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Jesus in Islam and Christianity:
Discussing the Similarities and the Differences

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z WARREN LARSON

Based on the many references to Jesus in the Qur’an and the traditions of
Islam, this article suggests that Islamic teachings offer Christians a great deal of

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material upon which to build an effective Muslim-Christian dialogue. The study may
be useful f o r workers seeking to help Muslims think more deeply and search more
diligently for the Prophet and Messiah, who is highly honored in their scriptures
but a virtual stranger in their midst. Since Muslims are within “ear shot” of him,
the stage has been set f o r them to recognize the One in the New Testament who
claimed to be “the way, the truth and the life. ’’

Introduction

A n intriguing Islamic tradition takes us back 1200 years.’ It is reported that

when Muhammad realized his dream and occupied the city of Mecca in
AD 630, he proceeded to cleanse the Ka’aba of idols. He gave the command
that all icons be destroyed, but when he saw the Virgin Mary and her son, he covered
them with his coat. Another tradition relates that Jesus and his mother were the only
people not touched by Satan at birth.’ Whether or not either of these stories is true is
not as important as the fact that they both demonstrate Muslim respect for Jesus.
In fact, Muslims say, “We honor Jesus more than you do. It is blasphemous to say
he is the Son of God and a dishonor to say he was crucified by evil men.”3The charge
reveals that the Muslim understanding of Jesus is far removed from what Christians
consider creedal faith. And when Christians begin to explore Qur’anic references to
Jesus? they cannot help but be puzzled, because the book seems to reinvent him. There
is no incarnation, and according to the way most Muslims interpret the Qur’an, no room
for dialogue concerning his death or resurrection? In Islam, Jesus is placed within a
theological framework that makes Christians wonder where the biblical narrative has
gone.6 That theological framework insists that God would never get his hands dirty

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with an incarnation and would certainly never allow his esteemed Prophet to be killed.

Warren Larson directs the Zwemer Center and is Associate Professor of Muslim Studies at
Columbia International University. After 23 years of missionary work in Pakistan, he was falsely
accused of spying and was forced to leave. He is a frequent speaker in North America and around

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the world and has written extensively on Islam, including Islamic Ideology and Fundamentalism
in Pakistan: Climate for Conversion to Christianity?

Missiology: An Internutional Review, Vol, XXXVI, no. 3, July 2008

328 Warren Larson zyxwvut
The major difference between this framework and the Christian one is Christological.
For Muslims, Christology is not included in theology, but for Christians it is ~ e n t r a l . ~

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Nevertheless, in spite of this profound difference, Parrinder suggests that the best
way to approach Muslims is to point them to the Christ of the Qur’an: “Jesus is always
spoken of in the Qur’an with reverence; there is no breath of criticism, for he is the
Christ of God.”* Lyle Vander Werff takes a similar position:’ “I agree with Samuel M.
Zwemer’s assertion (in 1912): ‘to help our Moslem brethren to answer this question
[‘what think ye of Christ?’], we must.. . lead them to higher truth by admitting all of
the truth which they possess.’ Kenneth Cragg sums it up best:
”

There is a Christian constituency to educate in the significance of the place Jesus

occupies in the belief and devotion of Muslims. The status he enjoys there has often
been neglected or discounted by Christians. The reasons are not far to seek; for, as they

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see, a sad reductionism has occurred. By New Testament criteria the Quranic Jesus

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is a much attenuated figure. Many of his most cherished deeds and sayings are left to
silence, and what the Qur’an does with the final climax. . . has desolating consequences
for Christianity.’”

Discovering a qibluh (pointer) toward the Znjeel (New Testament) for a more
complete revelation of Jesus can be the first step of a spiritual pilgrimage, culminating
in a personal relationship with him. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to provide
the structure, background, and careful exposition of Qur’anic passages on the birth,
life, death, and return of Jesus Christ. The discussion will include limited references
to the hadith, or Islamic tradition (since it too often refers to Jesus) and will give
some attention to Jesus’ lofty titles, miracles, and sinless nature.’’ Rather than skirting
thorny issues, such as “Son of God” and the Trinity, the paper will include a discussion
on those points of greatest divergence. Most importantly, the paper will argue that in
some ways the Muslim jury is still out on what happened at the cross.

His Birth
There are several references to the birth of Jesus in the Qur’an,I2but Surah 3 : 4 5 4 7
is closest to the description by Luke (1 :26-38):

Behold the angels said: “0Mary! Allah giveth thee glad tidings of a Word from Him:
his name will be Christ Jesus. The son of Mary, held in honor in this world and the
hereafter and of (the company of) those nearest to Allah; He shall speak to the people
in the cradle and in maturity. And he shall be (of the company) of the righteous.” She
said; “0my Lord! How shall I have a son when no man hath touched me?” He said:
“Even so: Allah createth what He willeth: when He hath decreed a plan, He but saith
to it, ‘Be,’ and it is!”’-’

Another passage (19: 16-40) is summarized as follows. During Mary’s pregnancy,

she is provided drinking water from a stream and dates from a nearby tree. After giving
birth to a son, she returns home and is accused of immorality, but Jesus defends her
and announces his own prophethood. Additional passages state that Jesus spoke from
the cradle in defense of his mother.I4 Surah 19 shows “some links” with the canonical
Gospels, but more with apocryphal literature.
His Person
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Jesus in Islam and Christianity 329

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Although Muslims and Christians can agree on most titles and qualities of Jesus,
some terms have historically divided the two faiths and need special attenti~n.’~It is
indeed encouraging to realize upon closer examination of these controversial terms
that many misunderstandings can be removed and, often, bridges can be built.

‘Issa (Jesus)
‘ h a is the proper name for Jesus in the Qur’an, but it is the most obscure and
least helpful reference to him. One view proposes that ‘ h a was a name imposed upon
Muhammad by the Jews, which he adapted in good faith. The Jews referred to Jesus
as “Esau” out of hatred, implying that the soul of Esau had been transferred to Jesus.
Others believed the name to have come naturally from the phonetic change of Yeshu
in Syriac, combined with an imitation of Musa (Moses).16 In any event, it is found
nearly thirty times in the Qur’an but does not suggest any of rich meaning that “Jesus”
does in the Bible. There, Jesus is the One who saves (Matthew 1:21, 23; Isaiah 7:14)
and is the Imrnanuel (“God with us”).

Ibn Mariam (Son of Mary)

This title is also very common for Jesus in the Qur’an.’’ Djaballah says that
Christian apologists in the Middle Ages considered it demeaning, since in Arabic
custom, ancestry is generally traced through the father. This, he argues, is unwarranted
because Islamic tradition always treats Mary with respect.I8The account of Jesus’ birth
(3:4546; 19:16-40) suggests that he was supernaturally born, but it still, as explained
above, strongly refutes the title “Son of God.”

Aya (Sign)
Two of the three references to Jesus as a “sign” also mention his mother (19:21;
21:91; 2350). Parrinder helps us understand how the word is used qur’anically: “The
word [aya] was probably borrowed from Syriac or Aramaic and although used fre-
quently in the Qur’an only comes occasionally in the early Meccan passages. Later it
was used to indicate verses of the Qur’an, but in the scripture itself it seems to mean
simply a sign.””
In the Gospels, Simeon’s statement that Jesus would be “a sign that will be spoken

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against” (Luke 2:34), was a prophecy that foretold Jesus’ persecution.

Nabi (Prophet)*”
The Arabic word for “prophet” is the same in Hebrew, and again, many scholars
point to a Syriac and Aramaic source. Since Jesus is a “Prophet” (19:30) while still
in infancy, most Muslims think he was a prophet from birth.2’ As for the Bible, there

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are numerous references regarding his prophethood. See, for example, Matthew 13:57;

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Luke 1:76;4:24; John 4: 19. However, the difference between the biblical and Qur’anic
claims is Jesus’ claim in the New Testament of being much more than a prophet.
Arguably, everything he said and did was meant to authenticate his claims (John
20:31). Jesus viewed himself as the apex or culmination of the line of prophets and
claimed that Moses and all the prophets spoke of him (Luke 24:25-27; Deuteronomy
18: 15, 18; John 6: 14). In the New Testament, Jesus performed miracles on his own
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330 Warren Larson

authority -not by “God’s leave,” as the Qur’an puts it. He even claimed to be able
to forgive sins (Matthew 9:6; Mark 2:9-11).

Ruh (Spirit)
Another unique, albeit obscure term for Jesus within the Qur’an, is “Spirit” (2:87).
There are seven references in this regardz2-not only at his birth, but in the cradle,
in youth, and as a grown man. Surah 4: 171 calls Jesus “a spirit from God.” In the
New Testament, Jesus is not called “Spirit,” but it is prophesied that the Holy Spirit
will “come upon” Mary for Jesus’ miraculous conception (Luke 1:35). The canonical
Gospels reference Jesus’ baptism as an event when the Spirit descended upon him
(Matthew 3: 16) with a fullness that was without limit (Luke 4: 1; John 3:34). During
his earthly ministry, he continued to work under the divine empowerment of the Holy
Spirit (Luke 4:14, 18).

Kalima (Word)
. . . Christ Jesus the son of Mary was (no more than) a Messenger of Allah and His
“

Word.. .” (4:171). Parshall is right in saying “the most exciting title given to Jesus
in the Quran is ‘God’s Word’z3(3:39, 4:171; 19:35), and it should help Christians
explain the Son of God issue:

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“Arberry renders it, ‘His Word which he committed to Mary and a Spirit from Him.’
This verse seems to be directed against certain Christian heresies, and particularly
against the crude notion that God had carnally begotten Jesus upon Mary.In contrast
to this it is declared that Jesus is born by the divine will and word.””

In the New Testament, one of the most meaningful terms for Jesus is “logos”
(“Word,” John 1) as it is rooted in creation, when the powerful word of God was
manifest (Genesis 1). God simply spoke the “word,” and all things came into being.
“By the word of the Lord were the heavens made, their starry host by the breath of his
mouth” (Psalm 33:6). Various passages in the New Testament point to Jesus Christ as
Creator (Colossians 1, Hebrews 1).25

Al-Masih (Messiah)
Similarly, “Messiah” is a very significant term for Jesus in the Qur’an, and he
receives this title (Christ) eleven times - all in the context of Medina. The follow-
ing are some of the passages: 3:45; 4: 157; 4: 169; 4: 170; 5: 17; 5:75; 9:3 1. Qur’anic
commentators agree there is no one explanation” as to the etymological root, so Chris-
tians can point to the Bible, where it signified an anointing ( I Samuel 10:l; 16:13).
Christians should be prepared to demonstrate how Jesus Christ is the anointed One of
God, chosen for the special work of redemption (Daniel 9:25, 26; John 1:41: 4:25).
Consider Vander Werff

The Quran’s acknowledgment of Jesus as the Messiah provides a natural opening for a
mind-enlarging and life-enriching testimony. In the Muslim world, the conceptshames
of the Messiah stand like large containers waiting to be filled or refilled by the Holy
Scriptures and human experience in faith. The Quran offers clues to the Messiah’s
identity, yet remains an enigma to be illumined. The Quran offers homage and yet
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zyxwvutsr Jesus in Islam and Christianity 331

mirrors the unresolved controversies raging in the milieu in which Muhammad sought
after cod.*’

Miracles
The miraclesZ8of Jesus in the Qur’an are found primarily in two passages (3:49;

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5: 1 lo), and the only Qur’anic miracle not mentioned in the Gospels is his creation of
birds out of clay. A modified version of that same account is found in the apocryphal
Gospel or Infancy Story of ThomasZY and lingers to this day in Christian legend. Also,
though the Qur’an says Jesus heals lepers, gives sight to the blind, and raises the dead,
one must turn to the Gospels for details. Muhammad, on the other hand, made no such
claim (1 3:27-30; 20: 133; 29:49):

As the Koran is the chief and only miracle of the prophet, its verses also are called mir-
acles (signs “Aya”). Hence it is a miracle which consists of many component miracles.

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But this did not satisfy the Muslim hunger for more miracles. In the passage above
[Surah 29511 we have seen how God complains against the unbelievers who would
not be satisfied with the Koran as the only miracle given to the prophet who otherwise
was “a plain Warner.” Like the Muslims of the post-Koranic era the unbelievers of the
prophet’s time demanded to see some miracles like those performed by the prophets of
the Bible -especially the ones by Jesus Christ.. ..Muslim tradition and storytellers
have taken the liberty of bestowing miracles upon their prophet which the Koran never
did or sanctioned!3“

Sinless
In spite of orthodox (Sunni) Islamic teaching as to all prophets being sinless,3’
the clear Qur’anic teaching indicates that they sinned and needed forgiveness: Noah
(1 1:49); Abraham (26:SO-82); Moses (28:15). This included Muhammad (40: 57;
47:21; 48:1, 2). Yet both the Qur’an and the Bible affirm that Jesus is without sin
(1 9:9; John 8:46; 14:30; Hebrews 4: 15; 7:28).”

Son
As previously stated, there is great divergence between the Qur’an and the Bible
in regard to Jesus as “Son.” In Muslim thinking, he is neither God nor the Son of
God (4:171, 172; 5:19, 75-78, 119-120, 9:30-31; 19:35).” He is no more than the
“slave” or the “servant” of God, and he himself worshiped God (4359). The Qur’an
categorically denies that he ever said anyone should worship him (5: I 19-121). Yet, in
spite of Muslim-Christian disagreement over this term, there is still room for dialogue.
Relevant Qur’anic passages must be read in context: “Say: ‘He is Allah, the one and
only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is he begotten; and there is
none like unto him’ (1 12:1-4). As Parrinder points out, this passage was not intended
”

to be an attack on Christianity:

This short surah is one of the most popular, recited every day by most Muslims. It
is a denial of God producing offspring in the human manner, and of God having any
associates. It stresses the unity of God and his difference from men. Since it is generally
regarded as one of the earliest Mecca surahs, this would mean that it was directed
against the many gods of pagan Arabia, though later writers turned it also against
Christian d ~ t r i n e . ’ ~
332 Warren Larson zyxwvu
However, since most Muslims are already on the defensive about “Son,” and
since at least two other Qur’anic passages (4:169; 9:30) appear as “pointed” denials,
Christians should use the term with discretion, explaining that “Son of God’ excludes

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any physical ~arentage.~’ They might also gently remind Muslim friends that the
Qur’an does not deny the Christian doctrine of the Trinity as much as it opposes
heretical teaching of Mariolatry (4:171; 5:17; 5:72). Since, in some cases, Mary’s
exaltation seems to have evolved from veneration to actual worship,’6 Muhammad’s
injunctions against the Trinity should be understood in the Arabian context of his day:
“The Qur’an . , . denounces the current pagan ideas of Mecca and Arabia of families of
gods. Pagan deities were male and female and had children. We saw in the last chapter
that it is probably here that lies the Muslim reluctance to use the term “Son of God,”
because it might seem to imply physical procreation by
Christians must be cognizant of this misunderstanding and point to Scriptural
passages on the unity of God (Deuteronomy 6:14; Mark 12:29, 32; 1 Timothy 25).
They can refer to the “Trinity” as an expression of God’s oneness, clarifying that
Christians do not believe in three gods.”

His Passion
As with the Son of God issue, Muslim-Christian discussion over the death of

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Christ has the power to generate vigorous and sometimes bitter discussion. Indeed,
whenever they get together to discuss religion, sooner or later the topic comes up. For

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Christians, the cross is the heart of the gospel, but Muslims have historically opposed
his death, arguing that the Almighty would not allow his beloved prophet to be killed.
They have said: “Theologically it need not happen; morally it should not happen;
historically it did not happen.’’39

The Polemic
Christians can argue from both Qur’an and Bible that only the body of Jesus
died -not his soul: “And say not of those slain in God’s way, ‘They are dead’; rather

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they are living, but you are not aware” (2:149).40 “DO not be afraid of those who
kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the one who can destroy
both soul and body in hell” (Matthew 10:28). They might demonstrate from both holy
books that the Jews thought they had killed him, but only God has power over life
and death. A look at the following passages indicates that God - and God alone -
had the power to put the Messiah to death (3:47; 8:17; John 19: 11).
Yet, above and beyond such arguments for the death of Christ, my own personal
experience of working with Muslims indicates that the most powerful apologetic the
Christian worker has is the power of the simple gospel, rooted in Old Testament
prophecies. The necessity of the crucifixion can best be illustrated by how Jesus
appealed to Scriptures as he faced the cross.
Prior to his death, Jesus said to his uncomprehending disciples: “We are going up
to Jerusalem and everything that is written by the prophets about the Son of Man will
be fulfilled.. . .They will mock him, insult him, spit on him, flog him and kill him. On
the third day he will rise again” (Luke 18:31-33).
Christ must therefore never be left in Galilee, when he set his face toward Jerusa-
lem, where “by his stripes we are healed (Isaiah 53:6). We must not join those who
say, “Come down from the cross” (Matthew 27:40). After his passion, Jesus asked
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Jesus in Islam and Christianity 333

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a penetrating question of two disciples on the way to Emmaus: “Did not the Christ

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have to suffer these things and then enter his glory?” (Luke 24:26). Later, in order to
convince some in the “upper room” who doubted, the Scripture says he showed them
his wounds (Luke 24:40).
Perhaps some orthodox (Sunni) Muslims equate the crucifixion of the prophet
Jesus with divine weakness for want of a clear theology on ~uffering.~’ Hence, the
Christian worker is encouraged to draw out redemptive analogies from eid ul-adha
(Feast of Sacrifice), or from the aqiqu Sacrifice.42Christians must show from the
Gospels that the demonstration of God’s power is evidenced by the resurrection ufer
the cross -not before (Romans 1:4).43

The Text
Relevant Qur’anic passages, and the commentary on those passages by Muslim
scholars over the past several centuries, reveal a variety of explanations as to what
actually happened at the cross. The most widely held view is that God caused someone
else to appear like Jesus, who was then crucified in his place (substitute theory).
Another view is that Jesus was nailed to the cross, lost consciousness, but was later
revived in the tomb. This view, known as the “swoon theory” was popularized by the
polemicist Ahmed Deedat.44
All four passages on this topic need to be examined; as previously mentioned,
only the last passage seems to deny the death of Christ.
Behold! Allah said: ‘0Jesus! I will take thee [murtuwufiku] and raise thee to Myself
and clear thee (of the falsehoods) of those who blaspheme; I will make those who
follow thee superior to those who reject faith, to the Day of Resurrection: Then shall

(3%).

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ye all return unto me and I will judge between you of the matters wherein ye dispute’

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‘Never said I to them aught except what Thou didst command me to say.. . . ’ [Jesus
said to God]: ‘And I was a witness over them whilst I dwelt amongst them; when
Thou didst take me up [tawuffayfuni], Thou wast the watcher over them, and Thou art
a witness to all things’ (5:117).
[Jesus said]: ‘So, peace is on me the day I was born, the day that I die [umufu], and
the day that I shall be raised [ub ‘ athu] up to life (again)’ (19:33).
That they [The Jews] said in boast, ‘We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the
Messenger of Allah’ -But they killed him not nor crucified him, but so it was made
to appear to them [shubbihu luhum], and those who differ therein are full of doubts,
with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed
him not (4: 157).

The Commentuly
A broad representation of what Muslims have said reveals that both the substi-
tution theory and the swoon theory have historical support, but so have other views.
Muslims have exegeted certain Qur’anic verses and compiled their findings in tufsir lit-
erature (Qur’anic commentary). Moreover, the most influential commentators among
orthodox Muslims4s in Sunni tradition (al-Tabari, Fakhr al-Din al Razi, al-Qurtubi,
al-Baydawi and Sayyid Qutb) suggest that several different views have gained accep-
tance. There has never been only one view. Non-Muslim, Arabic readers of the Qur’an
334
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Warren Larson

of stating someone has

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readily say the word ruwufsa (“to receive,” or “to take back”) is the most common way
and Muslim readers tend to agree.
First, it is intriguing to see what al-Tabari (d. 923) says about the cross. Though not
the earliest of Islamic commentators, because of his lasting influence, he is considered

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to be “king of commentators.” As always, al-Tabari does a thorough job in discussing

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Surah 3:55. He first methodically lists all the different options in the traditions and
then indicates his preference. On this passage he lists four possibilities (one is a literal
dying), prefers the substitution theory, but concedes that real death is a po~sibility.~’
Second, Fakhr al-Din a1 Razi (d. 1210) has been referred to as having a “brilliant,
analytical and questioning mind.”48He lists eight possible meanings of mutuwufJika
(355)and says he prefers the outward sense of “causing you to die.”49He also spends
a lot of time on Surah 4:157, and similarly leans toward some kind of substitution
theory, but even then lists five different versions of the the01-y.~’He too goes into great
detail and obviously has a good understanding of what Eastern Christians believed
about the death and resurrection of Jesus.
Third, al-Qurtubi (d. 1272) has written one of the most respected commentaries
on the Qur’an. He dislikes the idea that Jesus died and rose again, arguing that it is
illogical, since Jesus must come back at the end of time and kill the anti-Christ. Yet he
feels obligated to list real death as a possibility. He also prefers the substitution theory,
primarily because of Surah 4:157:‘ but acknowledges that other theories have had
some Muslim support. In reference to Surah 5: 117, he says wufut indicates a literal
death.52
Fourth, al-Baydawi (d. between 1284 and 1316) lists varying legitimate interpre-
tations of various passages but does not give a preference. His commentary is the most
trusted and popular commentary among Muslims today, because of its convenient size,
and because it effectively argues against Mu’tazilite views. In reference to Surah 355,
he lists five different po~sibilities.~’ He is very much aware of the substitution theory
but feels it has theological and grammatical problem^.'^ In this view, he is supported
by Mahmoud Ayoub (Muslim writer), who claims the substitution theory is simply
not plausible.55
Fifth, Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966) is one of the fathers of radical Islamism”‘ and prob-
ably the best-known Sunni commentator today. Although not trained in Al-Azhar
University, he was very influential in the Muslim Brotherhood. It is true that Qutb

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does his best to refute the errors of Christianity, but in reference to the crucifixion,
he comes across as an agnostic. His dispute with Christians is not over the history
of the event as much as its theology. And though he questions Christian accounts in
reference to the cross, he does not absolutely throw them out.”
Hence, it is important to note that the Qur’an and most influential scholars of
Islam leave room for the possibility Jesus died.58Over the centuries, there has never
been one single “correct” or well-established view as to what actually took place. In
short, Islam has not had a “yes” or “no” answer to the question of whether or not
Jesus died.

His Return
We turn now to what many Muslim theologians consider the most important aspect
of Islamic eschatology: the return of Christ. Jesus is connected with eight of fifty signs
 Jesus in Islam and Christianity 335

of the End,” and many Muslims believe the Qur’an makes reference to Jesus’ return
in at least two verses. The first verse says: “And there is none of the people of the
Book but must believe in him before his death; And on the Day of Judgment he will
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be a witness against them” (4:159). The Arabic is not clear as to who is the one to
be believed in (before his death) and who will be a witness against the Jews (on the
Day of Judgment). Al-Tabari thinks it will be the People of the Book who will believe
in Jesus before his return, when all believers unite under the banner of Islam.6oThe
second verse commonly used to support his return says: “And (Jesus) shall be a Sign

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(for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment)” (43:61).

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The traditions have much to add about Jesus’ return. Al-Bukhari, the most re-
spected of all traditions, describes the event in this way: “Narrated Abu Huraira,
Allah’s Apostle said, ‘By Him in whose hands my soul is, son of Mary, Jesus will

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shortly descend amongst you people (Muslims) as a just ruler and will break the cross
and kill the pig and abolish the Jizya (a tax taken from the non-Muslims, who are in
the protection of the Muslim government).’ ” 6 1
Al-Muslimmentions other details concerning Jesus’ important role:

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Certainly, the time of prayer shall come and then Jesus (peace be upon him) son of
Mary would descend and would lead them in prayer. When the enemy of Allah would
see him, it would (disappear) just as the salt dissolves itself in water and if he (Jesus)
were not to confront them at all, even then it would dissolve completely, but Allah
would kill them by his hand and he would show them their blood in his lance (the
lance of Jesus Christ)?* . . .And (in this connection) he made mention of the smoke,
the Dajjal; the beast; the rising of the sun from the west, the descent of Jesus son of
Mary (Allah be pleased with him).h3

These traditions have obviously influenced modern Muslims a great deal, for as
Jan Goodwin testifies, ordinary Muslims have definite views as to what Jesus will do

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when he comes back. In 1994, she visited a Qur’anic class for Kuwaiti women, and
a thirty-three year-old female teacher, who had studied at the University of Southern
California, had this to say:

There is a hadirh that says Islam will rule the world just before the world ends. At
that time, there will be a war between Muslims and Jews, a lot of killing. Jesus Christ
will guide the Muslim troops as a Muslim. We believe he will come again and break
the cross. He will show he was a prophet, not the son of God.The world will benefit
when it is Muslim. Everyone will feel at ease.@

The difficulty for Islam, of course, is how to reconcile Jesus’ return with the
widely held interpretation that he never died. Muslims quote the Qur’an: “ . . .They
killed him not, nor crucified him. . . it was made to appear to them” (4:157). But this
suggests everyone - including Mary - was de~eived.6~ It is problematic66at best
because Muslims cannot explain the resurrection, the appearances of Christ, or the
ascension. Another Muslim view suggests that he was taken up to heaven, without
having died, but will later die. Some speculate that he may have died a natural death
after the crucifixion and remained dead for several hours, after which he was raised
to life.h7
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336 Warren Larson

In contrast to these speculations as to what may have happened, the Christian

answer is clear and believable: “Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures,
that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures”
(1 Corinthians 15:34). Similarly, the Bible is quite clear as to what will happen when
he comes again. The last book of the Old Testament prophecies how the Messiah will
return: “Then suddenly the Lord will come to his temple. . . he will be like a refiner’s
fire.. . for judgment.”hxZechariah adds that the inhabitants of Jerusalem will at last
recognize the Messiah and “mourn for him as one mourns for an only child.’’69

Conclusion
Christians do have many beliefs in common with Muslims, concerning the oneness
of God, the humanity of Christ, and rejection of tri-theism, but in the end, dialogue
must center on Jesus. As Samuel Zwemer explains, the Qur’an leaves the door open
for dialogue, and a loving but bold presentation of the surpassing grandeur and beauty
of Jesus will not alienate the Muslim heart.70This means that Christians can recognize
bridges to the gospel from the Islamic portrait of Jesus. It means making much of
his lofty titles and marvelous works in the Qur’an, but going on to help Muslims
also consider New Testament titles, like “Light of the World,” “Bread of Life,” and
“Resurrection and the Life.” Christians understand that Jesus is the only One who
had victory over Satan and defeated the last enemy, death (1 Corinthians 15; Hebrews
25-18). The cross is central to the gospel ( I Corinthians 1:23; 15:3-4) and must not be

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avoided as if there were no room for dialogue. It is true the Qur’anic Jesus is embryonic

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and mysterious, but the Muslim reader is encouraged to seek Christ above and beyond
the Qur’an: “We made her [Mary] and her son a sign for all peoples” (21:91).

Notes
1. Tarif Khalidi, ed. & trans]. The Muslim Jesus: Sayings andstories in Islamic Literature.
Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2001.
2. This story, repeated in the canonized traditions, says the first cry a baby makes after birth
is when Satan touches it, and only Jesus and his mother were exempt. For example: “There is
none born among the off-spring of Adam, but Satan touches it. A child therefore cries loudly at
the time of birth because of the touch of Satan, except Mary and her child” (A/-Bukhari,Vol. 4,
641). “No child is born but that he is pricked by the Satan and he begins to weep because of the
pricking of the Satan except the son of Mary and his mother” (Al- Muslim Vol. 4,5837).
3. Soon after 9-11, when an Imam was given the opportunity to participate in a panel
at the Willow Creek mega church, he shocked the audience by saying that Muslims honor
Jesus more than Christians. The claim does have some merit in that the Muslim understanding
of Jesus is closer to orthodox Christianity than what is taught in many religious depart-
ments of contemporary Western universities. Consequently, Muslim apologists, like Ahmad
Deedat and Shabu Ali, often quote liberal scholars. And, in defending their view of Jesus,
Muslim apologists accuse Christians of corrupting the Bible. Shabir Ali, “Jesus in Christian-
ity; Jesus in Islam: Which Account is Historically Correct?’ says a comparison of the four
Gospels shows a much greater image of Jesus in John, where he “takes on cosmic dimen-
sions” (www.members.home.net/shabirally/idl34-m.htm). I have also seen a video of Shabir
Ali debating J. Smith, “Who is the True Jesus: the Jesus of the Bible or the Jesus of the Qur’an?’
4. There are 93 references to Jesus, mostly in Surahs 2, 3, 4,5, 19. I usually use Yusaf
Ali because it includes the Arabic and has a handy index (The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an.
Beltsville, MD: Amana Publishing, 1996).
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Jesus in Islam and Christianity 337

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5 . However, as the study below demonstrates, three of the four Qur’anic passages on the
crucifixion give the impression that Jesus did die, and the fourth is not clear.
6. Samuel Zwemer, the Moslem Christ: An Essay on the Life, Chaructez and Teachings of
Jesus Christ According to the Koran and Orthodox Traditions, Edinburgh: Oliphant: Anderson
& Ferrier, 1912), p. 7: “In none of the other sacred books of the east is Christ mentioned: the
Koran alone gives Him a place, but does it by displacing Him. With regret it must be admitted that
there is hardly an important fact concerning the life, person, and work of our Savior which is not
ignored, perverted, or denied by Islam.” Zwemer never downplayed the truths of Christianity -
the mystery of the incarnation, the necessity of the atonement, and the glory of the cross.
The Qur’an, he said, left room for dialogue. He felt that a loving but bold presentation of the
surpassing grandeur and beauty of Jesus would never alienate the Muslim heart. Evangelists
therefore should press home the question: “What think ye of Christ?” Zwemer was also known
for great boldness in witness. In Cairo, it was his habit each year to take trainees to Al-Azhar
University to meet the president. Once, while in the president’s office, he told the president to
look out the window, asking, “Do you see the stars?“ The president replied that it was a bright
day in Cairo. With his arm around him, Zwemer replied: “My friend, once the Son appears, all
lesser lights disappear.” Although direct and even blunt at times, his friendliness enabled him
to talk to Muslims without antagonizing them.
7. J. Dudley Woodberry, “The Muslim Understanding of Jesus,’’in Wordand World, vol. 16,
No. 2, Spring, 1996.
8. Geoffrey Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an (London: Sheldon Press, 1965). p.16.
9. J. Dudley Woodberry, ed. Muslims und Christians on the Emmaus Road (Monrovia,
CA. MARC Publications, 1987),p. 177. Phil Parshall, New Paths in Muslim Evangelism. (Grand
Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980), p. 137: “Many Muslims have come to Christ by first being
pointed to him by the Quran,” and we should not “feel shy” about starting there. G. C. Moucarry,
7he Prophet and the Messiah: an Arab Christian‘s Perspective on Islam and Christianity.
Downers Grover, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2002.
10. Kenneth Cragg, Jesus and Islam: An Exploration (London: George Allen and Unwin,
1985), p. 4.
11. Since Yuhya (John the Baptist) is also said to be righteous (3:39; 6235). we may not
make too much of this, but the composite picture of Jesus in the sacred scriptures of Islam is
that his character is unique.

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12. The= is no real comparison in how Muslims and Christians think about their own
Scriptures. Most Muslims believe the Qur’an is the uncreated, eternal Word of Allah and
culmination of all truth. For Christians, Jesus is the Word that became flesh; for Muslims, the
Word became book and “descended” on Muhammad (believed to be illiterate) over a period of
23 years. It was later compiled into one book under the 3rd caliph (Uthman AD 644-656), who
unsuccessfully tried to burn all competing versions. See A. Jeffery, Materials for the History of the
Text of the Qur’an (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1937). Muhammad is the last and final prophet and “seal”
of prophethood. In Muslim thinking, as the final revelation, the Qur’an supersedes, completes
and even corrects all previous revelations given by God to former prophets. Many Muslims go

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so far as to say that the Qur’an “abrogates” all previous scriptures, and that Christians have
corrupted the Bible, though this is very difficult to prove critically or historically. The Qur’an in
fact speaks highly of the former Scriptures and “confirms” them. It upholds the integrity of the
Bible, says it cannot be changed and encourages believers to read it (2:87; 89, 91, 101; 2:136;
4: 163; 57:27; 5:48; 64;10:64;3:3; 6 9 2 ; 12: 11 I ; 2:285; 4: 136; 29:46). Yet, the Qur’an fulfils the
same place in Muslim devotion as Jesus does for Christians. For most Muslims, the only adequate
or authoritative portrait of Jesus is the one presented in the Qur’an. The “Qur’an says it all.”
13. Since Muslims may send Christian friends Christmas cards commemorating the birth
of Jesus, Christians can use the occasion to witness deeper meanings to their Muslim friends.
14. 3:46; 5:110.
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15. Some Christian missionaries in the past have sought to use the Qur’an to prove Jesus’
superiority and discredit Muhammad. This is not to critique a classic, but the best example
is Carl Pfander, the Mizan al-Hayq (Balance of Truth, (London: the Religious Tract Society,
1910), p. 306ff. Also, E. M. Wherry, “Christ Superior to Mohammed: Fourteen Reasons from

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the Koran,” in the Moslem World, Vol. 8, 1918. In response, Bevan Jones wrote: “How not to use
the Koran,” in the The Moslem World, Vol. 30, July 1940. He charges that Wherry’s approach
is deceitful and put Muslims on the defensive.
16. H. A. R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers, eds. Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam: (Ithaca, NY
Cornell University Press, 1961), 173.
17. There are a total of 35 references. For example: 237, 253; 3:36,45; 4:157; 171; 5 : 19,
49, 75, 78, 81, 113, 115, 117, 119; 9:31; 19:19, 34; 21:91; 2350; 33:7; 4357; 57:27; 61:6, 14.
18. Amar Djaballah, “Jesus in Islam,” in The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology, vol. 8,
No. 1, Spring, 2004, p.19.
19. Parrinder, p. 51-52.
20. Additionally, he was a rasul (apostle/messenger) who received a holy book (See 4: 171;

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2:253; 3:49; 5:78; 57:27; 61:6.) and was honored as a special apostle: “Those Messengers we
endowed with gifts, some above others. . .Jesus, the son of Mary. . . and strengthened him with
the Holy Spirit” (2:253).
21. Muslims speak of 124,000 prophets, but only 28 are mentioned in the Qur’an. I remember
a Pakistani Muslim villager’s three reasons why, in his view, Jesus was greater than Muhammad:
“Your Prophet was a Prophet from birth, ours became one at age 40; Your Prophet did miracles,
ours did none; Your Prophet is alive, ours is dead.”
22. Parrinder, p. 48.
23. Parshall, p. 139. A statement in the Hadith (al-Muslim, Vol. 1, 373). says: “You better
go to Jesus, the Spirit of Allah and His Word.”
24. Parrinder, p. 46. Ali says “statement.”
25. Muslims, on the other hand, tend to downplay the significance of kalmia (Word) by

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saying that Jesus was called this only because he was in the likeness of Adam (3:59), and Jesus
proclaimed the Word of God with power. These explanations, however, are not acceptablebecause
Adam was not given the title, and though Muhammad’s preaching was allegedly powerful, neither
was he given the title (Djaballah, p. 20). In the Bible (John 1: 1-18; I John 1:2) Jesus is the eternal
“Logos” of God who “dwelt” among us.
26. Razi lists ten reasons why Jesus was called a/-Masih. Among them: “king,” “righteous,”
“pure,” touched by Gabriel as protection from Satan, and anointed with sacred oil at birth. Two
terms, al-malik (king) and al-siddik (righteous one) are closest to the Bible.
27. Woodberry. ed. p. 185. Christian witness must show from biblical sources that the
Messiah, Jesus, fulfilled promises from the OT (Ps. 2; 110; Isaiah 7; 9; 1 I; I1 Samuel 7).
28. Most commentators agree on four miracles of Jesus in the Qur’an: giving clay birds
the breath of life, healing the blind, healing the lepers, and raising the dead; but some mention
a fifth: speaking as an infant in the cradle (3:46), and possibly a sixth: prophesy (3:49). Kate
Zebiri, “Contemporary Muslim Understanding of the Miracles of Jesus,” The Muslim World, 75.
29. Zebiri says that most Muslims have no trouble accepting Jesus’ miracles in the Qur’an,
but the miracles are not considered “pivotal” [as in Christianity]: they merely “demonstrate
God’s power,’’ the truth of his messengers, and are done by “God’s leave” (permission), p. 71.
The author points out that a few Muslims deny the “possibility of miracles” on the grounds of
reason, p. 80. Muslim theologians argue that the purpose of miracles is to reveal God’s power, lest
humans forget that God is great. Many go out of their way to minimize the significance of Jesus’
miracles - a polemic intended to refute the Christian position that Jesus is God. Few admit
that Jesus’ miracles tell us anything about his divinity, p. 84, because of the all-encompassing
doctrine of shirk (adding partners to God). Thus, Muslims have locked God into a contextualized
box and bolted the door so as to disallow an incarnation. Cragg’s answer is that nevertheless we
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Jesus in Islam and Christianity 339

have a potentially mediating feature between the Qur’an and the New Testament as everything
Jesus said and did was by divine authority, p. 33. Also, three things can be said about Jesus: 1)
The word khulaqa (create) only describes God’s activity; 2) the substance Jesus used was clay,
out of which God created man; 3) the verb nafakha (blowing) is how God breathed his spirit
into man (Neil Robinson, “Creating Birds from Clay: A Miracle of Jesus in the Qur’an and in
Classical Exegesis,”in The Muslim world, Vol. 74, January, 1989), p. 2.
30. Abdiyah Akbar Abdul-Haqq, Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim (Minneapolis: Bethany
Fellowship, Inc., 1980), p. 103. Zebiri says: ‘There is no consensus on Muhammad having
performed any [miracle],” p. 7 1. Yet the canonized, nine-volume set of a/-Bukhuri, opens with
12 miracles by Muhammad. One is splitting the moon!
3 I. Isma is the doctrine that characterizes the innocence of all prophets.
32. Numerous traditions say that only Jesus and his mother were untouched by Satan at

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birth. Also, two passages in the canonized traditions [al-Muslim, Vol. 1, 373 and vol. 1, 3781,
state that error, fault, and sin are found in Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad, but
not in Jesus.
33. It is sad to contemplate that Judaeo-Christianity may have been a major formative
influenceon Islam. “TheChristology ofthe Qur’an: it is possible toderive all itstraitsfrom Judaeo-
Christian doctrines; as far as 1 can see, the conception that Jesus was (despite his supernatural
birth) a mere man can be found prior to the seventh century in Christianity only in the tenets of the

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so-called Judaeo-Christian sects.” (Shlomo Pines, “Notes on Islam and on Arabic Christianity
and Judaeo-Christianity, JSAI, 4, p. 144, 1984).
34. Parrinder, p. 126.
35. Muslims can be helped in a couple of ways to understand that Christians use the term
“Son of G o d in a metaphysical sense. First, of the two words for “son” in the Qur’an (ibn and
wald), the term for Jesus is ibn. Examples like ibn sabeel (Son of the Road) have a metaphorical
sense. Second, a potential “bridge” compares the Sonship of Jesus in the Bible with the Qur’an
in Islam. As the eternal “logos” took on human flesh in the person of the God-man, so the eternal
word of God (Qur’an) “descended’ on Muhammad in the form of a book. Muslims should see
the inconsistency of their argument when they accuse Christians of polytheism.
36. Parrinder, p. 135. The Collydrian sect actually worshiped Mary.
37. Ibid. p. 136.
38. Christians can respond that the Qur’an is right to reject a “false trinity.” See Zachariah
Butrus, God is One in the Holy Trinity. Rikon, Switzerland: The Good Way, n.d. Muhammad
may have heard about the historical wrangling over the Trinity. Djaballah makes a case for the
Christian claim to be the true monotheists, because the alternative is to degenerate into some
kind of dualism (God and man, God and creation, God and matter, God and power, or a form of
pantheism). Only trinitarian monotheism maintains the distance between God and man, p. 25.
39. This seems to contradict Qur’anic passages about prophets being killed (3:21; 2:87;
4: 155).
40. Arberry (A. J., Arberry, the Koran Interpreted. New York: Collier Books, MacMillian
Publishing, Company, 1986), but in Ali the reference is 2:154.
41. This is not to say Sunnis have not suffered, as seen by the tragic events in Bosnia. But
Sunni theology seem to say that “winning” is proof of Allah’s blessing. Surah 61:9 and Ah’s
commentary seems triumphal. With Shi’ites it may be different. As a persecuted minority, they
have historically suffered at the hands of Sunnis and relive the tragedy of Imam Hussein each
year during the month of Muharram.
42. This is practiced in some Muslim contexts on the 7th day of a male child; he is said
to be redeemed by his aqiqu (Samuel Zwemer, The Influence of Animism on Islam, New York:
Macmillan, 1920), p. 87.
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340 Warren Larson

43. Christians must stress that the cross was not a mistake, or a defeat, but the redemptive
act of Almighty God. It was planned before the foundation of the world (Acts 2:22-23; 4:27-28;
Matthew 1:21).
44. This is the position of the Ahmadiyya sect with whom I became quite well-acquainted
in Pakistan. They say Jesus was nailed to the cross, later taken down, and while still alive was

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laid in a cold tomb. He was not killed. After reviving in the tomb, he went to Kashmir, died,
and was buried near Srinagar, where allegedly his tomb may be seen today.

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45. Joseph C., “Did Jesus Die on the Cross? The History of Reflection on Jesus’ Death in
Sunni Tafsir Literature” (Unpublished paper, 2001). Al-Zamakshari would be included, since he
is considered orthodox, however, his Mu’tazilite views fell into disfavor. But for space limitations,
Maulana Maududi would also be on the list because of his influence in South Asia and all over
the world.

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46. The verb tawaffa is understood as death in 25 Qur’anic passages, and three of them refer
to Muhammad. Anis Shorrosh, Islam Revealed: a Christian Arab’s View of Islam, (Nashville:
Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1988, p. 112): “As an Arab who has been raised in a Muslim culture,
Arabic is my native language. The critical word mutawafiku means ‘cause you to die.. . . ’ Even
until this day, fourteen hundred years after the appearance of the Quran, you can ask any Arab
about what happened to his uncle who passed away last week and he will use the same words as a
past tense, ‘Tawafa,’ which means he died. Since that term is used of Jesus, he must have died.”
47. Al-Tabari, Joseph C., pp. 5-8.
48. Mahmoud Ayoub, “Towards an Islamic Christology, 11. The Death of Jesus, Reality or
Delusion: A Study of the Death of Jesus in Tafsir Literature,” in The Muslim World, Vol. 70,
No. 2, April 1980, p. 92.
49. Al-Razi, in Joseph C., pp. 8-16.
50. Al-Razi, in Joseph C., p. 14. 1) The Jews crucified someone else and lied about it.

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2) Someone by the name of Titayus was sent by Judas to kill Jesus. 3) Someone charged with
guarding Jesus was caused to look like him and killed in his place. 4)Jesus asked his disciples
for a volunteer and one man did. 5) A hypocritical disciple who intended to betray Jesus was
made to look like him and killed in his place.
5 1 . E. E. Elder, “The Crucifixion in the Koran,” in the Muslim World, Vol. 13, No. 3, July.
With specific reference to the phrase in Surah 4:157, “They slew him not,” at the end of a lengthy
article, he argues that “they” means the Jews did not kill him. Christ had predicted that his death
would be at the hands of Gentiles, and it was the Romans who carried it out.
52. Al-Qurtubi, in Joseph C., pp. 16-20.
53. The five possibilities are: 1) an end to your lifespan, or killing 2) seizing you from the
earth 3) causing to die in the sense of sleeping 4) causing you to die in reference to worldly
desires 5) God literally causing Jesus to die for seven hours and then raising him to heaven
(Al-Razi, Joseph C., p. 21). Note the variation on the time. For example, Wahb B. Munabbih
said that Jesus was dead for three hours and then was raised to life. Ibn lshaq said Jesus was
dead for seven hours. Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), on the authority of Wahb B. Munabbih, said that
Jesus was dead for three days and then raised to life (Woodberry, The Muslim Understanding
of Jesus in Word and World).
54. Al-Baydawi, in Joseph C., pp. 8-16.
55. Ayoub felt this theory makes a mockery of divine justice and charges that historical
Christianity is based on divine deception, p. 97.
56. Sayyid Qutb, Milestones, Cedar Rapids, I A : The Mother Mosque Foundation, n. d.
57. Joseph C., pp. 26-28, quoting Qutb: “Thus the scholar cannot find any certain report
about this event.. . nor can those who differ about it find any support which would make one
account more plausible over another account.”
58. This is not to suggest that Muslims would automatically admit his death was redemptive.
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59. www.islaam.com/Article, April 3, 2002. Of the fifty, ten are past, 13 are present and
27 are future. The first sign is the splitting of the moon, also listed in an introduction to the

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canonized, nine-volume Hadith, al-Bukhari, Vol. 1, p. v. as the second of 12 “miracles.” It is
referred to again in the same set, Vol. 4, p. 533,534, Nos. 830-323, and again in the beginning
of Vol. 8. Some Muslims look for a Qur’anic basis for the miracle (14:10), but many Islamic
scholars deny it. For example: Abul A’la Maududi, The Meaning of the Qur’an, vol. 5 . Lahore:

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Islamic Publications, Ltd., 1967, pp. 279-280. Also, Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Lif. of
Muhammad, translated by Ismai’il Ragi A. al Faruqi, Plainfield: American Trust Publications,
1976, p. lxxxviii. Muhammad’s response to the unbeliever’s demand for miracles as proof of
his message was that Allah could do them if he wanted, but the only miracle will be the miracle
of the Qur’an (26:4; 10:20; 6:109; 2950; 17:59,93; 13:7; 6:37; 2 1 18). The Qur’an calls Mary
and Jesus a “sign for all people” (19:21; 21:91; 2350).
60. Al-Tabari, Commentary, Part 6, in Neil Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity:
Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991, p. 81.
61. Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, pp. 233-234, No. 425. Also, the Maqaddimah, transl. Franz
Rosenthall (New York: Pantheon, 1958): 2:194. The respected Islamic historian, Ibn Khaldun
adds that Jesus will descend at the white minaret in Damascus, will later marry, have children,
and after 40 years will die. Some Muslims have identified the minaret of the Ummayad Mosque
(Damascus), which used to be the Church of St. John and bears the Greek message: “Thy Kingdom,
0 Christ, is an everlasting kingdom and they dominion endureth throughout all generations”
(Woodberry in “The Muslim View of Jesus).”
62. Al-Muslim, Vol. 4, No. 6925, p. 1501.
63. Ibid., No. 6931. p. 1504.
64. Jan Goodwin, Price of Honor: Muslim Women Lijt the Veil of Silence on the Islamic
World, New York: Little Brown and Company, 1994, p. 188. There are some differences in the
majority Sunni and the minority Shi’ite position as to the role of Jesus. Both revere him, but
Shi’ites may reduce his significance. Like Sunnis, Shi’ites say he will return, but his role will be
subordinate to al-Mahdi, the 12th Imam (successor and descendant of Muhammad). Jesus will
come and, at the time of prayer, will stand behind the Mahdi (Robinson, pp. 167-177).
65. I remember hearing of a former Muslim who said he accepted Christ’s death and
resurrection because Jesus’ mother believed it: “You might fool others but you can’t fool your
mother.”
66. See Ali on 4: 157-159, pp 235-236. It seems that Muhammad never knew that the cruci-
fixion of Jesus was relative to Christian beliefs, and apparently he knew nothing of the atonement.
67. Norman Geisler and Abdul Saleeb, Answering Islam: The Crescent in the Light of the
Cross. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1993, pp. 284-285.
68. The passage goes on to say that the Messiah will judge the specific sins of adultery
and oppression of the fatherless and aliens -in Israel, a nation that has legalized abortion and
homosexuality (Malachi 3: 1-5). Although suicide bombing by Palestinians cannot be justified,
Israel is a nation that has brutally oppressed the Palestinian people.
69. Zechariah 12:lO. Matthew 24:30 confirms this: “At that time the sign of the Son of
Man will appear in the sky, and all the nations of the earth will mourn.. . .” The last book of
the Bible repeats it: “Look, he is coming. . .and every eye will see him. . . and all the peoples
of the earth will mourn because of him” (Revelation 1:7). After his resurrection Jesus proved

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his identity by showing the disciples his wounds (Luke 24:39,40). Upon his dramatic return to
the troubled city of Jerusalem, he will do so again. The evidence will be irrefutable. Given the
many Muslims in and around Jerusalem, it is not unreasonable to believe that like the Jews, not
a few Muslims at that climatic event will recognize Jesus for who he really is. They will believe
in him as the Savior, the only way to God, and the Prince of Peace.
70. Larson, “What Samuel Zwemer Can Teach Us about Muslim Work.” 2006 [unpub-
lished], p. 5.