Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar
CE-330: Fluid Mechanics-II
Lecture 4
Single-Pipe Flow Problems,
Minor Losses
5th Semester (3rd Year)
Civil Engineering
Fall 2021
Lecturer: Alamgir Khalil
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Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar
Single-Pipe Flow Problems
Single-pipe flow problems can be categorized into one of the following types:
Type Find Given
1. Head-loss Problem ℎ𝑓 D, Q or V, and g, L, e,𝜈
2. Discharge problem Q or V D, ℎ𝑓 , and g, L, e,𝜈
3. Sizing Problem D Q, ℎ𝑓 , and g, L, e,𝜈
Four simultaneous equations govern flow at a point in a single
Governing Equations:
pipe;
4𝑄 𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉𝐷 For Laminar Flow 64
𝑉= ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑅= (rare in practice): 𝑓=
𝜋𝐷2 𝐷 2𝑔 𝜈 𝑅
𝑒 1.11
For Turbulent Flow 1 2.51 𝑒
= −2𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐷 + (or) 1 𝐷 6.9
(most common): 𝑓 3.7 𝑅 𝑓 = −1.8𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅
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Problems
8.34 Air flows at an average velocity of 0.7 m/s through a long 3.8-m diameter circular tunnel (e = 1.5
mm). Find the friction head-loss gradient at a point where the air temperature and pressure are
20oC and 102 kPa abs respectively. Find also the shear stress at the pipe wall and the thickness of
the viscous sublayer.
Solution: Table A.2 for air at 20oC: 𝜇 =18.1 x 10-6 N⸱s/m2, γ = 11.82 N/m3
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝛾𝑉𝐷 R = 11.82(0.7)3.8/(18.1 x 10-6 x 9.81) = 177 073
𝑅= =
𝜇 𝜇𝑔
e/D = 1.5/3800 = 0.000 395 From Moody chart: f = 0.0183
S = hf /L = (0.0183/3.8)0.72/[2(9.81)] = 0.000 1203 m/m S = 0.000 1203 m/m
𝜏𝑜 = fρV2/8 = (0.0183(11.82/9.81)0.72/8 = 0.001 350 N/m2 𝜏𝑜 = 0.001 350 N/m2
14.14ν 14.14𝜇𝑔 14.14 18.1 𝑥 10−6 9.81
𝛿𝑣 = = = = 0.002 24 m 𝛿𝑣 = 2.24 mm
𝑉 𝑓 𝑉 𝑓 ∙𝛾 0.7 0.0183 11.82
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Problems (cont.)
8.15.2 California crude Oil, warmed until its Kinematic viscosity is 0.0004 ft2/sec and its
specific weight is 53.45 lb/ft3, is pumped through a 3-in pipe (e = 0.001 in).
(a) For laminar flow with R= Rcirt= 2000, what would be the loss in energy head
in psi per 1000 ft of pipe? (b) What would be the loss head per 1000 ft If the
velocity were three times the value in (a)?
Solution: Type I Problem, To find ℎ𝑓
𝑉𝐷 𝑉(3/12)
(a) 𝑅= => 𝑅𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = = 2000 => V = 3. 2 fps
0.0004
𝜈
For Laminar flow: f = 64/R = 64/2000 = 0.032
ℎ𝑓 = f(L/D)(V2/2g) = 0.032[1000/(3/12]3.22/[2(32.2)] = 20.35 ft per 1000 ft
Pressure loss = γ ℎ𝑓 = 53.45(20.35)/144 = 7.55 psi per 1000 ft
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Problems (cont.)
𝑉𝐷
(b) V = 3(3.2) = 9.6 fps 𝑅= = [9.6(3/12)]/0.0004 = 6000
𝜈
e/D = 0.001/3 = 0.000 333
From Moody chart : f = 0.036
𝑒 1.11
1 𝐷 6.9
Or using Haaland’s Equation: = −1.8𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅
f = 0.036
ℎ𝑓 = f(L/D)(V2/2g) = 0.036[1000/(3/12]9.62/[2(32.2)] = 206 ft per 1000 ft
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Problems (cont.)
8.15.4 When gasoline with a kinematic viscosity of 5 x 10-7 m2/s flows in a 200-mm-diameter smooth
pipe the friction head loss is 0.43 m per 100 m. Find the flow rate.
Solution: Type II Problem, To find 𝑄
For smooth pipe e = 0, Initial assumptions: f ≈ 0.02 (mid-range)
ℎ𝑓 = f(L/D)(V2/2g): ℎ𝑓 = 0.43 = f(100/0.2)V2/[2(9.81)]; i.e. V = 0.1299/f 1/2
𝑉𝐷
𝑅= R = DV/𝜈 = 0.2V/(5 x 10-7) = 400 000V Try f = 0.02, then V = 0.1299/(0.02)1/2
𝜈
V = 0.918 m/s, R = 400 000(0.918) = 3.67 x 105 For smooth pipe (e = 0) and R = 3.67 x 105 : f = 0.014
This and subsequent trials:
Try f V (m/s) R Obtained f Q = AV
0.02 0.918 3.67 x 105 0.014 Try again Q = (π/4)(0.2)2 x 1.12
0.014 1.1 4.4 x 105 0.0134 Try again Q = 0.0352 m3/s = 35.2 L/s
0.0134 1.12 4.48 x 105 0.0134 Converged
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University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar
Problems (cont.)
8.15.4 When gasoline with a kinematic viscosity of 5 x 10-7 m2/s flows in a 200-mm-diameter smooth
pipe the friction head loss is 0.43 m per 100 m. Find the flow rate.
𝑒
1 𝐿 𝑉𝐷 1 2.51
Solution:
=𝑉 …..(I) 𝑅= …..(II) = −2𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐷 + …..(III)
𝑓 2𝑔𝐷ℎ𝑓 𝜈 𝑓 3.7 𝑅 𝑓
Put Eqns (I) and (II) in 2𝑔𝐷ℎ𝑓 𝑒/𝐷 2.51𝜈 𝐿
𝑉 = −2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
Colebrook Eqn (III) 𝐿 3.7 𝐷 2𝑔𝐷ℎ𝑓
(2𝑔𝐷ℎ𝑓 )/𝐿 = (2(9.81)0.2(0.43) )/100 = 0.1299 m/s
Assuming Turbulent flow: V = -2(0.1299)log[0 + 2.51(5 x 10-7)/[(0.2)0.1299]] V = 1.12 m/s
𝑉𝐷
𝑅= R = (0.2)1.225/(5 x 10-7) = 490 000, so flow is turbulent
𝜈
Q = AV = (π/4)(0.2)2 x 1.12 = 0.0352 m3/s Q = 35.2 L/s
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Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar
Problems (cont.)
8.38 A steel pipe (e = 0.0002 ft) 13,450 feet long is to
convey oil (𝜈 = 0.000 54 ft2/sec) at 13 cfs from a Δz
reservoir with surface elevation 705 ft to one L ,e
with surface elevation 390 ft as shown in Figure.
Theoretically, what pipe size is required?
Solution: Type III Problem, To find 𝐷 e = 0.0002 ft (given)
ℎ𝑓 = f(L/D)(V2/2g) = f(L/D)[(Q/A)2/2g)] = [f L/2gD)][Q/(πD2/4)]2 = 8 f LQ2/(π2gD5)
705 - 390 = 315 = 8f (13,450)132/[π2(32.2) D5] D5 = 181.6 f …..(I)
V = Q/A = Q/(πD2/4) = 4(13)/(πD2) = 16.55/D2 …..(II) R = DV/𝜈 = DV/0.000 54 …..(III)
Try f D ft (from I) V fps (from II) R (from III) e/D Chart f
0.030 1.404 8.40 21,840 0.000 142 ≈ 0.0254 Try again
0.025 1.353 9.04 22,650 0.000 148 ≈ 0.025 Converged
D = 1.353 ft = 16.24 in
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Minor Losses in Turbulent Flow
Losses due to local disturbances of the flow in conduits such as changes in cross-section,
elbows, valves etc. are called minor losses.
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Minor Losses in Turbulent Flow (cont.)
The head loss associated with flow through a valve is a common minor loss.
Flow through a valve
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Minor Losses in Turbulent Flow (cont.)
✓ Many pipe systems contain various transition sections in which the pipe diameter
changes from one size to another.
✓ Any change in flow area contributes losses that are not accounted for in the fully
developed head loss calculation (the friction factor).
✓ The extreme cases involve flow into a pipe from a reservoir (an entrance) or out of a
pipe into a reservoir (an exit).
✓ Minor head losses are often a result of the dissipation of kinetic energy.
✓ In general, it is much easier to efficiently accelerate a fluid (i.e., a nozzle) than it is to
decelerate it (i.e., a diffuser).
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Minor Losses in Turbulent Flow (cont.)
The minor head loss can be represented in two ways:
Minor Head Loss (h′)
𝑉2 Equivalent
𝑘 Length
2𝑔
𝑉 2 Equivalent to a certain length of
ℎ′ = 𝑘 straight pipe usually in terms of the
2𝑔
number of pipe diameters, N
where k is the loss coefficient
which must be determined 𝑉2 𝐿 𝑉2 (𝑁𝐷) 𝑉 2
experimentally for each case. 𝑘 =𝑓 =𝑓
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
k = 𝜙(geometry, R) 𝑘 = 𝑁𝑓 12
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Minor Losses in Turbulent Flow (cont.)
The Minor head loss can be categorized as:
1) Loss of Head at Entrance
2) Loss of Head at Submerged Discharge Pipe components affect the flow by;
a) Discharge into Still Water
b) Discharge into Moving Water ✓ Changing the direction of flow (e.g.
bends, elbows, and tees)
3) Loss of head due to Contraction
a) Sudden Contraction ✓ Obstructing the flow (e.g. valves)
b) Gradual Contraction ✓ Changing flow speed by varying cross
4) Loss of head due to Expansion sectional area ( e.g. Sudden
a) Sudden Expansion expansions or contractions, gradual
b) Gradual Expansion expansions and contractions
(Diffuser or nozzle))
5) Loss of Head in Pipe Fittings
6) Loss of Head in Bends and Elbows
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Loss of Head at Entrance
The loss of head at entrance can be
expressed as:
𝑉2
ℎ𝑒′ = 𝑘𝑒
2𝑔
Where V is the mean velocity in the pipe,
and 𝑘𝑒 is the entrance loss coefficient.
Entrance loss coefficients have been
determined experimentally.
For reentrant tube, the loss
coefficient vary with pipe
projection within the reservoir and
thickness of pipe walls; for vey thin
tubes, 𝑘𝑒 ≈ 0.8.
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Loss of Head at Submerged Discharge
a) Discharge into Still Water
𝑉2
ℎ𝑑′ = 𝑘𝑑
2𝑔
Writing energy equation b/w point (a) and (c),
taking datum at (a),
𝑃 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐻𝑎 = + 𝑧 + =𝑦+0+
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔
Note:
𝑃 𝑉2 ✓ 𝒌𝒅 = 1 under all conditions, hence the only way
𝐻𝑐 = + 𝑧 + = 0+𝑦+0 to reduce the discharge loss is to reduce the
𝛾 2𝑔 velocity by means of a diverging pipe.
✓ Tank or reservoir is so large that velocity within
2
𝑉 it is negligible, entire kinetic energy of flow is
ℎ𝑑′ = 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑐 = ……(1) dissipated.
2𝑔
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Loss of Head at Submerged Discharge (cont.)
b) Discharge into Moving Water
Submerged discharge enters a body of
water moving away in a channel such as;
▪ from a culvert with a submerged
outlet
▪ in the tailrace of a reaction turbine.
Hydrostatic Pressure variation with height for 𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑓 𝑃𝑐
incompressible fluids (using gage pressures); + 𝑧𝑒 = + 𝑧𝑓 = + 𝑧𝑐 = 0
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾
Writing energy equation b/w point (e) and (f); 𝑃𝑒 𝑉2 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑐
2
+ 𝑧𝑒 + − ℎ𝑑′ = + 𝑧𝑓 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉 2 𝑉𝑐2
ℎ𝑑′ = − ……(2) Eqn (1) is a special case of Eqn (2)
2𝑔 2𝑔
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Loss Due to Contraction
a) Sudden Contraction
The loss of head for a sudden
contraction can be expressed as:
2
𝑉2
ℎ𝑐′ = 𝑘𝑐
2𝑔
𝑫𝟐
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
𝑫𝟏
𝑘𝑐 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00
The entrance loss is a special case where D2/D1 = 0 17
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Loss Due to Contraction (cont.)
b) Gradual Contraction
Head loss from pipe contraction may be greatly reduced by introducing a gradual pipe
transition known as a confusor.
Head loss due to gradual
contraction is;
V1 𝛼 V2
𝑉22
A2 ℎ𝑐′ = 𝑘𝑐′
2𝑔
A1
where 𝑘𝑐′ is the gradual contraction coefficient
𝛼= 600 𝛼= 1800
and its value depends upon D2/D1 and V2
(velocity in the smaller pipe).
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Loss Due to Expansion
a) Sudden Expansion or
Enlargement
The loss of head due to sudden
enlargement can be expressed as:
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2)2
ℎ𝑥′ =
2𝑔
To express this minor loss in terms of
one velocity, from continuity: 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐷1 𝑉1 = 𝐷22 𝑉2
4 4
2 2
𝐷12 2
𝐷22
2
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 1 − 2 𝑉1 = −1 𝑉22
𝐷2 𝐷12
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Loss Due to Expansion (cont.)
b) Gradual Expansion or
Enlargement
The loss of head due to gradual
enlargement can be expressed as:
Rough Surface
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2)2
ℎ′ = 𝑘′
2𝑔
Smooth Surface
Where 𝑘′ is a function of cone angle 𝛼
Curve F Loss due to Pipe Friction
Curve T Loss due to Turbulence
Curve 𝑘′ Total loss in diverging cone
(F + T)
Loss coefficient for conical diffusers 20
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Loss in Pipe Fittings The loss of head due to pipe fittings can be expressed as;
𝑉2
ℎ𝑓′ = 𝑘𝑓
2𝑔
Fitting 𝒌𝒇 L/D
Globe valve, wide open 10 350
Angle valve, wide open 5 175
Close-return bend 2.2 75 ✓ Alternative account for the head loss
T, through side outlet 1.8 67 due to pipe fitting by increasing the
pipe length by an amount L/D.
Short-radius elbow 0.9 32
Medium-radius elbow 0.75 27 ✓ It should be applied for fully-rough
Long-radius elbow 0.60 20 pipe low.
45 elbow 0.42 15
✓ For very smooth pipes use 𝑘𝑓 values.
Gate valve, wide open 0.19 7
Gate valve, half open 2.06 72
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Loss in Bends and Elbows
The loss of head that a pipe bend or elbow
causes can be expressed as;
𝑉2
ℎ𝑏′ = 𝑘𝑏
2𝑔
✓ The centrifugal force mV2/r on the particles near the
center of the pipe, where velocities are high, is larger
than centrifugal force on the particles near the walls of
the pipe, where velocities are low.
✓ This unbalanced condition creates a double spiral flow.
Secondary flow in a pipe bend
✓ The velocity in the pipe may not become normal within
as much as 100 pipe diameters.
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Loss in Bends and Elbows (cont.)
Bends in pipes produce a greater head loss than
if the pipe were straight. The losses are due to
the separated region of flow near the inside of
the bend (specially if the bend is sharp) and the
swirling secondary flow. r
Character of flow in a 900 bend
The flowrate from a faucet in a typical house is
sufficient whether the value of 𝑘𝑏 for an elbow is
the typical 𝑘𝑏 = 1.5, or it is reduced to 𝑘𝑏 = 0.2
by use of a more expensive long-radius, gradual
𝑘𝑏 = 1.1 𝑘𝑏 = 0.2 bend.
without guide vanes with guide vanes
Character of flow in a 900 mitered bend
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Loss in Bends and Elbows (cont.)
✓ Most of the head loss due to a sharp bend
can be eliminated by using vaned elbow.
✓ The vanes impede the formation of
secondary flows.
Vaned elbow
Resistance coefficients for 900 bends
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