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Anaerobic Respiration
Types of Fermentation

These fermentation pathways consist of glycolysis with some extra reactions tacked on at the
end. In yeast, the extra reactions make alcohol, while in your muscles, they make lactic acid.
Fermentation is a widespread pathway, but it is not the only way to get energy from fuels
anaerobically (in the absence of oxygen). Some living systems instead use an inorganic
molecule other than O2, such as sulfate, as a final electron acceptor for an electron transport
chain. This process, called anaerobic cellular respiration, is performed by some bacteria and
archaea.

Fermentation
-is another anaerobic (nonoxygenrequiring) pathway for breaking down glucose, one that's
performed by many types of organisms and cells.
-the only energy extraction pathway is glycolysis, with one or two extra reactions tacked on at
the end.
-However, the pyruvate made in glycolysis does not continue through oxidation and the citric
acid cycle, and the electron transport chain does not run.
-usually only produces 2-4 molecules of ATP.

Lactic acid fermentation

-NADH transfers its electrons directly to pyruvate, generating lactate as a byproduct.
-Lactic acid produced in muscle cells is transported through the bloodstream to the liver, where
it’s converted back to pyruvate

Alcohol fermentation
-which NADH donates its electrons to a derivative of pyruvate, producing ethanol.
Two steps process from PYRUVATE to ETHANOL :
First step :
-a carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate and released in as carbon dioxide, producing a
two-carbon molecule called acetaldehyde.
Second step :
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-NADH passes its electrons to acetaldehyde, regenerating NAD+ and forming ethanol.

Advatages of Anaerobic Respiration

-One advantage of anaerobic respiration is obvious. It lets organisms live in places where there
is little or no oxygen.
-It produces ATP very quickly (Aerobic respiration, on the other hand, produces ATP more
slowly)

•Therefore be understood that aerobic respiration produces much more ATP than
anaerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration occurs more quickly than aerobic
respiration.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION VS ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Aerobic Respiration
-is a set of metabolic reactions that take place in the presence of oxygen, occurring in a
cell to convert chemical energy into ATPs.
- takes place in all plants, animals, birds, and humans, except for some primitive prokaryotes.
-oxygen acts as an electron acceptor which helps produce ATPs more effectively and more
quickly.
-its process is utilized for the oxidation of carbohydrates, but products from fats and proteins
are also used as reactants
-Carbon dioxide gas and water are the two products of aerobic respiration along with the energy
that is used to add a third phosphate group to ADP and form ATP.
-Other energy-rich molecules like NADH and FADH2 are converted into ATP via electron
transport chain with oxygen and protons.
- Most ATPs are produced during oxidative phosphorylation where the energy of oxygen
molecule is used to pump protons out of the membrane.
- A total of 38 ATPs are produced at the end of the aerobic respiration. However, some energy is
lost due to leaking of the membrane or the cost of moving pyruvate through the cell, as a result
of which about 2930 ATPs are only produced.
-results in complete oxidation of carbohydrate molecules which take place in the mitochondria of
eukaryotic cells as the enzymes for the process are present there.
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Anaerobic Respiration
- a process of cellular respiration where the high energy electron acceptor is neither oxygen
nor pyruvate derivatives.
-the process of creating energy without the presence of oxygen.
-similar to aerobic cellular respiration in that electrons extracted from a fuel molecule are
passed through an electron transport chain, driving ATP synthesis.
-Some prokaryotes—bacteria( sulfate-reducing bacteria and Archaea use sulfate as a
terminal electron acceptor, producing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a byproduct)and archaea(some
archaea called methanogens can use carbon dioxide as a terminal electron acceptor, producing
methane as a by-product(Methanogens are found in soil and in the digestive systems of
ruminants, a group of animals including cows and sheep. )—that live in low-oxygen
environments rely on anaerobic respiration to break down fuels.
-Without the process of anaerobic respiration there may be no energy supplied to muscles in
times of high demand.
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Cellular Respiration
- is the process that breaks down food molecules, usually in the form of glucose, to turn into
carbon dioxide and water.
-In cellular respiration, ATP is produced to be used in all cellular processes that require energy.
-In humans, up to 36 ATP molecules can be produced with the input of oxygen and glucose in
the cells.
-...when hydrogen atoms are added to oxygen, so are the electrons.
-Glucose is a high-energy molecule, whereas carbon dioxide and water are low-energy
,molecules.
-cellular respiration can create up to an average yield of 36-38 ATP molecules, which is about
39% of the energy originally stored in glucose.
-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD+)is one of the important example in metablic
reaction, which is coenzyme in the redox reaction.
-Another significant coenzyme in the redox reaction is flavin adenine dinucleotide ( FAD ).
-NADH and FADH2 give off two hydrogen ions and two electrons upon oxidation. These electr
ons will play an important role in cellular respiration later on.

Chemical Equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -6H2O + 6CO2 (a redox reaction—because glucose has lost an electron, it is
said to be oxidized. Meanwhile, oxygen has gained some electrons, so it is said to be reduced.
-This is the reverse chemical reaction of photosynthesis.

Purpose of Cellular Respiration

-All cells need to be able to obtain and transport energy to power their life functions.

ATP (energy currency of cells)

-a molecule which stores a lot of energy. In its phosphate bonds.
-it is not used for long term energy storage.
-Instead, sugars and fats are used as a long-term form of storage, and cells must constantly
process those molecules to produce new ATP. This is the process of respiration.

Types of Cellular Respiration

1.Aerobic Respiration
2. Fermentation
3. Methanogenesis
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Photosynthesis
- is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy that is used by biological
systems (that means us).
-carried out by certain bacteria, most algae, phytoplankton, plants, cyanobacteria.
-These organisms are known as photoautotrophs or producers meaning they make their own
food and energy from the sun.

Photosynthesis has 3 major events:

1. Sunlight is converted into chemical energy
2. Water (H2O) is split into oxygen (O2)
3. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is fixed into sugars (C6H12O6).

The photosynthesis reaction:

6 CO2 + 12 H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2

Glucose (C6H12O6)
–is a sugar and its molecular structure looks like this.

-During photosynthesis, plants produce glucose molecules when they convert light energy into
chemical energy. The chemical energy is stored in the bonds of glucose.
-When plants produce excess glucose they store it in their leaves.

There are 2 polysaccharide chains in plants:

1. Cellulose is the structural component of cell walls.
2. Starch is a long term energy store that
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•Chloroplasts are full of round flattened discs called thylakoids.

•A stack of thylakoids is called a granum.
•Stroma is the space inside chloroplasts
•Chloroplasts are where photosynthesis occurs.

Chlorophyll
-is a green pigment and is the most abundant.
-Chlorophyll absorbs all wavelength colors except green, which is reflected off giving plants their
green appearance.
-These pigments harvest light energy packets or photons when they absorb sunlight

Endosymbiotic Theory
-A very long time ago, plant cells were once ancient eukaryotic cells that had enveloped a
cyanobacteria. Eventually, the cyanobacteria became a part of the cell and dependent upon
it for life which in turn gave the cell the ability to photosynthesize.

Cyanobacteria
-Comes from the Greek word cyanin which means aqua colored.
-All cyanobacteria are photosynthetic bacteria e.g. purple bacteria are not cyanobacteria but
were the first bacteria discovered that can photosynthesize.
-Undergo photosynthesis in lakes, ponds, and oceans.
-Lack chloroplasts

Photosynthesis Reaction is divided into two parts( Light Reaction and Dark Reaction):

Light reactions or “light dependent reactions”

-capture light energy to power photosynthesis.
-Light reactions occur during the day time.
-They take place in the thylakoids.
-Pigments in the thylakoid membranes form protein complexes called Photosystem I and
Photosystem II.
-These photosystems harvest photons to charge up energy carrying molecules that will power
the dark reactions.

Dark Reactions or "light independent reactions"

-do not need light energy to power their reactions and can occur day or night.
-Discovered by three scientists, the dark reactions are also called the CalvinBensen-Bassham
cycle or just Calvin Cycle.
-Dark reactions occur in the stroma of chloroplasts (the space that surrounds thylakoids) and fix
carbon dioxide into glucose.
-The Calvin Cycle starts with RuBP molecules and carbon dioxide molecules. An enzyme called
Rubisco combines them into an unstable intermediate. This is the reason plants take in carbon
dioxide, to start the Calvin Cycle and begin the conversion of RuBP into glucose. RuBP is the
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starting molecule and ending molecule of the Calvin Cycle. It will be remade at the end of the
cycle so that the cycle can begin again. Since the intermediate of combined RuBP and CO2is
unstable it quickly splits in half and forms 2 molecules of 3-PGA which are stable. The ATP and
NADPH from the light reactions provide the energy to convert the two molecules of 3-PGA into
their final form G3P.
Summary :
The Calvin Cycle converts the carbon from carbon dioxide into glucose in the stroma. This is
called carbon fixationbecause carbon is fixed into another form.

Photosynthesis
- is carried out in two steps. First, in two light dependent photosystems. Second, in a light
independent carbon fixation cycle called the Calvin Cycle. Through this process, the plant isable
to convert sunlight, water, and CO2into glucose (or sugar) and ATP. As a byproduct of this
process, O2 is released.

Pigments
•Chlorophyll A is the most important photosynthetic pigment. Green!
•Other pigments accessory pigments are also present in the leaf.
•Chlorophyll B (yellow-green)
•Carotenoids (yellow-orange).
•Xanthophylls (yellow).

Chromatography
-A technique used to separate the component parts of a mixture according to how well each part
dissolves within a solvent.
-The more soluble a part is, the farther it will travel up the chromatography paper.
-Allows scientists to observe parts of a mixture that they would otherwise be unable to see

Summary
• Plants are the producers of the biosphere creating the oxygen and glucose needed for most
organisms.
• Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in plants.
• Chloroplasts contain thylakoids where the light reactions take place.
• Light reactions convert sunlight into ATP and NADPH.
• The dark reactions or Calvin Cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2into sugar.
• The light reactions and the dark reactions cooperate to convert light energy into chemical
energy housed in glucose.
• Plants and animals use glucose to power metabolic processes
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MAJOR FEATURES OF GLYCOLYSIS, KREBS CYCLE, ELECTRON

TRANSPORT SYSTEM, AND CHEMIOSMOSIS
REACTIONS THAT PRODUCE AND CONSUME ATP

GLYCOLYSIS
-is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism.
-a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon
molecules called pyruvates.
-an ancient metabolic pathway, meaning that it evolved long ago
- is the central pathway for the glucose catabolism in which glucose (6-carbon compound) is
converted into pyruvate (3-carbon compound).
-takes place in both aerobic and anaerobic organisms and is the first step towards the
metabolism of glucose.
-The glycolytic sequence of reactions differs from one species to the other in the mechanism of
its regulation and the subsequent metabolic fate of the pyruvate formed at the end of the
process.
-In aerobic organisms, glycolysis is the prelude to the citric acid cycle and the electron transport
chain, which together release most of the energy contained in glucose.
-It is also referred to as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas or EMP pathway, in honor of the pioneer
workers in the field.
A summary of the process of glycolysis can be written as follows:
C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2C3H4O3 + 2H2O + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+

In words, the equation is written as:

Glucose + Adenosine diphosphate + Phosphate + Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide
↓
Pyruvate + Water + Adenosine triphosphate + Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide + Hydrogen ions

The following are the enzymes that catalyze different steps throughout the process of glycolysis:
1. Hexokinase
2. Phosphoglucoisomerase
3. Phosphofructokinase
4. Aldolase
5. Phosphotriose isomerase
6. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
7. Phosphoglycerate kinase
8. Phosphoglycerate mutase
9. Enolase
10. Pyruvate kinase
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KREBS CYCLE / Citric acid cycle / Tricarboxylic acid cycle

-occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates a pool of chemical energy (ATP, NADH, and
FADH2) from the oxidation of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.
-is at the center of cellular metabolism, playing a starring role in both the process of energy
production and biosynthesis.
-The citric acid cycle enzymes are found in all cells that use oxygen, and they complete the
sugar-breaking process in glycolysis, generating ATP and providing intermediates for building
amino acids and other molecules. This process releases chemical energy in the form of NADH,
FADH2, and ATP.

Powerhouse of Energy
-The citric acid cycle provides the electrons that fuel the process of oxidative
phosphorylation—our major source of ATP and energy. As the acetyl group is broken down,
electrons are stored in the carrier NADH, and delivered to Complex I. These electrons then fuel
the production of a proton gradient by two proton pumps: cytochrome bc1 and cytochrome c
oxidase. This proton gradient then powers the rotation of ATP synthase,building ATP. All of this
action occurs in our mitochondria—the citric acid cycle enzymes are inside the mitochondria,
and the protein pumps are in the mitochondrial membrane.

ELECTRON TRANDSPORT SYSTEM

-is the last component of aerobic respiration and is the only part of glucose metabolism
that uses atmospheric oxygen.
-is a series of redox reactions that resemble a relay race or bucket brigade in that electrons are
passed rapidly from one component to the next, to the endpoint of the chain where the electrons
reduce molecular oxygen, producing water.
-The electron transport chain is present in multiple copies in the inner mitochondrial membrane
of eukaryotes and the plasma membrane of prokaryotes. however, that the electron transport
chain of prokaryotes may not require oxygen as some live in anaerobic conditions.

CHEMIOSMOSIS
-the free energy from the series of redox reactions just described is used to pump hydrogen ions
(protons) across the membrane.
-used to generate 90% of the ATP made during aerobic glucose catabolism; it is also the
method used in the light reactions of photosynthesis to harness the energy of sunlight in the
process of photophosphorylation. Recall that the production of ATP using the process of
chemiosmosis in mitochondria is called oxidative phosphorylation.
-The overall result of these reactions is the production of ATP from the energy of the electrons
removed from hydrogen atoms

ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate

-is the energy currency for cellular processes.
-provides the energy for both energyconsuming endergonic reactions and energy-releasing
exergonic reactions, which require a small input of activation energy. When the chemical bonds
within ATP are broken, energy is released and can be harnessed for cellular work. The more
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bonds in a molecule, the more potential energy it contains.

Reactions that produce and consume ATP :

-ATP is an unstable molecule which hydrolyzes to ADP and inorganic phosphate when it is in
equilibrium with water. The high energy of this molecule comes from the two high-energy
phosphate bonds.

Key Points:
•Adenosine triphosphate is composed of the nitrogenous base adenine, the five-carbon sugar
ribose, and three phosphate groups.
• ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP in the reaction ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi + free energy; the calculated
∆G for the hydrolysis of 1 mole of ATP is −57 kJ/mol.
• ADP is combined with a phosphate to form ATP in the reaction ADP + Pi + free energy → ATP
+ H2O.
• The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP is used to perform cellular work,
usually by coupling the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reactions.
• Sodium-potassium pumps use the energy derived from exergonic ATP hydrolysis to pump
sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane while phosphorylation drives the
endergonic reaction.

Molecular Structure :
- is a nucleoside consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine and the five-carbon sugar ribose.
The three phosphate groups, in order of closest to furthest from the ribose sugar,
are labeled alpha, beta, and gamma.

Functions of ATP

Energy Source
-is the main carrier of energy that is used for all cellular activities.
–When ATP is hydrolyzed and converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), energy is released.
-The removal of one phosphate group releases 7.3 kilocalories per mole, or 30.6 kilojoules
per mole, under standard conditions.
-This energy powers all reactions that take place inside the cell. ADP can also be converted
back into ATP so that the energy is available for other cellular reactions.

ATP is produced through several different methods:

Photophosphorylation
-is a method specific to plants and cyanobacteria. It is the creation of ATP from ADP using
energy from sunlight, and occurs during photosynthesis.

•ATP is also formed from the process of cellular respiration in the mitochondria of a cell. This
can be through aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen, or anaerobic respiration, which does
not.
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Signal Transduction
-ATP is a signaling molecule used for cell communication.
-Kinases, which are enzymes that phosphorylate molecules, use ATP as a source of phosphate
groups. Kinases are important for signal transduction, which is how a physical or chemical
signal is transmitted from receptors on the outside of the cell to the inside of the cell.Once the
signal is inside the cell, the cell can respond appropriately. Cells may be given signals to grow,
metabolize, differentiate into specific types, or even die.

ADP(Adenosine diphosphate)
-also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP).
-it differs from ATP because it has two phosphate groups. ATP becomes ADP with the loss of a
phosphate group, and this reaction releases energy. ADP itself is formed from AMP. Cycling
between ADP and ATP during cellular respiration gives cells the energy needed to carry out
cellular activities.