CELL

OBJECTIVE: Identify different parts of plant and animal cells

CELL is a basic unit of life.

a) Animal cell
b) Plant cell

PLANT CELL

SOME PARTS REVEALED UNDER AN ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE

 Partially permeable membrane which controls movement substances in and out of the cell.

CYTOPLASM

 Made out of water, other dissolved substances like amino acids and sugars.
 Metabolic reactions occur in the cytoplasm and organelles.

NUCLEUS

 Control all chemical reaction in a cell,

 it stores genetic information of the organism;
 cell division start in the nucleus.

PARTS FOUND IN PALNT CELLS ONLY

CELL WALL

Freely permeable and made up of cellulose. Cell wall gives plant cell its rigid shape (provide
structural support.)
Protect against damage or bursting caused by osmotic intake of water.
Being freely permeable allows water and dissolved substances to pass through it.

VACUOLE

Large and central in a plant cell.

Animal may have tiny or temporary vacuoles existing to rescue the

CHLOROPLASTS

Plastids containing chloroplasts trap light energy used in photosynthesis.

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QUESTIONS

LIST FIVE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A PLANT CELL AND AN ANIMAL CELL.

SPECIALISED CELLS

OBJECTIVE: Describe the relationship between cell structure and function using an animal cell and a
plant cell as examples

This means cells:

 Do one particular job

 Developed a distinctive shape
 Special kinds of chemical changes take place in their cytoplasm
 NB: This enables the cell to carry out its special function

EXAMPLES OF SPECIALISED CELLS:

1. ROOT HAIR CELL

FUNTION OF A ROOT HAIR CELL IN PLANTS

 Its function is to absorb water and mineral ions from the cell.

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ADAPTATIONS

 Has an extension which increases surface area, making absorption/diffusion rapid.

 Cell wall of the elongation is very thin making it more permeable to water and mineral ions.
 Vacuole is relatively large for accumulation of water and mineral ions.

2. PALASADE CELLS

FUNTION OF A PALISADE CELL

 These are the most photosynthesizing cells in a leaf.

ADAPTATIONS

 Numerous chloroplasts with highest concentration of chlorophyll for maximum absorption

of light.
 Large vacuole for accumulation of more water needed in photosynthesis.

EXAMPLES OF SPECIALISED CELLS IN ANIMALS:

1. RED BLOOD CELL

FUNTION OF A RED BLOOD CELL

 The function is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the different cells of the body.

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ADAPTATIONS

 Shape : Flat biconcave disc; this shape creates a larger surface area for rapid absorption
of oxygen.
 Have no nucleus, this increases the oxygen carrying capacity of the cell.
 Have a flexible surface membrane to squeeze through narrow blood capillaries.
 Have haemoglobin, which has affinity to oxygen, forming oxy-haemoglobin

2. NERVE CELL

FUNTION OF A NERVE CELL

 Conducts electrical impulses in the body

ADAPTATIONS

 Has a long cytoplasm /nerve fibre stretching through length of the body to carry the electrical
impulses to distant areas.
 Has myelin (fatty) sheath which insulates the nerve fibre preventing loss of impulses and making
transmission faster.
 Has many branches to link the neurone to other neurones.

3. SPERM CELL

FUNTION OF A SPERM CELL

 Its function is to fertilise an ovum (its nucleus fuses with that of an ovum.

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 ADAPTATIONS

 Has a tail which allows it to swim or be highly mobile to reach an ovum.

 Has a middle piece with numerous mitochondria to generate energy for the cell in order for
it to move.
 Acrosome has enzymes that just digest the wall of the ovum.

CELL ORGANISTION

OBJECTIVE: Define tissue, organ, system, and organism

1. TISSUE

 A group of similar cells with the same functions.

EXAMPLES OF ANIMAL TISSUES

 MUSCLE TISSUE- Contracts to support and move the body.

 EPITHELUM – Lines tubes such as the gut and covers surfaces such as the skin.
 NERVOUS TISSUE- Sets up nerve impulses and transmits them around.

EXAMPLES OF PLANT TISSUES

 EPIDERMIS-Protecting against water loss and may be involved in absorption of water and ions.
 VASCULAR TISSUE-Transports materials through the plant.
 XYLEM- Transports water and mineral ions up the plant
 PHLOEM-Molecules conducts soluble food molecules from the leaves to different parts of the
plant.

XYLEM TISSUE

 Walls have lignin deposits to make water-proof and strong enough to prevent them from
collapsing inwards.

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  No cytoplasm or organelles, cells dead. The hollowed structure is for flow of water minerals ion.

PHLOEM TISSUE

 Phloem tissue contains sieve tubes and companion cell. It is adapted for the transport of the
organic products of photosynthesis.
 Mesophlly – Photosynthesising cell.

2. ORGAN

ORGAN is a group of different tissues working together.

Examples of plant organs: leaves, flowers, roots, stems and fruits

Examples of animal organs: mouth, stomach, liver, heart, penis, eye, ear, etc

3. ORGAN SYSTEM

ORGAN SYSTEM is different organs working together.

This is found in complex organisms such as animals.

Examples of organs are: Digestive system, circulatory system, nervous system, endocrine system,
reproductive system, etc.

4. ORGANISM

ORGANISM is all organ system working together.

Examples : mophane plant, human being etc

DIFFUSION

OBJECTIVE: Definition of diffusion

DIFFUSION: The movement of molecules or ions from a region where they are at a higher concentration
to a region where they are at a lower concentration (i.e. down a concentration gradient).

OBJECTIVE: * Describe how concentration gradient, particle size, thickness of membrane and
temperature affect diffusion rate.

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF DIFFUSION

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 1. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT( concentration difference)
 The steeper the concentration gradient the higher the rate of diffusion.
2. SIZE OF MOLECULES
 The smaller the size of the molecules the higher the rate of diffusion. Smaller molecules
use less kinetic energy to move, whilst larger ones need more energy.
3. THICKNES OF MOLECULES/WALL
 The thicker thermometer wall or wall the lower the rate of diffusion.
 The thinner the membrane/wall the higher the rate of diffusion. However generally cell
membranes generally have the same thickness, but thickness of cell walls may differ
from cell to cell.
4. TEMPERATURE:
 Increase of temperature increases kinetic energy of particles, and the rate of diffusion of
particles will increase.
 Decrease of temperature decreases kinetic energy of particles, and the rate of diffusion
of particles will decrease.

SOME EXAMPLES OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING ORGANISMS

ANIMAL

 Gaseous exchange in lungs

 Movement of food molecules/mineral ions into cells or from alimentary canal into bloodstream.
 Movement of water molecule from tissue fluid into blood stream or vice.

PLANTS

 Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules into or out the of the plant via stomata.
 Movement of water molecules in cells of the plant or out of the cells ( special diffusion –
osmosis)
 Movement of mineral ions into or out of the cell.

OBJECTIVE: Definition of osmosis

OSMOSIS

OSMOSIS is the movement of water molecules from an area of where they are highly concentrated to an
area where they are less concentrated through a selective or partially permeable membrane.

diagram

 Water molecules are highly concentrated outside the visking tubing compared to the inside of
the visking tubing.
 Therefore water molecules moved into the visking tubing
 Volume of the solution in the visking tubing increased and solutions level in the capillary tube
rose.

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OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of concentration gradient in the uptake of water by plants

diagrams

OBJECTIVE: State how osmosis is a special form of diffusion

OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of osmosis on plant cells, in terms of flaccid cells, turgid cells, wilting
and plasmolysis.

diagrams

OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of osmosis on animal cells,B [refer to bursting and shrinking].

diagrams

OBJECTIVE: Experiment, observation, on how solutions of varying concentration affect plant tissue

EFFECT OF OSMOSIS ON PLANT TISSUE

INVESTIGATION

TOPIC: OSMOSIS

AIM

 To find out how different concentration of sugar solutions affect plant tissues.

APPARATUS USED

 Potato cylinder ( diameter 5mm, length 40mm)

 Solutions 0.55%,55%,10%, sugar
 Distilled water
 Forceps

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  4 Beakers

PROCEDURES

 Distilled water, 0.5% sugar solutions,5% sugar solution, 10% of sugar solution were each poured
into a beaker up to the 100ml mark of the beaker.
 Potato cylinder (of known size) was weighed, mass recorded then placed in the beaker of
distilled water.
 This was repeated using sugar of the following concentrations : 0.55,5%10%
 Each cylinder was left in its medium for 60 minutes
 Mass of each cylinder was measured and recorded.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

OBJECTIVE: Define active transport

Active Transport is movement of molecules or ions from the region of lower concentration to the region
of higher concentration using energy generated by the cell.

Movement from lower concentration to higher concentration is movement against concentration

gradient.

OBJECTIVE: Define passive transport

Passive transport is a non- energy consuming process in which substances are transferred down their
concentration gradient.

OBJECTIVE: Distinguish active transport from osmosis and diffusion, which are passive processes

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT

ACTIVE TRANSPORT PASSIVE TRANSPORT

 Molecules move from region of lower  Molecules move from region of higher
Concentration to region of higher Concentration to region of lower
concentration/molecules more against concentration/molecules move down the
concentration gradient concentration gradient
 Energy from used /ATP from cell used  No energy from cell used /no ATP used
from cell
 Living cell membrane needed/occurs only  No living cell membrane needed/occurs
in living cells both living and non living cells
 Direction of movement of molecules /ions  Direction of movement of molecules/ions
not reversible reversible

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 VARIETY OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

OBJECTIVE: * Discuss the concept of diversity of organisms with examples from Botswana

OBJECTIVE: *List at least three main characteristics (structure, nutrition and reproduction) of
Protozoa, Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi, Green Algae, Arthopoda, Vertebrates and Angiosperms.

OBJECTIVE: * Discuss the role of protozoa and mosquitoes in causing malaria.

OBJECTIVE: *Describe control of malaria

NUTRITION

TYPES OF NUTRITION

OBJECTIVE: Describe autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition

1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION- When an organism makes organic food molecules from simple
inorganic molecules such as water and carbon dioxide.

TWO FORMS OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

 PHOTO – Autotrophic nutrition whereby an organism uses light energy to make organic
food molecules- Plants are examples of photo – autotrophs.
 CHEMO – Autotrophic nutrition: Whereby an organism uses chemical energy to make
food molecules. Some bacteria are chemo – autotrophs

2. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRION: Whereby an organism feed on ready made food molecules.

Below are examples of heterotrophs.
 HOLOZOIC: Feed on materials of other organisms and digest the material internally

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  Herbivores
 Omnivores
 Carnivores.

PARASITES: Completely dependent on other organisms ( host organism) to obtain food e.g. tick and
some fungi.

SAPROPHITES: Digest food externally and absorb simple food molecules e.g bacteria and fungi.

LEAF STRUCTURE
OBJECTIVE: Identify and label the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross
section under the microscope

drawing

OBJECTIVE: Describe the significance of the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledon leaf in terms
of:

 Destribution of chloroplasts - photosynthesis

 Stomata and mesophyll cells - gaseous exchange
 Vascular bundles - transport

Cuticle: Reduces water loss from the plant.

Epidermis: Closely fitting cells reducing evaporation and prevent bacteria and fungi from entering the
leaf.

Mesophyll: Found between the upper and lower epidermis. It consists of the palisade mesophyll and
the lower spongy mesophyll.

 Palisade mesophyll - Have the highest concentration of Chloroplasts, for maximal

absorption of light. This is the most photosynthetic tissue in the leaf.
 Spongy mesophyll – Cells vary in shape and fit loosely together, leaving many air spaces
between them. The inter-cellular spaces allow air to circulate in the leaf.

Vein: Water is supplied through the vascular bundles present in the leaf as vein. Ample water must be
conducted to photosynthesizing cells. Sugars formed from photosynthesis are conducted out of the leaf
to other parts of the plant by the phloems in the vascular bundles.

Stoma: Consists of a pair of guard cells facing each other. Turgidity of the pair of guard cells results in
the stoma opening and flaccidity results in closing of the stoma.

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Adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis

 Their broad, flat shape offers a large surface area for absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
 Most leaves are thin and the carbon dioxide has to diffuse across short distance to reach inner
cells.
 The large spaces between cells inside the leaf provide an easy passage through which carbon
dioxide can diffuse.
 There are many stomata (pore) in the lower surface of the leaf. These allow the exchange off
carbon dioxide and oxygen
 There are more chloroplast in the upper cells than in the lower cells. The palisade cells, being on
the upper surface, will receive most sunlight and this will reach the chloroplast without being
absorbed by too many cell walls.
 The branching network of veins provide a good supply of water to the photosynthesing cells.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

OBJECTIVE: Describe trapping of light by chlorophyll , conversion of light energy into chemical energy,
the formation of carbohydrates, their subsequent storage, and the release of oxygen.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:- Process by which light energy is transformed into chemical energy in the form of
carbohydrates molecules. Carbon dioxide and water react together using energy absorbed by
chlorophyll to produce glucose and oxygen.

The photosynthesis process occurs in chloroplast in two stages:

a) LIGHT REACTION:- A light – dependent stage which requires light energy. During the light
reaction, photosynthesis of water occurs i.e photochemical splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen. Using light energy trapped by chlorophyll present in chloroplasts The light
energy is also converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP(Adenosive triphosphate.)
b) DARK REACTION:- Carbondioxide is reduced by hydrogen(produced in the light stage) to form
glucose using ATP produced in the light stage. This is a temperature dependent stage as
enzymes are involved.
c) Glucose made during photosynthesis is stored in photosynthesizing leave cells as starch

EQUATIONS:

OBJECTIVE: State both word and symbol equation

WORD EQUATION:

Light

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Carbondioxide +Water glucose + Oxygen
Chloropyll

SYMBOL EQUATION:

Light
6CO2 + 6H2O C 6H12 O6 + 6O2
Chloropyll

INTAKE OF CARBON DIOXIDE BY A PLANT

OBJECTIVE: Describe intake of carbon dioxide

 Carbondioxide from the atmosphere diffuse into the leaf through the stomatas.
 In the leaf, carbon dioxide dissolves in the thin film of water surrounding the mesophyll cells;
 Carbon dioxide diffuse into the chloroplasts within the cells, where its used for photosynthesis.

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

OBJECTIVE: *Discuss the effect of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and
temperature on the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. in submerged aquatic plants)

The chief factors are: Light intensity

Temperature

Carbon dioxide concentration

a) LIGHT INTENSITY
 The rate of photosynthesis increased by increasing the light intensity up to the light
saturation point where further increase in light intensity has no effect on the rate of
photosynthesis.
 In the absence of light, photosynthesis does not occur only respiration continues. As
light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases until the amount of carbon
dioxide released from respiration is equal to the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed for
photosynthesis. At higher light intensities, a net uptake of carbon dioxide and release of
oxygen is reached and the amount of carbohydrates in the plant will increase.
 Very high light intensity will slow down photosynthesis, excessive amounts of ultra
violet rays damage chlorophyll molecule.
b) TEMPERATURE
 The reactions in the dark stage of the photosynthetic process are enzyme controlled;
therefore temperature has an effect on the rate of photosynthesis.

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 Increasing temperature up to 40c will increase the rate of photosynthesis due to the
increased enzyme activity. At temperature above 40c, the rate of photosynthesis
decreases as the enzyme gradually becomes denatured.
c) CARBON DIOXIDE
 The normal percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmospheric air is 0.03%. Increasing
carbon dioxide level increases the rate of photosynthesis up to the carbon dioxide
saturation point where further increase in carbon dioxide level; has no effect. A carbon
dioxide level above 0.1% has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis.

 THE GRAPH WAS PRODUCED USING CO2 CONCENTRATIOPN OF0.05%

THE GRAPHS SHOW RATES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS WHEN CO2 CONCENTRATION WAS AT 0.05%

 Suggest how the rate of photosynthesis can be further increased beyond when
temperature is at 40oC Increase CO2 concentration
 3 limiting factors of rate of photosynthesis when temperature at 25oC
 carbon dioxide concentration
 low temperature
 surface area of leaves

INVESTIGATING NECESSITY OF CHLOROPHYLL, LIGHT AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide in photosynthesis

ELEMEMTS NEEDED BY PLANTS

OBJECTIVE: explain importance of nitrogen containing ions for protein synthesis

1. NITROGEN
 Nitrogen is absorbed by plants as nitrates
 Nitrogen is used to form protein or Amino acids molecules.
 Lack f nitrates in the soil results in the stunted growth of plant and yellowing of leaves.
 Addition of magnesium to the soil is by any compound containing magnesium such as:
potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate.

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OBJECTIVE: explain importance of magnesium containing ions for chlorophyll synthesis

2. MAGNESIUM
 Magnesium is absorbed by plants as magnesium ions.
 Magnesium is to form chlorophyll molecules.
 Lack of magnesium in the soil results in the following: yellow leaves.
 Addition of magnesium to the soil is by any compound containing magnesium such as:
magnesium sulphate.

EXPLAIN HOW LACK OF MAGNESIUM IONS AND NITROGENS IN THE SOIL MAY LEAD TO STUNTED
GROWTH

NITRATE IONS
 Needed for synthesizing proteins which are needed by plant to grow since they are used for the
formation of new cells.
 Lack of nitrate ions in the soil will cause stunted growth since proteins are not synthesised.

MAGNESIUM IONS

 The chlorophyll molecules need magnesium to be present. The absence of this metallic element
can lead to leaves have less chlorophyll which leads to less carbohydrates being formed.
 There will not be enough energy generated by cells and cell division will be less leading to the
slow growing of a plant.

OBJECTIVE: Investigate the effect of nitrogen deprivation on plant

copy from the back part of the note book

ENZYMES
OBJECTIVE: Define term enzyme

An enzyme is a protein which functions as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reaction in living
organisms.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

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  Enzymes are produced in minute quantities by cells. A minute amount of enzymes is required to
produce a rapid change in their rate of chemical reaction. Enzymes remain unchanged at the
end of the reaction and can be used over and over again.
 Enzymes work on specific types of substrates molecules. Each enzymes has a specific shape and
its active site will bind to a substrate that has a complementary shape.
 Enzymes are easily destroyed by heat, sensitive to Ph and inactivated by poisons. The active site
of an enzyme altered by heat and Ph.
 Enzyme activity is inhibited as the substrate molecules will no longer fit into the active site of
the enzyme.

GROUPING OF ENZYMES

1. CATABOLIC AND ANABOLIC ENZYMES

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the importance of enzyme in anabolic and catabolic reactions.

 Enzymes act on catabolic reactions (reactions which involve break down of larger
molecules to smaller molecules.
 Enzymes act on anabolic reactions( reactions which involve building of larger molecules
by use of smaller molecules.

2. INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES:

OBJECTIVE: Describe intra-cellular and extra-cellular enzymes.

 INTRACELLULAR ENZYMES are enzymes functioning inside the cell where they are made.
The enzymes speed up the chemical reactions inside the cells.

 EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES are enzymes functioning outside the cells that made them.
e.g digestive enzymes.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SUBSTRATE

Enzymes can be classified according to the type of substrate they act on. Digestive enzymes are
classified according to the food they digest.

a. AMYLASE are a group of enzymes which breakdown starch to glucose.

b. LIPASE are a group of enzymes which breakdown fats and oils to the component fatty acids and
glycerol
c. PROTEASE are a group of enzymes which breakdown proteins to their component amino acids.

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EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

OBJECTIVE: Investigate and describe effect of temperature on enzyme activity

1. In general, increase in temperature, from 5oC to around 40oC increases enzyme activity.
At temperature below 5oC, enzymes are inactivated. At temperature above 50oC,
enzymes become progressively denatured.
2. Rise in temperature increases the rate of metabolic reactions as the frequency of
collisions between substrate and enzyme molecules increases but at temperatures
above 50oC enzymes become chemically altered, denatured.
3. Enzyme function best at a temperature known as optimum temperature. For every
enzyme there is an optimum temperature at which the enzyme works fastest.
4. Human enzymes have an optimum temperature of 37oC.

Graphs on back part of the note book

EFFECT OF pH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

OBJECTIVE: Investigate and describe effect of pH on enzyme activity

 Enzymes are influenced by the acidity and alkalinity of the medium in which they function.
 Each enzyme requires a specific pH level for optimum efficiently. This is the optimum pH of the
enzyme.
 Optimum pH of pepsin in the stomach is pH 2 and that of trypsin in the duodenum is pH 8.

Graphs on back part of the note book

FOOD
Food is required

 as a source of energy
 For formation of new protoplasm during growth
 repair of body tissues
 for metabolic reactions to keep organism healthy and warm

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 OBJECTIVE: Define a balanced diet

Balanced diet is a meal with all the nutrients needed by the body in right quantities and correct
proportions.

OBJECTIVE: List the chemical elements which make up: carbohydrates, proteins and fats

Classes of energy providing foods: carbohydrates, proteins, fats/oils

A SUMMARY OF CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS AND FATS /OILS IS SHOWN BELOW.

CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS/OILS

ELEMENTS  Carbon, Hydrogen,  Carbon,  Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen with
Oxygen Hydrogen, different proportions to
Oxygen, nitrogen carbohydrates
and sometimes
sulphur
MAIN  Proteins, fruits,  Lean meat, fish,  Egg yolk, butter, cream, fatty
SOURCES cereals, grains, rice, liver, milk, meat, cheese, vegetables
bread, sugar cane cheese ,egg white,
and other plant legumes, soya
storage organs beans and cereal
grains
BASIC UNIT  Monosaccharide  Amino acids  One molecule of glycerol and
 Single sugar unit fatty acid molecules
TYPE  Monosaccharide  Animal and plant  Fats from animals are solid at
e.g. glucose, proteins room temperature and certain a
fructose  In which humans, high proportion of saturated fatty
 Disaccharide e.g. non essential acids.
maltose, sucrose, amino acids are  Oils from plant sources are liquid
lactose joined together in at room temperature and have a
 Polysaccharide e.g. any number or high proportion of unsaturated
starch cellulose. order to form fatty acids
different proteins
(may be folded,
twisted or
straight).

CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS/OILS

FUNCTIONS  Main source of  A source of  Component of

energy in the amino acids for cell
diet. growth of new membranes,
 Glucose is the tissues and hormones,
main replacement of mylin sheath
respiratory cell surrounding
substrate components nerve fibres.

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 carbohydrate  To build up  Stored in a
 Cellulose body structures adipose tissue
cannot be e.g hair, cell beneath skin
digest membranes and and around
Provide bulk to red blood cells. body organs as
food assist in  Formation of insulator.
peristaltic muscles,  Fats around
movement tendons and delicate organs
along the ligaments protect them
alimentary  Formation of from physical
canal. enzymes and damage.
antibodies.  As an energy
reserve

CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS/OILS

ENERGY SUPPLY  1g of 1g of protein respires to 1g of fat
carbohydrates give 17kJ of energy respires to
respires to give Only oxidized when give 37kJ of
17kJ of energy carbohydrates, energy
 Immediate glycogen and fats have
source of been used up.
energy

OBJECTIVE: Explain why diet, especially energy intake, should be related to age, sex and physical
activity of an individual

Food Intake in human depends on the following factors: sex, age, occupation and lifestyle.

1. SEX
 Males need more carbohydrates and proteins than female.
 Carbohydrates provide energy for the formation of new cells.
 Proteins from many compacted cells of the muscles.
2. OCCUPATION
 Labourer needs more proteins and carbohydrates than someone doing a white collar job.
 Carbohydrates provide energy for the formation of new cells.
 Proteins from many muscles cells wearing off during physical work.
3. AGE
 Younger people need more carbohydrates and proteins than older people.
 Carbohydrates provide energy for formation of new cells, new cells are needed for
growth of younger person
 Proteins from many cells needed in growth
 Younger people are more active, carbohydrate generate energy for contraction and
relaxation of muscles; movements.
4. Someone who exercises regularly needs more carbohydrates and proteins than someone who
never exercises.

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  Carbohydrates provide energy for formation of new cells
 Proteins form many muscle cells wearing off during physical work.

OBJECTIVE: Describe tests for starch (iodine solution), reducing sugars (Benedict’s solution), protein
(biuret test) and fats (ethanol).

FOOD TESTS

TEST CHEMICAL TEST PROCEDURE OBSERVATION

1)CARBOHYDRATES: BENEDICT TEST  To about 5ml of a food  If reducing
REDUCING sample in a solution form, sugar is absent,
a)SUGARS(e.g add about 4 drops of mixture
glucose) Benedict’s solution. remains blue.
Gently shake to mix.  If present the
 Place the test tube with mixture turns
the mixture in a hot water from blue to
bath green, then to
yellow then to
orange and
finally brick red
b)STARCH IODINE TEST  Place a drop or two drops  If starch is
of iodine solution into a absent the
test tube containing a mixture
food sample in solution remains brown
form with iodine
solution.
 If starch is
present the
mixture turns
blue-black
2.PROTEINS BIURET TEST  To about 5ml of a solution  If proteins are
of a food sample in a test absent the
tube, add about 2ml of mixture
1% sodium hydroxide, remains blue, if
gently shake then add 1% present the
of copper (II) Sulphate mixture turns
drop by drop, gently purple or violet
shake and observe after
adding each drop.
3.FATS/OILS ETHANOL  To a test tube with 2ml of  If fats /oils are
EMULSION TEST a food sample in add absent the
about 5ml of ethanol. mixture
Shake thoroughly then remains clear.
transfer the liquid part of  If fats /oils are
the mixture into an empty present a
test tube. cloudy white
 To the liquid mixture add emulsion is

20
 distilled water drop by formed.
drop. Observe after
adding each drop.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

FEEDING

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION in human consists of five main stages.

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 1. INGESTION: Where food is taken into the alimentary canal via the mouth
2. DIGESTION: Which a process whereby large molecules of food is broken-down into smaller
molecules which can be absorbed into the blood system. It is also known as extracellular
digestion because it takes place outside the cells of the body.

 DIGESTION is achieved by both physical and chemical means. The physical action is achieved
by the teeth (mastication) stomach contracts and bile (emulsification).
 Chemical breakdown is achieved by digestive enzymes contained in saliva, gastric juices,
pancreatic juices and intestinal juices. The chemical bonds in the complex food substances
are broken-down by specific enzymes in the presence of water –a process called hydrolysis.

3. ABSORPTION: Where by food molecules pass through the gut wall into the blood stream.
4. ASSIMILATION: This is the distribution and use of some of these small molecules as an energy
source and conversion of other substances required for growth.
5. EGESTION: where undigested food and other gut contents are removed as feces, via the anus
(also called defecation).

THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE: Using diagrams and models identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and the
associated organs: mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall bladder,
liver, ileum, colon, rectum and anus

22
  The human alimentary canal is differential into a series of specialized regions.
 Below is a summary of functions of parts of the digestive system.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the main functions of the identified parts of the alimentary canal in relation to
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion of food, as appropriate

PARTS OF THE SECRETIONS AND ENZYMES FUNCTIONS

23
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MOUTH {ingestion,
digestion [physical OBJECTIVE:
OBJECTIVE:describe
describechewing
chewing
and chemical means]}  Cut and grind large pieces of food to smaller
a) Teeth  pieces – mastication/chewing.
Cut and This increases
grind large pieces of food to
surface area of food for enzymatic action.
smaller pieces – mastication/chewing.
This increases surface area of food for
b) Salivary glands  Salivary secreted by  Used as a solvent and in the hydrolysis of
salivary glands food.
contains:  Binds food particles and lubricates the food
i) water to help in swallowing process.
ii) Mucus amylase
iii) amylase Starch maltose

 Mixes food with saliva and rolls food into a

c) Tongue ball of bolus from which is easy to be
swallowed

OESOPHAGUS(Peristal  Has muscular walls made up of circular and

sis) longitudinal muscles under involuntary
control. Transports food to stomach by
peristalsis
MUCUS  Aids in the passage of food into the stomach
by reducing friction between food bolus and
walls of oesophagus

STOMACH Ph 1(acidic)  Has muscular walls made up of circular and

digestion [physical longitudinal muscles which are under
and chemical means] involuntary control.
i.) Churns food and mixes it with gastric
juice to food chime
ii.) Absorbs alcohol and glucose
iii.) Stores food temporarily(chyme is
held by sphincter muscles in the
stomach for about four hours.
Gastric glands secrete
gastric juice which contains:
i.) WATER  Used as a solvent and in the hydrolysis of
food
ii.) MUCUS  Protects stomach wall from the action of
acidic gastric juice. Acts as a lubricant for
movement of food within stomach.

24
 iii.) HYDROCHLORIC  Provides the acidic medium (optimum pH)
ACID for enzymatic action. Kills bacteria brought in
with the food. Activates enzymes in gastric
juice.
pepsin
iv.) ENZYME PEPSIN  Protein polypeptides

DUODENUM p H 7-8
(Slightly alkaline)
PANCREAS a) Secrets pancreatic  Hydrolysis of food in duodenum
{digestion [physical juice which contains trypsin
and chemical means]} i)trypsin  polypeptides peptides
amylase
ii)Amylase  Starch maltose
lipase
iii)Lipase  Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol
iv) Water  Used as a solvent and in the hydrolysis

b)Hormone insulin  makes liver cells to converts excess glucose to

glycogen
c) Hormone glucagon  makes liver cells to converts excess glucose to
glycogen

Bile from the gall Produce bile using pigments  increase of pH of acidic chime from the
bladder produced by from old red blood cells stomach by sodium hydrogen carbonate and
the liver broken down in the liver. provides alkaline pH for enzyme action in
Bile is an alkaline solution of small intestines
bile salts  Bile salts breakdown large globule of fats and
oils into smaller droplets – a process called
emulsification.

 This increases the surface area for digestion

of fats.

ILEUM Walls of secrete intestinal

{digestion [chemical juices with enzymes: maltase
means] and i). maltase maltose glucose
absorption }
sucrase
ii). Sucrose sucrose glucose + fructose

lactase
iii).lactose lactose glucose + galactose

25
 erepsin/peptidase
iv). erepsin/peptidase peptides amino acids

 The main function is absorption of soluble

digested food
 To aid in absorption, the surface area of the
small intestine is increased by villi in
epithelial and microvilli in the epithelial cells

COLON (absorption)  Absorbs almost all the water from undigested

residues
 Absorbs mineral ions
RECTUM  Stores feces prior to removal via anus
(egestion)

OBJECTIVE: describe peristalsis

PERISTALSIS

Peristalsis is the contraction of circular and longitudinal muscles along the length of the alimentary canal
resulting in the movement of food.

26
OBJECTIVE: describe the absorption and the significance of villi in increasing the intestinal surface area

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD

Digested food is absorbed in the ileum. The ileum is adapted to facilitate rapid absorption of digested
food substances in the following ways:

27
 a) The folded internal surface of the ileum is covered with numerous finger like projections called
villi(singular:villus) to increase the surface area for absorption.
b) The surface area of each villus is further increased by microvilli which are tiny microscopic
projections from the epithelial cells of the villus.
c) The long length of the ileum also helps to increase surface area for absorption.
d) Each villus contains a dense capillary network close to the epithelium to carry away the
absorbed food substances as quickly as possible. This helps to maintain the concentration
gradient between the solution of nutrients in the ileum and the blood cell plasma in the blood
capillaries for rapid diffusion.
e) The epithelium of the villus is one – cell thick allowing digested food substances to diffuse
rapidly over a short distance into the blood capillaries of the villus.

2. End product of digestion are soluble in water (e.g glucose amino acids) enter the blood system
by diffusing into the capillary network of the villi.

USES OF THE END PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION

OBJECTIVE: describe assimilation and how large molecules are synthesised from smaller basic units:
I. starch from simple sugars
II. proteins from amino acids
III. lipids from glycerol and fatty acids

 The end-products of digestion are assimilated (utilized in the body in various ways) according to
the needs as shown in the table below

END PRODUCT PATH TAKEN TO EACH BODY CELLS FATE OF THE END PRODUCTS
OF DIGESTION
GLUCOSE  Ileum hepatic portal vein 1. Utilsed by all cells in
liver hepatic vein venacava respiration
right heart lungs left heart all 2. Excess glucose is
parts of the body converted to glycogen by
insulin and stored in
liver.
3. Makes starch and
glycogen

AMINO ACIDS  1. Used to make new

protoplasm hormones
and enzymes
2. Used in repair of worn
out tissues
3. Utility by the cells in
respiration only when
glucose and glycogen are

28
 used up.
4. Make proteins.
FATTY ACIDS  1.Fatty acids and glycerol
recombine in lacteal to form fat
globules.
2. Fats stored under skin and
around organs as an energy
store and for heat insulation.
3. Utilsed by the cells in
respiration only when glucose
and glycogen are used up.

OBJECTIVE: State the function of the hepatic portal vein as the route taken by most of the food
absorbed from the small intestines

drawing from a chart

1. LIVER is a large, reddish brown organ concerned with maintaining the concentration and
composition of blood (homeostasis) and excretion. It lies just below the diaphragm and
partly overlaps the stomach. The blood vessels serving the liver are:-
a) HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN:- Carries blood containing digested food substances absorbed
in ileum to the liver. Blood capillaries in the villi of ileum join to form the hepatic
portal vein.
b) HEPATIC ARTERY:- Carries containing oxygen to liver
c) HEPATIC VEIN: - Carries blood containing waste products and substances produced
by liver cells away from the liver.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose, as a storage organ,
deamination and detoxification

2.) THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER ARE:

a) FORMATION OF BILE
 Contains bile salts produced by the liver cells and bile pigments from the breakdown of old red
blood cells in the liver.
 Bile is stored in gall bladder and used to emulsify fats before digestion by lipase in duodenum.

b.)STORAGE OF GLUCOSE

 Helps maintain concentration of glucose in blood by converting glucose which is excess of

the body’s needs to glycogen by hormone insulin. Insulin is secreted by the pancrease and
carried to the liver by blood.

29
c.) DEAMINATION

 Formation of urea. Amino acids that are excess of the body’s needs cannot be stored. The
amino group (-NH2 part) of the amino acids is removed and converted to urea. The residue is
converted to glucose for metabolism or storage.

d.) DETOXIFICATION

 Poisonous substances , used hormones and alcohol are converted to harmless substances by
liver cells.

e.) PRODUCTION OF PLASMA PROTEINS

 Blood clotting proteins such as fibrinogen and plasma proteins phothrombin are made by
liver cells.

f.) STORAGE OF IRON

 Old red blood cells are destroyed in the liver and the iron and vitamins from haemoglobin is
stored for the manufacture of new red blood cells in the bone marrow. Fat soluble vitamins
(A, B, D) taken in the diet are stored in liver. Vitamin B12 is used in the manufacture of red
blood cells.

OBJECTIVE: Investgate action of amylase on starch

Inv estigation : Action of amylase on starch

30
 RESPIRATION
OBJECTIVE: Define respiration

RESPIRATION is the release of energy from food substances in all living cells.

OBJECTIVE: Describe uses of energy in living organisms

Most of the energy is lost as heat energy and remaining energy is used up for the vital activities of the
cells such as:

a) Cell division for growth and repair of tissues

b) Metabolic reactions e.g. synthesis of proteins, hormones, enzymes e.tc
c) Contraction of skeletal muscles, heart muscles e.tc
d) Transport of materials in and out of cells e.g. active transport
e) Conduction of nerve impulses
f) Maintenance of a constant body temperature

OBJECTIVE: Describe respiration

ATP AND ENERGY TRANSFER

 The energy release when glucose is broken down is not used directly in the cell instead it is
transferred to the chemicals which act as a store of readily available.
 One of these chemicals is adenosine triphosphate (ATP).Adenosine combines with one,two or
three phosphate groups. Energy released when the glucose molecule breaks down is used to
combine a phosphate ion ( PO2 2- ) with a molecule of adenosine triphosphate.
 When there is need of energy in a cell, in the presence of an appropriate enzyme, ATP readily
breaks down to ADP, releasing energy and phosphate ion. The energy can be used to drive other
chemical reactions such as those producing muscle contraction.

ATP ADP +PO3

muscle contraction

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

OBJECTIVE: Define aerobic respiration

31
  AEROBIC RESPIRATION is release of relatively large amount of energy by break down of food in
the presence of oxygen

A chain of enzyme controlled chemical reactions are involved and the total effect is

OBJECTIVE: State the equations of aerobic respiration

Word equation:

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + energy

Symbol equation:
respiratory enzymes
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2+6H2O+Energy

OBJECTIVE: Define anaerobic respiration

 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION is release of relatively small amount of energy by the break down of
food in the absence of oxygen

OBJECTIVE: Describe fermentation

 Fermentation is a form of anaerobic respiration. Fermentation is also used more broadly to

refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium

OBJECTIVE: State the equations of anaerobic respiration

1. Alcoholic (yeast) fermentation:

 Word equation:
Glucose Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + energy

 Symbol equation:

C6 H12O12 2C2H5OH+2CO2+2ATP ( G=-210kJ/mol)

2. Lactate fermentation:
 Word equation:
Glucose lactic acid + energy

32
  Symbol equation:
C6 H12O12 2C3H6O3+2ATP ( G=-150kJ/mol)

3. Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

CONDITION  Presence of oxygen  Absence of oxygen
RESPIRATORY  Carbon dioxide, water and a  Ethanol carbon dioxide and
PRODUCTS relatively large amount of energy a little energy for plants
for both plants and animals  A process called Alcoholic
fermentation
 Lactic acid and a little energy
for animals
 Lactic acid is toxic in large
amount
ENERGY  Release all the available energy  Release for less energy
LILBERATED within each glucose molecule because glucose is not
completely broken down
ORGANIC  All organisms breathe in air  Yeasts, bacteria, organisms
(oxygen) living in stagnant water or
 yeast can also respire aerobically mud e.g. worms
 Muscles of human and other
mammals during strenuous
exercise
 Mammals which dive for a
long period of time in the
ocean e.g. seals and whales.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the production of lactic acid in muscles during exercising

4. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN HUMAN SKELTAL MUSCLES

 Anaerobic respiration occurs during strenuous exercise or vigorous activity over a
period of time.
 Despite the increased heart rate, the oxygen cannot be transported to the muscles
fast enough for tissue respiration
 Insufficient oxygen causes the muscles to respire anaerobically to release energy.
 Glucose is broken down to lactic acid instead of carbon dioxide
 Lactic acid accumulates in the muscles and mucus and causes muscle cramps
 Oxygen debt incurred during the period of anaerobic respiration
 The oxygen debt is paid off by rapid breathing in the recovery period after the
exercise to break down the lactic acid built up.

33
 

OBJECTIVE: Demonstrate release of energy through anaerobic respiration using yeast

Experiment (d) To Demonstrate Anaerobic Respiration by Living Organisms

 Boil water for 15 minutes to remove all the dissolved oxygen.

 Almost fill two flasks with the water, allow them to cool to 25°C in the sealed flasks - sealed to
prevent re-oxygenation.

 Dissolve glucose in each flask.

 Add live yeast to one - the experiment. No yeast in the other - the control.

 Place a thin layer of oil on the top of the water in each - the water remains deoxygenated by
preventing contact with air.

 Insert a thin glass tube from each stoppered flask into a test tube of limewater.

 Maintain the temperature at 25°C in a water bath or heating tray.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of the exchange surface of the alveoli in gaseouse exchan

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN MAN

 Gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs where oxygen from atmospheric air is absorbed by
blood and carbondioxide carried by blood is released in to the environment
 Breathing is the process by which external air is brought into contact with the respiratory
surface of the lungs for gaseous exchange
 The complete gas exchange systems consists of the nasal passages,
pharynx,larynx,trachea,broncholi,lungs and the muscles involved in the breathing movements.

OBJECTIVE: Identify on diagram and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and
associated capillaries

34
The main respiratory organs and their role in the gas exchange system are summarized below.

STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS
Nasal passages and pharynx  Air passing through is warmed to body temperature
Lined with ciliated cells and goblet and moistened.
cells  goblet cells produce mucus which traps dust a
 ciliated cells have cilia which flicks in a certain
direction causing mucus to move (flow or stream) in
that direction
 Dust and bacteria in air removed by hair and mucous
 The pharynx is a common passage for air and food
LARYNX  The voice box for sound production
 Air passage
TRACHEA  Air passage to the lungs via the bronchi
THE WINDPIPE LINED WITH ALLIATED  Dust and bacteria in air removed
MUCOUS MEMBRANE AND
SUPPORTED BY C-SHAPED CARTILAGE
BRONCHI AND BRONCHILES  Air passage
 Bronchioles terminate in air sacs or aveoli
LUNGS  Site of gaseous exchange of gases between blood
- SPONGY,LOBED ORGANS system and atmospheric air.
MADE UP OF NUMEROUS AIR
SACS CALLED ALVEOLI -: HAVE
RICH BLOOD SUPPLY
DIAPHRAGM  Separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity
- A sheet of muscular tissue  Changes the volume of the thoracic cavity for
with air cumference attached breathing
to thoracic cavity

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION AF ALVEOLUS:

35
1. Alveoli are efficient gas exchange surfaces because of :
a) The very large surface area provided by the numerous alveoli
b) The one cell thick walls of alveoli which allow rapid diffusion of gases.
c) The presence of a thin film of moisture on the internal surface of alveoli which oxygen can
dissolve.
d) The dense network of capillary around the alveoli which allows rapid efficient gas exchange.
2. Oxygen from the air in the lungs dissolves in thin film of moisture on the cells lining the alveolus.
The oxygen then diffuses across the alveolus wall and through the wall of the capillary into the
blood plasma. The oxygen in the plasma then diffuses into the red blood cells and combines with
haemoglobin to from oxy-haemoglobin.

36
 3. The carbon dioxide carried as bicarbonate ions in deoxygenated blood breaks down to liberate
carbon dioxide which diffuses out of the capillary wall and across the alveolus wall into the
alveolus. The carbon dioxide is expelled out of the lungs together with water vapour from the
water film on the alveolus during expiration.
4. The concentration gradient required for rapid diffusion of gases in and out of the alveolus is
maintained by:
a) Keeping the oxygen concentration high in the alveolus by replenishing air in alveolus.
b) the rapid absorption of oxygen across the thin alveolus and capillary wall and the
formation of oxy-haemoglobin.
c) the constant replacement of oxygenated blood by deoxygenated blood by blood flow.

GAS INSPIRED AIR(15 VOLUME) EXPIRED AIR (5 VOLUME)

Oxygen 21 16
Carbondioxide 0.04 4
Nitrogen 79 79
Water Vapour Varies Saturated

OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of the diaphragm, ribs and intercostals muscles in breathing.

37
BREATHING MOVEMENTS IN MAN

 Breathing is the physical process resulting in the exchange of gases at a gas exchange surface.

INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
 Diaphragm contracts and flattens  Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome shape
 External intercostals muscles between  External intercostals muscles between ribs
ribs contract, internal intercostals relax internal intercostals muscles contract
muscles relax
 Ribcage moves upwards and outwards  Ribcage moves down wards and inwards

 Volume of chest cavity increases  Volume of chest cavity decreases

 Air pressure inside chest cavity and  Air pressure inside chest cavity and lungs
lungs decreases increases

 Atmospheric pressure drives air into  Air is forced out of lungs

lungs

NB: EXPIRATION is the opposite of Inspiration

 Rib cage
 Diaphragm
 Volume
 Pressure

38
  Intercostals and External muscles
 Air pressure pushes air inwards

Control of breathing rate:

a) The rate of breathing is influenced by the carbon dioxide content in the blood
An increase in carbon dioxide level in the blood during exercise stimulates the respiratory
centre in the brain to send more nerve impulses to the intercostals muscles between the
ribs and the diaphragm to contract and relax faster resulting in faster breathing rate.
b) Breathing rate is increased during anxiety, anger and fight due to the action of the hormone
adrenaline.
c) Breathing rate is faster when the metabolic rate of the body is higher. Thus, children and
infants have faster breathing rates than adults
d) Breathing rate is slowed down or even stopped by metabolic poisons which inhibit enzyme
controlled reactions in tissue respiration and paralyse breathing movements.

RESPIRATORY DISEASES

OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components (nicotine, tar and
carbon monoxide) on health: strong association with bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer and heart
disease, and the association between smoking during pregnancy and reduced birth weight.

There is a strong link between smoking and respiratory diseases (cigarette/tobacco smoke) has a
complex composition of many harmful chemical substances.

The constituents of smoke drawn into lungs with each inhabitation can be classified into irritant
substances.

MAIN EFFECTS ON HUMAN BODY ASSOCIATED RESPIRATOTY DISEASE

CONSTITUENT
NICOTINE  A stimulant in small amounts,  Thrombosis formed as the
causes body to release hormone increased blood pressure irritates
adrenaline, thus increasing heart the lining of the arteries
rate and blood pressure
 Causes blood vessels to constrict
 makes blood clots more easily,
thus increasing the risk of
developing coronary heart
disease
 Causes addiction. Smokers who
stop smoking experience
withdrawal symptoms such as
irritation and tension.
CARBON  Colourless, odourless poisonous  Chronic bronchitis, Emphysema

39
MONOXIDE gas
 Causes a reduction of oxygen
supply to heart as carbon
monoxide combines 200 times
more readily with haemoglobin
than oxygen to form
carboxyhaemoglobin than
oxygen to form
carboxyhaemoglobin
 This reaction is irreversible
 Damages lining of blood vessels
and increases fatty deposition on
the walls of bold vessels.
TAR  Dark brown, sticky substance  Lung cancer
containing cancer causing  Throat cancer
chemicals.  Mouth cancer
 forms yellowish brown stains on
smokers teeth and fingers
 causes the persistent smokers
cough and shortens of breath
 deposits in the lungs and may
cause cell changes leading to
uncontrolled abnormal growth
and spread of cancerous cells in
lungs and to other parts of the
body.
IRRITANT  Carbon particles oxides of  Chronic
SUBSTANCES nitrogen, etc  Bronchitis
 irritate the nose, eyes and throat  Emphysema
 cause narrowing of air passages
 Paralyse cilia and affect the
cleaning action of the cilia in the
air passages which removes dust
and bacteria from the air
entering the lungs
 Stimulate excessive secretion of
mucous


1. In pregnant women who smoke, nicotine also constricts blood vessels in the placenta, therefore
reducing the blood supply to the foetus. Carbon dioxide combines irreversibly with haemoglobin
to form carboxyhaemoglobin, thus decreasing oxygen supplied to the foetus.

When a pregnant women smoke, their babies are smaller at birth and there is a higher risk of
miscarriage, stillbirth and infant death. There is also a tendency for slower physical and
intellectual development among the babies of women who smoke.

40
 2. Passive smoker (non – smoker exposed to cigarette smoke continuously) has a higher risk of
developing lung cancer. They may inhale in as much of the harmful constituents of cigarette
smoke as a smoker because side – stream smoke is unfiltered and contains higher concentration
of harmful than main streams smoke inhaled through the cigarette.
3. The main signs and symptoms of the main respiratory diseases associated with smoking are:

RESPIRATORY DISEASE CAUSES SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS  Smoking: continual  Inflammation of the membrane
exposure and inhalation of of the trachea and the bronchi
polluted air  excessive production of phlegm
 chronic cough
 difficulty in breathing
 lungs become susceptible to
infection
 may result in emphysema and
lung failure

EMPHYSEMA  Smoking, continual  Chronic coughing from chronic,

exposure and inhalation of bronchitis causes destruction of
polluted air: developed thin alveolous walls.
from chronic bronchitis  Alveoli enlarged and surface
area is reduced
 Lungs expand and lose elasticity
 great difficulty in breathing
leading to strain on the heat
 lung tissue is damaged beyond
repair
LUNG CANCER  Smoking, continual  Uncontrolled growth of cells in a
exposure and inhalation of small area of lungs may spread
smoke; polluted air and throughout lungs and block
vehicle exhaust fumes bronchioles
 The cancerous growth may
eventually spread throughout
the body
 difficulty in breathing
 blood in spitum
 weight loss
 NOTE: These signs and
symptoms are not noticeable in
the early stages of lung cancer

OBJECTIVE: Investigate the effect of physical activity on the rate and depth of breathing

Effect of exercise on breathing

During exercise, the muscle cells respire more than they do at rest. This means:

41
Oxygen and glucose must be delivered to them more quickly
Waste carbon dioxide must be removed more quickly
This is achieved by increasing the breathing rate and heart rate. The increase in heart rate
can be detected by measuring the pulse rate. The stroke volume also increases – this is the
volume of blood pumped each beat. The total cardiac output can be calculated using the
equation:

Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

During hard exercise, the oxygen supply may not be enough for the needs of the muscle
cells. When this happens, anaerobic respiration takes place, as well as aerobic respiration.

42
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

TYPICAL STRUCTURE OF STEM

TYPICAL STRUCTURES OF A ROOT

FUNCTIONS OF THE MAIN TISSUES IN THE STEM AND ROOT

TYPES OF TISSUE FUCTION

EPIDERMIS  A thin layer of living cells of root and stem
 Epidermis maintain the shape and protects against bacterial or
fungal infection.
 The epidermis of roots develop projections called root hairs which
absorb water from soil
PACKING TISSUE  Several layers of relatively large, thin walled living cells found in
the cortex i.e. between the epidermis and pith.
 The cells are highly permeable to water and dissolved solutes
 Intercellular air spaces in the cortex allows oxygen to diffuse into
the stem or root for cell respiration
 Starch granules may be present.
SUPPROTING TISSUE  Beneath epidermis – living cells with cellulose thickening in cell
corners
 In vascular bundle – no-living xylem vessels with cellulose and
lignin thickening
 Provide mechanical support.
VASCULAR TISSUE  Found in the central part of the root: arranged in a ring in a
dicotyledons stems and scattered irregularly in a monocotyledons
plant
 Contains conducting tissues: xylem and phloem
CAMBIUM  Actively dividing cells found between xylem and phloem. Cells
undergo mitotic divisions to produce new cells from growth found
in (meristems) region of active growth and cell multiplications)
Form xylem and phloem for secondary growth in older stems and
roots

ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINEARAL IONS

GIVE A DETAILED OF HOW WATER AND MINERAL IONS MOVE FROM THE SOIL TO THE XYLEM VESSELS
OF THE ROOT

WATER

43
MINERAL IONS

XYLEM AND PHLOEM

Xylem tissue is for transport of water and mineral salts from the root through the stem and to the
leaves.

Phloem tissue are responsible for translocation of products of photosynthesis from leaves for the rest of
the plant.

44
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. The Human Transport System

OBJECTIVE: describe the circulatory system as consisting of tubes(blood vessels) with a pump
(heart) and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood

 The transport system in the human body consists of the blood, the blood vessels and
the heart.
 It is made up of a continuous sytem of blood vessels with a muscular pump (the heart)
and valves which ensures that the blood flow is always in one direction.
 The transport medium of the body is blood tissue which distributed essential
substances to body cells and collect their metabolic waste.
 The blood is circulated by the muscular contraction of the heart.

OBJECTIVE: Explain why multicellullar animals need a circulatory system

 A circulation system is required because:

 The body is multi-cellular and small surface area to volume ratio.
 Diffusion alone is far too slow a process for adequate distribution of oxygen
and dissolved food substance to substance to cells and the removal of waste
from cells.
2. The Double (Dual) Circulation System.

OBJECTIVE :Describe circulation as consisting of pulmonary and systemic circuits.

 The human transport system is an efficient and complete double circulatory system.
 It is made up of two main system which are connected of the heart.
 Pulmonary circulation – blood circulation from the heart to the lungs and back
to the heart.
 System circulation - blood circulation from the heart to the body parts and back
to the heart.
 Therefore, in one complete circulation blood passes twice through the heart.
 The heart has two halves that are completely separated by a septum.
 Therefore, there is no mixing of deoxygenated blood from the body and
oxygenated blood from the lungs.

45
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the difference between the two circuits (pulmonary and systemic) in terms of
pressure, direction of blood flow and quality of blood:

Systemic Circuit Pulmonary Circuit

Blood is from the heart to the body parts the back Blood is from the heart then to the lungs
to the heart. then back to the heart

Oxygenated blood flows away from the heart Oxygenated blood flows towards the heart
/deoxygenated blood flows towards the heart. /deoxygenated blood flows away from the
heart.

Oxygenated blood flows along arteries and Oxygenated blood flows along veins and
deoxygenated blood flows along veins deoxygenated blood flows along arteries

Blood covers a longer distance Blood covers a shorter distance

Blood is at relatively high pressure Blood at relatively low pressure

46
 3. The Structure, Function, And Action Of The Heart

OBJECTIVE: Describe the structure and function of the heart

Structure Position in the heart Function

Superior vena Main vein which comes from the Returns deoxygenated blood from the head and
cava upper part of the body upper limbs to the heart

Inferior vena Main vein which comes from the Returns deoxygenated blood from the organs
cava lower part of the body and lower limbs to the heart

Right atrium Upper cambers from the heart Receives deoxygenated blood from the vena
cava

Semi-lunar Found at the opening of the Prevents back flow of blood from the pulmonary
valves pulmonary artery artery into the right ventricle when the right
atrium relaxes.

47
Tricuspid Between right atrium and right Prevents backflow of blood to the right atrium
valve ventricle consists of flaps when the right ventricle contracts

Right ventricle Lower chamber of the heart (right) Pumps blood the lungs via pulmonary artery

Septum Muscular wall separating the left Prevents mixing of deoxygenated blood in the
and right chambers. right side of the heart with the oxygenated
blood from the left side of the heart

Bicuspid valve Between left atrium and left Prevents back flow of blood to the left atrium
ventricle. Consists of two flaps. when the left ventricle contracts.

Chordae Elastic tendons which attach valve Tendons become taut and prevent the valve
tendineae flaps to the capillary muscles. from flapping back into the atrium under the
blood pressure generated during the contraction
of the ventricles

Left ventricle Lower chambers of the heart, the Pumps blood to all parts of the body (except the
most muscular part lungs) via the aorta

Left atrium Upper chamber of the heart Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via
pulmonary vein

Pulmonary Arises from the top of the right Carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the body
artery atrium , forms two branches one except the lungs.
each lung

Pulmonary Empties into the left atrium Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the
vein left atrium of the heart.

Aorta Largest artery of the body Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the
left atrium of the heart.

Semilunar Found at the opening of the aorta Prevents backflow of oxygenated blood from the
valves aorta into the left ventricle when the left
ventricle relaxes

 The walls of the ventricles of the heart are more muscular than those of the atria
because the ventricles have to pump blood over a greater distance : to the lung the rest
of the body whereas the atria only pump blood into the ventricles.
 The left ventricle has a much thick wall than the right ventricle because a higher
pressure is required to pump the blood to the rest of the body.

4. The Heart Beat

48
  The heart contracts rhythmically with a period of relaxation and rest between each
contraction.
 The contraction period is called systole and the relaxation period is called diastole.
 During rest, a healthy adult has a heart beat rate of about 72 beats per minute.
 The direction of blood flow in the major arteries and veins of the circulatory system is
shown below

 The walls of the ventricles of the heart are more muscular than those of the atria because the
ventricles have to pump blood over a greater distance – to the lungs and the rest of the body
whereas the atria only pump blood into the ventricles.
 The left ventricle has a much thicker wall than the right ventricles because a higher pressure is
required to pump the blood to the rest of the body.

ATRIAL DIASTOLE VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE

 Both left and right atria contract and
force blood into the ventricles Both left and right ventricles contract and
force blood under pressure, into the
pulmonary vein and artery respectively
 Bicuspid valve of the left side of the Bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve close to prevent
heart and tricuspid valve of the right backflow of blood into the left and right atria
side of the heart respectively
 Semi – lunar valves of the pulmonary Semi-lunar valves of the pulmonary artery open
artery close to prevent backflow of
blood
 Left and right ventricles relax Left and right ventricles

49
5. BLOOD PRESSURE AND PULSE RATE

OBJECTIVE: Locate pulse points and count the pulse rate

 The high blood pressure exerted on the elastic and muscular walls of the aorta during
ventricular contraction causes a wave of contraction to pass along the main arteries of the
body.
 This succession of waves can be felt as a pulse in many places where the arteries are
sufficiently superficial such as the wrist and the neck

 The blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessels as a result
of the contraction and relaxation of the heart.
 Blood pressure varies with the distance of the blood vessels from the heart, the phase of the
heartbeat, the activity and physiological state of the body and age.
 Blood pressure is highest in the aorta and lowest in the veins.
 Blood pressure is higher during ventricular contraction and lower during relaxation
 During vigorous physical activities e.g. exercise; hormone adrenaline secreted causes an
increase in the rate of heartbeat and a rise in blood pressure.
 Blood pressure increases with age.
 Heart beats can be measured by counting the pulse rate.

OBJECTIVE: Investigate the effect of physical activity on pulse rate

insert tables from back part of the note book including explanation

 BLOOD FLOW IN VEINS IS MAINTAINED BY:

 Flow of blood from the capillaries
 Pressure from the surrounding organs, especially from the contraction and relaxation of
skeletal muscle
 Pairs of valves along the length of the veins which prevent backflow.

6. Coronary Heart Disease

OBJECTIVE: Describe coronary heart disease in terms of occlusion of coronary arteries

50
  A heart attack or heart failure is the sudden slowing or stoppage of the heartbeat
due to severe damage or death of the heart (cardiac) muscles.
 A heart attack is caused by a blockage in either of the two coronary arteries which
branch out of the aorta to supply oxygen and soluble substances to the heart
muscles.
 The blockage stops the flow of blood and deprives that part of the heart
muscles of oxygen and food.
 Less respiration will occur at the heart muscles and less energy will be
liberated.
 This will cause severe damage to the heart and failure of contraction of
the heart muscles at the affected part
 Resulting in death.

Two main conditions which cause a blockage in the coronary artery:

Atherosclerosis – The narrowing and Hardening of artery due to fatty deposits (cholesterol) on
the walls of artery.

Coronary thrombosis - The formation of a blood clot inside the artery. Thrombosis is more
likely to occur in narrow arteries with fatty

51
Occurance of both atherosclerosis and coronary thrombosis in the human body.

OBJECTIVE: Discuss possible causes of coronary heart diseases (diet, stress, smoking)

 The main factors which contribute to increase risk of coronary heart disease are:

52
 Smoking - Nicotine

 Increase heart rate by increasing secretion of hormone adrenalin

 Constricts blood vessels increasing blood pressure
 Causes blood to clot more easily
 Carbon monoxide increases the rate of deposition of cholesterol and
decreases oxygen supply to heat.

Diet
 A diet rich in cholesterol and saturated fats results in high blood
cholesterol level.
 This increases deposition of fat on inner surface of the artery.

Stress
 Hormone adrenaline secreted under stress conditions increases heart
rate and blood pressure.
 Forceful thrust of blood makes fats to be deposited on the inner
surface of the arteries, causing narrowing of the artery.

Preventative Measures of Coronary Heart Disease

OBJECTIVE: Discuss preventative measures of coronary heart diseases

Avoid smoking :

 no nicotine in the body which and less narrowing of blood vessels

 no carbon monoxide and less atherosclerosis

Diet with less fat:

 less cholesterol and saturated fats results in high blood

 less deposition of fat on inner surface of the artery

Avoid Stress:
 less adrenaline secreted
 normal heart rate and normal blood pressure
 less fats deposited on the inner surface of the arteries
 less narrowing of the arteries.

53
THE GENERAL CIRCLATORY SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE: Name and identify the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs , liver and kidneys

Fig. A

54
Fig. B

****TASK****

Label fig. A above using information in Fig. B

55
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ARTERIES, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES

OBJECTIVE: compare the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries

 A comparison of the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries

FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENCES:

ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES

 All arteries transport  All veins transport blood  Capillaries transport
blood away from the towards the heart blood from artery to vein
heart

 All arteries carry  All veins carry  They carry blood at

oxygenated blood except deoxygenated blood intermediate pressure.
the pulmonary artery except the pulmonary The repeatedly branched
vein fine capillaries provide a
large surface area for
exchange of substances
between the blood and
tissue cells.
 The rate of blood flow is
slow allowing maximum
time for diffusion of
substances
 Pulse is strong  No pulse  No pulse

STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES:

ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES

 Thick muscular,  Thinner, inelastic and less muscular walls  Thin, one
elastic walls cell thick
walls, no
muscle and
elastic tissue
 Walls are not  Walls are not permeable  Walls are
permeable permeable
to tissue
fluid and
phagocytes
 Relatively small  Relatively large lumens  Very small
lumens lumens
(smallest
blood
vessels)

56
  Circular cross-  Oval cross - section  Circular
section cross -
section

Exchange of Materials Between Capillaries and Tissue fluid

OBJECTIVE: describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid

57
  blood entering the capillary from the arteriole is at higher pressure
 fluids exude out through the capillary walls to bath cells, forming tissue fluid
 water, oxygen, glucose, phagocytes and other smaller molecules pass through the capillary
walls into tissue fluid
 carbon dioxide, urea and other wastes diffuse from the tissue fluid into the capillary
 water re-enters the capillary by osmosis

BLOOD
OBJECTIVE: list components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma

Blood consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma

OBJECTIVE: Identify red and white blood cells as seen in diagrams and/ photomicrographs.

OBJECTIVE:Describe the function of:

I. red blood cells – haemoglobin and oxygen transport

II. white blood cells – phagocytosis, antibody formation and
tissue rejection
III. platelets – fibrinogen to fibrin causing clotting
IV. plasma – transport of blood cells, ions, end products of
digestion, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins,
plasma proteins

BLOOD CELLS:

 red blood cells

 white blood cells

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  platelets

BLOOD CELLS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL STRUCTURE VOL/mm3 SITE OF FUNCTION OF CELL

FORMATION
1.Red blood cell 5 Red bone marrow Lungs
Haemoglobin
million (particularly the Oxyhaemoglobin
ribs) (purplish red) (bright red) + Oxygen

a) Haemoglobin is a pigment
which contains iron. It is
capable of combining
reversibly with oxygen
b) Red blood cell has a short life
span of about 120 days. The
dead cells are broken down in
 Biconcave disc without the spleen and liver. Iron is
nucleus stored in the liver and the rest
 Has elastic cell of the haemoglobin molecule
membrane forms bile pigments

White blood cell 7000 Lymph Engulf, ingest and digest foreign
million particles.
 large than red blood cell
 contains nucleus
1 Phagocytes

2. Lymphocyte Lymph Produces antibodies which destroy

invading bacteria/foreign particles and
neutralize toxins produced by bacteria

PLATELET 0.25 Red bone marrow Forms a temporary plug at wound or

cut. Damaged tissues and platelets
form enzyme Throbokinase
 A tiny fragment of cell + Calcium ions
without nucleus Prothrombin thrombin

thrombin
a) Fibrinogen Fibrin

b) Fibrin mesh traps blood cells

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 and forms blood clot to seal up
wound

PLASMA

(Straw-colored liquid) CONSISTS OF

 water (90%)
 Soluble food substances e.g glucose, amino acids,oil
droplets
 mineral salts e.g sodium,calcium, chloride ions and
bicarbonate ions (HCO-3)
 plasma proteins e.g fibrinogen and antibodies
 waste e.g carbondioxide and urea
 hormones in minute quantities e.g adrenalin and insulin
 enzymes
 gases in mall quantities e.g oxygen and nitrogen

IMMUNITY

ANTIBODY

 Antibody is a protein molecule produced by the body in response to an antigen. Each different
antigen stimulates the production of the particular type of antibody that will destroy that
antigen.
 Once the lymphocytes have learnt to make a particular type of antibody in response to the
antigen on an infective organism, the body begins to recover as the organisms or pathogens are
destroyed. It takes a few days to produce antibodies, so the infected individual will show some
symptoms of the disease.

LYMPHOCYTES

The types are:

B – LYMPHOCYTES – Produce antibodies

T – LYMPHOCYTES – either attack pathogens directly, or produce chemicals which coordinate
the activity of all cells in the immune system.

OBJECTIVE: explain why immunity often results after an infection or vaccination

60
IMMUNITY

 After an infection, some lymphocytes are kept as a memory which helps the body to quickly
form antibodies that defend the body against further attacks by the same antigen/pathogen
 . The memory cells may last for years, and the body is said to be immune to the disease.

VACCINES

 Vaccine is an example of active artificial immunity

 Vaccines are produced in several ways:
 Dead pathogens, e.g. whooping rough vaccine
 Weakened pathogens e.g. oral polio vaccine
 Genetically engineered fragments – Protein from the
pathogens surface which are recognized by lymphocytes, e.g.
hepatitis B viral coat protein
 a vaccine causes formation of memory cells against a specific pathogen which will help the
body to quickly form antibodies when there is a real attack by the same pathogen

IMMUNITY MAY BE:

1.ACTIVE

Individual makes his or her own antibodies

NATURAL (Pathogen infects individual) ARTIFICIAL (Weakened pathogen (vaccine)

 Individual contracts disease Vaccine does not cause disease but lymphocyte
but survives, makes do produce antibodies.
antibodies and is now immune Individual is now immune to this pathogen.e.g

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 to further infection by the same vaccination against rubella virus ( which causes
pathogen, e.g. immunity develops German measles) in teenage girls.
to different strains of the common cold.

2.PASSIVE
Individual is given ready –made antibodies

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

 Mother antibodies cross the placenta Adult is now immune to disease used if
and are in breast milk – new born for disease is too fast – acting for the
which mother produced antibodies e.g immune system to deal with, e.g
gust infections. injection of anti tetanus antibodies

following a deep, dirty cut or wound

This offers only a temporary immunity,
since the body is not producing
antibodies.

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OBJECTIVE: explain why people do not become immune to some diseases

 Some diseases have pathogens than mutate easely

 the memory cells formed in the body will form antibodies that are unable to attack the mutant
pathogen

BLOOD GROUPS AND BLOOD TRANSFUSSION

OBJECTIVE: describe the four blood group (A, B, AB, O) in terms of antigen present in the blood and
antibody production

THE ABO BLOOD GROUPING IS BASED ON:

 Two antigens called agglutinogens, symbolized as A and B, are genetically determined

carbohydrate molecules carried on the surface membrane of the red blood cells.

Red blood cell Red blood cell shows Red blood cell shows Red blood cell
shows agglutinogen A agglutinogen B both A nor B shows neither
A agglutinogen A or B agglutinogen

 Two antibodies called agglutinins, anti-A and anti – B, carried in the blood plasma.

OBJECTIVE: Discuss blood transfusion in terms of donors and recipient and precautions to be taken

 A blood transfusion may be necessary to make up blood volume following hemorrhage

or during surgery.
 Only compatible blood should be transfused, or agglutination and haemolysis may
occur.
 Agglutinated (clumped) cells may block capillaries and cause kidney or brain damage, or
even death.
 Haemolysed cells ‘leak’ haemoglobin so oxygen transport is affected.

Transfusion of Blood:

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 Donor A B AB O
antigen A antigen B antigen A and no antigen
RECIPIENT antigen B
A clumping clumping
(anti – B) compatible or or compatible
agglutination agglutination
B clumping clumping
(anti – A) or compatible or compatible
agglutination agglutination
AB
( no anti-A and compatible compatible compatible compatible
no anti –B)

clumping clumping clumping

O or or or compatible
(anti –A and anti- B) agglutination agglutination agglutination

 An incomplete transfussion: blood group B red blood cells are clumped by anti – B
agglutinins/antibody in plasma of blood group A
 The agglutinins/antibodies in the donor blood are ignored – they are in too low a concentration
to cause major damage.
 AB is the universal recipient since its plasma contains no agglutinins antibodies to clump donor’s
red blood cells.

BLOOD RELATED DISEASES:

OBJECTIVE: discuss common blood diseases e.g. HIV/AIDS, malaria, leukemia, and anemia

OBJECTIVE: discuss how blood related diseases can be prevented

These are diseases that are related to blood. They include the following; Leukaemia, Anaemia,
haemophilia, malaria, HIV/AIDS e.t.c.

1.Leukaemia/cancer of the blood

 This is overproduction of white blood cells

64
  Many of the white blood cells fail to mature and the overproduction leads to overcrowding
of the cells out of the bone marrow cells which produce the red blood cells and the
platelets.
 This leads to bleeding (bleeding can occur in the gums, nose, and rectum.
 Other symptoms include, infection of the mouth, throat and fever, anaemia, extreme
weakness and headache, excessive bleeding in children, enlargement of lymph nodes
 The disease can be hereditary.
 Can be treated by transplanting healthy bone marrow from a close relative, after their own
bone marrow has been destroyed using radiation.
An individual who has Leukaemia has a high chance of getting HIV/AIDS why?

 Weakened immune system.

 Infections with HIV is not resisted
 Easy for leukemia patient with HIV to develop AIDS because of few normal
lymphocytes.

2. Haemophilia

o It is a sex linked diseases linked to the males because it is carried in the X chromosome.
o A condition where the blood cannot clot and once the individual starts bleeding, without
any help he/she can die.
o Haemophiliacs may require blood transfusion for fairly minor injuries to replace lost blood
and may need to inject themselves with the missing blood clot factor.

3. Anaemia

All other blood related diseases show anaemia as a symptom and there are many forms of
anaemia.

 This results when there are a few red blood cells in the bloodstream or if the concentration
of haemoglobin is low.
 This can be due to a diet lacking iron or the inability to absorb vitamin B 12 from the
alimentary canal. Pregnant women. Therefore one has to take a diet rich in iron and taking
iron supplements (in tablets).

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  Sickle cell anaemia: a hereditary form of anaemia where the red blood cells become
deformed and form a sickle shape. This anaemia reduces the large surface area of the red
blood cell and therefore hinders/reduces the diffusion of O2 into the red blood cell. This
usually results in extreme fatigue, pale skin, low red blood cell count and general body
weakness. The condition however is important in reducing excessive blood loss in case of
accident/injuries, lack of iron e.g. during pregnancy, and helps control plasmodium.

4.HIV/AIDS

 AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. The disease is caused by a virus,
human immuno-deficiency virus.
 The HI virus attacks the T-lymphocytes and reduces their count to very low levels.
 When T-lymphocytes are too few, the body fails to fight opportunistic infections,
eventually AIDS develops.
 Transmitted through exchange of body fluids such as blood and sexual fluids
 Sign/symptoms: loss of weight, TB, skin cancer, prolonged diarrhea.
 Treatment: ARVs to reduce viral load in blood.
 Prevention: avoid exchange of body fluids with infected person, and use condoms and
gloves when handling blood.

*****For malaria check your previous notes*****

HOMEOSTASIS
OBJECTIVE: Define homeostasis.

1. HOMEOSTASIS is the control and maintenance of a constant internal environment around the cells
in the body despite unfavorable fluctuations in the external environment.

OBJECTIVE: locate and name the main organs which maintain a constant internal environment,
namely pancreas and liver ( blood glocuse), kidneys (water content) and skin (temperature).

66
2. The composition of the tissue fluid that surrounds the cells kept constant by the action of a number
of different organs which constantly regulates particular factors in the blood.

ORGANS BLOOD FACTORS REGULATED MECHANISM OF CONTROL

LUNGS Carbon dioxide and Oxygen  Breathing rate and carbon dioxide
level in blood are regulated via the
respiratory canters in the brain
KIDNEYS Water, Urea and Excess  Amount of water reabsorbed by
mineral salts kidney tubules is regulated in the
action of anti-diuretic hormone. Urea
and excess mineral salts are removed
from the blood and are excreted in
urine.
LIVER and PANCREAS Blood glucose  Glucose level is regulated by
hormones insulin and glucagon
SKIN AND LIVER Temperature  A combination of involuntary actions
are controlled and coordinated by the
hypothalamus of the brain.

SKIN AND TEMPERATURE REGULATIONS

1. The functions of the skin

a) A continuous covering to protect body tissues from ultra violet radiation as well as
mechanical damage, entry of bacteria and excessive loss of water by evaporation.
b) A sense organ to detect pain, pressure changes and temperature
c) For temperature regulation to maintain a constant body temperature
d) Removes excess salts, water and urea from the body in the form of sweat as a homeostatic
organ and not an excretory one.

2. The structure of skin and its functions are summarized below:

OBJECTIVE: Identify and label on the diagram of the skin: hairs, sweat, sweat glands receptors
and blood vessels

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 PARTS OF SKIN FUNCTIONS
EPIDERMIS Protect layer
1. Cornified layer  Top most layer which consists of flat, dead cells that continually
wear off.

2. Granular layer  Contains living cells which is gradually pushed up to replace the
worn – out cells in the cornified layer.

 Contains actively dividing cells to produce new epidermis. Has

3. Malpighian layer pigment melanin that gives skin its colour and absorbs ultra
violet radiation
DERMIS  A layer of connective tissue with many collagen fibres and some
elastic fibres. It contains most of the important structures found
in skin.
SEBACIOUS GLANDS  Secrete oily sebum to lubricate skin

HAIR FOLLICLE AND HAIR  A deep pit of granular and malpighian layer where cells multiply
to form a hair inside the follicle
ERECTOR MUSCLE  Controls the erection of hair- contracts to raise the hair and
relaxes to make the hair lie down.
SWEAT GLANDS
 Absorbs salts and water from blood capillaries to produce sweat
for temperature regulation and excretion
SENSORY NERVE ENDINGS  Detect pain, changes in temperature and pressure on skin
BLOOD CAPILLARIES  Regulate temperature by vascular constriction or dilation.

68
3. A negative feed back mechanism is used in homeostasis. A summary of this mechanism used is
illustrated by the diagram below.

Hypothalamus:
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the coordinating role of the brain in maintaining a constant body temperature

 In the hypothalamus there is a thermoregulatory center

 The thermoregulatory center monitors the temperature of the blood passing through it and also
receives sensory nerve impulses from temperature receptors in the skin.
 A rise in body temperature is detected by the thermoregulatory center of hypothalamus:
 It then sends nerve impulses to the skin which results in vasodilation and sweating

 A fall in body temperature is detected by the thermoregulatory center of hypothalamus:

 It then sends nerve impulses to the skin which results in vasoconstriction, minimal
sweating and decrease of exothermic reactions of the liver.

4. THE ROLE OF THE SKIN IN TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Temperature of blood 1. Increase production of sweat, evaporation of liquid in sweat,

decreases latent heat energy lost from the body, the body cools
2. Hair erector muscles relax, hair lie close to skin surface

69
 (for furry mammals only).
3. Blood arterioles near surface of skin dilate (vasodilation)
more blood flows closer to skin , more heat lost from the
body by radiation.

4. Metabolic rate decreases

stimulates

Normal blood Rise in temperature of blood stimulates Hypothalamus

(brain)
stimulates
temperature Drop in temperature of blood Hypothalamus
(brain)

Temperature of blood 1. Shivering occurs, contraction of muscle fibres , friction

increases between muscle fibres, heat released
2. Hair erector muscles contract, hairs stand on ends forming
an insulating layer of air between hairs (for furry mammals
only).
3.Blood arterioles near surface of skin constrict
(vasoconstriction),less blood flows closer to skin surface of
skin. Less heat lost by the radiation.
4. Metabolic rate reaction in the liver (exothermic reactions)

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EXCRETION
OBJECTIVE: Define excretion as given below

1. Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products and toxic materials from organisms, to
maintain constant internal environment.
2. The accumulation of these substances can interfere with the proper functioning of cells and
change the concentration of tissue fluid around.
3. A variety of excretory products are removed from the body by the excretory organs.

EXCRETORY ORGANS TYPES OF WASTE EXCRETED

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 Lungs Carbon dioxide
Kidneys Urea, excess water, and mineral salts
Liver Urea ( from the breakdown of amino acids),
pigment
Skin Heat, excess water, mineral salts and urea

4. Used hormones, drugs and toxic substances such as alcohol are also excreted.

THE HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE: Identify parts of the urinary system: kidneys, ureter,bladder; urethra.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the functions of : kidneys, ureter, bladder; urethra.

STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS
KIDNEY  Filters blood and excretes nitrogenous wastes, excess salts and
water as urine
RENAL ARTERY  Branching from the aorta, the renal artery carries oxygenated
blood to the kidney
RENAL VEIN  Carries deoxygenated blood away from the kidney to the vena
cava
URETER  Peristaltic waves of contraction in the thin tube carries urine
produced by the kidneys to the urinary bladder

72
URINARY BLADDER  A distensible sac in which urine is temporarily stored
SPINCHER MUSCLE  Voluntarily relaxes to release urine from the bladder
URETHRA  Passage of urine out of the body is through the urethra

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEY

1. The kidney contains about one million microscopic urine formation units called kidney tubules
or nephrons.

STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY

OBJECTIVE: Draw and label a cross section of a mammalian kidney

2. The various regions in the internal structure of the mammalian kidney and their functions are
summarized in Table 2

REGION IN THE KIDNEY FUNCTION

Outer Cortex ( dark colour)  Contains the Brownman’s capsules and

73
 glomeruliol.
 The nephrons. The dark colour is due to
the millions of coiled capillaries of the
glomeruli.
INNER MEDULLA( light clour)  Contains U – Shaped loop of henle and
the collecting dusts
PYRAMIDS  Cone shaped areas in medulla where
urine produced by the kidney tubules
drain into the pelvis of the ureter.
PELVIS  Funnel – Shaped spaces formed by the
top of the ureter collects urine.
URETER  Peristaltic waves of contraction in the
thin tube carries urine produced by the
kidneys to the bladder.

STRUCTURE OF A KIDNEY NEPHRON

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the structure and function of the nephron

FORMATION OF URINE

OBJECTIVE: Describe the removal of water and urea through the kidneys.

74
 1. Urine is formed in two stages
a) HIGH BLOOD FILTRATION (ULTRAFILTRATION)
 The blood in the glomerulus of Browman’s capsule is under high pressure. This causes the
plasma of the blood to filter through thin capillary walls and to collect in the Browman’s capsule.
The filtrate contains glucose, amino acids, salts and nitrogenous products dissolved in water.
Blood cells and blood proteins remain in the capillaries
2. SELECTIVE REABSORPTION
 As the filtrate flows down the nephron, all useful substances such as glucose, amino acids, salts
and water required by the body are reabsorbed back into the network capillaries surrounding
the coiled parts of the tubules.
 This reabsorption process is against the concentration gradient (active transport) and therefore,
requires energy from respiration within the cells of the nephron.
 The remaining liquid, which is urine, passes down the collecting duct to the renal pelvis.
3. The composition of liquids at different regions of the nephron

SUBSTANCE % IN PLASMA % IN BROWMAN’S CAPSULE % IN URINE

Water 90 – 93 99 95
Glucose 0.1 0.1 0

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Mineral Salts 0.35 0.35 2
Urea 0.03 0.03 2
Proteins 7-9 0 0

4. The actual composition of urine fluctuates depending on the changes in the amount of water
and concentration of substances dissolved in the blood entering the kidney when there is excess
water in the blood, less water is reabsorbed by the kidney tubules and urine becomes more
dilute. When there is more dissolved urea and salts and less water in the blood, more water is
reabsorbed by the kidney tubules and urine becomes more concentrated and smaller in volume.
5. The hormone ADH (anti – diuretic hormone) controls the reabsorption of water by altering the
permeability of the cell membranes of the kidney tubules.

76
KIDNEY FAILURE AND THE DIALYSIS MACHINE

*OBJECTIVE: Describe dialysis in kidney machines as the diffusion of waste products and salts
(small molecules) through a partially or selectively permeable membrane.

1. Kidney diseases can reduce the efficiency of the kidney and can cause kidney failure. One or
both kidneys may cease to function properly. A person with one functional kidney can survive
and leave a more or less normal life but failure of both kidneys results in the accumulation of
nitrogenous waste and toxins leading to death.
2. The condition can be alleviated by the use of a dialysis machine or an artificial kidney which
eliminates the excess salts and nitrogenous waste from the patient’s blood.

77
a. The patient’s blood is led from the radial artery in his arm through the coiled cellophane tube in
the dialysis machine and then turned to a vein in the same arm. The cellophane tubule is a semi
permeable membrane which allows small molecules of dissolved substances to diffuse through
and prevents the passage of blood cells and large proteins.
b. The coiled cellophane tube is bathed in a sterile dialysis fluid which contains a carefully
regulated amount of dissolved salts and sugars with a composition similar to the blood plasma
( without nitrogenous waste.)

A diffusion gradient is set up and nitrogenous waste, excess mineral salts and other toxins
diffuse from patient’s blood across the cellophane into the dialysis fluid.

The dialysis fluid is changed regularly to remove the waste substances and to maintain the
diffusion gradient between the patient’s blood and the dialysis fluid. The temperature of the
dialysis fluid is maintained at body temperature.
3. Patients with permanent kidney failure become totally dependent on the kidney machine. They
have to keep a strict diet (restricted salt, water and protein) and usually undergo 3 sessions of
dialysis per week for 4 – 5 hours per session.

Patients suffer from tiredness, anemia, develop bone problems and risk being infected by diseases
transmitted by blood such as AIDS. The stress and difficulty in accepting and adjusting to a rigid a
restricted lifestyle and poor employment opportunities can cause psychological problems.

4. An alternative treatment is a KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

78
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. The main function of the nervous system is to transmit messages. ( Carried via nerves) rapidly
from one part of the body to another and to coordinate the organism and action.

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the relationship of sensory (receptor) cells, sense organs and the effector
organs.

The human body has sensory organs with receptor cells that generate electrical /nerve impulses
when stimulated by specific stimuli. The nerve impulses are sent to the effectors that change to
make a response.

The table below shows the relationship between sensory organs and the stimulus

Sensory Organ Receptor cell Stimulus

Eye photo receptors light

ear sound receptors sound

nose chemo receptors chemicals

Skin pressure receptors pressure

pain receptors pain
thermo receptors temperature

tongue chemo receptors chemicals

2. Composition of the nervous system: Comprises of the Central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. Central nervous system comprises of the brain and the spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system comprises of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves.

79
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PEREPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

(CNS)

Brain is protected by Spinal cord is protected Cranial nerves Spinal nerve

cranium by vertebral column that arise from the brain that arise from

the surface

cord.

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the principle of detecting change in the environment and responding to it.

3. Changes in the environment are called stimuli (singular stimulus) and they are detected by
receptors with special types of nerves ends. Receptors transmit a message via a nerve to the
central nervous system (CNS). The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord which causes a
m response brought about by the effectors. An effector may be a gland or a muscle which
responds to the stimulus. The whole process is represented in the fig. below.

DRAWING

4. The CNS interacts with the peripheral nervous system, both receiving and sending messages.
The pheripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves which connect the body to the CNS.
The cranial nerves supply areas in the head such as the eyes and ears, and the spinal nerves
supply areas in the rest of the body such as the arms and legs.

80
 5. The brain and the spinal cord are surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid which acts as a shock
absorber and a source of nutrients for the nerve cells.

NEURONS AND NERVOUS IMPULSES

1. A nerve is made up of hundreds of microscopic nerve cells bundled together called neurons.
2. A neurone is the basic unit of the nervous system. Neurones link the receptors, the CNS and the
effectors together. A neurone consists of 3 main parts;
a. CELL BODY –Contains the cell membrane, cytoplasm and the nucleus. They are grey in colour
and make up the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord.
b. AXON – A long fibre that extends from the cell body to the effector and carries impulses away
from the cell body. The impulses are carried over long or short distances depending on its
length. The axon is surrounded by a fatty structure called a myelin sheath and has small
constrictions along its length called Nodes of Ranvier.
The myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator and helps to speed up the transmission of
impulses.
At the end of an axon are terminals that release neurotransmitters which are chemicals that
cause the effectors to act. They are white in colour and make up the white matter of the brain
and spinal cord.

C. DENDRONS – Dendrons arise from the cell body and branch to small, fine fibres called the
dendrites. They receive messages from axons of other neurones and carry these impulses towards the
cell body.

3. THERE ARE THRESS TYPES OF NEURONES IN THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

SENSORY NEURONES

OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of a sensory neurone.

 Transmit messages from the sensory receptors to the CNS. Receptors are the ends of
terminals of sensory.
 They have a long Dendron and short axon. Their cell body’s are found outside the CNS in the
dorsal root ganglion of the spinal cord.

OBJECTIVE: Draw a labelled diagram of a sensory neurone.

DRAWING

MOTOR NEURONES:

OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of a motor neurone

81
  Transmit messages from the CNS to effector ( muscles and glands). They link intermediate
(relay) neurones in the CNS to effectors.
 They have long axons and short dendrons. Their axons branch repeatedly in the muscle it is
supplying, with each branch terminating in a motor end place on a single muscle fibre.

OBJECTIVE: Draw a labelled diagram of a motor neurone.

DRAWING

INTERMEDIATE ( RELAY) NEURONES

OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of a relay neurone

1. They occur in the brain and spinal; cord where they link the sensory neurons with the motor
neurones. They transmit messages directly from sensory to motor neurones in the CNS.

OBJECTIVE: Draw a labelled diagram of a relay neurone.

DRAWING

3. Nervous impulses are generated by direct electrical stimulation or by a variety of

different stimuli such as pressure, temperature, chemicals, pain, light e.t.c. These stimuli
will initiate nervous impulses to occur in the appropriate receptors.
4. Neurones transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses. An electrical impulse is a
wave of electrical charge (caused by chemical changes in and around the neurone). It is
known as a nervous impulses. Transmission of nervous impulse requires energy from
aerobic respiration.

Nervous impulses travel rapidly in one direction starting at the dendrites and finishing at the
axon of each neurone.

THE SPINAL CORD

1. The spinal cord is the continuation of the brain. It is dorsal in position and occupies
the neural canal of the vertebral column, protected by the vertebrae. It is
surrounded by protective membranes and cerebrospinal fluid.

82
2. Between the vertebrae, spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord merge and run to
all parts of the body concerned with spinal reflexes. All the sensory fibres enter
through the dorsal root of the spinal cord and motor fibres enter through the ventral
root of the spinal cord. The cell bodies of all the sensory fibres are situated in the
dorsal root forming dorsal root ganglion.
3. It is composed of white matter ( composed of nerve fibres) enclosing the central
portion of grey matter ( composed of nerve cells of motor and intermediate
neurones) A central canal which is continuous with the cavities in the brain runs
through the centre of the spinal cord and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
4. The spinal cord receives and transmits messages to and the brain. It coordinates
body reflex arcs which occur via the spinal cord. The spinal nerves carry sensory
impulses o the brain or motor impulses from the brain to the effector organs of the
body.

DRAWING

THE SYNAPSE

1. A synapse is a tiny space at the junction between the axon terminal of one
neurone and the dendrites of the next neurone or effector cell.
2. When a nervous impulse reaches the terminals of an axon, it stimulates the
secretion of minute amounts of chemicals called neurotransmitters such as
acetylcholine. The neurotransmitters are contained in small vesicles within the
terminal of the axon.
3. The chemical quickly diffuses across the synapse and activates a new impulse in
the next neurone. The neurone transmitters are then broken down by enzymes.
4. The higher the frequency of the nervous impulse, the greater the amount of
neurotransmitters formed.

DRAWING

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TYPES OF REACTIONS

THERE ARE THREE MAIN TYPES OF REACTIONS IN THE HUMAN NEVOUS SYSTEM

1. VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
These are under the conscious control of the cerebral cortex of the brain. They are
intelligent responses which require conscious effort and involve processing of
information and conscious decision.

2. THE INVOLUNTARY
These are rapid actions not under conscious control of the brain. They are automatic,
inborn, instinctive and learned responses to external stimulus which have a high survival
value e.g immediate and rapid response to danger.

Examples of reflex actions: blinking, yawning, knee jerk, sneezing, coughing, secretion,
breathing, withdrawing hands from a hot object pupils responding to light intensity
changes.

OBJECTIVE: Demonstrate and describe a reflex action

3. REFLECTION ACTION – involuntary, Rapid action that often lack thinking, does not
involve the brain, uncontrolled, protects the body from danger.

There are two types of reflex action:

Spinal reflex – Nervous impulses in these automatic responses pass through the spinal
cord and do not involve the brain ( below the neck

Stimulus receptors sensory relay neurones motor effector

neurones in spinal cord neurones

Cranial reflex – Nervous impulses in these automatic responses pass through the brain
and the brain can control and coordinate reflex

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 Stimulus receptors sensory relay neurone motor effector
neurones in brain neurone

Examples of cranial reflexes are blinking, yawnings, secretion of saliva.

An external stimulus such as the sight of a sharp object approaching the eye is detected
by the photoreceptors in the retina of the eye and initiates nerve impulses in the
sensory neurones. The nerve impulses travel along sensory neurones, which join to form
the optic nerve, to the visual region in the cerebral cortex of the brain. The processed
information is sent out of the brain and is carried by motor neurones to the eyelid
muscles which contract to close the eyelids to protect eyes.

A reflex arc is the route or pathway along which nervous impulses travel in bringing about a
reflex action (pathway of impulses during a reflex action).

OBJECTIVE: Describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, a reflex arc.

1. A typical knee jerk reflex arc is shown below

DRAWING

OBJECTIVE: Measure and explain reaction time.

Reaction time: Time taken for a stimulus to cause a response. It is not very easy to measure the time.

85
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN

1. The brain is a direct continuation of the spinal cord and consists of three main parts. The
central of the brain has four interconnecting chambers called the ventricles. They are
filled with cerebrospinal fluid acts as a shock absorber, provides buoyancy for the brain
and allows slight movements of the brain.

OBJECTIVE: Identify and label on diagram of the human central nervous system the cerebrum,
cerebellum, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, medulla and spinal cord.

DRAWING

*OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of the cerebrum, cerebellum, pituitary gland, hypothalamus,
medulla and spinal cord.

The main parts of the human brain and their function are summarized in that follows:

PARTS OF THE BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

CEREBRUM  Consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres that make up 70% of
(FORE – BRAIN) brain. The cerebral cortex (outer surface) of the
hemispheres is covered by grey matter and has many
folding which dramatically increase the amount of
surface area for grey matter.
 Controls all voluntary actions. Cerebral cortex is divided
into regions containing specialized groups of neurons
responsible for generating and coordinating sensations
such as touch, vision, hearing, taste and smell.
 Responsible for human intelligence, reasoning, speech,
processing and storage of information.
 The left cerebral hemisphere is responsible for
coordinating actions on the right side of the body and
the right cerebral hemisphere controls the left side of

86
 the body.
CEREBELLUM  Controls and coordinates muscles to maintain balance and
make precise movements.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA  Part of the brain stem. Controls involuntary ( automatic)
functions such as heartbeat, breathing movements blood
circulation etc.
HYPOTHALAMUS  Controls blood pressure, heart rate and peristaltic
movements in the alimentary canal.
 Contains osmoreceptors and thermal receptors to detect
changes in the concentration and temperature of blood to
help regulate water balance and temperature to maintain a
constant environment in the body.
 Also responsible for feelings of pleasure and pain.
PITUARY GLAND  An endocrine gland which secrets a number of hormones
( the master gland) directly into the bloodstream to control and regulate
various body’s activities:
1. Growth hormone which controls the rate of bone growth
2. Thyroid – stimulating hormone which stimulates the
thyroid gland to secrete hormone. Thyroxine influence
growth (especially in childhood) by controlling respiration
and the rate of metabolic process.
3. Gonad - stimulating hormone which stimulates the gonads
(ovaries and testes) to secrete sex hormones.
4. Anti – diuretic hormone which promotes reabsorption of
water in kidney nephrons and reduces urine volume

87
 THE HUMAN EYE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HUMAN EYE

OBJECTIVE: Describe the gross structure of the eyes as seen in front view

DRAWING

OBJECTIVE: Draw and label the longitudinal section of the eye

a.) Each eye is set in a deep cavity called the orbit in the skull that encloses and protects all
except the front of the eyeball. The main parts of the human eye and their functions are
summarized in Table 1.

drawing

PART OF THE EYE DESCRIPTIONS AND FUNCTIONS

EYELID AND EYELASH  Eyelid opens under voluntary or reflex action to
protect the eye. Blinking (rapid reflex) serves to
distribute tears over the surface of the eye to keep
conjunctiva clean and moist. It also protects the eye
from injury.
 Eyelash traps large air –borne particles.
CONJUCTIVA  A thin transparent epithelium covering exposed parts
of the eye including the front of the sclera. It is a self
– repairing skin kept moist and clean by tears and
reflex blinking movements
SCEROTIC LAYER ( Sclera)  A tough, non elastic fibrous coat on the outside of
eyeball. It is opaque and helps to maintain the shape
of the eyeball by exerting an opposing force against
the outward pressure exerted by aqueous and
vitreous humor
CORNEA  A transparent region in the front part of the sclerotic
coat. The curved surface of the cornea refracts light

88
 passing through and causes light rays to converge at
the lens.
CHROID LAYER  A layer of tissue lining the inside of the sclerotic
( CHROID) coat. It contains black pigment which prevents
internal reflection of light in the eye and carries a
network of blood vessels which supply oxygen and
nutrients to the eye.
RETINA  A light – sensitive layer of the eye made of
specialized nerve cells ( photoreceptors): rods ( for
black and white vision) and the cones ( for bright
light and colour vision)
YELLOW SPOT  The region of the retina where most cones are
located.
 Most light sensitive region for sharp colour vision
( FOREA CENTRALIS)  A non – photosensitive disc that is devoid of light
BLIND SPOT sensitive cells. It is the region where nerve fibres
connecting the rods and cones leave the eye as the
optic nerve.
OPTIC NERVE  Made up of sensory nerve fibres from rods and
cones in the retina.
 It transmits impulses initiated by different
wavelengths of light to the visual region of the brain
where the information is processed to form an
image.
LENS  Made up of soft transparent and elastic material
which refracts light entering the eye onto the
retina. It can become more or less biconvex to focus
light from near or fat objects on retina.
CILIARY BODY  A ring of muscle fibres which alter the shape of the
(muscle) lens for focusing.
SUSPENSORY  They hold lens in place and connect the lens to the
LIGAMNETS cilliary body.
IRIS  The coloured part of the eye which regulates the
amount of light entering the eye. It consists of radial
and circular involuntary muscles which act
antagonistically to change the size of pupil.
PUPIL  The round hole at the centre of the iris through
which light passes from the front to the back of
eyes.
AQUEOUS HUMOUR  A transport watery liquid in the front cavity of eye.
It acts as a medium for the diffusion of oxygen and
nutrients from the network of blood vessels in the
chroid layer to the cornea and the lens.
 Also helps to refract light which enters eye and
maintains the shape of the eyeball.

89
VITREOUS HUMOUR  A transparent jelly (mainly protein) in the rear cavity
of eye exerts an outward pressure on the eyeball to
maintain the shape of the eye.
 Also helps to refract light which enters eye
TEAR GLAND  Exocrine gland which secretes tears - a protective
anti- bacterial fluid to lubricate the conjunctiva and
cornea of the eye.
EYE MUSCLES  Hold eyes in place in their orbits
 Allow coordinated movements on both eyes in their
sockets.

b). PHOTORECEPTIVE NERVE CELLS

The table below summarises the differences in the action of two kinds of light sensitive nerve cells
in the retina of the human eye.

CHARACTERISTIC CONES RODS

SHAPE  Cone shaped  Rod - shaped
NUMBERS  About 7 million  About 12 million
 Highly concentrated  Less closely packed
and closely packed at than cones in the
the centre of the more peripheral parts
retina, particularly in of the retina
the yellow spot

TYPE OF VISION  Respond to high light  Insensitive to colour,

intensity and sharp Produces black and
colour vision, white and less distinct
effectiveness decreases
vision. Responsible
as light intensity
for night/dim light
decreases
vision.
 Contain a pigment
called visual purple
( requires Vit A for
formation) which
bleaches (breaks
down) in bright light
and reforms in the
dark.

 Three kinds of cone
present, each is
particularly sensitive to
blue, green or yellow

90
 light.
 The different degree
and proportion of
stimulation of these
cones by different
wave length of light is
interpreted and
distinguished by the
brain as different
colours.
The difference in action of two kinds of light sensitive nerve cells in the retina of the human
eye.

c). IMAGE FORMATION

1. Light rays from objects enter the eye are refracted by the cornea, the lens, the
aqueous and vitreous humours and becomes, focused on to the retina.
2. The image formed on the retina is real, upside – down and diminished. The light
falling on the retina stimulates the photoreceptors in the retina and initiates nerve
impulses. These nerve impulses carry information about the object focused. The
nerve impulses are interpreted and translated into a three dimensional, upright and
coloured image in action. The image is, however, temporary unlike that of the image
in a camera which can be recorded permanently on a film.
3. Each eye sees a slightly different view and sends a set of impulses to the brain. The
brain puts the two views together from each eye into one three dimensional
impression or stereoscopic view. Stereoscopic or three dimensional vision makes it
possible for humans to judge distances up to about 50 metres.

ACCOMODATION
OBJECTIVE: Discuss how the eye produces a focused image of near and distant objects
(accommodation)

1. Accommodation is the adjustments made in the eye to focus on near or distinct objects
sharply on the retina.
2. In the eye, focusing is accomplished by the refraction of the light by the cornea and
most importantly, the lens of the eye. The curvature of the lens can be altered by the
action of the cilliary muscles in the cilliary body so that light is always focused onto the
retina.

91
 DRAWING

Near objects Distant objects

a.) Radial cilliary muscles relax a.) Radial cilliary muscles contract
b.) Suspensory ligaments become taut b.) Suspensory ligaments slacken
c.) Lens stretches to a longer and flatter c.) lens shortens and become
shape i.e less convex and refracts thicker i.e more convex and
light less refracts light more
d.) Circular muscles fibres in the iris d.) Circular muscles fibres in the iris
contract, the size of the pupil is relax, the size of the pupil is

reduced and less light is admitted increased and more light is

admitted. admitted.

CONTROL OF LIGHT INTENSITY

OBJECTIVE: Describe the pupil reflex in response to bright and dim light
1. The size of the pupil changes with changing light conditions. The pupil dilates in the
dark and constricts in bright light to protect the retina from damage by high light
intensity.
2. The regulations of the size of the pupil by the circular and radial muscles in the iris is a
reflex action with light acting as a stimulus. Each eye makes the same adjustment
depending on the intensity of the light stimulus.

bright light dim light

drawing drawing

a.)Circular muscles relax, radial a.) Circular muscles contract, radial muscles

b.) Pupil dilates (widens) b.) Pupil constricts (narrows)

92
c.) More light is admitted into the eye, c.) Less light is admitted into the eye,
increases brightness of image

HORMONES
OBJECTIVE: Define a hormone

1. A hormone is a chemical substance, produced directly into the blood stream by

a ductless gland, carried by blood, which alters the activity of one of more target
organs..
2. Hormones are secreted by the endocrine system which consists of ductless
glands called endocrine glands. Each endocrine gland produces a particular
hormone or hormones and each hormone affects the body in a different way.
3. Hormones are produced in minute concentrations and their effect lasts longer
than nerve impulses.
4. Spent hormones are destroyed by the liver.
5. Both the endocrine and nervous system coordinate the body’s activities in
different ways.

*OBJECTIVE: Compare the nervous system and the endocrine system

A comparison of nervous control and hormonal control in the body is shown below:

NERVOUS CONTROL HORMONAL CONTROL

Message Electrical impulses Chemical messenger -

Hormone

Rate of conduction Rapid Usually slower

Conductor Neurones Blood plasma (blood stream)

Effectors Specific effectors, mainly Carried all over body to or

muscles and glands more specific effectors e.g.
heart, blood vessels, liver ,sex
organs

Type of response Responses are localised Responses may be widespread

e.g. effect of adrenaline

Duration of reponse Rapid and Short term Often slow long lasting e.g
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 growth, sexual development

Type of control Both voluntary and Involuntary control

involuntary

OBJECTIVE: Identify and label on diagram the endocrine glands of the human body

MAIN ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

OBJECTIVE: Name the hormone produced by the endocrine glands in the human body.

ENDOCRINE GLAND HORMONE FUNCTION

PITUATARY GLAND  Growth hormone  Controls the rate of bone

growth
( MASTER GLAND)

 Thyroid –  Stimulates the thyroid gland to

stimulating secrete thyroxine
hormone
 Ganad -  Stimulates the gonads (ovaries
stimulating and testes) to secrete sex

94
 hormone hormones.
 Anti - diuretic  Promotes reabsorption of
hormone water in kidney nephrons and
reduces urine volume
THYROID GLAND  Thyroxine  Influences growth (especially in
childhood) by controlling
respiration and rate of
metabolic process.
PANCREAS 1. insulin 2. Regulates the amount of blood
glucose. Promoting the storage
of excess glucose as glycogen in
liver and muscles
3. Glucagon 4. Regualtes the amount of blood
glucose by converting glycogen
in liver and muscles to glucose
when concentration of blood
glucose is low
ADRENALINE GLANDS  Adrenaline  Prepares the body for action
and emergency
OVARIES  Oestrogen  Controls ovulation and
secondary sexual characteristics
 Progesterone  Responsible for thickening of
uterus lining after ovulation
TESTES  Testesterone  Controls sperm production and
secondary sexual characteristics

ACTION OF ADRENALINE

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the functions of adrenaline

1) Adrenaline is secreted by the adrenal medulla (inner region) of the two glands, each of
which is located just above each of the kidneys.
2) Adrenaline is secreted during
a.) emotional excitement, anger, stress or fear
b.) situations that require sudden bursts of physical activity.

The sensory receptors detect the stimuli and initiates nerve impulses that are sent to
the hypothalamus of the brain which sends nerve impulses to stimulate the adrenaline
gland to produce adrenaline.

3) THE EFFECTS OF ADRENALINE ON THE BODY ARE:

95
 a.) Increased heart rate and breathing rate so that oxygen and glucose are carried faster to
the muscles.
b.) Dilation of the pupils of eyes
c.) Constriction of blood vessels to the skin and digestive system and dilation of blood
vessels to the muscles and brain results in more blood directed to the muscles and
brain.
d.) Increasing blood glucose level due to conversion of glycogen stored in liver to glucose.
e.) Increased metabolic rate to release more energy to cope with the situation.
f.) Contraction of hair erector muscle producing ( goose pimples) on skin

The overall effect is to prepare the body for fight or flight.

CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL BY INSULIN AND GLUCAGON

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the functions of insulin

1.) Insulin is secreted by the islets of langerhans in the pancrease

2.) Insulin controls blood sugar level by increasing the rate at which liver converts glucose
to glycogen and the utilization of glucose by cells. Insulin also increases the rate of
uptake and metabolisation of glucose by the muscles.
3.) The hormone adrenaline accelerates the conversion of glycogen in liver to glucose
during emotional excitement and dangerous situations.
4.) Diabets (Diabets mellitus) is a disease caused by the failure of pancrease to secrete sufficient
insulin to regulate the blood glucose level. The signs and symptoms of the disease are:
a.) High blood glucose levels
b.) Glucose excreted in urine
c.) Persistent redness
d.) Loss of weight
e.) Increased thirst

OTHER COMPLICATIONS INCLUDE:

a.) Premare thickening and narrowing of arteries causing poor blood to vital organs resulting in high
blood pressure, heart attack, blindness and poor healing of wounds which may develop in to
gangrene which requires amputation of limb.
b.) Diabetes can be treated by regular injection of insulin and controlling the intake of
carbohydrates in the diet.
5.) Summary of the homeostatic regulations of blood glucose level:

96
 Pancrease secretes more insulin
which causes liver to convert excess
glucoses to glycogen. Insulin also
increases the metabolism of glucose
in cells;
 increases uptake of glucose
of in cells
 It promotes the convertion of glu
-cose to fats; slows down the conv
-ersion of protein to glucose

Normal glucose normal glucose

Concentration in blood Concentration in blood

Pancrease secretes more glucagon

liver cells cnverts glucogen to

glucose.

 It stimulates the breakdown of prot-

eins fats to carbohydrates.
 Both glucagon and adrenalin activi
-vates enzyme which stimulate brea
-kdown of glycogen to glucose

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the functions of glucagon

1).Glucagon is release in response to a fall of blood glucose level in.
2). Glucagon makes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.
3). It stimulates conversion of proteins and fats carbohydrates/glucose.
4). Action of glucagon is similar to that of adrenaline.

97
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the functions of testosterone and oestrogen

Secondary sexual characteristics of male and female developed by sex hormones:

HORMONE SEXUAL DEVELOPMENTS

Testosterone  Pituitary gland secretes gonad – stimulating hormone which

(Male 12 – 16 stimulates testes to produce testosterone
years puberty) SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS

a.)testis starts to produce sperm

b.)enlargement of the prostate gland and penis
c.)voice ( breaks) and becomes deeper
d.)growth of hair on face, body and pubic region
e.)Increase in growth rate
Oestrogen  Pituitary gland secretes gonad – stimulating hormone which
(Female 10 – 14 stimulates ovaries to produce oestrogen
years puberty) SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS

 menstruation begins i.e start of ovulation

 enlargement of breasts
 growth of hair in armpit and pubic region
 widening of the pelvic girdle ( hip)
 increase in the size of the uterus and vagina
 Increase growth rate.
above 42  Production of oestrogen stops. Ovaries stop producing ovum,
Years ovulation and menstrual cycle cease.
MENOPAUSE

Endocrine glands and Exocrine glands:

*OBJECTIVE: Distinguish between exocrine and endocrine system

Endocrine glands Exocrine glands

Ductless glands glands with ducts

Contents carried by blood contents carried by ducts

produce hormones smaller quantities produce fluids in larger quantities

98
 e.g. thyroid gland; pancreas, adrenal e.g. salivary glands; pancreas
glands

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

*OBJECTIVE: Explain the concept of negative feedback

 When a change sets off a response that cancels out the change.
 A constant internal environment in the human body is maintained by negative feedback
 The diagram explains how negative feedback keeps variable factors within the narrow suitable
for life.
 Negative feedback mechanism regulate hormone level in blood, the diagram below explains that.

Any change from the

set point is a deviation.

This deviation acts as a

signal to the control
center
99
 Level Defention outside the normal range may

of not be controlled by homeostasis and can

Factor in lead to disease .

Blood

This is the range of

this factor that can
be controlled by
homeostasis. Cells
Control centre sets
work well within Time off the correct
this range responses.

This is the norm or set point for the Response cancels

homeostatic control system . This would out the deviation
be the ideal level of this factor for cells to and returns the
work factor towards its
set point

TROPISMS
OBJECTIVE: Geotropism as the growth response of a plant to gravity

1. Although plants do not have a nervous system and muscle system to control and coordinate
their activities, they do have ability to detect and respond to external stimuli.

100
 2. A tropic response is a growth movement in response to an external stimulus. It is a directional
movement either growing towards or away from the source of the stimulus.
3. The main external stimuli to which plants respond are light, gravity and water. The parts and
structure of plants respond to external stimuli in different ways. The main tropic responses in
plant are summarized in Table 1.
4. Changes in the growth of any part of the plant are under the influence of plant hormone auxin.

OBJECTIVE: Define geotropism as the growth response of a plant to gravity

OBJECTIVE: Define phototropism as the growth response of a plant to gravity

TROPIC RESPONSE STIMULUS RESPONSE OF PLANT

Phototropism Light  Shoots grow towards light source to absorb maximum light for
photosynthesis,( positive phototropism)
 Roots grow away from light source, ( negative phototropism)
 Leaves orientate in such a away to receive maximum sunlight for
photosynthesis.
Geotropism Gravity  Roots grow downwards into the soil in the direction of the
gravitational pull.( positive geotropism)
 This ensures that the roots are in contact with soil water and
nutrients and they grow deep into the soil to anchor plant firmly
on the ground.
 Shoots grow upwards away from gravity. ( negative geotropism)
Hydrotropism Water  The roots grow towards moisture and soil water

*OBJECTIVE: Describe geotropism and phototropism in term of auxin regulating growth

CONTROL OF GROWTH AND TOPIC MOVEMENTS BY PLANT HORMONES

1. The growth and tropic movements of plants are controlled by a combination of external
stimuli and plant hormones. One of the most important plant hormone is auxin which is
produced at the tips of shoots and roots. Auxin promotes growth and cell division .
2. The distribution of auxin affects the growth of shoots and roots. There is a strong indication
that the growth curvatures formed in tropism are due to the redistribution of auxin in the
shoot and root tips under the influence of the external stimulus. The unequal distribution of
auxin concentration results in different rates of growth and elongation of cells in the shoot
and root tips resulting in growth curvatures.
3. The possible explanations for the various tropisms are summarized in Table 2.

*OBJECTIVE: Describe the control of plant growth by auxins

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4. Growth of plants is restricted to the meristems of the plant. Meristems occur at the tips
of the root and shoot of a plant. Rapid cell division occurs at the meristems (zone of cell
division). Now cells produced grow to maximum size and differentiate into the various plant
tissues. The main regions of growth in the tip of a shoot and root are shown in Fig. 1

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SHOOT TIP (DRAWING) ROOT TIP (DRAWING)

a) A range of synthetic plant hormones have been manufactured commercially for

control of plant growth in agriculture.
b) AUXIN – Like growth substances are used in the artificial propagation of plants to
stimulate and promote the growth of roots in stem cuttings.
c) Synthetic plant hormones are also used to encourage fruiting and cause fruits to
develop even without fertilization.
d) Herbicides are used as hormone weed killers. Most herbicides are selective and
accelerate the growth of weed plants so rapidly that the weeds exhaust themselves
and die.

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OBJECTIVE: Investigate the effects of removing the apical bud fromplant seedlings

Some experiments to test the auxin theory:

1

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 4

105
 6

106
 USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS

OBJECTIVE: Define a drug

DEFINITION OF DRUGS

 An externally administered substance which modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body.

ADMINISTRATION OF DRUGS

 Drugs are administered orally, by injection, application on the skin or inhalation.

CLASIFICATION OF DRUGS (ON THE BASIS OF THEIR EFFECTS ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSYTEM.

OBJECTIVE: Describe non-medicinal (abusive) drugs according to their effect on the central nervous
system: depressant, stimulant, hallucinogen

CLASSIFICATION EFFECTS EXAMPLES

STIMULANTS Speed up transmission of nerve Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine,
impulses amphetamines
DEPRESANTS Slow down transmission of nerve Alcohol, barbiturates,
impulses tranquilizers opiates

ANALGESICS(PAIN KILLER) Block transmission of pain Aspirin, ibuprofen, parace

signals or suppress the part of tamol, morphine
the brain responsible for the
sense of pain
NARCOTICS Produce a sense of euphoria or Heroin, morphine, codeine
well being (sense of enhanced
energy, excitement and
alertness.
HALLUCINOGENS Causes a pronounced alteration LSD, PCP, Marijuana, Harshis,
of perception peyote, ganja

OBJECTIVE: Distinguish between medicinal drugs and non-medicinal drugs

Medicinal drugs Non-medicinal drugs

alleviate diseases, relieve symptoms, ease pain taken for habitual satisfaction
and provide other benefits to the body

prescribed by doctors not prescribed by doctors

administered at prescribed doses administered at any dose to the satisfaction of

user

legal drugs mostly illegal drugs

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*OBJECTIVE :Discuss dependence (emotional/psychological and physical) and tolerance of medicinal
drugs

DEFINITIONS

 Drug abuse; the means international improper use of drugs

 Drug addiction; this means intense habitual craving for drugs or physical and psychological
dependence on drugs.
 Drug dependence : compulsive use of drugs resulting in physical or psychological dependence
( condition where user cannot do without do the substance)
 Physical dependence; occurs when the body adapts to a drug and increases its tolerance, this
leads to larger and uncontrolled doses of the drug to achieve the original effect; physical
dependence produces severe physical withdrawal symptoms if the drug is not taken.
 Psychological dependence; intense mental craving for a drug if the drug is unavailable or
withdrawn
 Drug tolerance; this occurs as a result of regular use of a drug. Eventually the body requires
higher doses of the drug to achieve the same effect.
 Withdrawal symptoms; illness - like symptoms / signs which occurs when one stops taking a
drug.
 Physical symptoms which shown when the substance is withheld i.e. nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
muscular pain, uncontrollable shaking

COMMONLY BASED DRUGS

OBJECTIVE: Discuss allergic reactions to drugs and other substances.

Allergy simply defined as hypersensitivity to various substances which would normally be harmless to
the average person. It is a result of the immune system not being able to distinguish between a
pathogen and a relatively harmful substance. An allergen is a substance that triggers an allergic reaction.

ALLERGEN SYMPTOMS TREATMENT

FOOD ALLERGENS: Dairy  Swelling of lips or  Antihistamines cromoglycate for
products(eggs and cows’ milk) mouth, Stomach some allergies
nuts, shell, fish, strawberries, upsets, itchy rash
beef, fish, food additives etc.
RESPIRATORY ALLERGENS;  Sneezing, running  Adrenaline, or corticosteroid drugs
Pollen, dust mites, pet fur, nose, asthma to relieve acute symptoms
inhalants etc cromoglycate, etc
CONTACT ALLERGENS;  Eczema, rash,  Antihistamines( adrenaline or
Rubber, chemicals ( irritants) itchiness corticosteroid drugs to relieve
nickel, copper, certain plants, acute symptoms)
certain animals, lanolin e.t.c

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EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL

OBJECTIVE: Describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol:reduced self-control, depressant,

effects of effect on reaction time, damage to liver, social implication

Alcohol (ethanol) is a CNS depressant. It reduces anxiety, tensions and inhibitions. It dilates small blood
vessels, particularly those in skin, leading to flushing.

IMMEDIATE EFFECTS

i. Speech is slurred
ii. Double vision
iii. Loss of balance
iv. Poor coordination of muscles ( causing staggering and unsteadiness)
v. Nausea and vomiting
vi. Impaired concentration and judgment
vii. It slows down the speed of transmission of nerve impulses involved reacting to an emergency
situation) increases reaction time.
viii. Violent or aggressive behavior
ix. Loss of consciousness

SOCIAL EFFECTS

i. Fatal road accidents

ii. Lack of productivity leading to jobs loss
iii. Accidents in the work place
iv. Abuse, vandalism and delinquency
v. Suicides
vi. Sexual assaults
vii. Huge economic impact on public health ( due to medical bills in treating diseases caused
directly or indirectly related to alcohol consumption e.g AIDS, Cancers)

LONG TERM EFFECTS AND HEALTH HAZARDS

i. Malnutrition and nutritional deficiency diseases

ii. Liver diseases: hepatitis, fatty liver and liver cirihosis
iii. Blood diseases; enlarged RBC’s, reduction in clotting factors, low WBC ‘s count ( weak immune
system)
iv. Diseases on the nervous system : damage to the CNS (brain atrophy), paralysis of the extremities

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 v. Cardiovascular disease: Fatty heart, hypertension
vi. Pancreatitis and sugar diabetes
vii. Cancers: Cancer of esophagus, pharynx, liver and larynx
viii. Babies born to abnormalities of the heart, face and the skull structure (foetal alcohol syndrome )
FS
ix. Ulcers and infernal bleeding
x. Testicular atrophy and impotence
xi. Enlargement of mammary glands in men
xii. Amenorrhea ( absence of menstruation

WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS

i. Nausea and vomiting

ii. Trembling ( shaking)
iii. Abdominal pains and cramps
iv. Restlessness
v. Sweating
vi. Severe craving for alcohol

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 SUPPORT, MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION
The vertebrate skeleton

1. The human skeleton is an endoskeleton ( internal skeleton) composed of bone

and cartilage which are formed by living cells.
2. Bone and cartilage contain non – living mineral substances such as calcium
phosphates and calcium carbonates.
3. Bones are hard, rigid and non – elastic tissues. Cartilage is softer than bone, less
rigid and slightly elastic.
4. A summary of the main parts of a vertebrate:

THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON

AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Skull (cranium) a) Vertebral column Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle

b) Ribs Sternum a) Shoulder a) Hip

b) Arms b) Legs

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OBJECTIVE: Identify from diagrams, photographs and real specimens, the main bones of the forelimb
(scapula, humerus, radius,ulna) of a mammal.

SKELETON

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 FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN VERTEBRATE SKELETON

SUPPORT

 A rigid skeleton to support soft parts of the body

 To raise body from the ground and maintain shape of the body during movement and
muscular activity
 The arrangement of the bones gives shape to the body as a whole.

MOVEMENT

 The skeleton is joined to allow movement. Movement is achieved by muscles which are
attached to the bones. The bones act as leavers and the muscles contract to pull them in
different positions.

PROTECTION

 To protect the more delicate parts of the body e.g the cranium protects the brain, the
rib cage protects the heart ad the lungs, and the vertebral column surrounds the spinal
cord.

PRODUCTION

 Production of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow.

THE DIFFERENT TYPE OF JOINTS

OBJECTIVE: Describe the type of movement permitted by the ball and socket joint and the hinge
joint of the fore-limb

Where two bones meet a joint is formed. Bones can move in relation to one another at
joints. Joints are classified according to the degree of movement possible between the
articulating surfaces.

TYPE OF JOINT MOVEMENT LOCATION IN SKELETAL

SYSTEM

FIXED JOINT No movement permitted  Structures between

the bones of the skull

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  Pelvic girdle
GLIDING JOINT Limited sliding movement  The vertebrae of the
vertebral column
 Wrist
PIVOT JOINT Allow nodding and limited rotation  Neck
of head

HINGE JOINT Allows movement in one plane  Elbow

 Knee
BALL AND SOCKET Allows movement in all planes  Shoulder
JOINT  Hip

The largest movement occurs at the synovial joints such as the ball and socket joint and the
hinge joint.

STRUCTURE OF A SYMBOL JOINT

The structure and functions of the various parts of the synovial joint are shown below.

PARTS OF THE SYNOVIAL JOINT FUNCTIONS

1. Synovial capsule A tough , fibrous capsule which holds the joint

together.

It surrounds the joint, synovial membrane and

contains the synovial fluid

2. Synovial membrane Secrets the synovial fluid and seals in the

synovial fluid

3. Synovial Fluid Acts as a lubricant between bones and also

provides nutrients to the bone surfaces.

4. Cartilage Soft, slippery, slightly elastic tissue covering

the heads of the bones allow friction free
movement, acts as a shock absorber and
prevents wearing of the bones at the joint

5. Ligament Elastic connective tissue which connects bones

to bone.

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 Provides external support and strengthens the
joint

THE STRUCTURE OF THE FOREARM

OBJECTIVE: Describe the component bones of the fore-limb of a mammal

1. The forearm is made up of the humerus (upper arm) the ulna and the radius.

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2. The wrist and the hand are made up of small carpal bones metacarpal and phalanges
3. The humerus forms a ball and socket joint with the scapula at the shoulder and a hinge
joint is formed between the humerus and the ulna at the elbow.

ACTION OF ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM

OBJECTIVE: Describe the action of antagonistic muscles at the hinge joint

1. The skeletal muscle is attached to the projections or ridges in the bones of the
fore arm by tendons which are non – elastic cards that and or muscles to bones.
One end of the muscle must be attached to the bone that is to be moved while
the other end is anchored to a part of the skeleton to be held stationery with
respect to the moving part.
2. Movement in the forearm is brought about by the alternate contraction and
relaxation of a pair of antagonistic muscles in the forearm.
3. In the forearm, the antagonistic pair of flex or and extensor muscles are
arranged in such a way that when they contract, they pull in opposite directions
4. A summary of the action of the antagonistic muscles in the forearm.

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BENDING FOREARM (FLEXIN) STRAIGHTENING OF FOREARM( EXTENSION)

1. Biceps (flexor) contract and 1. Triceps contract and become shorter and
thicker
become shorter and thicker
2. Biceps relax
2. Triceps ( extensor) relax
3. Ulna and radius pull away from the huerus
Ulna and radius pull closer to the
humerus

117
 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
OBJECTIVE: Describe asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically
identically offspring from one parent

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

It is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring(s) from one parent.

PLANTS

OBJECTIVE: Give examples of asexual reproduction in plants and animals

There are two main methods of asexual reproduction in flowering plants:

a) Vegetative propagation
b) Artificial propagation

VEGETATATIVE PROPAGATION

Plants which reproduce this way have special food storage organs which enable them to grow
year after year. Examples of this plant are: tubers, corns and rhizomes.

Perennating Food storage Features

organ
Young shoot from terminal bud
Tubers Mainly starch, vitamin C
(Underground and water in swollen stem.
stem)

Scale leaf Lateral bud at the node

‘eye’

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Rhizomes Mainly starch.
(Underground
stem)

Adventitious roots

Vegetative reproduction takes place when the lateral

bud on the node develops into a new shoot

Bulbs White, fleshy storage scale leaves Thin, dry. brown scale leaves
(Underground Mainly water and sugar Young shoot
shoot) (glucose) stored in
fleshy leaves

Condensed stem

Lateral bud which

will grow into a
new bulb

Terminal bud which will

grow into new shoot

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Corm Mainly water and sugar flower bud Aerial shoot
(Underground stored in the short and
shoot) swollen stem.

Node

Internode Adventitious roots

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of reproducing asexually

ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ARE:

a) It reproduces daughter plants identical to parent within a short period of time. This
ensures that desirable characteristics of the parent plant such as hardness and high fruit
yield will persist
b) Parent plant supplies food to offspring until they are independent
c) Stored food from parent organ can be used for rapid growth of aerial shoots and so
avoids competition with other species
d) Plants are independent of pollinating agents and formation of gamets is not necessary.
e) There are no hazards of seed dispersal and germination ( in sexual reproduction as
vegetative propagation only occurs under favourable conditions.

DISADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION ARE:

a) Overcrowding which rise from the dense growth of daughter plants near to the
parent plant. This results in competition between plants for mineral salts, water
and sunlight

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 b) Since daughter plants are identical to parent, there is no genetic variation for
natural selection. Species are unlikely to colonise new habitats and may die out if
environmental conditions change.

OBJECTIVE: Describe one commercially important application of asexual reproduction in plants and
animals

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION

a) Artificial Propagation is a form of vegetative propagation used by man to propagate and

to preserve useful in bred characteristics of plant such as good fruits or flowers.
b) By using artificial propagation, gardeners can produce any number of plants with
identical genetic composition and characteristics. Two important methods of artificial
propagation include cutting and grafting.

CUTTINGS

 A cutting is any portion of a root or shoot removed from the parent plant.
 The cutting is usually treated with plant hormone to promote root growth.
 It is placed in most soil or dipped in water until adventitious roots appear to support
plant and absorb water
 . The cutting may also be covered with a transparent plastic to reduce water loss by
transpiration.

GRAFTING
 Grafting is a popular method used to maintain or build up certain desirable
characteristics in plants.
 It is used to propagate fruits (e.g. apple, pear) which are difficult to grow from seed.
 The bud /shoot /scion of the desired variety is inserted into a T-shaped cut made on the
stem of another closely related plant ( the stock).
 The scion is tied into position on to the stock with its cambium layer in contact with the
vascular will soon produce vascular tissue which unite the scion and the stock.
 The stock is obtained by growing a plant from a seed and then cutting away the shoot.
The type of stock usually affects the ultimate size of the plant and the time it takes to
mature. The scion is a branch of a bud cut from a cultivated variety with the desired fruit
or flower characteristics.

121
A bud graft

 A bud graft with desired characteristics is cut

 A T-shaped slit is made in the bark of the stock to expose cambium tissue.

"Stock of a closely related variety”.

 The bud graft (scion) is slipped inside the T-shaped slit of the stock. The cambium of the scion is in contact

with the cambium of the stock.

 The scion is held in place with tape and wax to exclude fungi and reduce evaporation

122
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
OBJECTIVE: Describe sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of nuclei from two
different gametes to form a zygote

OBJECTIVE: Identify the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels of one locally available insect pollinated
flower

OBJECTIVE: Observe using a hand lens the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels of one locally available
insect pollinated flower and draw the parts

OBJECTIVE: Use a hand lens to identify stamens and carpels of one locally available wind pollinated
flowee.

Flowers are reproductive structures which contain the reproductive organs of the plant.

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OBJECTIVE: describe the functions of the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A FLOWER

1. CALYX
 A ring of sepals (small, green leaf – like) outside petals.
 Protects the petals of the flower when it is in the bud stage.

2. COROLLA
 Consists of 4 – 10 petals, may be separated or joined together.
 Encloses reproductive organs. Usually large, brightly coloured and scented to attract
insects to pollinate flower.
 Small and leaf – like structures in wind pollinated flowers.

3. ANDROECIUM
 Consists of stamens, each of which has an anther borne on a stalk called the
filament .
 Male consists of four pollen sacks in which the pollen grains are produced by cell
division
 Meosis occurs in the anthers to form haploid male gametes in pollen grains.

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  When the pollen is fully formed, the anthers split and release the matured pollen
grains.

4. GYNOECIUM (PISTIL)
 Female reproductive organs.
 Consists of carpels.
 Each carpel has an ovary containing one or more ovules and bears a style which
terminates in a sticky surface, the stigma.
 Development of egg cells proceeds in the ovary, ovules containing the female gamete
arise from the inner wall of the carpel.
 The style holds up the stigma on which pollen lands during pollination.

5. RECEPTACLE
 Expanded end of a flower stalk
 For attachment of all other flower parts.
 In some cases, after fertilization it becomes, fleshy and edible such as apple, pear,
strawberry.

POLLINATION

OBJECTIVE: Discuss pollination in terms of types, agents and methods

 Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of a flower.
The two types of pollination are:
o Cross pollination
o Self pollination

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  Cross pollination is transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of one flower to the
stigma of another flower on another plant of the same species.
o There is cross fertilization therefore out breeding.

o Anther of flowers which cross pollinate mature before the ovary and may be self
incompatible i.e. pollen grains from the same flower will not germinate on the
stigma of the same flower.
 Self pollination is transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of one flower to the stigma
of the same flower or another flower on the same plant.
o This leads to self – fertilization therefore inbreeding.

Agents of Pollination
 Insects and wind are the main two agents of natural pollination.
 The general modifications which adapt flower to their methods of pollination are
summarised below.

OBJECTIVE: Compare wind pollinated and insect pollinated flower using fresh specimens

OBJECTIVE: Prepare a slide of the pollen grains from the stamens of a wind and insect pollinated
flower and examine them under a microscope

PARTS OF INSECT POLLINATION WIND POLLINATION

FLOWER

126
 Size of a flower  Large flowers  Small, inconspicuous
flower
Corolla  Coloured and scented to attract a  Without scent or sepals
variety of insects usually small, green
 Has honey guides( dark lines) on petals.
petals that help to direct the
insects to the nectaries
Nectary  With nectarines at the base of the  Without nectaries
outer stamens.
Stamens  Has short filaments and stamens  Large, pendulous
are arranged within the flower stamens which projects
outside the flower
Pollen grains  Heavy, sticky and rough surfaced,  Produced in larger
adhere easily to insects body quantities
 Produced in smaller quantities  Stigma is large and
feathery
Stigma  Stigma is small and sticky and is  Projecting outside the
found inside the flower flower to act as a net
( large surface area) to
trap passing pollen
grains.

Pollination By An Insect
 When an insect visits a mature flower to collect nectar, pollen grains released by the ripe
mature anthers are likely to adhere to its long tube - like mouth [ parts (e.g. butterfly)] or hairy
body (e.g. bee)
 These pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of another flower when the insect visits it for
nectar.
 As the insect pushes its way into to reach the nectarines at the base of the filaments, its body
brushes onto the sticky surface of the stigma which pick up the pollen grains on its body.
 Pollination is complete when the pollen grain has landed on a stigma.

FERTILISATION

OBJECTIVE: Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by
fertilization.

 When a pollen grain lands on the stigma, it absorbs liquid from the stigma and germinates to
from a pollen tube.
 The pollen tube grows through the tissues of the style towards the ovary. As the pollen tube
grows, its nucleus divides to form two male gametes.
 The pollen tube enters the ovule at the micropyle and releases two male garmetes.

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  One of male gametes fuses with the ovum to form the zygote ( fertilization) and the other fuses
with the secondary nucleus in the embryo sac to form the endosperm nucleus.
 The zygote now has the normal diploid of chromosomes for the plant cell.

Dispersal of Fruits
 Fruits and seeds may be dispersed by external agents such as humans, animals, wind or
by self-dispersal explosion mechanism.

Advantages of fruit and seed dispersal

OBJECTIVE: State the advantages of seed dispersal

 Dispersal of fruits and seeds some distance away from the parent plant reduces
overcrowding and reduces the competition for light, mineral salts and water between
plants.
 It also enhances the survival of that species of plant by distributing the plants to new habitats.

The main adaptations of fruits and seeds to the various dispersal methods are summarised
below

OBJECTIVE: Describe modes of seed dispersal

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Dispersal method Main adaptation features Examples
Wind dispersal • Small size.
1
Parachute or tuft of
hairs projecting from
fruit or seed. Examples:
Tridex and dandelion.

•Wing-like outgrowths
extension from ovary wall
of fruit. Example: winged
fruits of shorea and
Dandelion Shorea
angsana.

Open seed case shaken

by wind. Example: small,
light seeds of poppy.

Angsana

Animal dispersal 1. 'Hooked and hairy

fruits -hooks caught in
the fur of passing
animals and the seeds
fall out as the
mammals move about.
Examples: Urena fruit
and spear grass.
2. Succulent, brightly
coloured and scented
fruits - when eaten by
animals and birds,
undigested seeds pass
out with faeces.
Examples: Papaya,
mango and berries.

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Dispersal method Main adaptation features Examples
Explosive mechanism
Pericarp dries in the
sun and shrink. The
tension generated
splits fruit
longitudinally into two
halves suddenly and
ejects seeds. Example:
pods of leguminous
plants.

Fruit pod

Garden pea pod

GERMINATION OF DICOTYLEDONOUS SEED

OBJECTIVE: Examine the structure of a seed (both endospermicand non-endospermic)

Non-endospermic seed

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OBJECTIVE: Describe the structure and function of parts of a seed in terms of embryo, (radical and
plumule) cotyledons and testa

Parts of the seed:

 Embryo: grows to form a root and a shoot. The plumule forms the shoot and the radicle forms
the root.
 Cotyledon: stores food to be used by the embryo to grow.
 Testa: a tough coat which protects the seed from mechanical damage; reduces loss of water
from the seed and reduces entry of micro-organisms.
 Micropyle : a small hole in the testa and an important route for entry of water in some seeds
Germination
 Germination is when the embryo part of seed begins to grow.
 Conditions for germination are:
o A supply of water.
o Temperature suitable for enzymes involved in germination.
o Oxygen for aerobic respiration.
The requirements are explained more fully in the diagram below:

OBJECTIVE: Investigate the environmental conditions which affect germination of seeds

OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of enzymes in seed germination

131
132
Germination of Dicotyledonous Seed

 The graph below shows the changes in the dry mass and fresh mass of the seed
during germination. The dry mass of the seed is the mass of the actual amount of
organic matter present in the seed whereas the fresh mass includes the amount of water
absorbed by the seed.
 As the seed germinates, its dry mass decreases gradually as the stored food in its
cotyledons is oxidised during respiration to produce energy needed for germination and
growth of new tissues. The dry weight continues to decrease until the first foliage leaf are
matured enough to carry out photosynthesis at a rate faster than respiration of the plant
cells.

 The fresh mass increases continuously as the seed absorbs water, grows roots and
begins making food by photosynthesis.

133
134
Germination of Dicotyledonous Seed

 The graph below shows the changes in the dry mass and fresh mass of the seed
during germination. The dry mass of the seed is the mass of the actual amount of
organic matter present in the seed whereas the fresh mass includes the amount of water
absorbed by the seed.
 As the seed germinates, its dry mass decreases gradually as the stored food in its
cotyledons is oxidised during respiration to produce energy needed for germination and
growth of new tissues. The dry weight continues to decrease until the first foliage leaf are
matured enough to carry out photosynthesis at a rate faster than respiration of the plant
cells.

 The fresh mass increases continuously as the seed absorbs water, grows roots and
begins making food by photosynthesis.

135
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAN

Objective: describe the functions of the testes, scrotum, sperm ducts,

prostate gland, seminal vesicle, urethra and penis.

Male Reproductive System:

 The main parts of the human male reproductive system and their functions are summarized
below

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Objective: Use a diagram of the male reproductive system to identify
testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, seminal vesicle, urethra
and penis.

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Female Reproductive System:
 The main parts of the human female reproductive system and their functions are summarized
below

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Objective: Use a diagram of the female reproductive system to
identify ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, bladder and vagina.

Objective: describe the function of the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix,

bladder and vagina.

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Objective: compare the male and female gametes in term of size,
number, mobility and life span.

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 Difference between a sperm and an ovum

Sperm Ovum

 It is very small in size (in fact it is the  Is larger than the sperm (in fact it is the
smallest cell in the body). largest cell in the body).

 It is mobile/can move by swimming with  The ova cannot swim because it does not
the help of the tail. have a tail, but the peristaltic movements
and the tiny cilia hairs in the oviducts
help move it.

 It is produced in large numbers (millions)  Only one ovum is produced per month.
per day.

 survives for 2 to 3 days  survives for 24 hours

Objective: Discuss the menstrual cycle

The Menstrual Cycle:

For a girl, the first sign of puberty is the monthly discharge of blood from the uterus via the vagina.
This is called menstruation and it occurs in a cycle called the menstrual cycle. The menstrual cycle is
sometimes referred to as the oestrous cycle. It is controlled by some hormones such as,
progesterone and Oestrogen hormones working hand in hand with FSH (Follicle Stimulating
Hormone) and LH (Lutenising hormone). The menstrual cycle, on average takes about 28 days. It is a
long term process controlled by a number of hormones, which;

 Prepare the uterus to receive any fertilized egg

 Control the development of mature ova.

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The menstrual cycle occurs in four stages/phases:

1. Menstruation: The uterus lining is shed, and blood and fragments of tissue leave the body
through the vagina. Menstruation triggers a decrease in the progesterone levels. Blood is lost
and at this stage and it needs to be replaced during a repair phase. Menstruation takes about 3-
6 days depending on the amount of blood lost. About 60-75cm3 of blood is lost along with the
mucus and uterus cells.

2. Repair phase/safe period phase: More blood vessels grow in the lining of the uterus, and the
lining thickens and becomes more stable. These changes are triggered by Oestrogen hormone.
At this point, the FSH stimulates primary follicles to mature and become Graafian follicle. The
Graafian follicle contains an egg surrounded by follicle cells and a fluid filled space. The Graafian
follicle ruptures and releases an egg into the oviduct and this marks Ovulation which occurs
when the Oestrogen levels are high. Ovulation is triggered by the release of a hormone secreted
by from the anterior pituitary gland the LH (Lutenising Hormone) this hormone also helps in the
development of corpus luteum from the remains of the follicle.

3. Receptive Phase: The lining of the uterus and its blood vessels are now well developed, if
fertilization occurred, the embryo can be implanted in its lining. At this point any unprotected
sexual activity will lead to pregnancy.

4. Premenstrual phase: The lining of the uterus degenerates as the progesterone levels drop
unless implantation has occurred. After ovulation, the follicle develops into Corpus luteum,
which secretes the female hormone Progesterone. The progesterone keeps the walls to remain
thick in order to receive a fertilized egg for implantation. This phase is usually characterized with
some contraction of the uterus leading to period pains.

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143
Objective: Describe the effects of diet and emotional state on the
menstrual cycle
Factors affecting the menstrual Cycle:

1.Stress over excitement mental fatigue and illness may alter or stop the menstrual

2.Diet - An unbalanced diet or malnutrition may also cause the period to be very irregular or
stop completely.

 A girl who has reached puberty has to eat food rich in iron, why?

3. Change of environment

Objective: Discuss the functions of the placenta and umbilical cord in

relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and wastes.

FERTILISATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE:

.Fertilisation is the fusion of nucleus of the sperm and nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote

.Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct in human

.After fertilisation the zygote under goes several mitotic divisions to form a ball of cells.

.The ball of cells is moved along the oviduct by the sweeping action of cilia and peristaltic
contractions of the walls of the oviduct until it reaches the uterus.

.The journey of the ball of cells to reach the uterus may take 4 to 7 days,

.By the time the ball of cells reaches the uterus it has developed finger like projections, villi,
for implantation in the uterus wall.

THE PLACENTA AND THE UMBILICAL CORD:

.The implanted embryo undergoes mitosis and forms embryonic tissues, extra-embryonic
membranes and the placenta.

.The placenta develops partly from the embryo’s tissues and partly from the uterus wall. It
is a large, thick mass of uterus lining containing blood spaces filled with the mother’s blood
and numerous finger-like projections called villi which grow into the uterus wall.

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.The foetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord, which carries 2 umbilical
arteries and an umbilical vein from embryo’s circulatory system

.The main blood vessels of the placenta lead to an immense network of capillaries in the
villi.

.The embryo’s blood system and the maternal blood system are separated by the capillary
walls and the membrane covering each villus.

.Substances which diffuse from mother’s blood system to embryo’s blood system are:

1. Dissolved food molecules such as glucose and amino acids

2. Oxygen

3. Mineral ions such as iron, calcium, phosphates

4. Antibodies

.Substances which diffuse from embryo’s blood system to mother’s blood system are:

1. Urea

2. Carbon dioxide

3. Other nitrogenous wastes

.The placenta functions like the digestive system, respiratory system and the excretory
system of the embryo

.The rate of diffusion at the placenta is increased by:

1.The close proximity between mothers blood system and the embryo’s blood
system

2.The large surface area provided by the numerous villi and the network of
capillaries in the villi

The embryo and maternal bloodstreams are not mixed. The reasons are:

1.The delicate embryo’s blood vessels could be easily damaged by the high blood
pressure of the mother’ s blood system.

.Agglutination could occur due to the mixing of different blood groups from mother
and embryo

.To reduces chances of transmission of diseases from mother to embryo

Umbilical cord: transports substance to and from the baby from the placenta in an artery
and vein.
.The umbilical artery takes deoxygenated blood with waste substances from the
foetus to the mother.

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.The umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood with the nutrients and antibodies
to the foetus’ heart.

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Objective: Discuss the functions of the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid

During the whole gestation/pregnancy period (9 months), the foetus is enclosed in a fluid filled sac
called the Amniotic sac which surrounded by a tough fibrous material called the chorion.

The fluid (amniotic fluid) provides a watery medium

.in which the foetus can move freely in it,

.which protects it against external shocks and dehydration,

.which protects against change in temperature and malformation of the foetus due to gravity.

.During pregnancy the amniotic fluid lubricates and reduces friction in the birth canal (vagina).

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Objective: Distinguish between identical and fraternal twins
Differences Between fraternal and identical twins:

Fraternal Twins Identical Twins

Develop from: Two different eggs fertilized The splitting of the same
by two different sperm cells fertilized egg into two

Genetic code: Like any other sibling; not identical

identical

Gender: Usually different Always the same

In utero: Develop separate sacs in May be contained in one sac

utero (amniotic sac and in utero (amniotic sac and
chorion). chorion).

Objective: Describe the special dietary needs of a pregnant woman

Dietary Requirements of a Pregnant Woman:

 Carbohydrates: To provide energy to the life processes of the baby and an extra energy for
carrying the extra mass of the baby around.
 Iron: for the formation of haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
 Proteins: making and repairing worn out tissues. Replacing old tissues.
 Vitamin D, Calcium and Phosphorus: formation of the foetus’ bones.
 Iodine to prevent slow mental development.

Objective: Discuss the advantages of breast milk compared to bottle milk

Advantages of Bottle Feeding:

 Readily available, cheap

 more hygienic than bottle, clean

 nutrients in correct proportion

 ready made anti-bodies obtained by the baby from the milk

 improve mother to baby bond

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Objective: Discuss the following methods of birth control: Natural
Hormonal/chemical, Physical/mechanical and Surgical methods

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL/CONTRACEPTIVES

Contraceptives: An agent or device intended to prevent conception. Contraception is the birth

control by the use of devices (diaphragm or intrauterine device or condom) or drugs or surgery.
Contraceptives are used for family planning as they prevent pregnancy. They help couples decide
whether or not to have children and some of them are used to prevent STDs even though their
main job is to prevent conception. Contraceptives can be divided into four groups;

1. Natural
2. Hormonal/chemical
3. Physical/mechanical
4. Surgical methods

1. Natural methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Abstinence: no sexual intercourse  100% effective o No disadvantage

at all. against pregnancy
and STDs

Withdraw (Coitus interruptus);  Purely natural and o Highly unreliable as there is a pre-
penis withdrawn from the vagina does not depend on ejaculation fluid which can be
before ejaculation artificial devices. secreted and contains sperms and
it is not easy for the man to
withdraw his penis as he will be at
the peak of pleasure.

o There is high pregnancy risk.

o STDs are spread with this method.

Rhythm (safe period): sexual  Acceptable in most o It is unreliable because keeping

intercourse done only during the religions. track of ovulation can be difficult
safe periods and avoided during as it can change any time and it is
 Can be effective difficult t be certain about the safe
fertile periods (when fertilization is
against pregnancy if period length.
likely to lead to pregnancy). Uses the dates are noted
the mucus, calendar and well. o Encourages the spread of STDs

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temperature method.

Prolonged breastfeeding (cultural  Very effective o No disadvantage

method) against pregnancy.

 100% effective
against STDs

2. Hormonal/chemical methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Pill e.g. RU486: two kinds mini-  Easy to use. o Does to prevent STDs.
pill (contains progesterone
which causes changes in the  Reversible o Must be taken daily.
uterus lining preventing  Does not interfere o Have side effects to women’s health;
implantation) and combined with sexual activity. breast swelling, cervical cancer, nausea,
pill (contains Oestrogen and diarrhoea and weight gain.
progesterone and this prevents  99% safe at
ovulation) preventing ovulation
and pregnancy.

 Can be administered
by individuals

Implant contraceptives:  Long term protection o Needs trained personnel to insert

chemicals that contain against pregnancy and remove it.
synthetic Oestrogen and 99% effective (just
like the pill) o Encourages the spread of STDs.
progesterone and placed under
the skin to prevent ovulation. It  No need to visit o Has some side effects e.g. prolonged
lasts for 5 years. health centres. periods and irregular menstrual bleeding
during the first month of use.
 Reversible.

Spermicides: kills sperms, must  Kill sperms. o Must be applied before every sexual

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be applied inside the vagina as  Effective when used activity.
far up as possible ten minutes with the diaphragm
o It is messy.
before sexual intercourse.
 Serves as a lubricant
for the vagina. o Unreliable when used alone.

 Easy to be o Does not prevent STDs.

used/applied.
o Has to be used with the diaphragm.

Injection (Depo-Provera):  Reversible. o Can lead to sterility.

injected into the body every 3
 99% effective against o Administered by a doctor.
months. Stops ovulation by
pregnancy.
preventing formation of ova in o Causes abnormalities in the period.
the ovaries.
o Can lead to heavy menstrual bleeding.

o Have side effects like; dizziness, weight

gain.

o Does not protect against STDs.

Morning-after pill: Used after  Effective against o Only prescribed by a doctor in case of risk
intercourse has taken place. pregnancy if taken it is not for regular use.
Contains hormones which before 3 days of
sexual act. o Therefore not easily accessible.
cause lining of the uterus to be
shed. It is to be taken 48-72
hours after sexual intercourse
especially if pregnancy poses a
risk.

3. Physical/mechanical/barrier Methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Condom sheath (male: thin  99 % effective in o Allergy of the lubricant or latex.

rubber covering fitted on an preventing pregnancy
erect penis. Has a bulb to and STDs o Improper use can result leading to the
spread of STDs.
collect sperms after
 Easily available,
ejaculation. Femidom/female accessible o There is a possibility of bursting in case
condom: thin sheath which of too mush friction during sexual act
lines the vagina prevents  No need for medical
assistance needed.

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entry of sperms.  Can be used with
Spermicides

Diaphragm/cap: it is a dome  Fairly effective (98%) o High risk of infections.

shaped piece of rubber with a in blocking the sperms.
piece of metal worn by o Has to be used with other methods e.g.
 Does not have any side Spermicides.
women fitted on the cervix
effects.
opening to prevent sperms o Possibility of discomfort if not inserted
from reaching the uterus. properly.

o In rare cases may lead to irritation to

the penis or vagina.

o Has to inserted by a physician

o Correct size must be fitted

Intra-Uterine Device  Reliable for women o Has to be inserted by a qualified doctor.

(IUD)/Loop: small objects who already has
(spiral, loop, ring) made of children and those o There is need for pelvic examination to
who do not live far determine the size of the cervix.
steel or plastic which is
from the health
inserted by a physician into o Can cause excessive bleeding.
facilities
the uterus. Fitted by
straightening in a tube like  Stops implantation. o Do not protect against STDs.
instrument, pushing this
 Reversible.
through the cervix then
pushing the IUD out at the  Long term
tube’s end. The IUD interferes contraception
with implantation of the
embryo)

4. Surgical methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Vasectomy and Laparatomy

(tubal ligation):

Vasectomy in men sperm

duct is cut and tied to

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prevent sperms from passing  Permanent and 100 % o Does not prevent STDs
to the urethra. effective.
o Irreversible
In women (Laparatomy)  Safe and simple out patient
operation. o Has to be done at a hospital.
oviduct cut and tied to
prevent the sperms from  Sexual characteristics are o Pains can be experienced
reaching the egg in the not affected as the after surgery.
oviduct. individual can still ejaculate
(men) o Not suitable for young
people but for people who
already have children

Objective: Describe the causes, transmission, symptoms/signs, effects and

treatment of gonorrhea, syphilis and AIDS.

Objective: Discuss the control of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

Objective: Interpret data to establish prevalence rate of sexually transmitted

diseases.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASAES

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Objective: Describe stages in mitosis and meiosis

MITOSIS
Mitosis is cell division which results in formation two identical daughter cells with diploid number of
chromosomes(2n). Mitosis occurs in somatic cells (these are cells which are not involved in the
production of gametes).

Below are changes occurring in a cell during mitosis

1.PROPHASE

Organelles are synthesized and cell increases in size. Each chromosome replicates to form chromatids
joined together by a centromeres.

Chromosomes shorten an become thicker, two chromatids become visible in each chromosome.
Centrioles migrate to the opposite poles of the cell.

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2. METAPHSE

The pairs of chromatids become attached to the spindle by spindle fibres at the centromeres. The
chromatids move along the spindle until their centromeres line up across the “ equator” of the spindled
and at right angles to the spindle axis.

3. ANAPHASE

The centromeres split into two and the spindle fibres pull the daughter centromeres to opposite. The
separated chromatids, now called chromosomes, are pulled along behind the centromeres.

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The chromosomes reach the poles of the cell, uncoil, lengthen and lose the ability to be seen clearly.

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4. TELOPHASE

The spindle fibres disintegrate and the centrioles replicate. A nuclear envelope re-forms around the
chromosomes at each pole and the nucleoli reappear. Division of cytoplasm and cell membrane will
result in two daughter cells.

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 MEIOSIS

Meiosis is division of cells which results in formation of gametes or cells with haploid number of
chromosomes(n)

1. PROPHASE I

Organelles are synthesized and cell increases in size. Each chromosome replicates to form chromatids
joined together by a centromeres. Homologous chromosomes come together to form bivalents. Cross
over of genes occur between chromatids of homologous chromosomes. Centrioles migrate to opposite
poles, spindle fibres form and homologous chromosomes lineup along the ‘equator’ of the cell.

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2. METAPHASE I

Bevalent become arranged across the equatorial plate of the spindle

The spindle fibres of pull the bivalents with crossed genes apart. Starting at the centromeres

The homologous chromosomes, each made up of two chromatids, separate to occupy the opposite ends
of the cell. The chromatids making the chromosomes are now not genetically identical due to crossover.

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3. ANAPHASE I

Spindles form again at right angle to the spindle axis of the first cell division.

4. TELOPHASE I

The arrival of chromosomes, in the form of chromatids at opposite poles, marks the end of the first
meiotic division. Reduction of chromosome number has occurred but each pole possesses chromosomes
composed of two chromatids.

As a result of crossing over, or chiasma formation, these chromosomes are not genetically identical and
must be separated in the second meiotic division

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5. PROPHASE II

Centrioles, if present, move to opposite poles of the cells and spindle fibre appear. The spindle fibres are
arranged at right-angles to the spindle axis of the first meiotic division.

6. METAPHASE II

At this division the centromeres now behave as structurally double. They organize spindle fibres on each
side to both poles and hence become aligned on the equator of the spindle.

7. ANAPHASE II

The spindles separate the chromatids, now called chromosomes, to the new opposite poles.

8. ANAPHASE II

Four new nuclear envelope form around the four sets of chromosomes. The cytoplasm and the cell
membrane divide to form 4 new cells with haploid number of chromosomes.

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165
INHERITANCE
Objective: define gene, allele and chromosome

Objective: Discuss the relationship between gene and chromosome

Chromosomes and Genes

Genetics is the study of inheritance of characters by transmission of gene from one generation to
another.

In the nuclei of cells are thread-like structure called chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of many
genes along their length and the genes determine the characteristics that are inherited. Chromosomes
in normal cells exist in homologous pairs with both members having identical shape, size and length.
One chromosome of the pair comes from the male parent, the other from the female parent when their
gametes fuse together during fertilization to form a zygote.

Genes are basic units of inheritance. Genes are made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which codes for
the synthesis of functional proteins (enzymes) and structural proteins which determine the
characteristics.

The gene controlling a particular characteristic can exist in two in forms called alleles. Each gene has a
code for the synthesis of a functional protein (enzymes) and a structural protein which determine the
characteristics of an organism.

The gene controlling a particular characteristic can exist in two forms called alleles. Each gene will have
two alleles, one at a particular position (locus) on one chromosome.

Objective: Distinguish between phenotype and genotype, recessive and

dominant.
Alleles can exist in dominant or recessive forms. The dominant form is expressed in capital letter and
the recessive form is represented by the corresponding small letter.

The genotype of an organism is its genetic make-up which is inherited from the individual parents. The
two alleles for a particular characteristic can exist in three different combinations resulting in a
homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive or heterozygous genotype as shown in below.

The phenotype of an organism is its observable characteristics. The phenotype of an organism is

influenced by both its genotype and the environment.

When a dominant allele and recessive alleles are present together, only the dominant allele expresses
itself in the phenotype. A recessive allele will only express itself in a homozygous recessive genotype (i.e.
in the absence of a dominant allele).

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The transmission of chromosomes from generation to generation in sexually reproducing organisms is
through the process of meiosis and subsequent fertilization. Fertilization involves a process of pairing
homologous chromosomes provided by haploid gametes to restore the species chromosome number in
the zygote.

The transmission of chromosome from cell to cell during growth or replacement is through the process
of mitosis.

Female Male

Diploid cell in ovary Diploid (2n) cell in testis

(46 Chromosomes) (46 Chromosomes)

meiosis meiosis

Haploid Haploid

Female gametes Female gametes

(23 chnromosomes) (23 chnromosomes)

Fertilisation

Diploid zygote (46 chromosome)

Adult (46 chromosomes)

Objective :Describe monohybrid inheritance

Monohybrid Inheritance

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Monohybrid in heritance refers to the inheritance of one characteristic that has two contrasting forms
e.g. tall/dwarf for plant height, red/white for colour of flowers and normal pigmentation /albinism in
human and animals.

Each characteristic is controlled by one gene which consists of one pair of alleles which can exist as
dominant or recessive alleles. The dominant allele controls the dominant character such tallness, red
coloured flower and normal pigmentation.

The recessive allele controls the recessive character which is only expressed in the homozygous state,
white coloured flowers and absence of pigment (albinism).

Objective: Discuss Mendelian Experiments in peas and maize

Gregor Mendel’s investigations on monohybrid inheritance

1. Mendel’s First Law: The Principle of Segregation

Alleles of genes exist in pairs, each on separate members of a homologous pair of
chromosomes. The homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis resulting in the alleles
separating into different gametes. The fusion of the male and female gametes during
fertilization allows the alleles recombine again

2. Mendel’s Second Law: The Principle of independent assortment

The segregation of a pair of alleles of a gene for a particular characteristic is independent of the
segregation of the pair of alleles of another gene controlling a different characteristic.
Therefore, the inheritance of one gene is not affected by another gene.

Mendel observed discontinuous variation in some characteristics of pea plants. That is,
characteristics exhibited only two alternative forms, e.g. tall/dwarf, round/wrinkled seeds. He
started his experiment by pure breeding plants or pure lines.

He later did hybridization which is the cross fertilization cross fertilization between pure line
parents with strongly contrasting characteristics.

Diagram 1 below summarizes Mendel’s first experiment on inheritance of crossing pure lines
in height of pea plants.

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Further investigations on monohybrid inheritance were carried out by self –pollination of
offspring in F1 to form F2, the second filial generation.

Diagram 2 summarises Mendel’s second experiment of crossing offsprings of parents in

Diagram 1.

Objective : Predict results of simple crosses with ratio of 3:1 and

1:1 using terms homozygous, heterogygous, F1 and F2
generations

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Objective :Explain why observed ratio differ from expected ratios
especially when there are small number of progeny

From ratio of phenotypes in the offspring, the possible genotypes of the parents can be
deduced.

Ratio of phenotype in offspring Possible genotype of parents

All tall 1. Both homozygous dominat TT x TT

2. One homozygous dominant and one
heterozygous TT x Tt
All short Both homozygous recessive tt x tt

1 tall:1 short One heterozygous and one homozygous

recessive TT x tt

3 tall:1 short Both heterozygous Tt x Tt

Some of the other characteristics studied in Mendel’s monohybrid crosses and results are
summarized in below:

P1 crosses F1 phenotype F2 phenotypic ratio

Homozygous x Homozygous
Dominant recessive
(pure breed) (pure breed)

Round x wrinkled seeds All round seeds 3 round : 1 wrinkled

seeds seed

Yellow x green cotyledons All yellow cotyledons 3 yellow : 1 green

seeds seed

Green x yellow pods All green pods 3 green pods:1 yellow pod

Smooth x constricted pods All smooth pods 3 smooth pods: 1 constricted

pod

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Objective: Describe a back cross to determine the genotype of a
dominant phenotype
Back – Cross test
A back-cross test distinguishes between organisms of the same dominant phenotype but
different genotype for example, a heterozygous dominant genotype have the same phenotype.

It is use in animal and plant breeding to detect and eliminate undesirable recessive conditions
which are not observed in the phenotype of heterozygous individuals in the breeding stock. A
back-cross involves crossing the offspring to be identified genetically with the recessive
homozygous parent.

If the suspected heterozygous individual is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual, the
expected ratio to confirm the heterozygous state is 1:1 i.e. half of the offspring has the
dominant phenotype and half with the recessive phenotype.
If the suspected individual is homozygous dominant, all offspring will have the dominant
phenotype.

Objective :Discuss complete, *incomplete and *co-dominance

Co-dominance

Co-dominance is a situation in which both alleles are equally strong and both alleles are visible in a
heterozygous genotype. An example of co-dominance is found in chickens. When white chickens are
crossed with black chickens, the result is not a grey chicken, but a chicken with both black and white
feathers. When expressing incomplete alleles, both alleles are written as superscript capital letters
placed above the letter "i".

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  The formation of roan coat colour in cattle by cross breeding cattle with red and white coat.
 The formation of pink flower by crossing red-flowered snapdragon with white flowered
snapdragon plants.
 The inheritance of ABO blood group in man IA and IB alleles are co dominant, resulting in the AB
blood group.

Incomplete dominance

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This is where by both allele of the gene are expressed in a heterozygous genotype, however the a
dominant allele does not mask completely the phenotypic expression of the recessive allele
in a heterozygote, then a blending of both dominant and recessive traits takes place in the
F1 and F2 heterozygotes.

 In northeast Kansas there is a creature know as a wildcat. It comes in three colors, blue, red, and
purple. This trait is controlled by a single locus gene with incomplete dominance. A homozygous
(BB) individual is blue, a homozygous (bb) individual is red, and a heterozygous (Bb) individual is
purple.

 An excellent example of incomplete dominance is snapdragon flowers. When one crosses a red
flowered snapdragon with a white flowered, all of the F1 generation have pink heterozygous
flowers. It appears that the red and white colors were mixed together two create a pink pigment,
but this proves to be untrue when you cross two plants from the F1 generation. The F2
generation has all three colors; red, pink and white, with a ratio of 1:2:1.

*Objective : Explain co-dominance by referring to inheritance of the

ABO blood group phenotypes (A, B, AB & O).

Multiple Alleles
Certain characteristics are controlled by more than two alleles. The gene that control the ABO
bood group in man has three different alleles IA , IB and IO , however, there can be only two
alleles in any one genotype.

IA and IB are co dominant and IO is recessive to both IA and IB alleles.

Genotypes of the three types of blood groups

Blood group (Phenotype) Genotype

A IAIA or IAIO

B IBIB or IBIO

AB I AI B

O IOIO

Objective :Discuss the determination of sex in humans

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Sex Inheritance:

The sex of an individual is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes. In humans, the 23rd pair of
chromosome is known as the sex chromosomes. In diploid female cells, the sex chromosomes exist as a
homologous pair of two X chromosomes which are identical in length. In the diploid male cells, the sex
chromosome is made up of a single long X and a single short Y chromosome.

The female gametes produced by the ovaries by meiosis will contain one X chromosome. Half the
sperms produced by the testes will contain an X chromosome and the other half a Y chromosome.
Whether an X-carrying sperm or a Y-carrying sperm fertilizes the ovum determines the sex of the zygote
and hence of the child as shown below.

Since there is an equal chance of either an X or a Y sperm fertilizing the ovum, there are approximately
equal numbers of males and females born.

*Objective :Discuss sex linkage

Sex-linked Inheritance:

Certain characteristics are linked with the sex chromosomes. Some examples of sex-linked
characteristics are red-green blindness, muscular dystrophy and haemophilia. In humans, the
chromosomes may contain a recessive allele for colour blindness, muscular dystrophy or haemophilia.

These inherited sex-linked characteristics frequently affected man but occur very rarely in women. They
are expressed in males because of the lack of dominant counterpart on the Y chromosome. Only female
who are homozygous recessive for the trait are affected. Female with heterozygous genotype are carries
who do not show the conditions but carry a recessive allele which they may pass to their offspring.

In red-green colour-blindness, the dominant allele for normal vision is XC and the recessive allele for
colour-blindness is XC. The possible genotype and phenotypes in female and males are:

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 Genotype Phenotype

Female XCXC normal colour vision

XCXc normal colour vision carrier

XcXc red-green colour-blindness

Male XCY normal colour vision

XCY red-green colour-blindness

Haemophilia is a disease in which a person’s blood will not clot( (lack of clotting factor). The dominant
allele XH produces blood clotting factor for clotting of blood. The recessive allele Xh causes haemophilia.

The possible genotype and phenotypes in female and males are:

Genotype Phenotype

Female XHXH normal

XHXh normal carrier

XhXh haemophiliac

Male XHY normal

XhY haemophiliac

Objective : Construct pedigrees for monohybrid crosses

VARIATION AND SELECTION

175
 Variation

Variation is the differences in characteristics which exist between individuals belonging

to the same population or species.
The variation between individuals in a population can be continuous and discontinuous
variation.

Objective: describe differences between continuous and discontinuous variation and give
examples of each.

A comparison of continuous and discontinuous variation is shown in below.

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

1.Has sharply contrasting
1.Continuous variation exhibits many
characteristics with no
intermediate charateristics intermediate forms between

In a population, this variation involves

a wide range of individual, whose statistics
wjll produce a nonnal distribution curve
when plotted as a histogram.
2. The characteristics can be
2. The characteristic. are not easily
distinguished easily.
distinguishable.
3. Environmental factors affect the way the 3. The environment has little or
no effect
genes express themselves. Environmental or no effect onway the
on the
changes prevent the genes from expressing genes
genesexpress
expressthemseives.
themselves
its full effects.
4. It ls brought about by the combined 4. It is brought about by one or
effects of many Ilenes. only a few genes. only a
5. Examples: ABO blood group,
S. Examples: intelligence. height. weight,
ability to roll tongue,
colour of skin. to taste phenylthiourea.

176
no.of no. of

people people

Height AB A O B

Continuous variation of height in Discontinuous variation of ABO blood

In a population group in a population

2.Variation is caused by new combinations of genes through sexual reproduction, mutation and
immigration of individuals with new gene combination.

(a) Continuous variation is caused by :

(i) Random assortment of genes during gamete formation by meiosis.
(ii) Random pairing of individual gametes during fertilisation gives rise to new sets of
gene combinations in the offspring.

(b) Discontinuous variation is caused by:

(i) Mutations or sudden changes in chromosomes and genes in normal cells or
gametes. Mutations occur spontaneously or due to the effects of certain drugs and
radiation.
(ii) Immigration of new individual which may bring new genes into the population.
When new individuals reproduce with existing members of the population, new gene
combinations can occur.
The gene pool is the sum of all the genes for a population of a species. Mutation and
immigration can introduce new genes into a gene pool whereas sexual reproduction
can only produce new combinations of existing genes. Many farmers introduce
new stock or crops to bring new and possibly better characteristics into their
population.

3. Variation is an advantage because it increases the chances of survival for breeding and
produces offspring that survive under new conditions.

4. Variation is an important source of differences within a species, These differences may be

selected (by natural selection) for evolution.

Mutation

1. A mutation is a spontaneous change to a chromosome or a gene that causes it to code a

177
 different characteristic. Mutation can occur in ordinary cells or in gametes.
2. Since chromosomes and genes control the making of proteins, a change in the number,
size of chromosomes and the chemical structure of a gene can result in a different protein or
enzyme causing a different characteristic to arise.

Factors Leading to Mutation:

Objective: discuss factors which may lead to mutation

 Spontaneous mutation is very rare. However, the rate of mutation is greatly increased
by the presence of mutagens.
 Environmental mutagens include ultraviolet light and high energy
radiations.
 Chemicals such as artificial sweetener, cyclamates (now banned) and
formaldehyde in certain concentrations are mutagenic to certain organisms.

Two main Types of Mutation:

1. Gene Mutation
Objective: describe gene mutation and discuss causes of gene mutation

i. In gene mutation, the gene may mutate to become dominant or recessive

ii. The mutation can be inherited and may persist within a species. The gene may mutate again or
revert back to the original state

iii. Examples of gene mutation in organisms:

 Gene mutation in bacteria and insects is generally beneficial and increases their chance
of survival. Mutant forms of bacteria are usually resistant to antibiotics and mutant
forms of flies and mosquitoes are resistant to the pesticide DDT.

 Gene mutation in humans leads to severe genetic disorder such as sickle-cell anaemia
and haemophilia. Sickle-cell blood contains sickle-shaped (distorted) red blood cells
which reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood causing anaemia. Haemophiliac
blood lacks blood clotting factors.

 Most gene mutations are recessive and are masked by dominant normal genes. In the
case of sickle-cell anaemia, the individual with a heterozygous incomplete dominance
sickle- cell trait (Ss) is not anaemic but resistant to malaria. This gives a selective
advantage to people living in areas where malaria is endemic. Persons with two
recessive mutant genes (i,e. homozygous genotype, ss) usually die of fatal anaemia.

 In the case of haemophilia, the gene on the X chromosome of the ovum mutates and
becomes recessive, Females with genotype XHXh 8Ie carriers and do not suffer from

178
 haernophiha, Since there is no allele for normal blood in the Y chromosome, males with
genotype XhYare haemophiliac.

2. Chromosome mutation
Objective: describe chromosomal mutation and discuss causes of chromosomal
mutation

i. Chromosome mutation involves the change in number (lack of a chromosome or have

an extra chromosome) and size of chromosomes resulting in a different phenotype.
ii. It is caused by abnormal behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis.
iii. Chromosome mutation in human beings leads to abnormal characteristics which are
harmful. The genetic disorder Down's Syndrome is the effect of one extra chromosome
in zygote i.e. individuals have 47 chromosomes in their cells instead of 46.The extra
chromosome comes from the mother or the father. During meiosis an extra chromosome
may result when one of the duplicate chromosomes does not separate. Individuals with
Down's syndrome are born with characteristic facial features, physical defects and
mental disability.
iv. Mutation causes variations in the population wh.ich 8Ie the basis upon which
natural selection operates. Individuals with advantageous variations resulting from
mutations are selected for and they are more likely to mature and reproduce and thus
passing on these variations to their offspring.

Natural Selection
Objective: Discuss effect of variation and competition to the survival of organisms in the
environment.
1. Natural selection is the competition for existence between individuals in a population.
It is a process whereby individuals which are better adapted to their environment tend to
have an increased chance of survival and have a greater opportunity to reproduce
themselves whereas poorly adapted individuals dies off even before they can reproduce.
2. Natural selection involves a struggle for survival and the fittest of all survives.
Competition among members of the same species for the same requirements (e.g. food,
water, spaces etc.) and the pressure of the environment force the weaker members of the
population to die off or become limited in members.
3. Natural selection depends on variation within every species. Some of these variations
help an organism to survive in the struggle of survival. Organisms with these
advantageous variations tend to survive and reproduce and therefore pass onto their
offspring favourable characteristics. Mutations can give rise to beneficial variations
allowing a species to adapt to changes in the environment and even prevent their
extinction.

179
How Natural Selection can Lead to Evolution:
Objective: Assess the importance of natural selection as a possible mechanism for evolution

Natural selection is an on-going process which promotes long term changes in a species
over many generations. It is, therefore, a possible mechanism for evolution. Charles
Darwin's theory of evolution proposes that existing species colonising different and
isolated habitats could develop certain characteristics adapted to these environments as a
result of natural selection over millions of years; this would eventually lead to the
formation of a new species.

Struggle for Survival Genetic Variation

Organisms reproduce at a faster rate than Particularly, discontinuous variation caused

food production rate leading to by mutation. Also caused by the
competition among members of the same inheritances of new gene combinations in
species for resources like food, shelter continuous variation.
and mates

Natural Selection
Advantageous characteristics or variations are selected for

Survival of the fittest

Organism with best suited characteristics predominate in the population

Inheritance of beneficial variations

Favourable characteristics pass onto offspring over a period of many generations

New Species
Formation of genetically distinct species

180
Examples of natural selection:
o The dark peppered moth
Before the industrial revolution in England, light coloured peppered
moth which rests on trunk of trees during the day are camouflaged by the
light coloured lichen on the bark making it difficult for birds to prey on
them. A sooty environment after the industrial revolution allowed the dark
variation of the peppered moth to increase in number as they can survive
predation from birds against soot blackened tree trunks. Hence, dark
moths were selected for and the light coloured moths were selected against
as they are better adapted than the light coloured moths to the new sooty
environment.

o Sickle-cell anaemia
The mutant gene for sickle-cell anaemia is common in areas where malaria
is endemic because it gives a selective advantage to individuals with the
sickle-cell trait (Ss). These individuals have a slight immunity to malaria.
o Penicillin-resistant bacteria
Disease causing bacterium becomes resistant to penicillin because of a
mutant allele which could prevent the cell from being destroyed by
penicillin. This allele provides a selective advantage to the bacteria and is
passed onto the offspring by natural selection.
Therefore, the bacteria continue to multiply in the diseased organism
despite treatment with penicillin.
o Insecticide resistant Insects
Some mutant forms of insects are resistant to the pesticide DDT. If the use
of DDT is continued, the mutant species of insects will multiply and soon
replace the entire species of insects which can be destroyed by DDT.

181
Artificial Selection
Objective: Describe the role of artificial selection in the production of economically important
and animals.
1. In artificial selection, man deliberately selects and interbreeds individual plants or
animals to produce completely new varieties of animals and plants with desirable
characteristics.
2. Artificial selection allows farmers and breeders to select the best and fittest offspring to
improve agricultural livestock and crop plants. Plants and animals are selectively bred for
specific characteristics. For example:

(a) New varieties of crop plants such as wheat, barley and potatoes are bred for higher crop
yield, better nutritional value and greater resistance to disease and a greater tolerance to
extremes of environmental conditions.
(b) Selective breeding of fruit trees results in larger and better quality fruits with improved
taste.
(c) Selective breeding of animals such as cattle could lead to higher meat and milk
production. Similarly, sheep are selected for their wool quality, thickest and length of coat
to improve the quality and yield of wool.
(d) Horses and dogs are bred for hunting, racing and appearance.

3. There are two main types of artificial selection:

(a) In-breeding which involves the crossing of closely related individuals in a species.
In crop plants, self-pollination and self-fertilisation are carried out to maintain desirable
characteristics of parent. In animals, related offspring from the same parents are mated e.g.
highly bred pedigree dogs. This can also lead to the accumulation of harmful genes in the
offspring resulting in physical and/or mental defects which reduce their chances of survival
when they to return to the wild.

(b) Out-breeding which involve the crossing of unrelated species. For example, crossing a
wild species of grass with a strain of wheat produces a hybrid variety with increased
resistance to diseases and adverse environmental conditions.

182
 ECOLOGY

ENERGY FLOW, FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEB

1. Ecosystem: is the living and non-living components of a region which interact to produce a
stable system.
Components of the ecosystem are:
 Biotic component: living organisms such as the producers, preys, predators and parasites.
 Abiotic component: Non-living components of the environment which influence the living
organisms such as climate, soil conditions, water, temperature, etc.
Examples of ecosystem are a pond, seashore.

Abiotic factors influence the distribution of organisms within an ecosystem while biotic factors affect
the population of organisms within an ecosystem.

An ecosystem consists of a network of a number of different habitats with their communities of

organisms interlinked by the flow of energy and nutrients.

Habitat : is a place where an organism lives.

Population: is a group of individuals of one species found in the same habitat.

Community: refers to all organisms that interact in an ecosystem.

Objective: Describe energy transfer through an ecosystem

2. Food Chains and Energy Flow along Food chains:

The living organisms in the ecosystem interact with each other via a chain of energy transfers called
food chains.

A food chain is a group of organisms linked or related by their feeding habitats

Producer Primary consumer Secondary Consumer

Green plants which Herbivores Feed on green Carnivores(predators) prey
Absorbs the sun’s energy plants as their sources of energy upon herbivores as their
And produce food by phot- for growth, metabolic activities source of energy for growth,
osynthesis. and reproduction. metabolic activities and
reproduction.
Food chains end with decomposers: bacteria and fungi which promote the breakdown and decay of
dead plants and animals and thus help return vital mineral salts to the soil. This improves soil fertility
which in turn promotes healthy growth of more producers.

Some examples of food chains:

 Wheat grasshopper sparrow hawk

183
  Grass rabbit fox
 algae water fleas stickleback fish perch fish pike fish

3. Food Webs:
Food webs are made up of several interconnected food chains. Ecosystems with complex food webs are
more stable than those with simple ones. Within food webs, organisms obtain their food in different
ways as shown below:

Tree(wood, leaves, fruits)

Woodlouse slug Caterpillar worm Blackbird

Ground beetle

Spider Bluetit

Frog

Shrew Grass snake Hawk

Fox

4. Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass and Energy:

Food chains can also be presented as a pyramid of numbers which shows the number of each organism
at each trophic level. The position of an organism in a food chain is called its trophic level.

In an ecosystem, there are usually far more organisms at lower trophic levels than at higher trohpic
levels.

Hawk
Number of Tertiary consumer
organisms Sparrow Secondary consumer
at each
level Grasshopper Primary consumer
decreases
Wheat plant Producer

Number of organisms

184
A pyramid ofbiomass shows the mass of material at each trophic level. The biomass of the successive
trophic levels decreases progressively due to the loss of energy in respiration at each level.

Bird
Tertiary consumer
Biomass Beetle Secondary consumer
at each
level Aphid Primary consumer
decreases
Grass Producer

Biomass

There are situations where pyramids of numbers and biomasss can be inverted or shaped differently.
These are situations which involve parasites in a food chain.

Aphids Plasmodium in mosquito Ticks

Greenfly Plasmodium in red

blood cells Sheep

Man

Rose bush

Objective: Describe the importance of the sun as the principal source

of energy for biological systems.

Objective: Describe the non cyclic nature of energy flow

5. Non-cyclical Nature of Energy Flow in Biological System:

 Energy from the sun enters the ecosystem through organic compounds (carbohydrates)
produced by photosynthesis in green plants. However, only about 1% of sunlight striking a leaf
is absorbed by chlorophyll and used in photosynthesis. Most of the light striking a leaf is
reflected, or transmitted or converted to heat energy and lost by radiation.

185
  Energy from the sun passes along a food chain. The energy is progressively lost at each trophic
level as heat energy in respiration. Successive members of a food chain incorporate into their
biomass (as a new tissue) only about 10% of the energy available in the organism they consume.
The remainder 90% is lost as heat energy in respiration and a small amount lost through
excretion.
When a herbivore consumes a plant, only a small fraction of the sun’s energy (about 10%)
stored in the plant is used by the herbivore for growth and formation of new tissues. The bulk of
the energy is lost as heat in respiration to the surroundings, in urine and faeces.

 The energy flow in the food chain is non-cyclical. Energy flows in one direction and it is either
utilized or lost into the surrounding but cannot be recycled.

See diagram below:

Producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

sun
100%
Pasture area(1m2)
20 000kJ 2 000kJ 200 kJ 20kJ
1% of energy 10% of 10% of 10% of
incorporated energy energy energy
in incorporated incorporated incorporated
photosynthe in new tissues in new in new tissues
sis of herbivore tissues of of herbivore
herbivore new tissues
90% lost
.some material may not be eaten
99% lost by .some material not digestible
. being transmitted through .some used in excretion & a lot used in respiration
. being reflected back 90% lost
. not being correct .much of plant body e.g
wavelength. lignin and cellulose may be undigestible,
consumers rarely eat the whole plant
.a lot of energy used in 90% lost
respiration. .some material may not be eaten
.some material not digestible
. some used in excretion
. a lot used in respiration.

 Energy loss at each trophic level results in insufficient energy to support higher trophic levels.
Thus, the length of the food chain is limited. The longer the food chain the more energy will be
lost, the shorter the chain, the more energy will be available for higher consumers.

186
  Worldwide people feed mainly on plant foods. There is greater efficiency in supplying green
plants as food because plant crops produced on a given area of land will provide more energy
than the number of animals that could be raised on that area.

6. Accumulation of Substances along a Food Chain:

 Non-biodegradable substances, poisons and toxic substances can accumulate along a food
chain reaching significant amounts in the bodies of consumers in the higher trophic levels.

This is because small amount of such substances persist in the tissue of organisms, builds up in
their bodies and passes onto the organism that feeds on it.

 DDT is an insecticide used to control mosquitoes, it is non-biodegradable.

7. Relationship Between Prey and Predator:

Predator starve and

die as population of
prey decreases

population

Prey number decreases due to fewer predators; allow prey

Increased predator population to increase in number
Time(yrs)
 The population size of prey and predator fluctuates together with the fluctuation in the predator
population, which usually lag behind those of the prey. This is because the predator depends on
the prey for food.

187
NUTRIENTS CYCLE IN NATURE

Objective: Describe the use and retention of nutrients in the ecosystem

Nutrient Cycling and Retention

The elements organisms require for development, maintenance, and reproduction are called nutrients.

Ecologists refer to the use, transformation, movement, and reuse of nutrients in ecosystems as nutrient cycling.

Examples of nutrient cycling are: the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

Element carbon is used in the ecosystem to form food molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats/oils in
living organisms.

Element nitrogen is used to form proteins in plants.

Objective: Describe the carbon cycle including the role of photosynthesis,

respiration, animal nutrition, decomposers, fossil fuels and combustion.

Carbon Cycle

188
Photosynthesis:

 Plants use atmospheric carbon dioxide to make carbohydrate,sugar, by the process of

photosynthesis. The animals the eat plant material obtaining the carbon in the form of
carbohydrates, proteins and other carbon compounds made by the plant.

Respiration:

 Animals, plant and micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi break down carbohydrates in
their cells to produce carbon dioxide and water

Decay and Decomposition:

 Saprotrophs break down organic matter of dead plants and animals, especial bacteria and fungi.
Then organic compounds such as carbohydrates are decompose be the micro-organisms to
produce carbon dioxide.

Fossil Fuels:

 These are formed from sedimentation of partly decomposed plant remains over millions
of years. The fossil fuels are oil, coal and natural gases.

Combustion:

 This is burning of the fossil fuels, oxidizing the carbon to carbon dioxide

Nitrogen Cycle
189
Objective: Describe the nitrogen cycle in terms of decomposition, nitrogen
fixation and absorption.

leguminuous
plants

Decomposition:

 Saprophytic bacteria and fungi decompose plant and animal remains. One of
the products of this decomposition is ammonia, which is washed into the soil.
 Excretory products from animals contain nitrogenous waste products such as
ammonia, urea and uric acid.

190
  The organic matter in animal droppings is also decomposed by soil bacteria.

Nitrifying bacteria (nitrification):

 Bacteria living in the soil use ammonia from excretory products and
decomposed organic material as a source of energy, in the process converting
ammonia to nitrates.

 Nitrosomonas bacteria oxidizes ammonium compounds to nitrite

(NH4- NH2-).
 Nitrobacter bacteria oxidizes nitrites to nitrates (NH 2- NH3-).

Nitrogen fixation (by nitrogen fixing bacteria):

 This is the process of converting the gas nitrogen to ammonium

compounds by some special bacteria found in the soil and in root
nodules of leguminous plants.

191
Nitrogen fixation (by lightening):

 The high temperature of lightning discharge causes some of the

nitrogen and oxygen in the air to combine and form oxides of nitrogen.
These dissolve in the rain and are washed into the soil as weak acids,
where they form nitrates

Poor Agricultural Practices Resulting in Destruction of the Ecosystem.

Objective: discuss how poor agricultural practices result in destruction of the ecosystem e.g.
monoculture, excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, overstocking, deforestation.

Impact of Agriculture on the Ecosystem:

1. Deforestation – removal of natural vegetation such as forest from the land.

One reason for deforestation is provide more land for agriculture.

The harmful effects of deforestation are:

192
 (a) Destruction of natural habitats for plants and animals
Food chains and food webs are affected causing an imbalance in ecosystem. With the
removal of producers from ecosystem, herbivores may not be able to find alternative
sources of food. Eventually they die and carnivores which feed on herbivores will also die
out
(b) Extinction of many plants and animal
Plants and animals die out more rapidly than the can reproduce. Their population decrease
to such a point that they become endangered species and may die out completely.
(c) Soil erosion
The roots of plant and trees, hold and bind soil particles together. Then there are removed
the soil is exposed to direct rainfall and wind that gradually remove the fertile top soil,
leaving the land infertile and uncultivable.
(d) Reduction of rainfall
With the removal of plants and trees, the amount of transpiration decreases drastically.
This decreases water vapour content in the water cycle leading to reduction in rainfall.
(e) Loss of robust species that can be used in artificial breeding to improve crops
Wild species of plant are able to withstand changes in the environment. It is possible to
develop stronger crop varieties with increased resistance to diseases and adverse conditions
by cross-breeding with related species.
(f) Increase in carbon dioxide level and temperature
The carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere increases due to the drastic decreases in
photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, being a greenhouse gas, will trap sunlight and heat in the
atmosphere causing a rise in temperature. Increase in temperature is also due to removal of
shade provided by the leaves of the trees.
(g) Decrease in gene pool
The gene refers to the total variety of genes present in a population of plant and animals
species in the ecosystem. With deforestation the gene pool decreases due to:
- Loss/destruction of natural habitats of plants and animals resulting in reduction in the
number and variety of species leading to endangered species and extinction of species.
- Destruction of organisms by pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides which are used in
agriculture to kill crop pests. These toxic chemicals kill organisms directly or through the
food chains.

2. Eutrophication
- Excessive use of fertlisers in agriculture results in nitrates and phosphates being carried
away by water into ponds, lakes and rivers. The water become enrinched with nutrients
and this causes rapid and excessive growth of algae on the water surface
eutrophication.
- This results in overcrowding and prevents penetration of light into water. The weds and
the aquatic plants die and aerobic bacteria that decompose them increase in number
and deplete oxygen in water. Since there is a reduction of photosynthesis and a

193
 decrease in dissolve oxygen available for consumers, both the producer and consumer
populations in the aquatic ecosystem fall greatly.
- Eutrophication can also be caused by the discharge of untreaded sewage, detergents
(containing a lot phosphates) and animal waste into waterways. The organic waste
pollutants are also decomposed by aerobic bacteria that deplete oxygen dissolve in
water.
- One method used to reduce the use of excessive artificial fertilizers is crop rotation.
Different crop are grown on the same land in successive years. The two harvested
crops, have different mineral requirements and often obtain them from different soil
depths. Planting legumes and ploughing the leguminous plants back into the soil after
harversting restore nitrogen compounds to the soil.
3. Pest Control
- Agriculture promotes monoculture in crop production and in animal production.
Because of these pests usually spread rapidly were there are agricultural practices.
Therefore, use of insecticides and pesticides is in agriculture.to
- Insectcides used in concentrations which seem harmless to man can be poisonous for
other organisms like fish and birds.
- DDT is a stable, non-biodegradable insecticides that is effective in killing pests and
mosquitoes. However, DDT accumulates in the fat deposits of the bodies of consumers
in higher trophic levels causing death
(a) Birds consuming worms and insects contaminated with DDT from sprayed leave can
accumulate lethal doses of DDT.
(b) Insecticide may also destroy insect organisms in soil.
(c) Insecticides washed off into the rivers and lakes can accumulate to significant
amounts to poison fish and other aquatic l life.
- Non-biodegradable pesticide are discouraged in many countries. Alternative less
harmful but just effective methods used in pesticides are:
(a) The use biodegradable organophosphates pesticides which are less harmful to the
environment but toxic to man.
(b) Biological control which uses a natural predator of the pest to control its numbers.

4. Monoculture: growing of a single species of crop on the same piece of land, year after year
- Involves destruction organisms which feed on, compete with or infect the crop plant.
This might result in extinction of other animal and plant species.
- The balanced life of a natural plant and animal community displaced from farmland and
left to survive only in small areas of woodland, heath or hedgerow.
5. Overstocking: keeping of livestock whose number exceeds the carrying capacity of a piece of a
piece of land.
- Overstocking leads to over grazing which makes grass not to have time to complete its
reproductive cycle. Therefore, resulting in some grass species becoming extinct.
- Trampling of soil by some hoofed animals result in the soil forming a hard layer and the
soil losing its properties.

194
FAMINE
Objective: Discuss the problem which contribute to famine such as unequal distribution of food,
natural disasters (such as floods and droughts) and increase in population

Famine: Lack of food over large geographical areas sufficiently long and severe to cause widespread
disease and death from starvation.

Problems Which Contribute To Famine:

1. Unequal distribution of food

 Some geographic feature of areas make food production difficult, therefore such area may remain
with minimal chances of food production.
 Wars have also led to minimal food production in some regions of the continent

2. Increase in population
 Increase in population lead to increase in demand for food, and usage of land for food
production. The rate of population growth often exceeds the rate of food production

3. Natural disasters
 Droughts – persistent shortage of rainfall over years leads to minimal food production
and insufficient foods.
 Flooding – frequent floods can disturb food production in fields/farms, leading to minimal
food production and starvation.

Pollution
Objective: Describe a cause, effect and control of each of the following types of pollution: air, water
and land.

Pollution is contamination of air, water, or soil by substances that are harmful to living organisms.

A pollutant is a harmful substance which contaminates the environment and causes harm to living
organisms in the environment.

195
The consequences of pollution are observed in the effects on living organisms and in possible long term
effects on climate.

1. Air Pollution:

Type of pollutants Source of pollution Effects of pollution Control

a) Sulphur dioxide  Burning of fossil  Causes acid rain  Coal and

fuel. (sulphuric acid formed). Petroleum are
 Car exhausts.  Changes pH of soil and treated to
 Natural water ways. remove
disasters such  Damages plants leaves sulphur.
as volcano  Irritates eyes and lungs
eruptions when breathed in.
 Aggravates diseases such
as asthma and bronchitis.
 Corrodes metal
structures and erodes
limestone in buildings
and sculptures
b) Nitrogen Oxide  Car exhausts.  Causes acid rain (nitric  Catalyctic
acid formed). convertors
 Irritates eyes and lungs change
when breathed in. nitrogen gas
 Nitrogen dioxide before it is
combines with smoke in released into
the presence of sunlight atmosphere.
to produce destructive
photochemical smog.

c) Carbon monoxide  Burning of  Competes with oxygen  Catalyctic

fossil fuels. for haemoglobin and convertors
 Car exhaust. therefore reduces the change
capacity of blood to carbon
carry oxygen. monoxide to
 Colourless and carbon
odourless gas –an dioxide
increase of carbon before it is
monoxide level in released into
blood causes death. atmosphere.
d) Lead  Anti-knock in  Causes brain damage in  Use unleaded
petrol children petrol
e) Chlorofluoro-  Aerosol  Breaks down ozone  Reduce usage
carbon propellants. layer and allow more in industry
 Cooling agents UV radiation to
in penetrate earth, may
refrigerators increase skin cancer
and air incidence.

196
 conditioning.  Absorbs infrared
radiation. Cause global
warming
e) Smoke and dust  Soot –unburnt  Blacken buildings,  Increase
carbon covers plant leaves and efficiency of
particles due reduces rate of combustion
to incomplete photosynthesis. engines.
burning of  Irritates eyes and lungs
fossil fuels. when breathed in.
 From quarries  Causes lung diseases.
saw mills and
asbestos
factories.

2. Water Pollution:

Type of Sources of Pollution Effect of Pollution Control

pollution

Raw sewage  Human and  Encourages  Proper sewage

domestic waste. eutrophication. disposal and
 Detergents rich in Increases population of sewage treatment
phosphates. bacteria and decreases systems.
 Farmyard waste. oxygen content in  Use
 Industrial waste biodegradable
water.
from food washing
 Kills fish and aquatic detergents
processing
organisms.
industries.
 Bacteria present in
sewage can cause
disease such as cholera
and typhoid in man
when the polluted
water is consumed.
Artificial  Excessive use of  Encourage  Use of natural
Fertilizers fertilizer in eutrophication. fertilizers.
farming. Increases population of
 Soil erosion bacteria and decreases
causes mineral oxygen content in
salts to leach
water.
away into
waterways.
Inorganic
waste

(Toxic
Chemical)
 Pesticides  Non-biodegradable.  Banned

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 containing  Accumulates in fat  Use
chlorine used in tissues of animals along  biodegradable
DDT crop protection food chains, reaching pesticides.
and control of toxic levels in the  Use biological
disease vector consumers of higher control of
such as mosquito trophic levels. pesticides.
Mercury  Industrial wastes  Affects nervous system,  Proper disposal of
causes paralysis. waste containing
mercury.
Lead  Industrial waste  Minute concentrations  Proper disposal of
cyanide may be paralysis. waste containing
lead cyanide and
other toxic
chemicals.

Petroleum  Tanker accidents  Clogs respiratory  Effective accident

and oil spillage. systems of animals. Kills prevention and
marine creatures and legislation.
sea birds.  Efficient removal
 Ruins beaches and of oil slicks by
destroy marine life. special
detergents.

3. Land Pollution:

Type of Pollution Source of Pollution Effect of pollution Control

Refuse/litter e.g.  Used plastic  Plastic is not digestible in  Proper

plastic, used bags. alimentary canal of disposal of
paper,  Used papers animals; blocks the litter.
 Used cans and alimentary canal of  Recycling
bottles animals; causes death of of uses
animals plastic,
 Litter makes environment paper,
to be unattractive. bottle, can

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  Creates breeding place for and metal
disease vectors. scraps.

Conservation
Conservation is protection and preservation of natural resources and the environment.

Conservation is adynamic process requiring active intervention and management on a global scale.

Objective: Discuss reasons for conservation of species with reference to local plants and species

Reasons for conservation of wild life species and forests:

(a) Economic reasons: Many species of plants are useful sources of oil, fibre, rubber, food(Mowana
and Mosukujane),chemicals(pyrethrum) and medicinal drugs(Sengaparile). Pyrethrum is a
natural insecticide obtained from the flower of the pyrethrum plant.
(b) Ecological reasons: (i) Forests provide many different habitats for living organisms and support
a large number and variety of living organisms.
(ii) A large gene pool is important in the process of artificial selection of
new crops and cattle e.g. crossing a wild grass with a strain of wheat
produced an improved variety.
(iii) Conserve species for scientific studies and prevent extinction of
species.
(c) Climatic reasons: Prevent global warming, disruption of water cycle, reduction of rainfall etc.

Objective: Find out from the local community which plant and animal have become scarce and why?

Use the table below to identify scarce plants in your community and give a reason why they are scarce

Plant identified as Reason(s) for being scarce

scarce

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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Use the table below to identify scarce animals in your community and give a reason why they are scarce

Animal identified as Reason(s) for being scarce

scarce

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Objective: Investigate threatened species (plants and animals) and the need to conserve them
(emphasise examples from Botswana).

The table below identifies some of the threatened plants species. Give a reason why they have to be conserved.

Plant threatened Reason(s) for being conserved

1. Mosukujane

2. Sengaparile

3. Monepenepe

The table below identifies some of the threatened animals species. Give a reason why they have to be
conserved.

Animal threatened Reason(s) for being conserved

1. Rhino

2. Wild dog

3. Cheetah

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Some common conservation measures are:

(a) Restriction on the destruction of natural habitats.

(b) Replanting of trees(reforestation).
(c) Impose and enforce limits on the release of pollutants
(d) Preservation of sites of special scientific interest.
(e) Educate and raise public awareness of the importance of conservation.
(f) Setup organisations to legislate and enforce laws to safeguard environment and prevent
deforestation and pollution.
(g) Recycling of materials such as cloth, glass, metal, paper.

Recycling
Objective: discuss reasons for recycling of materials including sewage water, paper, bottles and tins.

Reasons for recycling materials:

(a) Reduce the usage of the natural resources which can be conserved.
For example: recycling paper (which is made from wood pulp) will reduce the amount of timber
used, therefore slows down the rate of deforestation.
Water from treated sewage can be used as industrial water and for watering plants.
The solid waste from treated sewage can be used as a fertilizer for plants.
(b) Reduce the amount of waste materials(paper,plastic metals etc) disposed.
(c) Conserve fossil fuels.
Recycling of materials uses less energy and lower production cost than making new products. It
takes far less energy to melt down scrap metal(iron, aluminium) and use it again than to
produce it from its metal ore.

Project:
Objective: Carryout a project to identify natural resources conserved in Botswana

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BIOTECHNOLOGY

Objective:Difine biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to

manufacturing and service industries

BIOTECHNOLOGY can be defined as the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to

manufacturing and service industries.

USE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

Objective: Explain why micro-organisms are used in biotechnology

MICRO – ORGANISMS ARE USED IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

Because:

 They can be grown in large quantities in small vessels

 Reproduce very fast and products are obtained faster
 Micro-organism and their production can be produced in small scale trials in laboratories
 Micro-organisms can be easily genetically manipulated to achieve the desired products
 Pure products can be cheaply and safely produced by use of simple inorganic products
 Most bacteria produce extra cellular enzymes and other chemicals, making it easy to extract the
products.

ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN FOOD PRODUCTION

*Objective: Investigate the role of micro-organisms in food production e.g. bread, madila , chibuku,
single cell protein

1. BREAD (yeast used)

 Wheat flour, a little sugar and salt, and yeast are mixed with water to form dough.
 Addition of water and suitable temperature activate amylase present in flour to digest
starch into simple sugars, glucose
 Within the dough the yeast respires the simple sugars ana-erobically for hour at 35 0C;
 Alcohol and carbon dioxide are produced.
 The carbon dioxide makes the dough to rise or expand with bubbles.
 The risen dough is kneaded and cooked.
 carbon dioxide is trapped in the dough forming bubbles, this makes the dough to rise.
 During baking (200oC), yeast is killed, the small amount of ethanol produced evaporates
 Bubbles of carbon dioxide expand and trap heat in the bread improving its cooking.

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2. MADILA(bacteria used)
 At commercial level, a specific species of bacteria is used and the conditions are carefully
controlled to assure the quality of the product.
 First, milk is pasteurized (heated at 72oC for 15 minutes). This process kills most potential
pathogenic micro-organisms and those that may interfere with the product quality
 A starter culture of bacteria (Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgarius) is used
in fermentation of milk.
 The bacteria use the milk as a food source
 Bacteria turn lactose in milk to lactic acid, lowering pH of milk
 The milk proteins coagulates at pH 4.4 forming a thick cream of sour milk
 Fermantation is stopped by reducing temperature of sour milk from 46OC to 5OC
 Amount of whey in sour milk can be reduced
 The product is then sealed in sterilized containers

Raw Bacteria Madila

+ + Madila
Milk milk Milk Proteins Whey
pasteurised Coagulates due
due to lactic acid

Whey
Removed

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3. Beer Making (chibuku):
 Yeast fermentation is used to produce alcohol.
 A number of cereals are used to provide the sugars needed by yeast in fermentation.
 During the germination of barley/sorghum grains, enzymes are activated and start the
digestion of starch to maltose and glucose.

Barley grains germinate for 4 days. Enzymes

in the barley digest starch to maltose. The
barley is now called malt.

Grains are dried at a temperature which kills

seeds but do not denature enzymes.

The dried grains are crushed (milled)

Water is added to the milled malt to form

marsh; digestion of starch continues and
sugars dissolve in the water.

Mash is boiled for 2½ hours to kill bacteria

and wild yeast.

Mixture is cooled and there straining of some

solids. The liquid filtrate is called wort.

Yeast is added to the wort and left to ferment for 2-

4days. Glucose is converted to ethanol, carbon
dioxide and energy is released for the yeast

Mature Chibuku is put in containers

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4. SINGLE CELL PROTEIN – (myco protein):
 Mycoprotein is an example of a ‘single cell’ protein food
 Whole dried filaments of fungus Fasarium graminearum, produced in a continuous process
fermenter. ( it is marked as Quorn, suitable as a meat substitute for humans.
 The hyphae have the same texture as meat fibres and are tasteless

FUSARIUM Cut and coloured

GRAMINESI to resemble
meat

GLUCOSE

Add meat or
Fish flavouring
NUTRIENTS
(high in nitrogen)
Fusarium Quorn
Graminearum

 ADVANTAGES OF MYCOPROTEINS
 Grow fast (doubles its mass every few hours)
 High in first class proteins and fibre
 Low in fat, with no cholesterol
 Rich protein source for vegetarians and vegans.

DISADVANTAGES OF MYCOPROTEINS

 Can be indigestible and taste different

 May cause gout due to high RNA content.
 Costly at present.

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ROLE OF MICRO – ORGANISM IN FUELS AND CHEMICALS

Objective: Investigate the role of micro-organisms in fuels and chemicals e.g. biogas, alcohol,
biological enzyme washing powder.

1. BIOGAS (METHANE)
 Methane is produced by use of anaerobic and methanogenic bacteria.
 Cow dung, human waete and vegetables waste are fed into an underground
fermenter or biodigester.
 The bacteria digest the proteins, carbohydrate and fats.
 The anaerobic respiration will lead to production of methane and carbon dioxide.
 The gas piped to burners for cooking, heating or generating electricity.

Gas supply
to home

gas
Inlet
Organic waste 0utlet
Enters here

Ground

Discharged slurry used as manure

Digestion vessel
Organic waste

Anaerobic bacteria
Methanogenic bacteria

Carbohydrates glucose ethanoic acid methane + carbon dioxide

2. ENZYMES
 Can be produced commercially by fermentation using feedstock such as molasses..
 Fungus(e.g. Aspergillus) or bacteria(e.g. Bacillus) are used to produce enzymes.

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  The micro-organisms produce the enzyme in a fermenter.
 Air and the food to be digested are fed into the fermenter.
 Mixture coming from fermenter is filtered.
 Enzymes are then extracted from filtrate collected.
 They can be used either in solution or trapped in polymer beads (where they are
less easily destroyed).

USES OF ENZYMES

PROCESS ENZYME FROM PURPOSE

MICRO-ORGANISM USED
WASHING CLOTHES  Proteases Biological washing powders
 Lipases remove stains e.g. blood and fat
WASHING DISHES  Amylase Dishwasher powder remove
starch smears on plates
CHEESE MAKING  Rennin  Curdles milk
 Lipase  Speed up ripening of
Danish blue cheese
MEAT TENDERING  Proteases Begin break of protein fibres.

3. ALCOHOL:
 As a fuel: The country Brazil, in Southern America, uses ethanol produced by
biotechnology from sugar cane as a fuel for their cars.
 This idea came around in the 1970's when the price of petrol rose to a very high
level. Sugar cane, usually used to make sugar for human consumption, was grown.
 The juices containing sugar are extracted and yeasts are used to ferment the juice
to make alcohol (ethanol).
 The resulting mixture is then distilled to concentrate the percentage of alcohol in
the liquid.
 The waste material left over from after the juices are extracted is burnt to supply
the heat energy for the distillation process.

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ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN THE PRODUCTION OF MEDICINE SUCH AS

Objective: Discuss the role of micro-organisms in the production of medicine such as antibiotics and
vaccines

1. ANTI-BIOTICS

Penicillin is produced by fungus PENICILLIUM notatum. Penicillin destroys cell walls of a wide
range of pathogenic bacteria.

As the fungus (Penicillium sp) grows aerobically in the fermenter . It uses up nutrients. Only
when the nutrient level falls greatly does the fungus produce penicillin. Production of the
antibiotic begins after about 40 hours in the fermenter and reaches its maximum after about 7
days.

PENICILLIUM
SP

GLUCOSE

NITRATES AND SULPHATES

Dry fungus
And cell as
Animal feed
AIR FILTERING
Purify and
Modify
Penicillin

2. Vaccine:

 Vaccines have been made for many viral diseases.

 Vaccines can be made in several ways:
Dead pathogens – e.g. whooping cough vaccine
Weakened pathogens – oral polio vaccine
Genetically engineered fragments – proteins from the pathogen’s surface which are recognized
by lymphocytes, e.g. hepatitis B viral coat protein.

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  The products are then made in solution form and are injected into bodies of animals

ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING

*Objective: Discuss the role of micro-organisms in genetic engineering e.g. insulin production, crop
plant resistance, gene therapy

GENETIC ENGINEERING

This is the insertion genes from one species into another in order to produce desirable traits such as
production of important substances, to develop resistances to diseases, pests, spoilage, and herbicides
etc.

General Procedure:

 Identification and isolation of the gene

 Insertion of the gene into bacterial plasmid (circular DNA molecules)
 The bacterium now has acquired the ability to produce the desired product
 Culture, extraction and purification of the product.

E.g. 1. Production of insulin:

 Restriction enzymes in the bacteria are use to cut the plasmid open to allow the insertion of the
insulin gene isolated from human pancreatic cells.
 The donor DNA is also cut by the restriction enzymes
 The enzyme ligase splices the human insulin gene into the plasmid to form recombinant plasmid
 The plasmid is then reintroduced into the bacteria
 The bacteria acquires the ability to produce insulin
 Bacteria can then be cultured in large fermenters and the insulin extracted and purified.

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2. Crop plant resistance

 Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxin that kills insects by affecting their guts. Several different
kinds of crop plants have been genetically engineered to produce this toxin.

 Some plants have genes that make them resistant to herbicides

Agro bacterium tumefacien is an ideal cell for introducing desirable genes for crop resistance into
host cell:

 Restriction enzymes cut desirable gene from the chromosome of that is

resistant to herbicides

 Restriction enzymes in the bacteria are used to cut open the Ti plasmid found in
the Agro bacterium so as to allow the insertion of the desirable gene.
 The enzyme ligase splices the desirable gene into the Ti plasmid to form
recombinant plasmid
 A plant is then infected with the engineered Agro bacterium
 The Ti plasmid in the Agro bacterium causes formation of cancerous growth
(tumour), called a crown gall, on the plant.
 The bacteria acquires the ability to produce insulin
 Each cell in the gall contain the Ti plasmid with the desirable gene in place.
 Plantlets can then be cultured from small pieces of tissue cut out of the gall.
 The plantlets carrying the Ti plasmid are transferred to the soil.
 With the help of the desirable characteristic from the gene, the plantlets grow
to form genetically identical mature plants.

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3. Gene therapy

Gene therapy is an attempt to correct a hereditary disease caused by an inheritance of a defective gene

A normal gene is inserted into the defective cells.

 Identification and isolation of the gene

 Insertion of the gene into vector (disabled virus or liposome)
 the virus is introduced to the defective cell
 virus infects the defective cell
 the healthy gene repairs the diseased cell

Cystic fibrosis is condition caused by lack of cell membrane protein leading to production of a thick,
sticky mucus in the air passages

The condition is a good candidate for gene therapy:

 the coat of an influenza virus is uses

 The disabled virus is sprayed into the passages.

How Industries in Botswana can Benefit from Biotechnology

*Objective: Discuss how industries in Botswana can benefit from Biotechnology

Benefit from Biotechnology:

 It creates employment

 Foreign exchange where money is generated by selling the products.

 Improved general health by drugs (vaccines and antibodies)

 Conservation of certain resources (using proteins produced from micro-organisms spares grass
thus preventing overgrazing.

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