
it is an overt category
- situation type aspect is signaled by a constellation of lexical morphemes. Situation types are distinguished
at the level of the verb constellation (i.e. the verb and its arguments (subjects and objects) and the sentence
(adverbials)). Situation types lack explicit morphological markers. Situation type aspect exemplifies the
notion of a covert category.
Compare:
She ate an apple.
She was eating an apple.
She walked to the park.
She was walking to the park.
The two components of the aspectual system of a language interact with each other in all languages, although
across languages, aspectual systems vary considerably, especially the viewpoint subsystem. Situation types can
be distinguished as covert categories in all languages.
Since Aspect can be assumed to be defined as the interaction of the lexical meaning of the verb, the nature of its
arguments (subjects and objects) and grammatical inflection, aspectual meaning holds for sentences rather than
for individual verbs or verb phrases. Sentences present aspectual info about situation type and viewpoint.
Although they co-occur, the two types of info are independent. Consider:
Mary walked to school. (perfective – past tense, goal / natural endpoint)
Mary was walking to school. (imperfective – be-ing, goal not reached)
Mary walked in the park. (perfective, no goal; the event was simply terminated)
Conclusion:
Aspectual info is given by the linguistic forms of the sentences: situation type is signaled by the verb and its
arguments, while viewpoint is signaled by a grammatical morpheme, usually part of the verb or verb phrase.
The perfective viewpoint gives info about endpoints (beginning and end) while the imperfective gives info
about internal or other stages or phases.
The domain of aspect offers choices within a closed system to the speakers of a language. There is a small,
fixed set of viewpoints and situation/eventuality types. One of each must be chosen whenever a sentence is
framed. In other words, speakers’ choices in presenting actual situations are limited by conventional
categorization, conventions of use and the constraints of truth.
ASPECT - Conceptual features of the situations types
There are three semantic features that help us distinguish among situation types: [+/- stative], [+/- telic] and [+/-
durative]. They function as shorthand for the cluster of properties that distinguishes them.
[+/- STATIVE] covers the distinction between ‘stasis’ and ‘motion’ and separates situation types into the classes of
states and events (activities, accomplishments, achievements and semelfactives).
States are the simplest of situation types, consisting of undifferentiated moments. States are said to ‘hold’ whereas
events occur, happen, take place or culminate. Events are doings; they are [+ dynamic] or [- stative], involving
causation (which includes both agentive and non-agentive subjects), activity and change. Events consist of
stages/phases rather than undifferentiated moments.
[+/- TELIC] separates situation types into telic and atelic. Telic situation types are directed towards a goal/outcome,
that is, they have a culmination point. The goal may be intrinsic to the event, in this case constituting its natural
endpoint, as it is with accomplishments and achievements (e.g. break). In other cases, the endpoint is arbitrary, as it
is for activities and semelfactives, which can be stopped or terminated at any time.
N.B. The existence of telicity does not necessarily imply the presence of an internal argument (a syntactic object)
and conversely the existence of an internal argument does not imply telicity:
a) John stood up in a second. (telicity given by the particle ‘up’; the verb is intransitive/atelic)
b) John pushed the cart for hours. (the verb has a direct object/internal argument, yet the situation is an
activity)
N.B. Telic events are not limited to events that are under the control of an agent. In The rock fell to the ground. there
is a final point given by the expression ‘to the ground’, but the subject is not an agent.
[+/- DURATIVE] distinguishes between situation types that take time (activities, states, accomplishments) and
instantaneous events (achievements and semelfactives). Duration is grammaticized overtly or covertly. In English
duration is explicitly indicated by adverbials (for phrases) and main verbs (keep, continue). The imperfective
viewpoint (be – ing) is also related to duration, since imperfective focuses on the internal stages of durative
situations. With instantaneous events, which lack an interval, the imperfective may focus on preliminary or
iterated/repeated stages:
She was jumping up and down. (repeated activity from a semelfactive)
The plane was landing. (preliminary stage from an achievement)
+/- stative +/- durative +/- telic
States Stative Durative Atelic
Activities Dynamic Durative Atelic
Accomplishments Dynamic Durative Telic
Achievements Dynamic Instantaneous Telic
Semelfactives Dynamic Instantaneous Atelic
STATES
States are stable situations. Typical, basic states are: know the answer, be tall, desire, want. States are characterized
by the features [+ stative] and [+ durative]. The feature [+ telic] is not relevant for states because they are
unbounded and have an abstract atemporal quality. Intuitively, they predicate a quality or property of an individual
(possession, location, belief and other mental states, dispositions, etc).
There are different types of states: basic-level states and derived stative predicates.
Basic-level states
According to the type of referent they apply to, basic states separate into predicates that apply to individuals (kinds
of objects or objects) or to stages of individuals. Thus, English syntactically distinguishes between:
a) Individual level predicates: permanent, non-temporary states (know, desire, be tall, be widespread), which
describe relatively stable, non-transitory inherent properties that apply to individuals (objects or kinds), and
b) Stage level predicates: temporary states (be available, be in the garden, be drunk, be angry), which denote
transitory properties and apply to stages of individuals. They are compatible with expressions of simple
duration and punctuality: He was angry for an instant. She was hungry at noon.
c) Individual / stage level predicates: with interval statives, that is, with verb constellations of position and
location (sit, lie, perch, sprawl, stand). They may appear in the progressive, although they involve no
agency or change.
The socks are lying on the bed. (stage level predicate)
London lies on the Thames. (individual level predicate)
*London is lying on the Thames.
Here, the progressive has a stative interpretation (they denote temporary states), whereas usually the
progressive is associated with an active interpretation. The progressive is acceptable with these predicates only if the
subject denotes a moveable object, hence the ungrammaticality of the third sentence in which London does not
qualify as a moveable object.
Derived statives
a) generic sentences
b) habitual sentences
Events can be recategorized into states, changing into individual level predicates, if used in the simple present or
past. They are semantically stative precisely because they denote properties that hold over individuals or
patterns/generalizations over events rather than specific situations.
Tigers eat meat. (generic)
My cat eats carrots. (habitual)
He writes novels. (habitual)
N.B. Perception verbs (see), verbs of feeling (like, love) and some verbs of mental states (know, understand), which
are stative at the basic level of classification, may also have an achievement interpretation in the context of adverbs
like ‘suddenly’ or with completive adverbials. Compare:
I saw the city hall from my window. (state)
Suddenly, I saw a star. (achievement)
I like music. (state)
I liked him in a second. (achievement)
ACTIVITIES (PROCESSES)
The term ‘process’ is favored over ‘activity’ because, while ‘activity’ is associated with human agency, “process”
encompasses both activities associated with human subjects (external causation) (he swam/slept/strolled in the park)
and activities that are not cases of human agency (the ball rolled/moved, it rained for hours, the jewels glittered).
Processes are atelic, durative, dynamic events. An activity does not have a goal or natural endpoint. Its termination is
merely cessation of activity, that is, an activity has an arbitrary endpoint, which is why they simply ‘stop’ or
‘terminate’, but never ‘finish’.
Process sentences consist of verb constellations presenting a process situation. The verb constellations may consist
of:
a) an atelic verb and compatible complements (if any): push a cart, play chess/the piano, laugh, sleep, think
about, dream, walk in the park, run along the beach, enjoy, etc.
b) an atelic durative verb with a complement that is cumulative or uncountable. These qualify as multiple-
event processes: eat cherries, write letters, drink wine, etc. Multiple events also include iterations,
repetitions of instantaneous events, such as achievements and semelfactives: cough for five minutes, find
pebbles on the beach all afternoon, etc.
c) in English, there are other means of changing the telicity of a constellation, for instance using a particular
preposition: read a book (acc.) vs. read at a book (activ.), paint the fence (acc.) vs. paint away at the fence
(activ.).
ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Accomplishments describe change-of-states prepared (brought about/caused) by some activity/process, the change
being the completion of the process: build a bridge, repair a car, drink a glass of wine. Accomplishments are
conceptualized as durative events, consisting of a process and an outcome / change of state and having successive
stages in which the process advances to its conclusion. Thus, accomplishments are complex events because they
have other event types as their components.
An accomplishment is a causal structure of the type “e 1 causes e2) where e1 is the causing activity/process and e 2 is
the resulting (change of) state. Thus, lexical causative verbs are accomplishments (break a window, cook a pie, cool
the soup, shelve the books, poison your roommate). Also, resultative constructions (which lexicalize both the causing
activity and the resulting state) qualify as accomplishments:
The wind shaped the hills into cones.
The maid swept the floor clean.
He sang himself hoarse.
Verbs plus particle constructions also read as accomplishments: throw something away/down/up/aside/in.
In a nutshell, accomplishment constructions consist of constellations that have:
a) Atelic, durative verbs and countable arguments: They drank a glass of beer and left.
b) Atelic, durative verbs and directional complements: The kid walked to school.
c) Atelic, durative verbs and certain prepositions: The boy ran out.
d) Atelic verbs and resultative phrase: The alarm clock ticked the baby awake.
ACHIEVEMENTS
Achievements are instantaneous, single stage events that result in a change of state. Achievements focus mainly on
the change of state, simply leaving out or backgrounding the causing activity and causing factor. Stereotypic
achievements are: die, reach the top, win the race, arrive, leave, recognize, notice, find a penny, miss the target, lose
the watch, remember, etc.
Even if some achievements may be preceded by some preparatory activity (land, die, reach the top, win the race),
this instantaneous type does not conceptualize it. But remember that we can focus on the preliminary stage and turn
the achievement into an activity if we employ the progressive:
The plane landed. (achievement)
The plane was landing. (activity)
The predicates that do not presuppose a preparatory activity are known as ‘lucky achievements’: find, recognize,
discover, notice, lose, remember, etc.
SEMELFACTIVES
Semelfactives are atelic, instantaneous events: cough, knock, hit, flap a wing, hiccup, slam/bang the door, kick the
ball. Semelfactives do not have preliminary stages, nor resultant stages.
When they occur with period adverbials and the progressive, they are interpreted as derived durative
processes/activities consisting of a series of repeated, iterated semelfactive events. The predicates are reinterpreted
as multiple-event activities:
John was kicking the ball when I saw him.
John kicked the ball for five minutes and then left.
THE ASPECTUAL RECATEGORIZATION OF VERB PHRASES
Predicates shift from their prototypical class due to various elements in the verb constellations:
(1) Subject: If the subject of an achievement is an indefinite plural noun phrase or a collective noun, the
achievement recategorizes into an activity.
The tourists have discovered a beautiful castle. (achievement)
Tourists discovered that beautiful castle for years. (activity)
The battalion had been crossing the border for twenty minutes. (activity)
(2) Direct Object: If the direct object of an accomplishment or achievement is a bare plural noun phrase,
they become activities.
Tom wrote the essay in two hours. (accomplishment)
Tom wrote essays for two hours. (activity)
He discovered a treasure in the backyard. (achievement)
Tom has been discovering lice in his son's hair for three days. (activity)
If the direct object of an accomplishment or an achievement is a mass noun, it turns it into an activity.
Tom ate his hamburger in three minutes. (accomplishment)
Tom ate popcorn for an hour. (activity)
(3) Adverbials: If an activity is combined with an adverbial of extent, it turns into an accomplishment.
Tom walked for an hour. (activity)
Tom walked two kilometers in half an hour. (accomplishment)
If an activity combines with a locative noun phrase, it becomes an accomplishment.
Tom walked in the woods for an hour. (activity)
Tom walked to the building in ten minutes. (accomplishment)
(4) Tense: Habitual sentences always designate states. Almost any verb can become part of a habitual
sentence if used in the simple present, sometimes with a frequency adverbial.
He played chess for two hours. (activity)
He plays chess (every day). (state)
Activity verb phrases such as rub, burn, scratch turn into states when used in the simple present form,
designating a general characteristic of the subject:
The wood is burning in the fireplace. (activity) / This burns like fire. (state)
(5) Progressive / Continuous Aspect: When used in the progressive aspect, states, accomplishments and
achievements recategorize into activities unfolding at a certain reference time. N.B. Some verbs can
have several readings even though the verb phrase does not undergo any change of the type illustrated
above:
Tom read a book for an hour. (activity) / Tom read a book in an hour. (accomplishment)
She combed her hair for two minutes. (activity) / She combed her hair in two minutes. (accomplishment)
ASPECTUAL CLASSES OF VERB PHRASES AND THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
ACTIVITY VERB PHRASES
Used in the continuous aspect, with or without adverbials expressing duration (all the time, meanwhile, all
day / night long, for some time, etc.), activity verb phrases designate processes unfolding at a certain reference time.
Sometimes they describe two simultaneous processes and are connected either by and or by subordinating
conjunctions such as while, as, all the while, etc.
The river is flooding. / Meanwhile he was trying to find out who had robbed him. / While she was
rehearsing for the show, her maid was sewing her dress for the gala. / As he was crossing the street, he slipped on a
banana skin and broke a leg.
When used in the progressive, semelfactives: jump, kick, tremble, nod, knock, tap, pat, slam / bang the
door, etc. describe a series of repeated processes rather than a single process:
The boy was kicking the ball against the wall.
The dog is jumping up and down.
Her lips were trembling.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS
The internal structure of accomplishments and achievements presupposes a final goal, outcome or result
that is suspended when the respective verb phrases combine with the progressive aspect. When they appear in the
continuous, they acquire an activity reading.
They built their house in two years. (accomplishment)
They were building the house when the accident happened. (activity)
The man fell into the river and drowned. (achievement)
When his son came running to help him, the man was already drowning. (activity)
STATE VERB PHRASES
States are defined as having an abstract quality and an atemporal interpretation. They are said to designate a
property of the subject that lasts throughout time. Hence, they do not normally combine with the progressive, which
refers to situations of limited duration. However, there are certain state verb phrases that may appear in the
continuous, changing their meaning.
(1) to be + property-designating adjectives and nouns: If the adjective / noun designates a permanent
property of an individual, the verb will never appear in the continuous (be tall, be young, be old, etc.). Yet, certain
adjectives / nouns express properties that can be altered and thus, allow us to refer to only a temporally limited stage
of the individual, in which case the use of the progressive is required. Compare:
He is a teacher. / She is taller than you. (general properties)
He is being rude tonight. / You're being a total bastard. (process unfolding now)
The second set of sentences describes temporary activities under the control of the individuals. The
implication is that their behavior is deliberate and they can put an end to it if they want to.
(2) mental cognition verb phrases: know, believe, hope, trust, imagine, wonder, think, etc.
When they occur in the progressive, they express temporally and spatially limited processes unfolding at a
certain reference time. They refer to a manifestation of the individual, not to a characteristic property of his.
Compare:
I imagine she will agree to your proposal. / I was only imagining those ugly scenarios.
I think he is wrong. / I'm thinking of giving up smoking.
They hope to win. / He was hoping against hope that there was still a chance of success.
(3) physical cognition verb phrases: see, hear, smell, taste, feel
Also referred to as 'verbs of perception', they do not occur in the progressive if they denote a general
characteristic of a certain individual / object. Even if they make reference to an act of perception unfolding at a
specific moment like NOW, they avoid the use of the continuous. Instead, they appear accompanied by the modal
verb CAN: I hear the wind blowing. / I can hear the wind blowing. / *I'm hearing the wind blowing.
It they combine with the progressive, they describe processes going on for a limited period of time. In this
case the subject is attributed intention or purpose:
You smell nice. / I'm smelling your perfume to see if I can guess what it is.
The milk tastes sour. / He is tasting the soup to see if it's got enough salt.
See and hear even acquire new meanings when appearing in the continuous: The court is hearing the
evidence tomorrow. (they are listening to and trying the case); I'm seeing the doctor next week. (I have made an
appointment)
(4) emotive verb phrases: love, hate, like, dislike, want, miss, etc.
Again, the atemporal quality of the state verbs is replaced with the temporal quality of the process
unfolding for a certain period of time.
I despise bad behavior. / He will be despising me heartily.
Everybody envied everybody in that room. / I was envying him his freedom at the time.
(5) other property designating verb phrases: belong, contain, consist, weigh, measure, etc.
If used in the progressive, they express temporary properties.
The necklace belongs to me. / Are you belonging to the local library?
The castle costs a fortune. / The mistake is costing us dearly.
Verbs like weigh or measure have a behavior similar to that of perception verbs, that is, the subject
deliberately does the action of 'weighing' or 'measuring': The baby weighs six pounds. / The nurse is weighing the
baby.
(6) locative verb phrases: sit, stand, lie, rest, remain, etc. Such verbs appear in the continuous if their
subject represents a moveable object and describe temporary states:
Her new house stands / (*is standing) at the corner of our street. / He is standing near the pole.
