Unit 2- Collection of Data

Sample – concept

A sample is a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population using a pre-defined selection method. These elements are known as sample
points, sampling units, or observations.
Creating a sample is an efficient method of conducting research. Researching the whole
population is often impossible, costly, and time-consuming. Hence, examining the
sample provides insights the researcher can apply to the entire population.
Typically, the population for market research is enormous. Making an enumeration of
the whole population is practically impossible. The sample usually represents a
manageable size of this population. Researchers then collect data from these samples
through surveys, polls, and questionnaires and extrapolate this data analysis to the
broader community.

Types of Samples: Selection methodologies

Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a method of deriving a sample where the objects are selected
from a population-based on probability theory. This method includes everyone in the
population, and everyone has an equal chance of being selected. Hence, there is no bias
whatsoever in this type of sample.

 Simple random sampling: The most straightforward way of selecting a sample

is simple random sampling. In this method, each member has an equal chance of
participating in the study. The objects in this sample population are chosen
randomly, and each member has the same probability of being selected. For
example, if a university dean would like to collect feedback from students about
their perception of the teachers and level of education, all 1000 students in the
University could be a part of this sample. Any 100 students can be selected
randomly to be a part of this sample.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a type of sampling method where the
respondent population is divided into equal clusters. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample based on defining demographic parameters such as age,
location, sex, etc. This makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive
practical inferences from the feedback. For example, if the FDA wants to collect
data about adverse side effects from drugs, they can divide the mainland US into
distinctive cluster analysis, like states. Research studies are then administered to
respondents in these clusters. This type of generating a sample makes the data
collection in-depth and provides easy-to-consume and act-upon, insights.
 Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a sampling method where the
researcher chooses respondents at equal intervals from a population. The approach
to selecting the sample is to pick a starting point and then pick respondents at a
pre-defined sample interval. For example, while selecting 1,000 volunteers for the
Olympics from an application list of 10,000 people, each applicant is given a
count of 1 to 10,000. Then starting from 1 and selecting each respondent with an
interval of 10, a sample of 1,000 volunteers can be obtained.
 Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method of dividing
the respondent population into distinctive but pre-defined parameters in the
research design phase. In this method, the respondents don’t overlap but
collectively represent the whole population. For example, a researcher looking to
analyze people from different socioeconomic backgrounds can distinguish
respondents by their annual salaries. This forms smaller groups of people or
 samples, and then some objects from these samples can be used for the research
study.

Non Probability Sampling

The non-probability sampling method uses the researcher’s discretion to select a sample.
This type of sample is derived mostly from the researcher’s or statistician’s ability to get
to this sample.

This type of sampling is used for preliminary research where the primary objective is to
derive a hypothesis about the topic in research. Here each member does not have an
equal chance of being a part of the sample population, and those parameters are known
only post-selection to the sample.

 Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling, in easy terms, stands for the

convenience of a researcher accessing a respondent. There is no scientific method
for deriving this sample. Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting the
sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not
representativeness.

This non-probability sampling method is used when there is time and costs limitations in
collecting feedback. For example, researchers that are conducting a mall-intercept
survey to understand the probability of using a fragrance from a perfume manufacturer.
In this sampling method, the sample respondents are chosen based on their proximity to
the survey desk and willingness to participate in the research.

 Judgmental/purposive sampling: The judgemental or purposive sampling

method is a method of developing a sample purely on the basis and discretion of
the researcher purely, based on the nature of the study along with his/her
understanding of the target audience. This sampling method selects people who
only fit the research criteria and end objectives, and the remaining are kept out.

For example, if the research topic is understanding what University a student prefers for
Masters, if the question asked is “Would you like to do your Masters?” anything other
than a response, “Yes” to this question, everyone else is excluded from this study.
  Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined as a
non-probability sampling technique in which the samples have rare traits. This is a
sampling technique in which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit samples
required for a research study.

For example, while collecting feedback about a sensitive topic like AIDS, respondents
aren’t forthcoming with information. In this case, the researcher can recruit people with
an understanding or knowledge of such people and collect information from them or ask
them to collect information.

 Quota sampling: Quota sampling is a method of collecting a sample where the

researcher has the liberty to select a sample based on their strata. The primary
characteristic of this method is that two people cannot exist under two different
conditions. For example, when a shoe manufacturer would like to understand
millennials’ perception of the brand with other parameters like comfort, pricing,
etc. It selects only females who are millennials for this study as the research
objective is to collect feedback about women’s shoes.

Sampling Procedure

The steps involved in the sampling procedure are as follows:

1. Identify the population of interest (Target population) :Target population

refers to the group of individuals or objects to which researchers are
interested in generalizing their findings. A well-defined population reduces
the likelihood of undesirable individuals or objects. A sample is taken from
the target population.

2. Select a sampling frame: The sampling frame is the group of individuals or

objects from which the researcher will draw the sample. It is the actual list of
all units in a target population from which the sample is taken.

3. Specify the sampling technique: Sampling can be done by two techniques:

probability (random selection) or non-probability (non-random) technique.
Now, if the sampling frame is approximately the same as the target
population, random selection may be used to select samples
 4. Determine the sample size: The sample size is defined as the number of
units in the sample. Sample size determination depends on many factors
such as time, cost, and facility.

5. Execute the sampling plan: Once population, sampling frame, sampling

technique, and sample size are identified, the researcher can use all that
information to execute the sampling plan and collect the data required for
the research.

Sample size

The sample size is defined as the number of observations used for determining the
estimations of a given population. The size of the sample has been drawn from the
population. Sampling is the process of selection of a subset of individuals from the
population to estimate the characteristics of the whole population. The number of
entities in a subset of a population is selected for analysis.

As an example, we can test a new product on a sample size that is typical of the
target population in order to forecast how the people in a certain age group will
respond to it. The number of participants in that age group who will be polled in
this situation will determine the sample size.

 Small Sample Size

A small sample size simply means taking a small number of samples out of a large
population. For small SS (<30), the sampling distribution is t, F and chi-square
distribution.

Effect of Small Sample Size

o Very tiny sample sizes compromise a study's internal and external validity.
o The sample size is directly proportional to Z-score and inversely
proportional to the margin of error. As a result, decreasing the sample size
lowers the study's confidence level, which is correlated with the Z-score.
o The margin of error also rises as the sample size is reduced.

 Large Sample Size

 If the sample size is 30 or more it is known as a large sample. For large samples,
the sampling distribution of statistics is normal (Z distribution). The larger the
sample size is the smaller the effect size that can be detected.

Effect of Large Sample Size

o Even when they are clinically insignificant, tiny differences have a tendency
to become statistically significant differences in very large samples. Because
of this, therapy decisions may be unsuccessful for both researchers and
doctors.
o Our level of uncertainty decreases with increasing sample size because we
have more information.
o A study with an excessively large sample size may waste limited resources
and may subject more participants than is necessary to any associated risk.

Factors affecting Sample Size

 Population
 Margin of Error
 Confidence level
 Degree of variability
 Sampling method

Data: data are facts, figures and other relevant materials past and present serving as
basis for study and analysis
Methods of data: There are two types of data
 Primary data- Primary data are those data which are collected for the first
time and these are in original in character. This data are also called first hand
information
Advantages –
1. More accurate
2. Updated information
3. More control over data
4. Privacy is maintained
5. Understanding of data is better
6. Targeted problem is dealt with
Disadvantages –
1. Time consuming
2. Costly affair
3. Man power requirement is high
4. Questionnaire must be easy and understandable
5. Feedback may be Faulty
6. Experienced person is needed

 Secondary data- Secondary data are those which have already been collected
and used by some other persons. They are usually in the shape of finished
products. They are called secondary information
Advantages –
1. Ease of access
2. Low cost
3. Time saving
4. Provide new insight to previous analysis
5. Longitudinal Analysis
6. Variety of sources are available
Disadvantages-
1. Might be not specific to needs of researcher
2. No control over data quality
3. Biasness
4. Not available timely
5. Researcher is not the owner of information
Methods of Collecting Primary Data
 Observation - the systematic viewing/watching of specific phenomenon or
investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions and
situations without asking from the respondent for gathering primary data for
a particular study .

 Survey method - Survey research also called field research, the

investigator/interviewer gathering first hand information by using formal
lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way. This method is
suited for gathering descriptive information.
  Interview -interview is a two-way systematic conversation between an
investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to
a specific study. Interviewing requires face to face contact or over telephone.

 Experimentation - Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect

Method; it is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified with observation or experiment. Such research is
characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study
and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.
Researcher must provide working hypothesis. Then work to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.

 Simulation - the process of taking a large amount of data and using it to

mimic real-world scenarios or conditions. Some examples of computer
simulation modeling familiar to most of us include: weather forecasting,
flight simulators used for training pilots, and car crash modeling.

 Questionnaire- (i) Mail survey (ii) Schedule

Questionnaire is a document containing a list of questions presented to a

respondent for answers.

Mail- questionnaire sent by post to respondents with covering letter or note

introduce you; explain the purpose of doing research and requesting to send filled
questionnaire within in reasonable time to the researchers. The respondents read
the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers
themselves.
Schedule- the tool or instrument used to collect data from the respondents while
interview is conducted. Schedule contains questions, statements (on which
opinions are elicited) and blank spaces/tables for filling up the respondents
 Panel method - The panel technique involves interviewing the same group
of people on two or more occasions. It is used primarily for studying
changes in behavior or attitudes. This method generally provides
demographic, household, and behavioral data, making conducting future
studies more accessible.
Methods of Collecting Secondary Data
 Data Available on The Internet- Data is readily available on the internet
and can be downloaded at the click of a button. This data is practically free
of cost, or one may have to pay a negligible amount to download the already
existing data.

 Government and Non-Government Agencies -Data for secondary

research can also be collected from some government and non-government
agencies. For example, Government Printing Office, Census Bureau, and
Small Business Development Centers have valuable and relevant data that
businesses or organizations can use.

 Public Libraries -another good source to search for data for this research.
Public libraries have copies of important research that were conducted
earlier. They are a storehouse of important information and documents from
which information can be extracted.

 Educational Institutions The data that is collected by universities is mainly

for primary research. However, businesses or organizations can approach
educational institutions and request for data from them.
 Commercial Information Sources Local newspapers, journals, magazines,
radio and TV stations are a great source to obtain data for secondary
research. These commercial information sources have first-hand information
on economic developments, political agenda, market research, demographic
segmentation and similar subjects.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions (or

other types of prompts) for the purpose of gathering information from respondents
through survey or statistical study. A research questionnaire is typically a mix of
close-ended questions and open-ended questions.

Types of Questionnaire
  Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative
data. The questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise
information. It also initiates a formal inquiry, supplements data, checks
previously accumulated data, and helps validate any prior hypothesis.
 Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires
collect qualitative data. They use a basic structure and some branching
questions but nothing that limits the responses of a respondent. The
questions are more open-ended to collect specific data from participants.
 Non Disguised Questionnaire – under such questionnaires the objective or
purpose of the research is already explained to the respondents so that they
can understand the importance of research and provide required response.
 Disguised Questionnaire – under this the purpose and information is not
revealed to the respondents , it is done to get the genuine and unbiased
response.

Types of Questions

1)Closed –ended Questionnaire: Closed ended questions include all possible

answers/prewritten response categories, and respondents are asked to choose
among them. E.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions e. g. how many people
use a service?
2) Open-ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to
answer in their own words. Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but leaves
a blank section for the response to write in an answer e.g. what people think about
a service
3) Combination of both: Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with
boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open-ended
questions or more detailed response.
4) Dichotomous Questions- It has only two response alternatives: E.g Yes or no,
agree or disagree, and so on
 5) Contingency Question: A survey question is intended for only some
respondents determined by their responses to some other questions E.g. do you smoke
cigarette?– Yes/ No If yes, how many cigarettes you smoke per day?

6)Multiple-Choice Questions: The researcher provides a choice of answers and

respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives given. E.g Do you
intend to go on an outstation holiday within the next six months? -Definitely will
not go,
-Probably will not go
-Undecided,
-Probably will go,
- Definitely will go
-Other (please specify)
7) Scales: Do you intend to go on an outstation holiday within the next six months?
E.g Definitely, Probably ,Undecided Probably, Definitely Will not go, will not go
or will not go – situational.

Steps involved
1. Decide the information required.
2. Define the target respondents.
3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents.
4. Decide on question content.
5. Develop the question wording.
6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format.
7. Check the length of the questionnaire.
8. Pre-test the questionnaire.
9. Develop the final survey form.

Characteristics of a good Questionnaire

There are no hard and fast rules, only guidelines can be provided in developing a
questionnaire
 Questions should be a simple and there should be no abbreviation
 Maximum clarity should be maintained
 Sequences of questions should be maintained
 Questions should be an elegant appearance
  It should attract the attention and generate interest of the informant.
 The reliability and validity of the questions asked to be maintained
 Question should contain polite, scope and coverage
 Questions should be pre-testing

Precautions-

Question should be Define the Issue-Who, What, When, Where, Why, and Way
(The Six Ws). E. g. which brand of shampoo do you use? (Incorrect) Which brand
or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home during the last month?
(Correct)
o Use Simple Ordinary Words
o Use Unambiguous Words
o Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions
o Avoid Double-barreled Questions-includes two o rmore
questions in one
o Avoid Implicit Alternatives
o Avoid Implicit Assumptions
o Avoid Questions that are Based on Presumptions
o Avoid Generalizations and Estimates
o Avoid long questions.
o Avoid very general questions
o Avoid questions that include negatives
o Avoiding Leading Question/ or Biasing Questions

Sequencing in Questionnaire
 Lead in question- these questions are designed to attract attention of
respondents and to keep them engaged for the entire duration.
 Qualifying Question- after lead in . these encourage the respondents ,
includes some relevant questions which lead to main purpose of the
research. These questions set qualification level, after these respondents are
diverted to main questions.
 Warm up questions – these help the respondents to remind their experience
related to research.
  Specific Questions – directly based on research objectives, if respondents
show interest then only diverted to these questions.
 Demographic Questions – such as age, gender, and income, so on. These
are used for classification of the respondents.

Schedule
Schedule is the tool or instrument used to collect data from the respondents while
interview is conducted. Schedule contains questions, statements (on which
opinions are elicited) and blank spaces/tables for filling up the respondents.
The features of schedules are :

 The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the
answers are noted down by him.
 The list of questions is a more formal document, it need not be attractive.
 The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.

Types of schedule

 Rating Schedules is a schedule used to obtain opinions, preferences etc,

respondents over statements on the phenomenon studied. The schedule consists
of positive and negative statements of opinion on the phenomenon.
 Documents Schedules are used to collect data/information from recorded
evidences and/or case histories. Here the blanks, functional issues related
blanks and the like to be filled up from records and documents are present.
 Survey Schedules are like questionnaires.
 Observation Schedules are schedules used when observational method of data
collection is used. These could be structured or unstructured .
 Interview schedules are used for collecting data when interview method of
communication with the respondents is used.
Difference between Questionnaire & Schedule

Basis Questionnaire Schedule

Meaning A questionnaire is a research A schedule is a formalized
instrument used by any researcher arrangement of inquiries,
as a tool to collect data or gather proclamations, statements, and
information from any source or spaces for replies given to the
subject of his or her interest from enumerators who pose inquiries to
the respondents. the respondents and note down the
responses.
Filled by A questionnaire is filled by the A schedule is filled by an
respondents. enumerator.
Response rate The response rate of a The response rate of a schedule is
questionnaire is low. high.
Cost It is economical in terms of time, It is expensive in terms of time,
effort, and money. effort, and money.
Coverage A large area can be covered Comparatively small area can be
through a questionnaire covered through a schedule
Respondent’s The identity of the respondent is As the enumerator visits the
identity unknown. informant personally, his identity is
known.
Dependency The success of a questionnaire The success of a schedule depends
of success depends upon its quality. upon the honesty and competence of
the enumerator.
Usage A questionnaire is used only when A schedule can be used in both cases
the people are literate and when people are literate and
cooperative. illiterate.