NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS, CLASSIFICATION AND | 81. STRUCTURE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS ‘A machine tool is suid to be numerically controlled if it operates in a semi-automatic or automatic eyele te per instructions transmitted to it ina coded form. Strictly speaking, the term ‘numerical control is 8 irigomer because the coded instructions are expressed not only through numerals, but also through leters, punctuation marks and other symbols. However, although ‘symbolic onto" would have, perhaps, been & nore appropriete name, the term “nuineical control’ (NC) has come tobe so closely associated with contr through symbols that itis now universally accepted and applied inthe later sense. It is obvious that numbers by themselves cannot do any work, leave aside operating @ machine, A comprehensive electrical, electronic and mechanical processing and transmission system is required to affect the movement ofa slide or cutting tool from information coded ona program medium, such asa punch card, punch tape, magnetic tape, ete. “The path from the program medium to the workpiece is often the most baffling, but also the most fundamental oa proper understanding ofthe functioning of numerical control systems It therefore, appears Togieal that this spect should be dealt with in the very beginning, The elements of numerical control systems ‘and ther operating principle will now be described, starting with the example of tuning (Fig, 8.1). Segal I | gl tr ean eae y } Seppo | {ose : ‘separa mot Fig. 8.1. Schematle diagram of a numerical contol system for simple tuning operation Scanned with CamScanner420|| Machine Too! Design and Numerical Contol is iuce 2d shaft by ‘The eylindsicel workpiece clamped in the Inthe chuck isto be machined to produce a steppe removing ihe material which hs been shown hatched. For the starting postion of the tool as shown in the figure, the compete machining cyele would involve the following motions: 1, Travel ofthe too! post in ¥ direction through 5 mm, 2, Travel ofthe tool postin ~Z direction through 25 mm, 3. Travel ofthe tool post n+ X direction through 5 mm, 44, ‘Travel ofthe tool postin + Z direction through 25 mm. Itmay be seen tha the instructions for executing the motions are of two types: 1. ‘Switching instructions, e.g, feed direction in the given example; other switching instructions may be for spindle speeds, coolant on/off, tool change, et 2. Path magnitude instructions, For the time being let us forget switching instructions and see how path magnitude instructions are implemented. Als, for the sake of simplicity let us assume thatthe path magnitude is programmed in the ‘unit pulse code. In this code, 8 many holes ere punched on the paper tape (which isthe program medium) as the numberof impulses required. The number of impulses depends upon the least count of the system. For instance ifthe least count = 1.0 mm, ie, one impulse produces 1.0 mm displacement ofthe tool pos, then 25 holes must be punched for obteining a tool post travel of 25 mm. Ihe least count ofthe system were 0.1 ‘mm, 250 impulses and hence 250 punched holes would be required to achieve the same displacement. ‘The punched tape is passed through a program reader, which identifies the presence or absence of a hole and sends the corresponding information to the decoder. The decoder generates a pulse every time ‘hole is sensed. This electrical signal is amplified and fed to a stepping motor whose rotor is coupled to the lead serew ofthe lathe. The input of an impulse tothe stepping motor results in a turing of its rotor through a particular angle, This rotary motion i transmitted to the lead serew and is converted through the screw-and-nut mechanism into translatory displacement of the tool post by a distance equal t the least count ofthe system, If we assume that the least count ofthe system shown in Fig. 8.1 i 1.0 mm, then the program ‘would appear as shown in Fig. 82. It may be emphasised again thatthe switching instructions are, inthis example, not coded. They may, as a hypothetical situation, be assumed to be initiated at the appropriate ‘moment manually or electrically (see Sec. 7.5.2). -x[0000q] +x| jgfO0000 ai = Foooooo/ it}-—7 8 +z % 0000-00 Fig. 8.2 Program in unt pulso code for the component of Fig. 8.1 The punched tape would appear a shown in Fig, 8.2. The st of instructions between two stop commands contains the necessary information for éxccuting @ particular motion, Ths is known as a sentence, STOP—Z 25STOP constitutes a sentence. The sentence consists of words (STOP), symbols (~ sign), eters {@ and numerals 25). While machining instructions are being caried out in accordance with a particular sentence, the information contained inthe next sentence is read and slored temporarily in a memory device, Scanned with CamScannerfine Tools 424 is been completed, the information from buffer storage is thus ensuring continuous running of the program. In the Fig. 8.1 may be represented in a general form by Numerical Control of known as buffer storage. When the operation has tantancously transferred to the active storage, light of above discussions, the numerical control system of the block diagram of Fig. 8:3 Fa aaa Drive inX Eston lifer [>| direction a oo Program Buffer ae Operative roman [>| cae PL Dees err [E*d Lfaaez}T 2 npliter Le»! Drive in Z_ Ameliier [>| direction Fig. 8.3 Block diagram of an NC lathe for simple turning Let us now consider the example of a taper-tumning operation (Fig. 8.4). The motions involved in the machining cycle are: 1. Travel of the tool post in the ~ X direction by $ mm. 2. Travel of the tool post in the ~ Z direction by 5 mm. 3. Simultaneous travel of the tool post by 20 mm in the -Z 4. Travel of the tool post in the + X direction by 1.0 mm. 5, Travel of the tool post in the + Z direction by 25 min. .ction and 4 mm in the + X direction. Program = Pew rogram reader x v Amplifier Decoder x 1 } it Stepping we A teppin Interpotator ‘Stopping topping te | amplifier Fig. 8.4 Schematic diagram of a numerical control system for taper-turning operation Scanned with CamScanner422| Machine Tool Design and Numerical Contr! ‘The significant difference between the NC systems of Figs 8.1 and 8.4 lies in motion (3) for machining the tapered surface, The generation of the tapered surface involves simultaneous movement of the too! in the — Z and +X directions such that 1. The movements in both directions start simultaneously, and 2. The displacement through 4 mm in the + X direction takes exactly the same time as the displacement through 20 mm in the ~Z direction ‘The second requirement presages that stepping motor pulse rates in the two directions (and they control the corresponding feeds) would be different and would depend upon the profile or contour being machined. ‘The tsk of calculating the feed rates of simultaneous movements and their coordination is done by a control clement known as the interpolator. The interpolator is basically a microprocessor and is an essential part of NC systems for machining profiles and contours involving two or more simultaneous motions. The punched tape for the machining cycle of the taper-turning operation is shown in Fig. 8.5 while the block diagram of the NC system is shown in Fig. 8.6. -x|OO0000} 3 glo Bo Ogos 3 -Z B! 00000 |®000022:00 || || 25 o 4Z 20 (00 00+**00 Fig. 8.5 Program in unit pulse code for me component of Fig. 8.4 Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems In the two systems-described above, the operative member of the machine tool is directed to move to a certain position, However, whether it precisely arrives at the desired position or not is not ascertained. In other words, there is no feedback on the accuracy of execution of the path magnitude commands, Such systems are known as open-loop systems. The NC systems depicted in Figs 8.3 and 8.6 are both open-loop systems. It may be useful to summarise at this stage that the elements of an open-loop system are: 2. 5 2 5 Program 3 Operative mbH ep oe meg Be mange ‘Amplifier >) direction Fig. 8.6 Block diagram of an NC lathe for taper tuming 1. Program medium 2. Program reader 3, Buffer storage Scanned with CamScannerNumeral Control of Machin Tools, 423 4, Decoder 5. Amplifier 6. Dri Numerically controlled systems with a feedback device are known 1s closedsloop systems. The feedback ‘arrangement consists of a transducer which monitors the actual displacement of the ‘operative member, The actual displacement is compared with the programmed displacement and the difference signal is employed to actuate the drive motor until the command signal and actual position coincide. It may be thus seen that besides the six elements enumerated above, a closed-loop system has two additional elements: 1. A displacement measuring device 2. Acomparator, ‘The block diagram of closed-loop systems, based upon the opensloop systems of Figs 8.3 and 8.6 are shown in Figs 8.7 and 8.8, respectively. Sana 5 team EL [Faneauer ‘medium > > X-direction (ooo zg : i Te Hib ik ee J yay ces rl it eee t “Tachometer MH Fig. 8.7 Block diagram of a closed-loop NC system for simple turning a Program i a] Ds I oot >| : rite Xedirecton 2 &s c ft ra aie ee bil ip 7 cee = es 5 T ee A ass biel (ee N I Techomoter a1 Fig. 8.8 Block diagram of a closed-loop NC system for taper tuning Scanned with CamScanner‘cl oa The displacement measuring device (transducer) and the comparator may be analog or digital, For compatibility between the transducer signl and comparator and between the transducer output and dive, itis necessary to use appropriate analog-to-dgital (AD) and digital-to-analog (DA) converters. These are shown in Figs 8.7 and 8.8 by ? | and ? 2. In genera, four combinations of the transducers and comparators are possible. The type of converters in place of? | and ?2in the four combinations are tabulated below: Too! Design and Numerical Control Combination Converter? 1 |, Converter? 2 “Analog comparator and analog transducer Nil Nil ‘Analog comparator and digital transducer DA Nil Digital comparator end digital transducer Nil DA Digital comparator and analog tensdcer a0, DA Itmay be added that a deceleration circuits an integral element of all NC machines and itis placed before the motor contol. ‘The input devices, reading circuits, decoding ciruits, interpolator, comparator or controller position con et eloeity contol circuit, deceleration circuit and auxiliary functions constitute the maching ca et (MCU) of the numencally controlled machine tol. The MCU is housed ina separate cabinet and together with the machine tool constitutes the NC machining system. Closed-loop systems are more reliable but also more expensive, Numerically controlled machine ools have traditionally been elosed-loop systems, but in recent years, the concept of open-loop controls fast catching, up, The successful operation of open-loop systems is governed by the reliability of stepping mover, ic. their ability to respond reliably o a pulse command. If stepping motor were to respond unfailingly t0 ‘command Signals, bt not respond to spurious signals, then there would be no need forthe feedback arrangement and ee control systems would become considerably simpler and cheaper. At presen, reliable stepping motors ane evailable in a low horsepower range only. Therefore, open-loop control is generally employed only in positioning systems in which no material removal takes place during the movement controlled by the NC system. Basic Length Unit (BLU) ‘The accuracy of travel in an axis of motion depends on the position recolution of the given axis and is called the basic length untt (BLU). It is also known as increment size tna bit weight. In open loop systems, the BLU is the tool travel corresponding to one pulse of the stepper motor For instance, fa stepper motor of 200 steps per revolution is moving the table through a lead serew of pitch § mm, the BLU of the system will be 5/200 = 0.025 mm, Ina closed-loop system, it is necessary to distinguish between position resolution which isthe smallest positon increment in the part program end antrol resolution which is the smallest change in position that the feedback device can sense. For instance, ithe optical encoder used as feed back transducer in a NC machine tool emits 1000 pulses per revolution of the shalt attached directly to a 5 mm pitch lead screw, i. it emits one pulse for every 5/1000 = 0.005 mm of linear displacement of the operative member, the control resolution ofthis system will be 0.005 mm. For best efficiency, the programming resolution must be equal to the control resolution and therefore 0.005 represents the system resolution or BLU. 1m both open loop as well as closed loop systems, the part dimensions are expressed as number of pulses corresponding tothe distance of move, For instance, forthe operative member to move by § mm in a NC Scanned with CamScanner‘Numerical Control of Machine Tools, 25 machine tool with BLU = 0.001 mm, the number of pulses to be generated by the stepper motor oF servo ‘motor = 5/0.001 = 5000. This quantity is entered as the reference value inthe comparator. These pulses may actuate a stepper motor in an open-loop system or ade servo motor ina closed-loop system. The rate at which these pulses are generated (pulses/min or pulses/sec) determines the feed rate at which the move is: executed in the given axis of motion. Example: A 100 mm long workpiece is to be machined on a NC lathe at 500 rpm and feed rate of 0.1 mm/ rev. A stepper motor having step of 1.8° is used to provide the feed motion through # lead screw having = pitch of S mm, Determine BLU and the required total number of pulses and pulse rate, (i) As the step angle ofthe motor is 1.8%; 200 pulses will be required for one revotution ofthe lead sew Hence BLU = 5.0/200 = 0.025 mm (i) Pulses required to program for the move of 100 mm = 100/0,025 = 4000 (ii) The move feed rate per minute = 0.1 x 500 = 50 mm/min Fora feed rate of $0 mm/min the required pulse rate 50/0,025 = 2000 pulses/min. Point-to-point (Positioning) and Continuous-path (Contouring) Systems Depending wpon the type of fmetion assigned to the machine tool, contol systems are classified as: 1. Point-to-point or positioning control systems. 2. Positioning-cum-straight-cut systems, 3. Continuous-path or contouring systems. {In point-to-point systems, the table (or spindle) is moved by nu- ‘merical control from one defined location to another. Suppose a hole isbeing drilled at position A (Fig. 8.9). After this hole has been drilled ‘and the drill are tracked out of contact with the workpiece, it is nec- essary to move the table so that point B occupies the working posi tion under the spindle presently occupied by point A. Since the aim is to position the table atthe desired location itis immaterial whether it first moves along the X-axis and then along the Y-axis or vice versa. ‘As a matter of fact, to minimise the positioning time, the two motions should preferably be executed simultaneously, with the constraint that the displacement along each coordinate axis should cease when the displacement equals the assigned value. It may be thus seen that in point-to-point control systems, there need not be any coordination between the movements in the two directions. The only requirement is thatthe table should move othe desired location, irrespective ofthe path, An important feature ofthese systems is thatthe cutting tool is notin contact with the workpiece when the positioning movement is being executed. Point-to-point control is generally applied in drilling and boring machines. Positioning-cum-straight-cut systems are basically positioning systems with the additional capabi ‘eulting along straight lines parallel tothe coordinate axes. The important features of these systems are: Fig. 8.9 Component drawing ity of Scanned with CamScanner1d Numerical Contr 1. The table speed during the machi accelerated travel 2, During the machining operation the simultaneous movements along the coordinate axes can not be coordinated. However, in some machines, itis possible to use both feeds simultaneously, thereby mak- ing it possible to take cuts at 45° to the coordinate axes. 3. The feed motor should have a higher capacity than the feed motor of a positioning system. ig operation should be equal to the feed rate and not that of the This type of control is generally applied in milling machines and simple lathes. It permis in the former case machining of rectangular blocks and straight grooves, and in the latter case only cylindrical workpieces ‘with perpendicular shoulders. The NC system shown in Fig 8.1 is representative of this group. In the contouring systems the simultaneous movements ofthe tool and workpiece are coordinated to ‘generate the desired profile. Contouring NC machine tools can machine not only straight lines at any angle, ‘but also complicated profiles. The profile is approximated by elementary straight lines, ares of circles, or ‘segments of parabola to describe the locus of the tool eutting edge. This task is done by an appropriste interpolator, which may correspondingly be linear, circular or parabolic. To ensure reliability in maintaining the fenetional relationship between the movements, almost all contouring NC machine tools are equipped ‘vith a feedback arrangement, i. they finction as closed-loop systems. Contouring NC machine tools are ‘Consequently more expensive than those operating on point-to-point control principle. Naturally, contouring NC txtching tool can camry out all the functions of point-to-point and positioning-cum-straight-cut control systems. Figures 8.6 and 8.8 represent contouring NC systems. 3. _ Coding System—Programming Mediums—Tape Format and Codes. Coding Systems Lets compare two methods of writing a number, say 970: Inthe decimal system, Z 910 =9 x 10? +7 x 10! +0% 10° and inthe binary system, 910 = 1x2 + 1x2 +1 x2" + 1x2 Ox 2+0x2+1x2+0x241 x2! +0x2 which is represented 1111001010. isdds 5 A oben og Now if 970 is encoded, it would appear in deci- ply. + + + + + + + + ‘mal and binary systems as depicted in Fig. 8.10a and b sespeesively Ie eee ae be It may be seen that for encoding any num- 4g? beer less than 1000 in the decimal system, we teed four rows, each containing 10 positons. In 10°|+ + + * ¢ * + + + * the binary system, we need only one row with an w equal number of positions. Thus, the binary sys- tem of coding is much more economical than the decimal system. The biggest advantage of the bi- nary system is that since any number is represent- eee eee o+ + ed as a combination of | and 0, it can be easily realised in an on/off type electrical circuit ~ 1, ie. ©) Fig. 8.10 Decimal and binary encoding for 870 Scanned with CamScanner‘Numerical Control of Machine Tools 427. « punched hole correspond ing to the on state of the cit i See ea er tale esi fd O18 aceasta te ae faa ene ME opraeiing& ier inthe binary sys isin th enti red and Se lee A ty favo i tapos cance tse calculations thatthe ary number 1 111.00 1.0 1 0 represents 970 in the decimal system. Therefore inthe numerical control of machine tools the binary coded decimal (BCD) system i ar Cee (BCD) system is employed. The binary representation of numerals t=0 0 0 1 2=0 0 1 0 3=0 0 1 1 4=0 1 0 ° 5-0 1 ° 1 6=0 1 1 ° T=0 1 1 ' 0 0 0 0 0 1 the number 970 can be represented in BCD system as 9=1 ° 0 1 7=0 1 1 1 o=0 0 0 0 ie, the number is written in vertical columns, each row ofthe binary equivalent representing a number les aoe As compared tothe pute binary system, the BCD system i slightly more expensive in tems of Consumption ofthe programming medium material, but it combines the advantages of binary representation Sith the ease of reading and writing, characteristic ofthe decimal system. Programming medium used in NC machine tool is punched tape. These tapes are availble in 200 mm diameter rolls, containing 300-600 m length of tape, depending upon its thickness, and are made of paper, plastic ora plasti-aluminium sandwich. In early NC machine tools, punched eards and magnetic tape were sieo used as programming mediums, but subsequently punched tape became widely accepted by industry because of the following advantages: Low cost of perforator and program reader. Low cost ofthe tape proper. Ease of detecting damage to the tape. Possibility of punching the program manually. No hazard of accidental distortion of the coded information. Scanned with CamScanner428 | Machine Too! Design and Numerical Centro! Tape Format and Codes Till 1959, tere was a proliferation of configurations and sizes of punched ‘tapes in use by various manufacturers of NC machine tools. In 1959,.a standard format for tape size and ‘configuration was issued by the Electronic Industries Association of USA (EIA) which is now universally ‘accepted. A standard 25.4 mm (1") tape is shown in Fig. 8.11 When tape is edge guided use this edge Dicection™ Hole numbering a sequence "wack 00 eed +69 SHoles|patam for Stetes Pata fr Holes 7 Holes codes having Round code holes 0725001 Dia Ne code hoes 072300 x 1 hoe 048+ 002 ees Feed ole 048+ 002 1900+ “003 “Tape with Fig. 8.11 A standard eight track punched tape “The tape has eight tracks or channels of coding holes and a row of smaller holes for feeding the tape. The «ross lines ate known as rows. Each combination of holes in a row is regarded as a character. The switching, nd path information required for an operation constitutes a block of characters, The lengths of blocks Sbvibusly differ depending upon the quantum of information required for diferent operations. A block of Sharacters (or simply block, thus corresponds to @ program sentence, In a tape having eight coding tracks sMotl of 2 = 256 combinations are possible in each row. However, one of the tracks is reserved for the purpose of checking, and therefore, the numberof possible characters is only 2” = 128. f the combination of ‘ho holes is ignored as being ambiguous, the actual numberof available characters becomes 2” ~ 1= 127. The widely used EIA code effectively uss only si tacks of the tape for coding, because track No. 8 is used for ‘Coding only one particular statement (The END OF BLOCK statement), while track No. Sis used for party Check (the purpose and method of party check willbe explained litle later), Thus, the number of available ‘characters inthe ELA code is only 2° 1 = 63, Till not so long ago it was considered that 63 characters were ‘adequate for controlling the operation of NC machine tools. However, with increasing sophistication of NC Systems and the larger number of machine tool functions thet are numerically controlled, the need was felt fora code that provided for more characters. This led tothe development of a seven-bit code which has been aceepted by the ISO. Most manufacturers of NC machine tools are gradually changing over to this code. A code similar to ISO is used in the USA where itis known as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), The ASCII code is increasingly being referred as ANSCI (American National Standards Code for Information Interchange) since the name of the sponsoring organisation was changed from American ‘Standards Institute to American National Standards Institue. In the ISO code track No. 8 is utilised for parity check, whereas the remaining seven tracks are used for coding. Thus, the ISO code has provision for 2° 1 = 127 characters, which should be adequate for some considerable time to come, even if the current rapid growth inthe field of numerical controls is kept in mind, Scanned with CamScanner—____ tori contro actin Too 20] ‘The function of Parity check is to keep a check on the mechar conditi of ck on the mechanic codon ofthe punched EIA code adopts the odd Parity check. This means that ‘every character on the punched oe prepa of an odd number of holes. If the ‘binary code requires an even number of holes for a particular numeral (€g..3=0000001 1)or ‘symbol, then an extra hole is punched in track No, 5 to make the number of holes Od. Thus, 3= 00010011 isthe comet equivalent nthe EIA cove I the ape ever gus meshataly damaged by means ofa tear or rip, an extrahole wll appear and the total numberof holes in arow will become even. As soon asthe pay check moniring cou eect an even numer of oer nov, comand is inated stop th tape render and lt he oeaor The ISO coe mploys an even pry cece The numberof hols ina character mst seven nnber of equed Rls or syle od (eg,4=00110100, anextm hols punched in tack No Boake he al nme le even ths cate aa, the tape is conououl ono by ihe pry check clan the wpe ener imei ttoped Wenver £168 tuber of ole ee dost ee oi The Goll fereventaon of ane of te uments and symbol both EIA and ASCIT odes in shown Fig 8.12 SGI saa La] [sla fn| Tepe Punch Fig. 812 EIA and ASCII codes for numerals, symbol and eters System of hole combinations of important characters in EIA code: 1. Digit zeros punched asthe decimal equivalent of 16. The code is obtained as the binary representation of 16, ic. 2, which implies a hole in track NOS. However, since track NOS is reserved for oda parity check, the hole is actually punched in track NO6, Scanned with CamScanner430 Mechine Too! Design and Numerical Control 2. Alphabets a to2 are classified i classifi ino thee group. lpabes, Within cach group, the ahah are represened by Wee sone ean aah) ora THe pc ode hid st iy pes ae ‘ ans on) and punchnga additions eae System of hole combinations of important characters in ASCII Code: J Digits 0-9 are represented by their binary equivalent with two extra holes punched in tracks $ and 6 2 Abpiabels a-z are represented by ther binary equivalents 1-26 with one exta le punched in ‘The program is punched on the tape on a perforator. The perforator is a keyboard instrument like a {typewriter or computer card punching machine. When a particular perforator key is pressed, the punch unit automatically cuts the correct holes, including the hole required for party check. The operator of such « device need not have knowledge of the codes, ec., or any programming skill. As a matter of fact, the job can be easily done by a typist with alittle amount of practise. 8.1.2 NC Hardware ‘The elements of a numerical control system are briefly described below. Program reader When the punched tape is passed trough a punched tape reader, electrical connections are fade in accordance with the punched holes, Thus the coded instructions onthe tape are transformed into heir electrical analogues which are utlised for controling the various machine too functions, Punched tape readers that are commonly used are 1, Electromechanical 2, Photoelectric al reader, there are eight fixed and eight movable contac for reading eight tracks of = peer aes Te i of 005 ive (ORGS which ie Govabi contact re the punched ope zis no hole onthe punched tape, te movable contacts aligned centrally inside the groove passed, When there [20 of oso When tee ia ol inthe tape, the movable contact enters the hoe and it does n01 ouch te i the aed cont ths completing the elects cet. Te hols in is alignment is yrattaneously bythe eight sos of contacts. After a character has been read the tape is ‘The operation ofa photoelectric ae ear is based upon the principe hati beam of ight ls ona are aerfe tater generates an electrical signal. Under the tape, nine photodiodes are placed in a row, Petoide, nes he eenghele ihe eol on bie we ipo iat OPPs cand the eoresponding photodiode generaesanelectial signal. Photoelectric tape readers through this ho ve sprocket, an, therefore, the signal from the photodiode placed opposite the feding hole do not have mer to trigger te simultaneous reading of all the eight coded hols. Photoelectric readers are Scanned with CamScanner