Chapter 1

PROPERTIES OF STEAM

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 What is meant by Property of a substance?

• It is any variable that defines the characteristics/Physical

condition of a substance.

Temperature=0oC
Density= 916 kg/m3
Pressure= 1 bar
Mass= 2 kg

Properties of Ice

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 Why study property of steam??

ICE Temperature=0oC

As property
changes, the
physical
WATER
Temperature=30oC characteristics
/ condition
also changes.

STEAM
Temperature=100oC

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 Why study property of steam??...
• A change in property changes the characteristics of water/
steam.

• As a result, the associated energy levels in water / steam will

also change.

Steam has higher energy levels

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 Why study property of steam??...
• An understanding of various properties of steam helps an
engineer:

– To control the working of steam operated devices (steam engines,

steam turbines, steam boilers).

– To control as well as improve operational efficiency of steam

operated devices.

Steam
Steam

Turbine wheel

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Nuclear Power Plant

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 Applications of steam
1. Food processing industry

 Dry steam sanitation uses the

power of high-temperature, low-
moisture dry steam for cleaning
food processing equipment,
conveyor belts and other industrial
machinery.

 The high-temperature dry steam

obliterates fats, oils, dirt and
seasonings, and kills bacteria and
other microorganisms on contact.

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2. Sanitization of food processing equipment using high
temperature steam

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3. Steam as a working fluid in steam turbines.

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 4. Industrial process heat applications

• Industrial process heat is defined as thermal energy

used directly in the preparation or treatment of
materials used to produce manufactured goods.
Ex:
– drying, pasteurizing, sterilizing, washing related to textiles,
leather, clothing, and footwear.

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 Brief Summary
• What is a property?

• Importance of properties of steam.

• Applications of steam

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FORMATION OF STEAM AT
CONSTANT PRESSURE
CONDITION

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 FORMATION OF STEAM AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

• Consider 1 kg of water at 0oC Frictionless

piston
taken in a cylinder fitted with a
freely moving frictionless piston
Cylinder
(of negligible weight) as shown
in figure.
Pressure
“P”
Water

One kg of
water at
0oC
Since, ‘W’ is kept constant, the pressure applied on water also remains constant.
This weight can be chosen in such a way that a required pressure is to be applied
is obtained.

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 FORMATION OF STEAM EXPERIMENT AT
CONSTANT PRESSURE

Steam
Steam Steam

Water Water
Water

Fig.1.2A Fig.1.2B Fig.1.2C Fig.1.2D Fig.1.2E

Water below Water at Mixture at Steam at Steam above
boiling point boiling point boiling point boiling point boiling point
(Unsaturated (Saturated (Wet Steam) (Saturated (Superheated
water) water) steam or Dry steam)
steam)
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 The initial condition of water at 0oC is represented by the
point “A” on the Temperature – Enthalpy graph.

Enthalpy is a measure of heat energy in the

water/steam.

Temperature
(ToC)

A
Enthalpy
(h)
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Temperature Superheated
steam
Tsup
D
Saturated steam
Saturated water (100% steam) Degree of
(100% water)
Superheat
B C
Boiling Point
Wet steam

A
hf hfg Enthalpy

Enthalpy of Latent Heat

Amount of
saturated
Superheat
water hg (AOS)

Enthalpy of Dry Steam

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 Different states of steam

The steam as it is being generated can exist in three

different states,

1. Wet steam
2. Dry steam
3. Superheated steam

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 Advantages of Superheated Steam

High Energy Content:

Its capacity to do the work will be higher.

Minimising Chances of Corrosion:

No problems like rusting or corrosion of turbine blades /

engine cylinder.

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 Disadvantages of Superheated Steam

Difficulty in Lubrication: The lubricant may get burnt

at that high temperature.

Additional Cost: Additional cost of Super heater

thereby increasing initial investment.

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 How to specify the relative quantity of steam

in Wet steam?
• A parameter called Dryness Fraction is used for this purpose.

• It indicates the fraction of vapor content in a given wet steam.

Mass of Dry Steam present in Wet Steam

Dryness fraction, x 
Total Mass of Wet Steam

mg
x
m f  mg

For dry steam, x=1.

For saturated water, x=0 mg
For wet steam, x>0 and x<1
mf
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Temperature

D
Dry steam,
Saturated water x=1
x=0

B Pressure = C C

Wet steam

A
Enthalpy

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 Is Boiling Point Dependent on Atmospheric
pressure?
Patm = 1.013 bar
Vapor molecules leaving
the water surface

T=30oC T=90oC
T=100oC

 Water molecules are in a random/chaotic

motion due to various energy levels they
possess.

 Each molecule is bonded to surrounding

molecules by intermolecular forces of
attraction (IMF).

Vapor particles  If the molecules gain enough energy to

overcome the IMF, then they form vapors
and undergo phase change.

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Is Boiling Point Dependent on Atmospheric
pressure?...
Water molecules
Vapor molecules

Pvapor

Vapor particles
Vapor bubble

When vapor bubbles form, they exerts its own pressure (Pvapor) on the
surrounding water molecules.

Animation Ref: https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/boil.html

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Is Boiling Point Dependent on Atmospheric
pressure?...

Patm Boiling occurs only when,

Vapor pressure = External pressure
i.e., Pv = Patm

If Pv < Patm,

Pv Then, the vapor bubble formation is suppressed and

boiling will not begin until the vapor pressure equalizes
Pv with the atmospheric pressure.

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 Is Boiling Point Dependent on Atmospheric
Pressure?...
Pexternal =1bar Pexternal =2bar Pexternal =3bar An increase in external pressure
demands an increase in vapor
pressure for boiling to begin.

Under increased pressure, water

molecules come closer and
experience increased IMF.
Pv=1 bar Pv= 2 bar Pv= 3 bar

This requires greater heat energy

supply to energize water particles to
T=120oC T=135oC overcome IMF and convert to vapor.
T=100oC

Molecules need greater energy to

This results in increased water
overcome IMF
temperature before boiling.

Thus, an increase in external pressure

increases the Boiling point of water.
25
Variation of Boiling point with Pressure

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 High Altitude boiling…
• At higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure will be relatively lower
as compared to sea level.
• Therefore, for every 150 m increase in elevation, the boiling point of
water will decrease by approximately 0.5 °C.

At sea level Mount Everest summit

Atmospheric pressure =1.01325 bar (Elevation=8800 m)
Boiling point =100 °C Atmospheric pressure =0.337 bar
Boiling point =72°C

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 High Altitude boiling…
At higher altitude, atmospheric pressure will be lower and water
boils at lower temperature.

But, how does this phenomenon affect our day to day life???

Cooking!!
• At higher altitudes, since water boils at lower temperature the
cooking of vegetables, rice, pasta etc…takes longer time.

• If the boiling temperature is too low, it may not be possible to

even cook.
• For example,
– if the atmospheric pressure inside your class room is somehow reduced
to 0.05 bar, water boils at 32 °C!!!

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 How do we overcome this limitation??
Use Pressure cooker!!
In a Pressure cooker, food is cooked under high pressure steam
(1.8 to 2 bar) in a sealed container hereby increasing the boiling
temperature to about 120 oC.

Denis Papin (French scientist) A "Papin" cooking pot Modern day

Inventor of steam digester (late 18th century) Pressure
cooker

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Enthalpy equations
a) Enthalpy of saturated water OR Sensible heat (hf):

hf = m Cp (Ts-0) kJ/kg

Where, m = Mass of water in kg,Cp = Specific heat of water =4.187 kJ/kg K and

Ts= Saturation temperature in ºC

Temperature

Tsup D

Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

Enthalpy
A
hf hfg

Sensible Latent Heat

Amount of
Heat
hg Superheat

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Enthalpy equations
a) Enthalpy of Unsaturated water (hw):

hw = m Cp (Tw-0) kJ/kg

Where, m = Mass of water in kg,Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg K

and Tw= Temperature of feed water in ºC

Temperature

B C
Ts

Enthalpy of
unsaturated
water

Enthalpy
A
hf

Sensible
Heat

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Enthalpy equations
a) Enthalpy of Dry saturated Steam (hg):
hg = hf + hfg kJ/kg
Where hg = Enthalpy of dry steam in kJ/kg.
hf = Sensible heat in kJ/kg.
hfg = Enthalpy of vaporization or latent heat in kJ/kg.
Temperature

Tsup D

Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

A Enthalpy
hf hfg

Sensible Latent Heat

Amount of
Heat
hg Superheat

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b) Enthalpy of Wet Steam (h):

h= hf + x .hfg kJ/kg
Where x = Dryness fraction of wet steam 0˂x˂1

Temperature

Tsup D

Degree of Superheat

B C
Tsat

Enthalpy
A
hf hfg

Sensible Latent Heat

Amount of
Heat
Superheat

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c) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam (hsup):
hsup = hf + hfg + Csup (Tsup - Tsat) kJ/kg
where hsup = Enthalpy of superheated steam in kJ/kg
Csup = Specific heat of superheated steam =2.25 kJ/kg K
Tsup = Superheated temperature in °C & Tsat = Saturation temperature in °C
Temperature

Tsup D
Degree of Superheat

B C
Tsat

A Enthalpy
hf hfg
Sensible Latent
Heat Amount of
Heat
Superheat
hg

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d) Amount of superheat (AOS): (Enthalpy of superheat)

AOS = Csup (Tsup - Tsat) kJ/kg

Temperature

Tsup D
Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

A Enthalpy
hf hfg
Sensible Latent Heat
Amount of
Heat
Superheat

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e) Degree of superheat (DOS):

DOS = (Tsup - Tsat) 0C

Temperatur
Temperature

Tsup D
Degree of Superheat

Tsat B C

A Enthalpy
hf hfg
Sensible Latent
Heat Amount of
Heat
Superheat

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a) Enthalpy of Dry saturated Steam:
hg = hf + hfg kJ/kg

b) Enthalpy of Wet Steam:

h = hf + x .hfg kJ/kg
c) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam:
hsup = hf + hfg + Csup (Tsup - Tsat) kJ/kg
d) Degree of superheat (DOS):
DOS = (Tsup - Tsat) 0C

e) Amount of superheat (AOS):

AOS = Csup (Tsup - Tsat) kJ/kg
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 Critical Temperature & Pressure
At a particular pressure, water is
Temperature Pc directly converted into dry steam
without going through the phase of
P3 vaporization (or boiling). i.e., hfg = 0 .
C
Tc This point is called critical point ‘C’.

P2 Pc = 221.2 bar
Tc = 374.150C

P1
 Boiling will not happen at and
above critical point.
Constant pressure line
 At the critical point, only one
phase exists.
Enthalpy

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Vaporization and Condensation
Vaporization is the process of
conversion of liquid into gaseous
state by boiling during which the
liquid absorbs latent heat.

Condensation is the process of

conversion of gas into liquid state
during which the gas releases
latent heat.

Condensation occurs when the

temperature of a vapour is
reduced below its saturation
temperature
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Some practical examples of
condensation

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