Module 1: Introduction

Basic Concepts of Automation

Definition:
In an Industrial Context, we can define Automation as a technology that is concerned with the use of
mechanical, electronic, and computer based systems in the operation and control of production.
e.g. Transfer lines, mechanized assembly machines, feedback control systems (Applied to industrial
processes), numerically controlled machine tools and robots.
Accordingly Robotics is a form of Industrial Automation.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover

 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Types of Industrial Automation
1. Fixed Automation (Hard Automation)
2. Programmable Automation
3. Flexible Automation (Soft Automation)

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover

 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
1. Fixed Automation
• It is used when the volume of production is very high.
• It is therefore appropriate to design specialized equipment to process the
product (or a component of a product) very efficiently and at high
production rates.
• Automotive Industry is a good example of fixed automation.
• Highly integrated transfer lines consisting of several dozen workstations are
used to perform machining operations on engine and transmission
components.
• The cost of the special equipment can be divided over a large no of units,
and the resulting unit costs are low relative to alternative methods of
production.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover

 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Problems with Fixed Automation
• Since the initial investment cost is high, if the volume of production turns out
to be lower than anticipated, then the unit costs become greater than
anticipated.
• Equipment is specially designed to produce the one product, and after the
product’s life cycle is finished, the equipment is likely to becomes obsolete.

Note: For products with short life cycles, the use of

fixed automation represents a big gamble.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover

 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
2. Programmable Automation
• It is used when volume of production is relatively low and there are a variety of
products to be made.
• The production equipment is designed to be adaptable to variations in product
configurations.
• The adaptability feature is accomplished by operating the equipment under the
control of a ‘program’ of instructions which has been prepared specially for the given
product.
• The program is read into the production equipment, and the equipment performs the
particular sequence of processing (or assembly) operations to make that product.
• Cost of the programmable equipment can be spread over a large no of product even
though the products are different.
• Because of the programming feature, the resulting adaptability of the equipment,
many different and unique products can be made economically in small batches.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover

 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
3. Flexible Automation
• Most suitable for Mid Volume production range.
• Flexible systems possess some of the features of both fixed and programmable
automation.
• It must be programmed for different product configurations, but the variety of
configurations is usually more limited than for programmable automation.
• Flexible automation systems typically consist of a series of workstations that are
interconnected by a materials handling and storage system.
• A central computer is used to control the various activities that occur in the system,
routing the various parts to the appropriate stations and controlling the programmed
operations at the different stations.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover

 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
3. Flexible Automation

• One of the features that distinguishes programmable automation from flexible

automation is that with programmable automation, the products are made in
batches. When one batch is completed, the equipment is reprogrammed to
process the next batch.
• With flexible automation, different products can be made at the same time on
the same manufacturing system. This feature allows a level of versatility that is
not available in pure programmable automation.
• This means that products can be produced on a flexible system in batches if
desirable or several different product styles can be mixed on the system.
• The computational power of the control computer is what makes this versatility
possible.
Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover
 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics by Groover

 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Reasons for Automation:
1. Increase in Productivity: Automation of an operation usually increases production rate and output per labor
hour.
2. Reduction of Labor Cost: As labor cost increases, economics tends to force a substitution of automated
equipment for labor. Because production rate is usually increased and labor cost is reduced by use of
automated equipment, the unit cost of product is reduced.
3. Labor Shortages: In many industrialized nations, there is a labor shortage (e.g., Japan and Germany), forcing
these countries to increase production by seeking alternatives to the use of labor. Automation is such an
alternative.
4. Trend of Labor Toward the Service Sector: In the United States, labor shortages have not been a problem as
in other industrialized countries. However, in the United States, there is a general trend toward employment in
the service sector and lower employment levels in manufacturing. The growth of government employment as
well as insurance, personal services, entertainment, legal, sales, etc. has resulted in a largely service economy
in the United States. One of the reasons is that people tend to view factory work as demeaning and desirable.
Implementation of automation in manufacturing has contributed to this trend.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Reasons for Automation:
5. Safety: Automation of a production operation tends to remove the human from direct participation in the
operation. This improves safety in potentially dangerous production situations. The Occupational Safety and
Health Agency (OSHA) has motivated the automation of unsafe jobs.

6. High Cost of Materials: Higher levels of efficiency in processing of raw materials requires tighter controls in
manufacturing, which can often be achieved through automation.

7. Improved Quality: Automated production usually achieves greater consistency in processing. Consistency is one
measure of product quality. Automobile companies have achieved significant gains in product quality through the
automation of certain critical assembly processes such as robotic spot welding of car bodies.

8. Reduction of Manufacturing Lead Time: Manufacturing lead time is the time between customer order and
delivery of the finished product. Automation usually means less time to produce the product, leading to greater
customer satisfaction and a competitive advantage in manufacturing.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Reasons for Automation:
9. Reduction of Work-in-Process: Work-in-process is product in the factory either being processed or between
processing operations. It is inventory that represents an investment cost to the manufacturer that cannot be
recovered until the product is shipped. Automation tends to reduce work-in-process by reducing the time the
product spends in the factory. Reducing manufacturing lead time reduces work-in-process.

10. Increase in Flexibility: The increase of flexibility is of growing concern to manufacturers: flexibility to change
quickly over from one product to another and flexibility to accommodate new products. With programmable
automation, these flexibilities can be achieved.

11. High Cost of Not Automating: There is a competitive advantage in automating a manufacturing plant. The
advantage often shows up in sometimes intangible ways, such as improved quality, higher sales, better labor
relations, and better company image. Companies that do not automate often find themselves at a competitive
disadvantage with their customers, their employees, and the general public.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Advantages of Automation:
1. Increased productivity.
2. Reduced overall production cost.
3. Less floor area required.
4. Increased overall profits of the manufacturing concern.
5. Human fatigue is greatly minimized.
6. Reduced maintenance requirements.
7. The workers avail better working conditions.
8. Owing to the use of standardized parts and assemblies, the inventory requirement is minimized.
9. Uniform components are produced.
10. There is an effective control over the production process.
11. The work piece is tidy and safe.
12. With the use of group technology a considerable saving is effected in terms of design cost, material cost,
tooling cost etc.
13. There is a great improvement in the quality and reliability of products.
14. Human safety is fully ensured.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics and Industrial Automation by R K Rajput
 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Limitations of Automation:
1. Initial Investment: The considerations of cash flow may make an investment in automation difficult even if
estimated rate of return is high.
2. Labor resistance: Although the use of robots increases productivity, makes the firm more competitive and
preserves jobs, yet some jobs are lost. Therefore people look at robots and manufacturing automation as a cause
of unemployment.
3. Cost of upgraded labor: It is very easy to automate routine monotonous tasks. But skill is required to automate
the difficult tasks, this requires the upgradation of manufacturing labor, which involves cost.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Industrial Robotics and Industrial Automation by R K Rajput
 Module 1: Introduction
Basic Concepts of Automation
Applications of Automation:
1. Automatic machine tools to process parts.
2. Automated transfer lines and similar sequential production systems.
3. Automatic assembly machines.
4. Automated production lines.
5. Industrial Robots.
6. Automatic material handling and storage systems.
7. Automated inspection system for quality control.
8. Feedback control computer process control.
9. Computer Systems that automate procedures for planning, data collection, and decision making to
support manufacturing activities.
10. Building Automation System. (BAS)
11. CAD/CAM and Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM).

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Components of Automated System

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Components of Automated System
1. Power to accomplish the process
• An automated system performs some action to accomplish its function, and the action requires
power.
• Most power sources used in automated manufacturing systems are based on electrical energy.
• Use of electric power has the following benefits in the operation of an automated system:
(1) It can be readily converted to other forms of power-mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic;
(2) Low level electric power can be used for signal transmission, information processing, and data
storage; and
(3) Electrical energy can be conveniently stored in long-life batteries.
• The actions performed by an automated system can be divided into two categories: processing and
movement or positioning.
• These categories are especially appropriate in a manufacturing system, in which processing refers to
the operation performed on the work part (e.g., machining, forming, molding); and movement or
positioning refers to the transport and placement of the part before, during, and after the
manufacturing process.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Components of Automated System
2. Machine Programming
• The actions performed by an automated system are determined by a program of instructions.
• The program operates the system without human intervention, although the automated process or procedure m
involve human interaction (e.g., an automated teller machine).
• The instructions contained in the program specify the details of each action that must be accomplished,
the sequence in which the actions must be performed, and variations in the sequence that may be required
depending on circumstances.
• The decision-making capability of the system is included in the program in the form of instructions that execute
different actions depending on conditions and circumstances. Under one set of conditions, the system responds o
way, but under a different set of conditions, it responds in another way.
• Decision making also allows an automated system to cope with unanticipated events in the work cycle, such as a
broken tool or a part not positioned correctly in a fixture or other malfunction in the process.
• Process optimization is another aspect of programming in the operation and control of a production process.
Optimization is applicable in situations where there is a well-defined economic performance criterion, such as
product cost, production rate, or process yield, and the relationships between the process variables and the
performance criterion are known.
Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Components of Automated System
Feedback controls:
• These are widely used in automated systems to ensure that the programmed commands have been prope
executed.
• A feedback control system consists of five basic components:
(1) Input signal,
(2) Process,
(3) Output,
(4) Feedback sensing elements, and
(5) Controller and actuators.
• The input signal represents the desired value of the process output.
• The output is some variable that is being measured and compared with the input. The output value is a function
the process.
• Sensing elements close the loop between output and input. Finally, the controller and actuators compare the out
with the desired input and make adjustments in the process to reduce the difference between them.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Components of Automated System
Feedback controls:
• An important example of feedback control in manufacturing is a positioning system.
• A typical purpose of the positioning system in production operations is to move a work part to a desired location relative
to a tool or work head.
• Examples of positioning systems include numerical control machine tools, spot welding robots, electronic component
insertion machines, and coordinate measuring machines.
• In operation, a programmed instruction directs the positioning system to move the worktable to a certain location defined
by coordinate values in an axis system (e.g., x and y values in a Cartesian coordinate system).

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation in Production System
• Most manufacturing operations can be automated.
• Given the large number of manufacturing processes and assembly operations used
in Industry (the number is in thousands) and the many possible ways in which any
given operation can be automated, the variety of automated system would seem to
be unlimited.
• However although the number of specific automation solutions may be limitless,
they can be classified into a limited number of categories.
• Some of the principle categories and examples of automation in manufacturing are.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation in Production System
1. Automated Production Lines
• It is a production system consisting of a series of automated workstations connected by an automatic parts
transfer mechanism.
• A raw work part begins at one end of the line and passes through each station, where an operation is
accomplished.
• The stations perform processing or assembly operations such as machining. press working, and spot welding.
• Examples include transfer lines (associated primarily with machining), dial indexing machines, integrated sheet
metal press lines, and certain automated assembly machines.
• Transfer lines and similar systems are often cited as examples of fixed automation.
• Although their control system is programmable, the configuration of the production hardware limits these
systems in adapting to changes in product configuration.
• They are, therefore, best suited to high production.
Video link:
https://www.google.com/search?q=automated+production+lines&rlz=1C1GCEU_enIN944IN949&source=lnms&tbm=vid&sa=
X&ved=2ahUKEwidkJb91cP8AhXMaGwGHWHvCt4Q_AUoA3oECAEQBQ&biw=1517&bih=730&dpr=0.9#fpstate=ive&vl
d=cid:5b4901b5,vid:NGR7-rBmi_E
Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation in Production System
1. Automated Production Lines
• One of the biggest problems in managing an automated production line is system reliability.
• When one component in the system malfunctions (e.g., one workstation fails), it often means that the entire line
must be shut down to make repairs.
• As the equipment becomes increasingly complex (as the number of stations on the line is increased), the reliability
decreases.
• This translates into more frequent malfunctions and a higher proportion of downtime during operation.
• Various means are available to reduce the effect of these problems, such as the
1. Use of computer monitoring and diagnostic systems,
2. Scheduling cutting tool changes instead of waiting for each individual tool to fail, and using storage buffers
between stations along the line to allow sections of the line to operate independently.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation in Production System
2. Position and Motion Control Systems
• Many manufacturing operations require the positioning of a work head or tool relative to a work part to accomplish
a process.
• In some cases, the positioning is required before the process is performed.
• For example, in a drilling operation, the part must be moved to the proper location, and then the hole is drilled at
that location. This type of positioning is often called point-to-point control.
• In other applications, the tool is moved while the process is being carried out. Milling is an example of this.
• The work part is fed past a rapidly rotating cutting tool, which removes material from the part to achieve the desired
geometry. This type of motion control is called continuous path control.
• In drilling, milling, and other machining operations, position and motion control systems of the type described here
are called numerical control (NC) systems.
• NC is a form of programmable automation in which a machine tool is controlled by a program consisting of
properly coded numeric symbols (hence the name numerical control).
• The applications can be divided into two categories:
(1) Machine tool applications and (2) Non-machine tool applications.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation in Production System
Machine Tool Applications:
• In this category, NC is widely used for machining and other metal working processes.
• In these applications, NC is used to control the position of a tool relative to a work part.
• Without NC, a human worker would manually have to position the part and the tool.
• Some of the principal machine tool applications of numerical control are described below.
1. Machining Centers: These machines are NC machine tools with additional automatic features beyond conventional
position and motion control. Some of the additional features include automatic tool changing, automatic work part
positioning to present more than one surface to the cutting tool, and automatic pallet shuttles to change work parts.
2. Grinding Machines: NC can be used to control the grinding of parts with irregular geometries (e.g., nonflat,
noncylindrical).
3. Pressworking Machines: NC presses equipped with multiple punch and die sets are capable of punching holes of
different size and shape on flat sheet stock. Special NC presses can also perform bending operations and laser cutting.
4. NC Tube-bending Machines: These machines can be programmed to bend tube stock to specified angles under
numerical control.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation in Production System
Machine Tool Applications:
5. Flame-cutting Processes. These processes include flame cutting, laser cutting, electron- beam cutting, and plasma-
arc cutting. They share a common feature in that they all cut a narrow kerf in metal sheet or plate stock by melting the
metal to separate the parts. The cutting path is controlled by NC.
Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFmgQ3kc6kA

6. Wire EDM. Wire EDM is a form of electric discharge machining in which a thin wire is the electrode used to cut a
thin kerf in a metal plate, in some respects similar to the way an electric bandsaw works. The cutting path is guided by
NC. The process can produce parts with complex two-dimensional outlines.
Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pBueWfzb7P0

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation in Production System
Non Machine Tool Applications:
This category includes operations such as assembly and inspection. The list includes
1. Welding Machines. Spot welding and continuous arc welding are automated by NC. Spot welding is programmed
as a point-to-point operation, whereas arc welding is a continuous path operation.

2. Component Insertion Machines. These machines are used extensively in electronics to insert components into
printed circuit boards (PCBs) to form an electronic assembly. The NC program defines the x-y positions on the PCB
where components are to be placed.
3. Coordinate Measuring Machines. A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is an inspection machine possessing a
contact probe that can be moved to measure x-y-z locations on the surface of work part. CMMs can be programmed to
move the probe from one location to the next, recording the coordinates of the contact position, and automatically
inspecting the part.
Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xgDpq4orAFM

Benefits usually cited for numerical control in these applications include (1) reduced nonproductive time, (2) less time
to complete a production order, (3) simpler fixtures, (4) greater flexibility to alter the production schedule and deal
with engineering changes, (5) better accuracy, and (6) reduced human error.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
A number of fundamental strategies exist for improving productivity in manufacturing operations. These strategies
often involve the use of automation technology and are, therefore, called automation strategies.
1. Specialization of Operations:
• Specialization of operations is analogous to "labor specialization" or "division of labor" which is used to improve
labor productivity.
• As applied in automation, the principle involves the use of special-purpose equipment designed to perform one
operation with maximum efficiency.
• Examples include automatic screw machines, tube-seam welding machines, and other special high production
machines.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
2. Combined Operations:
• Production usually consists of a sequence of processing steps.
• Complex parts may require many individual operations during their fabrication, each operation requiring a different
machine.
• The objective in combining operations is to reduce the number of separate production machines through which the part
must be processed.
• This is implemented by combining more than one operation at a given machine, thereby reducing the number of machines
needed to complete the part.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
3. Simultaneous Operations
• The strategy of combined operations can be extended by not only performing multiple processing operations at the same
workstation but also performing the operations simultaneously.
• In effect, two or more processing (or assembly) steps are carried out at the same time on the part, thereby reducing total
cycle time at the machine.
• A good example of simultaneous operations is the use of multiple-spindle drills that perform a large number of hole-
drilling operations simultaneously.
4. Integration of Operations.
• A related but alternative strategy is to connect multiple workstations together into a single integrated system, using
automated part transfer devices to move parts between stations.
• The system can be viewed as a single machine, and thus the number of separate machines through which the product must
be scheduled is reduced.
• However, because the system consists of multiple workstations, each capable of processing a separate workpart, several
parts can be processed simultaneously.
• This results in a high production rate, the rate being limited by the slowest workstation in the sequence.
• Systems of this type are sometimes referred to as a serial production system.
• Examples of these production systems include transfer lines, dial indexing machines, and automatic assembly machines.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
5. Increased Flexibility
• While most of the strategies described above are intended principally for high production, there is a need to automate job
shop and medium volume production by increasing the flexibility of the processing equipment.
• Increased flexibility can be achieved in several ways, according to the flexible automation concepts discussed earlier.
• Primary objectives are to reduce setup time and machine programming time.
• Achieving these objectives reduces nonproductive time, manufacturing lead time, and work in process.
• Flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs) and flexible manufacturing cells (FMCs), usually designed to accomplish
machining on part families, illustrate this strategy.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
6. Automated Material Handling and Storage
• Opportunities exist to reduce nonproductive time by using automated material handling and storage systems.
• Mechanized or automated part handling systems are employed in transfer lines, flexible manufacturing cells, and similar
production systems.
• The obvious advantage is reduction in labor cost.
• Other benefits include reduced work-in-process and shorter manufacturing lead times.
• Examples of automated material handling systems include mechanized and automated conveyor systems and automated
guided vehicle systems.
• The tremendous advantage of an automated storage system is that it provides control over the inventory stored in it.
• Raw materials, parts, tools and fixtures, and finished products can be put into storage and retrieved rapidly and accurately.
• Lost materials are minimized.
• Examples of automated storage systems include automated storage-retrieval systems and carousels.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
7. Automated Inspection
• Inspection procedures are traditionally accomplished by manual methods after the part has been processed, which means
that the quality level has already been established by the time the part is inspected.
• Manual inspection is a time-consuming activity, and inspection costs can be significant.
• Automating the inspection function can result in substantial labor savings.
• Including automated inspection into the manufacturing process allows the process to be corrected as the product is being
made.
• This reduces scrap and improves the overall quality level of the product.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
8. Process Control and Optimization
• Control is one of the fundamental building blocks of automation.
• Process control includes various control schemes and optimization strategies designed to operate the individual
manufacturing processes and equipment so as to achieve certain objectives related to the specific process.
• Common objectives in process control and optimization, sometimes called objective functions in the language of control
theory, include (1) minimum product cost, (2) maximum production rate, (3) maximum yield, and (4) various objectives
that attempt to minimize variations in process and product parameters.
• The last objective might be considered a quality improvement goal.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
9. Plant Operations Control
The previous strategy is concerned with controlling individual manufacturing processes. Plant operations control is concerned
with controlling the entire factory. In pursuing this strategy, one attempts to manage and coordinate the aggregate plant
operations more efficiently. Areas that lie within the scope of aggregate plant operations include process planning, production
scheduling, shop floor control, and quality control. Implementation of the plant operations control strategy usually requires
use of local area networks in the factory.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Automation Principles and Strategies
10. Computer Integrated Manufacturing
• Computer technology has had a dramatic effect on the development of automation.
• Virtually all production systems installed today use computer systems. The term computer integrated manufacturing
(CIM) denotes the use of computers to design the products, plan the production. control the operations, and accomplish
many of the business related functions in a manufacturing firm.
• Computer integrated manufacturing suggests a bringing together of the various diverse functions of manufacturing by
means of computer systems. It is in the data processing and information flow within a firm that this integration primarily
occurs.
• The control of production equipment by computers facilitates integration in a CIM system.
• Implementing CIM involves taking the previous strategy of plant operations control one step further by connecting the
factory operations with the engineering and business functions of the firm.
• This requires extensive use of the computer and associated databases, and it also requires a high level of local and long-
distance computer networking in the company.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Levels of Automation
Level 0 – Sensors and Signals
• This is the first and lowest level of industrial automation. It consists of field devices like sensors,
actuators, instruments, motors, valves, actuators, switches, and other equipment. You can also define
it as a field layer.
• These devices send and receive data with respect to the next level. The data transfer can be digital,
analog, or in communication form.

Level 1-Manipulation and Control

• This is the stage from where controlling starts. It comprises PLCs and PIDs. You have got the data from
a sensor and you now want to control a motor according to it.
• For that, a program needs to be written in a controller that will accept the hardware sensor input and
control the hardware motor output accordingly.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Levels of Automation
Level 2 – Supervisory Control
• Suppose there are 10 PLC’s in a plant. You want to monitor and control them by sitting in a single
remote location office. This requires networking and communication among all these PLCs.
• Basically, the role of this level is to integrate all the controllers of a plant into one single platform.
This helps to supervise and control the whole system in one go.
• This is done by SCADA. You can visualize the whole process, see alarms, generate reports, run
batches, and control the operator’s action through the audit trail.

Level 3 – Planning and Operations

• This level is used for planning and operations in a plant. It is a computer management system
and can monitor and control multiple SCADA systems.
• So, suppose there are multiple processes in a plant and it is required to supervise the entire
manufacturing process from start to end. This can be done by MES (Manufacturing Execution
System). With this, the user can plan his activities and control manufacturing data and processes.
• Multiple plants (right from start to end), various vendor data information, equipment information,
and planning and manufacturing daily chart can be viewed and controlled through MES.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 Module 1: Introduction
Levels of Automation
Level 4 – Business Planning, Logistics, and Enterprise Level Operations
• There are multiple departments in a company – like sales, purchase, HR, finance, logistics,
production, inventory control, etc. If all the processes after manufacturing (MES) are not
linked and are done manually, it will give the desired outputs; but will be very slow.
• The production rate will decrease; because many persons will have to wait for other
department personnel to wait for their next step. So, ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)
comes into the picture here.
• ERP is an automation process that works on computer technology and automates all the
processes of an office in an easy way.
• Data has been communicated automatically in a transparent way between the
departments. This reduces time and increases efficiency.

Prepared by: Mr. Rajendra Soni Ref: Handbook of Design, Manufacturing, and Automation by R C Dorf
 ROBOTICS

Industrial Robot Definition:

•The official definition of an Industrial Robot is provided by the
Robotics Industries Association (RAI), formerly the Robotics
Institute of America.
•An Industrial Robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or special
devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks.

Prepared by: Rajendra Soni Reference: Industrial Robotics by Mikell Grrover

 ROBOTICS

Three Laws of Robotics:

• Among science fiction writers, Isaac Asimov has contributed a number of
stories about robots, starting in 1939, and indeed is credited with coining
the term "robotics."
• The picture of a robot that appears in his work is that of a well-designed,
fail-safe machine that performs according to three principles.
• These principles were called the Three Laws of Robotics by Asimov, and
they are:
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a
human to be harmed.
2. A robot must obey orders given by humans except when that
conflicts with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the
First or Second Laws.

Prepared by: Rajendra Soni Reference: Industrial Robotics by Mikell Grrover

 ROBOTICS

Degrees of Freedom:
• Degrees of freedom (DOF) of rigid body is defined as number of independent
movements it has.
•Higher degrees of freedom indicates an increased flexibility in positioning a
tool.
• For each degree of freedom a joint is required.
• The degrees of freedom located in the arm defines the configuration.
• Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end effector all the
flexibility.
• A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand at any point
in its workspace.

Prepared by: Rajendra Soni Reference: Industrial Robotics by Mikell Grrover

 ROBOTICS

Degrees of Freedom:
• Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LHzkwt513q0

•Video Link:
https://www.google.com/search?q=six+degrees+of+freedom&sxsrf=
AJOqlzVHpJSb6wvjg6hLNKcQL814w7E7jQ:1673805019145&so
urce=lnms&tbm=vid&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0ndvMkcr8AhUNTm
wGHVfFBzsQ_AUoAnoECAEQBA&biw=1366&bih=657&dpr=1
#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:e4c1ff90,vid:DdvBrKl3SHg

Prepared by: Rajendra Soni Reference: Industrial Robotics by Mikell Grrover

 ROBOTICS
Elements of a
robotic system:
1. Base
2. Links and joints
3. End-
effector/Gripper
4. Wrist
5. Drive/Actuator
6. Controller
7. Sensors

Prepared by: Rajendra Soni Reference: Industrial Robotics by Mikell Grrover

 ROBOTICS
Robot Anatomy:
1. Base

Prepared by: Rajendra Soni Reference: Industrial Robotics by Mikell Grrover

 UNIT V

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
ROBOT ANATOMY AND RELATED ATTRIBUTES
• Theanatomy of industrial robots deals with the assembling of outer
components of a robot such as wrist, arm and body .
• Before jumping into robot configurations, here are some of the key facts about
robot anatomy.

(a) Joints and Links

(b) Common Robot Configurations

2
JOINTS AND LINKS
• The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links .
• Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other
aspects of the manipulator's physical construction .
• A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot.
• Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of motion.
• In most of the cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with each joint.
• Robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number of degrees
-of-freedom they possess.
• Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link.
3
JOINTS AND LINKS

•A Joint provides controlled relative movement between the input link and
output link. A robotic link is the rigid component of the robot manipulator .

• Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor.
From this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in
Figure.

4
JOINTS AND LINKS
• The robotic base and its connection to the
first joint are termed as link-0.
• The first joint in the sequence is joint-1.
• Link-0 is the input link for joint-1, while the
output link from joint-1 is link-1 which
leads to joint-2.
• Link 1 is the output link for joint-1 and the
input link for joint-2.
• This joint-link-numbering scheme is further
followed for all joints and links in the
robotic systems. 5
JOINTS AND LINKS
• Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into
following five types as shown in Figure below.

6
JOINTS AND LINKS
a) Linear joint (type L joint)
• The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a translational
sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.

b) Orthogonal joint (type U joint)

• Thisalso has a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links are
perpendicular to each other during the move.

c) Rotational joint (type R joint)

• This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular
to the axes of the input and output links. 7
JOINTS AND LINKS
d) Twisting joint (type T joint)
• This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the
axes of the two links.

e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving)

• In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. Axis
of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

8
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
• Basically the robot manipulator has two parts viz.

•A body-and-arm assembly with three degrees-of-freedom and A wrist

assembly with two or three degrees-of-freedom.

• Forbody-and-arm configurations, different combinations of joint types are

possible for a three-degree-of-freedom robot manipulator.

9
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
• Five common body-and-arm configurations are outlined below.

10
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(i) Polar configuration
• It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the body, which rotates
around both a vertical axis (T-joint)and horizontal axis (R-joint ).

11
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(ii) Cylindrical configuration
• It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down relative to the
vertical column.
• Arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column. Common
configuration is to use a T-joint to rotate the column about its axis .
• An L-joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along the column, while an O-
joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.

12
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(iii) Cartesian co-ordinate robot

• It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding
joints, two of which are orthogonal O-joints.

13
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(iv) Jointed-arm robot
• It is similar to the configuration of a human arm.
• It consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T-joint.
Shoulder joint (R-joint) is located at the top of the column.
• The output link is an elbow joint (another R joint).

14
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(v) SCARA
• Its full form is ‘Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm'.
• It is similar in construction to the jointer-arm robot, except the shoulder and
elbow rotational axes are vertical.
• The arm is very rigid in the vertical direction, but compliant in the horizontal
direction. Robot wrist assemblies consist of either two or three degrees-of-
freedom.

15
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(v) SCARA
• A typical three-degree-of-freedom wrist joint is depicted in Figure.
• Roll joint is accomplished by use of a T-joint.
• Pitch joint is achieved by recourse to an R-joint. Yaw joint, a right-and-left
motion, is gained by deploying a second R-joint.

16
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(v) SCARA
• SCARA body and arm configuration does not use a separate wrist assembly .
• Its usual operative environment is for insertion-type assembly operations
where wrist joints are unnecessary.
• The other four body and arm configurations more or less follow the wrist-joint
configuration by deploying various combinations of rotary joints.

17
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS

• The three types of drive systems that are generally used for industrial robots
are:

(i)Hydraulic drive
(ii)Electric drive
(iii)Pneumatic drive

18
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
i) Hydraulic drive
• It gives a robot great speed and strength. They provide high speed and strength,
hence they are adopted for large industrial robots .
• This type of drives are preferred in environments in which the use of electric drive
robots may cause fire hazards
• Example: In spray painting.

Disadvantages of a hydraulic robot:

• Occupy more floor space for ancillary equipment in addition to that required by the
robot.
• There are housekeeping problems such as leaks. 19
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
ii) Electric drive

• This provides a robot with less speed and strength. Electric drive systems are
adopted for smaller robots.

• Robots supported by electric drive systems are more accurate, exhibit better
repeatability and are cleaner to use.

• Electrically driven robots are the most commonly available .

20
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
ii) Electric drive
• Electrically driven robots can be classified into two broad categories .

(i)Stepper motor driven.

(ii)Direct Current (DC) servo-motor driven.

• Most stepper motor-driven robots are of the open loop type .

• Feedback loops can be incorporated in stepper-driven robots .
• Servo-driven robots have feedback loops from the driven components back to the
driver. 21
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
iii) Pneumatic drive
• Generally used for smaller robots.
• Have fewer axes of movement.
• Carry out simple pick-and-place material-handling operations, such as picking
up an object at one location and placing it at another location .
• These operations are generally simple and have short cycle times.
• Here pneumatic power can be used for sliding or rotational joints.
• Pneumatic robots are less expensive than electric or hydraulic robots.
22
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
• The Joint movements must be controlled if the robot is to perform as desired.
• Micro-processor-based controllers are regularly used to perform this control
action.
• Controller is organised in a hierarchical fashion, as illustrated in Figure.
• Each joint can feed back control data individually, with an overarching
supervisory controller co-ordinating the combined actuations of the joints
according to the sequence of the robot programme.

23
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Controller is organised in a hierarchical fashion, as illustrated in Figure.

24
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(a) Limited Sequence Control
• Elementary control type, it is used for simple motion cycles, such as pick and
place operations.
• Itis implemented by fixing limits or mechanical stops for each joint and
sequencing the movement of joints to accomplish operation.
• Feedback loops may be used to inform the controller that the action has been
performed, so that the programme can move to the next step .
• No servo-control exists for precise positioning of joint. Many pneumatically
driven robots are this type. 25
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(b) Playback with Point to Point Control
• Playback control uses a controller with memory to record motion sequences in
a work cycle, as well as associated locations and other parameters and then
plays back the work cycle during programme execution .
• Point
to point control means individual robot positions are recorded in the
memory.
• These positions include both mechanical stops for each joint and the set of
values that represent locations in the range of each joint .
• Feedback control is used to confirm that the individual joints achieve the
26
specified locations in the programme.
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(c) Playback with Continuous Path Control

• Playback is as described above.

• Continuous path control refers to a control system capable of continuous
simultaneous control of two or more axes.
• Greater storage capacity—the number of locations that can be stored is
greater than in point to point and interpolation calculations may be used,
especially linear and circular interpolations. 27
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(d) Intelligent Control
• An intelligent robot is one that exhibits behaviour that makes it seem intelligent .
• For example, capacities to interact with its ambient surroundings, decision-making
capabilities, communication with humans; computational analysis during the work
cycle and responsiveness to advanced sensor inputs .
• They may also possess the playback facilities of the above two instances.
• Requires a high level of computer control and an advanced programming language
to input the decision-making logic and other ‘intelligence’ into the memory.
28
END EFFECTORS
• It is commonly known as robot hand.
• It is mounted on the wrist, enables the robot to perform specified tasks.
• Various types of end-effectors are designed for the same robot to make it
more flexible and versatile.
• End-effectors are categorised into two major types:

1. Grippers
2. Tools
29
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
• Grippers grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle.

• Typically the objects grasped are work parts that need to be loaded or
unloaded from one station to another.

• It may be custom-designed to suit the physical specifications of the work parts

they have to grasp.

30
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
• End effectors, grippers are described in detail in table below.
Type comment
Two or more fingers that can be actuated by
Mechanical gripper robot controller to open and close on a work
part.

Vacuum gripper Suction cups are used to hold flat objects.

Making use of the principles of magnetism,
Magnetised devices these are used for holding ferrous work parts.

Deploying adhesive substances these hold

Adhesive devices flexible materials, such as fabric.
Simple mechanical devices For example, hooks and scoops.
31
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
• End effectors, grippers are described in detail in table below.
Type comment
Mechanical gripper with two gripping
devices in one end effector for machine
Dual grippers loading and unloading.
Reduces cycle time per part by gripping two
work parts at the same time.
Mechanical gripper whereby, to
Interchangeable fingers accommodate different work part sizes,
different fingers may be attached.
Mechanical gripper with sensory feedback
capabilities in the fingers to aid locating the
Sensory feedback fingers
work part and to determine correct grip
force to apply (for fragile work parts).
32
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
• End effectors, grippers are described in detail in table below.

Type comment
Mechanical gripper with the general anatomy of
Multiple fingered grippers the human hand.

Mechanical grippers that are commercially

available, thus reducing the need to custom-
Standard grippers design a gripper for each separate robot
application.

33
END EFFECTORS - TOOLS
• The robot end effecter may also use tools.

• Tools are used to perform processing operations on the work part.

• Typically the robot uses the tool relative to a stationary or slowly moving
object.

• In this way the process is carried out.

34
END EFFECTORS - TOOLS
• Examples of the tools used as end effectors by roots to perform processing
applications include:
• Spot welding gun
• Arc welding tool
• Spray painting gun
• Rotating spindle for drilling, routing, grinding, etc.
• Assembly tool (e.g. automatic screwdriver)
• Heating torch
• Water-jet cutting tool 35
END EFFECTORS
• For each instance, the robot controls both the position of the work part and the
position of the tool relative to the work part.
• For this purpose, the robot must be able to transmit control signals to the tool
for starting, stopping and otherwise regulating the tools actions .
• Figure illustrates a sample gripper and tool.

36
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
• Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:

(i)Internal sensors

(ii)External sensors

37
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
(i) Internal sensors
• Internal sensors are used to monitor and control the various joints of the robot .

• They form a feedback control loop with the robot controller.

• Examples of internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders,

while tachometers of various types can be deployed to control the speed of
the robot arm.
38
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
(ii) External sensors
• These are external to the robot itself.

• They are used when we wish to control the operations of the robot with other
pieces of equipment in the robotic work cell.

• External sensors can be relatively simple devices, such as limit switches that
determine whether a part has been positioned properly or whether a part is
ready to be picked up from an unloading bay. 39
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
• Micro Sensor board

40
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
• Advanced sensor model technologies for robotics

41
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
•A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are
outlined in Table.
Sensor Type Description
Used to determine whether contact is made
between sensor and another object. Two
types: touch sensors which indicate when
Tactile sensors
contact is made and force sensors which
indicate the magnitude of the force with the
object.
Used to determine how close an object is to
Proximity sensors
the sensor. Also called a range sensor.
Photocells and other photometric devices that
are used to detect the presence or absence of
Optical sensors
objects. Often used in conjunction to proximity 42
sensors.
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
•A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are
outlined in Table.

Sensor Type Description

Used in robotics for inspection, parts
Machine vision identification, guidance and other uses.

temperature, fluid pressure, fluid flow,

Miscellaneous category electrical voltage, current and other physical
properties.

43
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
• The capacity of the robot to position and orient the end of its wrist with
accuracy and repeatability is an important control attribute in nearly all
industrial applications.

• Some assembly applications require that objects be located with a precision

of only 0.002 to 0.005 inches.

• Other applications, such as spot welding, usually require accuracies of 0.020

to 0.040 inches.
44
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
• There are several terms that must defined in the context of this discussion:
• Control resolution
• Accuracy
• Repeatability

45
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Resolution
• Resolution is based on a limited number of points that the robot can be
commanded to reach for, these are shown here as black dots .
• These points are typically separated by a millimetre or less, depending on
the type of robot.
• This is further complicated by the fact that the user might ask for a position
such as 456.4mm, and the system can only move to the nearest millimetre,
456mm, this is the accuracy error of 0.4mm.

46
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Accuracy
• “How close does the robot get to the desired point”.
• This measures the distance between the specified position, and the actual
position of the robot end effector.
• Accuracy is more important when performing off-line programming, because
absolute coordinates are used.

47
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Repeatability
• How close will the robot be to the same position as the same move made
before”.
• A measure of the error or variability when repeatedly reaching for a single
position.
• This is the result of random errors only.
• Repeatability is often smaller than accuracy.

48
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT APPLICATIONS
• Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:

(i) Material-handling applications

(ii) Processing Operations

(iii) Assembly Applications

49
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
• The robot must have following features to facilitate material handling:

1. The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.

2. The robot must have the reach needed.
3. The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
4. The robot’s controller must have a large enough memory to store all the
programmed points so that the robot can move from one location to another.
5. The robot must have the speed necessary for meeting the transfer cycle of
the operation. 50
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
• This category includes the following:

(1) Part Placement

(2) Palletizing or depalletizing
(3) Machine loading or unloading
(4) Stacking and insertion operations

51
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
(1) Part Placement:
• The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-place
operation.
• Thisapplication needs a low-technology robot of the cylindrical coordinate
type.
• Only two, three or four joints are required for most of the applications.
• Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.

52
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
(2) Palletizing and/or Depalletizing:

• The applications require robot to stack parts one on top of the other, that is to
palletize them or to unstack parts by removing from the top one by one, that is
depalletize them.
• Example: Process of taking parts from the assembly line and stacking them on a
pallet or vice versa.

53
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
(3) Machine loading and/or unloading:

• Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.

There are three possible cases:

• Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a production machine, but the
parts are unloaded by some other means.

Example: A press working operation, where the robot feeds sheet blanks into the press,
but the finished parts drop out of the press by gravity. 54
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
• Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the machine without robot
assistance. The robot unloads the part from the machine assisted by vision or no vision.

Example: Bin picking, die casting and plastic moulding.

• Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading and unloading of the work
parts by the robot. The robot loads a raw work part into the process and unloads a
finished part.

Example: Machine operation

55
PROCESSING OPERATIONS

• In processing operations, the robot performs some processing actions such as

grinding, milling, etc. on the work part.
• The end effector is equipped with the specialised tool required for the process .
• The tool is moved relative to the surface of the work part.
• Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
• The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end effector .
• Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the cycle.

56
PROCESSING OPERATIONS
• Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
(1) Spot welding
(2) Continuous arc welding
(3) Spray painting
(4) Metal cutting and deburring operations
(5) Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and
waterjet cutting and riveting.
(6) Rotating and spindle operations
(7) Adhesives and sealant dispensing 57
ASSEMBLY OPERATIONS
• The applications involve both material handling and the manipulation of a tool .
• They typically include components to build the product and to perform material
handling operations.
These are classified as:
• Batchassembly: As many as one million products might be assembled. The
assembly operation has long production runs.
• Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products might be
made. The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.
• One of the well suited area for robotics assembly is the insertion of odd
electronic components. 58
FUTURE APPLICATIONS

The medical applications of the robot

• Routine examinations
• Surgical procedures

Underwater applications
• Involves prospecting for minerals on the floor of the ocean.
• Salvaging of sunken vessels, repair the ship either at sea or in dry dock .
• Mobile firefighters to be used by air force and navy.
59
FUTURE APPLICATIONS

Surveillance and Guard duty

• Used in military
• Used in power generating plants, oil refineries and other civilian facilities that
are potential targets of terrorist groups.

60
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING

• Itis a path in space to be followed by the manipulator, combined with

peripheral actions that support the work cycle.

• To programme a robot , specific commands are entered into the robot’s

controller memory and this action may be performed in a number of ways.

• For limited sequence robots ,programming occurs when limit switches and
mechanical stops are set to control the endpoints of its motions.

61
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING
• A sequencing device controls the occurrence of the motions, which in turn controls
the movement of the joints that completes the motion cycle.
• For industrial robots with digital computers as controllers three programming
methods can be distinguished.
(a) Lead-through programming
(b) Computer-like robot programming languages
(c) Off-line programming.
• Lead-through methodologies and associated programming methods, are
outlined in detail in table
62
 ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - LEAD-THROUGH
PROGRAMMING

• Task is ‘taught’ to the robot by manually moving the manipulator through the
required motion cycle and simultaneously entering the programme into the
controller memory for playback.

• Two methods are used for teaching: powered lead-through and manual lead-
through.

63
 ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - MOTION
PROGRAMMING
• To overcome difficulties of co-ordinating individual joints associated with lead-
through programming, two mechanical methods can be used :
• The world co-ordinate system whereby the origin and axes are defined relative
to the robot base and the tool co-ordinate system whereby the alignment of the
axis system is defined relative to the orientation of the wrist face plate.
• These methods are typically used with Cartesian co-ordinate robots and not for
robots with rotational joints.

64
 ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - MOTION
PROGRAMMING

• The latter robotic types must rely on interpolation processes to gain straight line
motion.
• Straight line interpolation where the control computer calculates the necessary
points in space that the manipulator must move through to connect two points
and Joint interpolation where joints are moved simultaneously at their own
constant speed such that all joints start/stop at the same time.

65
 MANUAL LEAD-THROUGH PROGRAMMING
• Manual lead through programming is convenient for programming playback
robots with continuous path control where the continuous path is an irregular
motion pattern such as in spray painting.
• This programming method requires the operator to physically grasp the end of
arm or the tool that is attached to the arm and move it through the motion
sequence, recording the path into memory.

66
 MANUAL LEAD-THROUGH PROGRAMMING

• Because the robot arm itself may have significant mass and would therefore be
difficult to move, a special programming device often replaces the actual robot for the
teaching procedure.

• The programming device has the same joint configuration as the robot and is equipped
with a trigger handle (or other control switch) which the operator activates when
recording motions into memory.

• The motions are recorded as a series of closely spaced points. During playback the
path is recreated by controlling the actual robot arm through the same sequence of
67
points.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
• It can readily be learned by shop personnel.
• It is a logical way to teach a robot.
• It does not require knowledge of computer programming.

Disadvantages
• Downtime regular production must be interrupted to program the robot .
• Limited programming logic capability.
68
• Not readily compatible with modern computer based technologies.