PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

o Scalp and Skin

o Skull and vertebral column
o Meninges
o Cerebrospinal fluid
o Blood brain barrier

Brain contributes to homeostasis by receiving

sensory input

100 billion neurons and 10-50 trillion neuroglia

make up the brain, which has a mas of about
1300g

The brain is the control center for registering

sensations, correlating them with one another and
with stored information, make decisions, and
MENINGES taking actions
Dura Matter REGIONS OF THE BRAIN

→ Double-layered external covering

→ Fold inward in several areas
o Periosteum – attached to surface of
the skull
o Meningeal layer - outer covering of
the brain

Arachnoid Layer

→ Middle layer • Cerebral hemispheres

→ Web-like • Diencephalon
• Brain stem
Pia Matter
• Cerebellum

→ Internal Layer
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE (Cerebrum)
→ Clings to the surface of the brain
Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain

Include more than half of the brain’s mass

The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves

(sulci)

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 FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE
CEREBRAL CORTEX

Sensory Areas

Receive sensory information and are involved in

perception, the conscious awareness of a
sensation

Primary Somatosensory Area (areas 1,2, and 3)

→ is located directly posterior to the central

sulcus of each cerebral hemisphere in the
postcentral gyrus of each parietal lobe

→ receives nerve impulses for touch, pressure,

vibration, itch, tickle, temperature (coldness
The cerebrum is the “seat of intelligence” and warmth), pain, and proprioception
(joint and muscle position) and is involved
→ It provides us with the ability to read, write,
in the perception of somatic sensations.
and speak; to make calculations and
compose music; and to remember the past, Primary Visual Area (area 17)
plan for the future, and imagine things that
→ located at the posterior tip of the occipital
have never existed before.
lobe mainly on the medial surface (next to
→ The cerebrum consists of an outer cerebral
the longitudinal fissure), receives visual
cortex, an internal region of cerebral white
information and is involved in visual
matter, and gray matter nuclei deep within
perception.
the white matter.

Cerebral Cortex Primary Auditory Area (areas 41 and 42)

The cerebral cortex (cortex rind or bark) is a • located in the superior part of the
region of gray matter that forms the outer rim of temporal lobe near the lateral cerebral
the cerebrum sulcus, receives information for sound and
is involved in auditory perception
The folds are called gyri or convolutions
Primary Gustatory Area (area 43)
→ The deepest grooves between folds are
known as fissures • located at the base of the postcentral
→ The shallower grooves between folds are gyrus superior to the lateral cerebral sulcus
termed sulci in the parietal cortex, receives impulses for
taste and is involved in gustatory
Longitudinal fissure is the most prominent
perception and taste discrimination
fissure, it separates the cerebrum into right and
left halves called cerebral hemispheres Primary Olfactory Are (area 28)

The cerebral hemispheres are connected internally • located in the temporal lobe on the medial
by the corpus callosum, a broad band of white aspect, receives impulses for smell and is
matter containing axons that extend between the involved in olfactory perception
hemisphere

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 Motor Areas Lateral Cerebral Sulcus (fissure) separates the
frontal lobe from the temporal lobe.
Primary Motor Area (area 4)
Parieto-occipital sulcus separates the parietal
• located in the precentral gyrus of the
lobe from the occipital lobe.
frontal lobe. Each region in the primary
motor area controls voluntary contractions Insula, fifth part of the cerebrum, cannot be seen

of specific muscles or groups of muscles at the surface of the brain because it lies within
the lateral cerebral sulcus, deep to the parietal,
Broca’s Speech Area (areas 44 and 45)
frontal, and temporal lobes.

• located in the frontal lobe close to the

lateral cerebral sulcus, is involved in the
articulation of speech

Neural circuits established between Broca’s speech

area, the premotor area, and primary motor area
activate muscles of the larynx, pharynx, and mouth
and breathing muscles.

Association Area

The association areas of the cerebrum consist of

large areas of the occipital, parietal, and temporal
lobes and of the frontal lobes anterior to the
motor areas. CEREBRAL WHITE MATTER

The cerebral white matter consists primarily of

LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
myelinated axons in three types of tracts.
Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into
1. Association tracts - contain axons that
lobes
conduct nerve impulses between gyri in
Surface lobes of the cerebrum: the same hemisphere.
2. Commissural tracts - contain axons that
• Frontal lobe
conduct nerve impulses from gyri in one
• Parietal lobe
cerebral hemisphere to corresponding gyri
• Occipital lobe
in the other cerebral hemisphere. Examples
• Temporal lobe
are corpus callosum, anterior commissure,
The central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from and posterior commissure.
the parietal lobe. 3. Projection Tracts – contains axons that
conduct nerve impulses from the cerebrum
Precentral gyrus, located immediately anterior to
to lower parts of the CNS. Example is the
the central sulcus—contains the primary motor
internal capsule, a thick band of white
area of the cerebral cortex.
matter that contains both ascending and

Postcentral gyrus, which is located immediately descending axons

posterior to the central sulcus, contains the

primary somatosensory area of the cerebral cortex

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 BASAL GANGLIA LIMBIC SYSTEM

The limbic system is sometimes called the

emotional brain

It plays a primary role in a range of emotions,

including pleasure, pain, docility, affection, fear,
and anger. It also is involved in olfaction (smell)
and memory.

DIENCEPHALON

o Sits on top of the brain stem

o Extends from the brain stem to the
cerebrum and surrounds the third ventricle
Deep within each cerebral hemisphere are three o Made of three parts:
nuclei (masses of gray matter) that are collectively • Thalamus
termed the basal ganglia. • Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus
Two of the basal ganglia are side by side:

Globus pallidus (pallidus pale)

→ closer to the thalamus

Putamen

→ closer to the cerebral cortex

Together, the Globus pallidus and Putamen are

referred to as the lentiform nucleus (shaped like a
lens).

Caudate nucleus - third basal ganglion, has a Thalamus

large “head” connected to a smaller “tail” by a → Surrounds the third ventricle
long comma-shaped “body.” → Transfers impulses to the correct part of
the cortex for localization and
Together, the lentiform and caudate nuclei are interpretation
known as the corpus striatum → Makes up 80% of the diencephalon
→ Relay station for sensory impulses
→ Contributes to motor functions by
The basal ganglia receive input from the cerebral transmitting information from the
cortex and provide output back to motor areas of cerebellum and basal ganglia to the
the cerebral cortex via neural connections with primary motor area of the cerebral cortex.
nuclei of the thalamus.
Hypothalamus
A major function of the basal ganglia is to help
Is a small part of the diencephalon located inferior
initiate and terminate movements of the body.
to the thalamus.
The basal ganglia also suppress unwanted
movements and regulate muscle tone. The hypothalamus controls many body activities
and is one of the major regulators of homeostasis.
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 thalamus. It consists of the pineal gland
Important functions of the hypothalamus:
and habenular nuclei.
1. Control of the ANS → The pineal gland is considered part of the
The hypothalamus controls and integrates endocrine system because it secretes the
activities of the autonomic nervous system, hormone melatonin
which regulates contraction of smooth → This hormone is thought to promote
muscle and cardiac muscle and the sleepiness, in response to visual input from
secretions of many glands. the eyes (retina)

2. Production of hormones
BRAIN STEM

3. Regulation of emotional and behavioral The Brain stem is the part of the brain between
patterns the spinal cord and the diencephalon
Together with the limbic system (described
It consists of three structures:
shortly), the hypothalamus participates in
expressions of rage, aggression, pain, and 1. Midbrain
pleasure, and the behavioral patterns 2. Pons
related to sexual arousal. 3. Medulla oblongata

4. Regulation of eating and drinking.

The hypothalamus regulates food intake. It
contains a feeding center, which promotes
eating, and a satiety center, which causes a
sensation of fullness and cessation of
eating. The hypothalamus also contains a
thirst center.

5. Control of body temperature

The hypothalamus also functions as the
body’s thermostat

6. Regulation of circadian rhythms and

states of consciousness. Midbrain

o The midbrain or mesencephalon extends

Subthalamus from the pons to the diencephalon
o Medulla and the pons, the midbrain
The subthalamus lies inferior to the thalamus and,
contains both nuclei and tracts
therefore, is situated between the thalamus and
o Has two bulging fiber tracts – cerebral
the tegmentum of the midbrain; craniomedially, it
peduncles
is related to the hypothalamus.

Epithalamus

→ Forms the roof of the third ventricle

→ The epithalamus (epi-above) is a small
region superior and posterior to the
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 o Has four rounded protrusions – corpora
quadrigemina
o Reflex centers for vision and hearing

Pons

o The pons (bridge) lies directly superior to

the medulla and anterior to the cerebellum
and is about 2.5 cm (1 in.) long.
o Contains vestibular nuclei that are
components of the equilibrium pathway
from the inner ear to the brain
o The pneumotaxic and apneustic areas help CEREBELLUM
control breathing.
Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
o The bulging center part of the brain stem
Provides involuntary coordination of body

Medulla Oblongata movements

o Is continuous with the superior part of the o The cerebellum, second only to the

spinal cord cerebrum in size, occupies the inferior and

o The lowest part of the brain stem posterior aspects of the cranial cavity.

o It forms the inferior part of the brain stem o The cerebellum is posterior to the medulla

o The medulla begins at the foramen and pons and inferior to the posterior

magnum and extends to the inferior portion of the cerebrum.

border of the pons o A deep groove known as the transverse

o Decussation of pyramids - explains why fissure, along with the tentorium cerebelli,

each side of the brain controls voluntary which supports the posterior part of the

movements on the opposite side of the cerebrum, separate the cerebellum from

body. the cerebrum

Each hemisphere consists of lobes separated by

RETICULAR FORMATION deep and distinct fissures, anterior lobe and

posterior lobe
Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
BRAIN WAVES AND CONSCIOUSNESS
Involved in motor control of visceral organs
Electroencephalogram (EEG) - electrodes plated
Reticular activating system plays a role in on scalp to record brain’s electrical activity
awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
Brain Waves
▪ The RAS helps maintain consciousness and
is active during awakening from sleep Alpha Waves
▪ For example, we awaken to the sound of
• person is awake in quiet state
an alarm clock, to a flash of lightning, or to
a painful pinch because of RAS activity that Beta Waves
arouses the cerebral cortex.
• intense mental activity

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Delta Waves CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

• deep sleep Is a clear, plasma-like fluid (an ultrafiltrate of

plasma) that bathes the central nervous system
Theta Waves
(CNS).
• In children
The cranial meninges are continuous with the
Electroencephalogram - is a test used to evaluate spinal meninges, have the same basic structure,
the electrical activity in your brain. and bear the same names: the outer dura mater,
the middle arachnoid mater, and the inner pia
mater
Memory
The ependymal cells located in the choroid
Encoding
plexuses of the ventricles produce the CSF.
• Brief retention of sensory input received by
Masses of arachnoid tissue, called arachnoid
brain while something is scanned,
granulations, penetrate the superior sagittal sinus,
evaluated, and acted up
a Dural venous sinus in the longitudinal fissure
• Also called sensory memory
• In temporal lobe VENTRICLES

Consolidated The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called

ventricles.
• Data that has been encoded
• Short term memory Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively
• In temporal lobe large cavity called the lateral ventricle.

Storage The third ventricle is a smaller, midline cavity

located in the center of the diencephalon
• Long term memory
The fourth ventricle is located at the base of the
Retrieval
cerebellum and connected to the third ventricle
• How often information is used by a narrow canal, called the cerebral aqueduct.

Types of Memory

Short-term memory

• Information is retained for a few seconds

or minutes

Long term memory

• Can last for a few minutes or permanently

Episodic memory

• Places or events

Learning

• Utilizing past memories

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 THE FLOW OF CSF MNEMONIC BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER

Little Infants Try Crying For Food Sorry All Done • Includes the least permeable capillaries of
the body
L – Lateral Ventricles (Cerebral Cortex)
• Excludes many potentially harmful
I – Interventricular Foramina (of Monro) substances
• Useless against some substances
T – Third Ventricle (Thalamus)

C – Cerebral Aqueduct (Midbrain) TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES

F – Fourth Ventricle (Pons/Medulla) Concussion

F – Foramina of Luschka and Magendie • Slight brain injury

• No permanent brain damages
S – Subarachnoid Space
Contusion
A – Arachnoid Granulations
• Nervous tissue destruction occurs
D – Dural Venous Sinus
• Nervous tissue does not regenerate

Cerebral edema
CIRCLE OF WILLIS
• Swelling from the inflammatory response]
The circle of Willis is a junction of several
• May compress and kill brain tissue
important arteries at the bottom part of the brain.
It helps blood flow from both the front and back
sections of the brain. CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (CVA)

The circle of Willis gets its name from the • Commonly called a stroke
physician Thomas Willis, who described this part • The result of a ruptured blood vessel
of the anatomy in 1664. supplying a region of the brain
• Loss of some functions or death may result
It may play a passive role in protecting a person
• Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that
from some health issues, such as stroke. However,
blood source dies
it has an association with intracranial aneurysms.

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 ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

• Progressive degenerative brain disease

• Structural changes in the brain include
abnormal protein deposits and twisted
fibers within neurons
• Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin
in middle age
• Victims experience memory loss, irritability,
confusion and ultimately, hallucinations
and death

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