Embryonic Development Stages:
1. Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg.
2. Cleavage: Rapid cell divisions forming a blastula.
3. Gastrulation: Blastula folds into a multilayered embryo (gastrula).
4. Organogenesis: Changes in cell shape and location form rudimentary organs.
Model Organisms for Study
- Sea Urchin: Studied for cell-surface events during fertilization.
- Fruit Fly, Frog, Chick, Nematode: Used as model organisms for developmental research.
Fertilization in Sea Urchins
- Gametes released into water.
- Jelly coat of the egg attracts sperm.
Acrosomal Reaction:
- Triggered when a sperm head contacts the egg surface.
- Key event in fertilization.
Acrosomal Reaction:
- Discharge of hydrolytic enzymes from the acrosome.
- Enzymes digest jelly coat, allowing the acrosomal process to form.
- “Lock-and-key” recognition between acrosomal process and egg plasma membrane.
Plasma Membrane Fusion:
- Recognition triggers fusion of sperm and egg plasma membranes.
- Sperm nucleus enters egg cytoplasm, causing depolarization.
- Depolarization acts as a barrier to polyspermy.
Cortical Reaction
- Slow block to polyspermy involves cortical granules.
- Vesicles release contents triggering a cortical reaction.
- Fertilization envelope forms, protecting the egg.
Calcium Involvement
- High Ca2+ concentration required for fertilization envelope formation.
- Sperm-egg binding activates a signal pathway, releasing Ca2+.
- Ca2+ wave correlates with fertilization envelope appearance.
Egg Activation
- Fertilization initiates metabolic reactions, “activating” the egg.
- Ca2+ rise triggers cortical reaction and egg activation.
- Proteins and mRNAs for activation are present in the unfertilized egg’s cytoplasm.
Cell Fusion and DNA Synthesis:
- Sperm and egg nuclei fuse about 20 minutes after entry.
- DNA synthesis initiated, marking the end of fertilization.
- First cell division occurs approximately 90 minutes after fertilization.
Species Differences in Fertilization
- Sea urchin eggs complete meiosis before release.
- Other species may have different stages of meiosis at fertilization.
Fertilization in Mammals
- Terrestrial animals, including mammals, fertilize eggs internally.
- Support cells surround mammalian egg before and after ovulation.
Fertilization in Mammals:
- Internal fertilization in terrestrial mammals.
- Support cells surround the egg within the developing follicle.
- Sperm must traverse follicle cells to reach the zona pellucida.
- Binding of sperm to a receptor induces an acrosomal reaction, facilitating entry.
- Cortical reaction in response to sperm binding acts as a slow block to polyspermy.
Comparison with Sea Urchins
- Fertilization process slower in mammals.
- First cell division occurs 12-36 hours after sperm binding (compared to 1.5 hours in sea urchins).
- Cleavage follows fertilization, marking the beginning of the next developmental stage.
Cleavage
- Initial development relies on mRNA and proteins deposited during oogenesis.
- Cleavage involves rapid cell divisions primarily in the S (DNA synthesis) and M (mitosis) phases.
- G1 and G2 phases are skipped, and there is no increase in mass.
- Cytoplasm is partitioned into smaller cells called blastomeres.
- First five to seven cleavage divisions form a blastula with a blastocoel.
- Cleavage patterns vary among species, with some having uniform division and others showing asymmetry.
Fertilized Egg
- Zygote presented shortly before the first cleavage division.
- Enveloped by the fertilization envelope.
Four-Cell Stage:
- Remnants of the mitotic spindle visible.
- Two pairs of cells completed the second cleavage division.
Early Blastula
- Multicellular ball after further cleavage divisions.
- Blastocoel, a central cavity, begins to form.
Later Blastula:
- Single layer of cells surrounds the blastocoel.
- Morphogenesis follows this stage.
- Embryo hatches from the fertilization envelope.
- Swimming begins after hatching.
Cleavage Pattern in Frogs
- Nutrients (yolk) concentrated at the vegetal pole.
- Asymmetric distribution affects cleavage pattern.
- First two cleavage furrows parallel to the meridian.
- Yolk slows cytokinesis, leading to four blastomeres of equal size.
- Third division is equatorial, creating an eight-cell embryo.
- Yolk displaces mitotic apparatus, causing smaller blastomeres in the animal hemisphere.
- Blastocoel forms entirely in the animal hemisphere.
Cleavage Patterns in Other Animals
Holoblastic Cleavage
- Occurs in amphibians, echinoderms, mammals, and annelids.
- Cleavage furrow passes entirely through the egg.
- Blastocoel forms centrally, blastomeres are often of similar size.
Meroblastic Cleavage
- Seen in birds, reptiles, many fishes, and insects.
- Yolk-rich eggs limit cleavage to the region lacking yolk.
- Incomplete cleavage due to the volume of yolk.
Specific Examples
Birds (Chickens):
- Yolk is the entire egg cell; cleavage limited to a small area.
- Divisions produce an upper and lower layer, with a cavity between as the avian blastocoel.
Insects (Drosophila)
- Yolk found throughout the egg.
- Early mitosis occurs without cytokinesis.
- Plasma membrane forms later around nuclei, resulting in a blastula of around 6,000 cells.
Morphogenesis in Animals
- Involves changes in cell shape, position, and survival.
- Key processes during the last two stages of embryonic development.
Gastrulation:
- Reorganization of the blastula into a gastrula.
- Cells move, acquire new positions, and establish cell layers.
- Formation of a primitive digestive tube during gastrulation.
- Embryonic germ layers are produced:
- Ectoderm (outer layer).
- Endoderm (lining of the digestive tract).
- Triploblasts (vertebrates and bilaterally symmetric animals) have a third germ layer, the mesoderm, between
ectoderm and endoderm.
Organogenesis
- Further transformation during this stage.
- Involves the formation of organs.
- Specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival continue during organogenesis.
Neuron Structure and Function
- Neurons exemplify the close fit of form and function.
- Cellular organization crucial for information reception and transmission.
Neuron Components
Cell Body
- Contains nucleus and most organelles.
Dendrites
- Highly branched extensions receiving signals from other neurons.
Axon
- Extension transmitting signals to other cells.
- Often longer than dendrites, specialized for electrical signal transmission.
- Cone-shaped axon hillock generates signals.
- Branches into many terminals near its end.
Synaptic Transmission
- Axon terminals form synapses, specialized junctions.
- Chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) pass information from transmitting neuron to receiving cell.
- Cone snail venom interferes with both electrical signaling along axons and chemical signaling across synapses.
Information Processing Stages
- Sensory Input
- Handled by sensory neurons detecting external stimuli and internal conditions.
Integration:
- Managed by interneurons forming local circuits in the brain or ganglia.
- Analyze and interpret sensory input.
Motor Output
- Executed by motor neurons transmitting signals to muscles, causing contraction.
- Neurons extending from processing centers trigger gland activity.
Identifying and Attacking Prey (Cone Snail Example):*
-Sensory Input
- Snail surveys its environment with sensors in the siphon.
- Integration
- Neuronal networks process information to identify and locate prey.
- Motor Output
- Initiates attack, activating neurons to release the harpoon-like tooth toward the prey.
- Neural Signal Transmission
- Electrical signals transmitted within neurons in an identical manner.
- Highly branched dendrites and axons facilitate extensive input and output.
- Axons grouped together form nerves.
-Organization of Neurons
- Central Nervous System (CNS) organizes neurons for sorting, processing, and integration.
- May include a brain or ganglia.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of neurons carrying information into and out of the CNS.
- Supporting cells (glial cells or glia) are essential for both CNS and PNS neurons.
