MGG-002

Indira Gandhi National Open University

GEOMORPHOLOGY
School of Sciences

Vol

1
BLOCK 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

BLOCK 2
EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS

BLOCK 3
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES: STATIC AND DYNAMIC I
 MGG-002

Indira Gandhi National Open University

GEOMORPHOLOGY
School of Sciences

BLOCK

1
FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

UNIT 1
DEVELOPMENT OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

UNIT 2
BASIC POSTULATES IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

UNIT 3
GEOMORPHIC SYSTEMS AND CONCEPTS

GLOSSARY
COURSE INTRODUCTION: GEOMORPHOLOGY
Geomorphology is a field of geography that develops scientific explanations for the evolution of
landforms. Geoscientists, especially geographers and geologists, have been studying
geomorphology for centuries in order to better comprehend the Earth's surface. Geomorphology
mainly is a part of physical geography which deals with the study of landforms, their
characteristics and various processes, i.e., physical, chemical, biological and extra-terrestrial
responsible for their formation and changes.

Traditional geomorphology analyses landform descriptions, whereas quantitative

geomorphology, which is process-based, explains forces working on Earth's surface that create
landforms and landform change. The change to a more quantitative approach was greatly
influenced by the work of Horton, Strahler, and Leopold, who argued for a physically-based
assessment of landforms in the mid-twentieth century. Novel techniques for comprehending the
forms and processes were introduced. Geomorphology has various sub-disciplines, including
tectonic, fluvial, aeolian, floodplain, glacial, climatic, coastal and many others. The study of
geomorphology encompasses how various agents like water, ice, and wind shape the
topography of the Earth’s surface. Anthropogenic geomorphology investigates the effects of
humans on landform alteration all over the world. As a result, it is impossible to envisage a
place or condition that has not been influenced by geomorphic processes.

This course-MGG 002, consists of five blocks, is intended to introduce learners to the concepts,
theories, geomorphic processes, and major landforms that exist under various structural and
climatic conditions. Geomorphology applications in environmental management are also
introduced.

Geomorphology-MGG 002 course is printed in two volumes. Volume-1 consists of first three
blocks namely: Block 1: Fundamentals of Geomorphology, Block 2: Evolution of Landforms, and
Block 3: Geomorphic Processes: Static and Dynamic I; and the other two blocks namely-Block
4: Geomorphic Processes: Static and Dynamic II and Block 5: Applied Geomorphology are
arranged in Volume-2.

Geomorphology encompasses a wide range of geographical dimensions, from micro-landforms

to gigantic landforms. Geomorphology's history may be traced back to the ancient and classical
periods of Greek and Roman scientists and thinkers.

From the classical perspective of cyclic development to systems approaches, the core notions
of geomorphology, nature and scope, and the genesis of landforms are discussed. You will also
learn about "form and process geomorphology," a novel way to studying landform evolution and
change. You will get a better understanding of the fundamentals of geomorphology by studying
the development of the discipline, basic postulates, geomorphic systems, and fundamental
concepts in Block 1, which is divided into three units.

Block 2 describes the evolution of landforms. A landform is a natural or human-made feature on

the Earth's surface. The study of landform evolution is essential to grasp the attributes of
landforms, such as their shape, material composition, and spatial distribution throughout the
Earth's surface. The theories of major landform formation by describing Earth's core structure,
theories of isostasy, eustacy, continental drift, and plate tectonics are explained. You have been
introduced to tectonic processes and landforms in this block. Further, geomorphic processes
both dynamic and static dealing with weathering, mass wasting, and fluvial processes and
landforms in three units. You will study in details about these processes and landforms in Block
3 of Volume I of this course on Geomorphology.

Volume II consists of Block 4 and Block 5. We have explained the geomorphic processes and
landforms related to wind, underground, ice and waves in Block 4 under geomorphic processes
static and dynamic. The applications of geomorphology are described in details in the last Block
of this course.

We hope after studying this course, you will better understand the geomorphology with
reference to fundamental concepts and theories, geomorphic processes and resultant
landforms, techniques and applications landform analysis. Our best wishes are with you in this
endeavour.

We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact at: knrao@ignou.ac.in
and krishnakumar@ignou.ac.in
MGG – 002 GEOMORPHOLOGY
VOLUME - 1
BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

Unit 1 Development of Geomorphology

Unit 2 Basic Postulates in Geomorphology
Unit 3 Geomorphic Systems and Concepts

BLOCK 2 EVOLUTION OF LANDFORMS

Unit 4 Theories of Development of Major Landforms

Unit 5 Tectonic Processes and Landforms I
Unit 6 Tectonic Processes and Landforms II

BLOCK 3 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES: STATIC AND DYNAMIC I

Unit 7 Weathering
Unit 8 Mass Movement
Unit 9 Fluvial Processes and Landforms

VOLUME - 2
BLOCK 4 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES: STATIC AND DYNAMIC II

Unit 10 Aeolian Processes and Landforms

Unit 11 Karst Processes and Landforms
Unit 12 Glacial Processes and Landforms
Unit 13 Coastal Processes and Landforms

BLOCK 5 APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGY

Unit 14 Slope Processes
Unit 15 Geomorphic Mapping
Unit 16 Geomorphic Techniques
Unit 17 Landforms and Environment Management
BLOCK 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms. Humans have long been fascinated by the
different landforms found across the world in a range of environments. Landforms raise
concerns about how they develop, what mechanisms are involved in their formation, and how
they change. The subject spans geographical dimensions ranging from micro-landforms for
example alluvial fans or point bars to massive landforms such as continents and ocean basins.

Geomorphology is also concerned with changes in landforms caused by variables such as

changing climate, sea level rise, tectonic activity, and human action. Geomorphological
investigations are primarily concerned with recreating the past through understanding the
present in order to anticipate the future. Though geomorphology began as a branch of
geography and geology, it has gradually expanded into an inter- and multi-disciplinary study that
deals with atmospheric, hydrological and oceanographic, soil, agricultural, and environmental
sciences.

The history of development of geomorphology becomes a highly helpful instructional tool for
making students aware of the subject's growth over time. Geomorphology may be traced back
to the ancient and classical periods of Greek and Roman scientists and philosophers. During
the ancient and classical periods, Greek and Roman scholars such as Aristotle, Ptolemy,
Herodotus, Strabo, and others pondered and studied the origins of mountains, valleys, deltas,
and so on. Thus, studying these geomorphic forms and processes has been crucial to
understanding the Earth's surface.

Despite its origins in the Greek and Roman’s periods, geomorphology is a relatively new study.
Particularly, the nineteenth-century travels and findings gave rise to contemporary
geomorphology. Its foundation was laid by a collection of scientists, including James Hutton,
Charles Lyell, G.K. Gilbert, W.M. Davis, Penck, Jovan Cvijić, Strahler, Bagnold, Leopold, Enayat
Ahmad, Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles. Many concepts and hypotheses put forth by
geomorphologists in the early stages of development have experienced major shifts in their
basic postulates in recent times. However, many of the principles and theories that have
characterized and influenced the subject have remained relevant to this day.

This block introduces you to fundamentals of geomorphology dealing with development of

geomorphology, basic postulates in geomorphology, and geomorphic systems and concepts in
three units.

Unit 1: Development of Geomorphology

This unit explains the subject of geomorphology and its scope, and approaches, as well as how
they have evolved over time. It also provides a brief overview of geomorphic theories and
concepts, as well as application areas.

Unit 2: Basic Postulates in Geomorphology

This Unit describes basic postulates in geomorphology as well as their importance in evolving
the discipline of geomorphology. We introduced the geological time scale and addressed the
classical concepts of Neptunism vs Plutonism and Catastrophism vs Uniformitarianism, which
set the foundation for the development of geomorphology. This unit ends with a study of the
fundamental concepts of geomorphology that have been determined to be most important for
modern geomorphology in recent times.

Unit 3: Geomorphic Systems and Concepts

Geomorphic systems and concepts are introduced in this unit. We discussed general systems
theory, which offered a unique concept and inquiry approach to the study of landform evolution.
This unit will teach you how, as a result of scientific developments in other fields, the origin of
landforms has evolved from the classical perspective of cyclic evolution to systems approaches.
You will also learn about "form and process geomorphology," an innovative approach to
examining the evolution and change of landforms. You'll also understand how the concepts of
equilibrium and steady state, as well as geomorphic threshold, complex response system, and
dynamic equilibrium, contribute to understanding the genesis and morphological disposition of
landforms.

We hope after studying this block, you will better understand the fundamentals of
geomorphology by studying development of subject of geomorphology, basic postulates,
geomorphic systems and fundamental concepts. Our best wishes are with you in this
endeavour.

We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact at: knrao@ignou.ac.in
and krishnakumar@ignou.ac.in
 UNIT 1

DEVELOPMENT OF
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.3 History of Development of
Expected Learning Outcomes Geomorphology
1.2 Introduction to 1.4 How Geomorphology is
Geomorphology Related to other Disciplines
What is Geomorphology? 1.5 Summary
Significance of Geomorphology 1.6 Terminal Questions
Nature and Scope of
1.7 Answers
Geomorphology
1.8 References and Suggested
Approaches to Geomorphology
Further Reading

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms, their origin, description,
classification and application of this knowledge for the welfare of the mankind.
The diverse landforms across the globe within a variety of landscapes have
always been a matter of curiosity for the scientists as well as people. The
questions connected with landforms are--how they originate, what processes
are involved in their formation, how they change and how this knowledge can
be useful in resolving the problems through the applications of this knowledge
in human welfare. The scope of the study ranges from spatial scales of micro
forms like alluvial fans, natural levees, point bars to the major landforms like
continents and ocean basins as well as mountains and valleys. They can be
studied through qualitative observations to quantitative measurements,
theoretical conceptualizations to laboratory analysis and numerical
simulations to geospatial modelling using real time data of remote sensing in
GIS platforms. Geomorphological studies revolve around morphology and
characterization of the landforms, quantitative analysis of their shapes,
monitoring of their exogenetic and endogenetic processes that shape the
landforms. Geomorphology also deals with changes in landforms in response
to various factors like changing climate, sea level rise, tectonic activities and
human interventions. Geomorphological investigations primarily focus on
reconstructing the past by understanding the present to predict the future.
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G.K. Panda
Block 1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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Though geomorphology has been a part of the disciplines of geography and
geology and Earth Sciences, with the passage of time, it has become an
interdisciplinary branch/subject sharing its objectives with other fields of
sciences like marine sciences, pedology, agriculture and environmental
sciences.

This unit highlights how the field of geomorphology has developed over time
and explores its significance, scope, approaches, theories and principles as
well as its application areas.

Expected Learning Outcome

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the subject of geomorphology, its meaning ad scope;

 Explain how geomorphology has evolved from ancient to present time;
and
 Understand, how geomorphology is linked to other disciplines.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO GEOMORPHOLOGY

1.2.1 What is Geomorphology?
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms, their origin, description,
classification and application of its knowledge. The word geomorphology has
been derived from the Greek word “ge- meaning the Earth, morphe-meaning
form, and logos-meaning discourse”. Thus geomorphology means a
discourse of the various forms of the Earth. It is a part of physical geography
which deals with the study of landforms, their characteristics and various
processes-i.e. physical, chemical, biological and extraterrestrial responsible
for their formation and changes. The study of geomorphology encompasses
how various agents like water, air, ice, etc., shape the topography of the
Earth’s surface.

Landforms are generally produced by the processes of erosion and

deposition influenced by several natural factors like relief, slope, climate and
vegetation as well as human factors. Different climatic environments produce
different types of landforms. While landforms of deserts like sand dunes and
pediments are shaped by the action of the winds, landforms of the polar and
sub polar areas are shaped by the glaciers. The knowledge of geomorphology
has great many applications in the fields of river basin development and flood
control, land use planning and city development, watershed management,
mineral exploration and geological mapping, mineral prospecting and coastal
zone management, etc.

Many geomorphologists have defined geomorphology to include the

configuration of the Earth as a whole and their dynamic processes which
shape its surface. Thornbury in 1969 suggested that the term geomorphology
should be extended to include submarine forms, while Chorley and others in
1984 defined geomorphology as the scientific study of the geometric features
of the Earth’s surface. Acording to A.N. Strahler, geomorphology is the study
of the origin and evolution of the Earth’s surface features, in terms of physical,
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Unit 1 Development of Geomorphology
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biological and chemical processes that shape landforms, as well as the
structure of the Earth's crust, geological processes, and climatic influences,
because landforms are the product of the combined influence of all of these
factors. Although the term is commonly restricted to the study of landforms at
or above sea level, the study of geomorphology includes all the landforms
existing and originating at the interface between the solid Earth, the
hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Hence, geomorphology is not only the
study of landforms of the continents, but also the morphology of the sea floor.
Chorley, Schumm and Sugden (1984) in their book on “Geomorphology”
mentioned that geomorphology is based on the two major interrelated
concepts of historical and functional studies. They have mentioned that
historical studies of landforms “aim to deduce from the erosional and
depositional features of the landscape, the sequence of events through which
the Earth’s surface has passed. Functional studies focus on reasonably
contemporary processes and the behaviour of Earth materials.

1.2.2 Significance of Geomorphology

Geomorphology is a sub-branch of physical geography. Knowledge of
geomorphology has found its relevance in other disciplines like geology,
geophysics, agriculture and pedology, environmental studies, marine
sciences, natural hazards and disaster management. Geomorphology can
help in predicting risks associated with different geomorphological processes
such as mass wasting and landslides, movement of the glaciers and
dynamics of the waves, tides and river flows to manage and mitigate the
natural hazards associated with these events. Geomorphological mapping
has been widely used for ground water exploration, terrain evaluation and
land suitability mapping, watershed management and integrated coastal zone
management.

The main objective of geomorphology is to reconstruct the history of the

surface of the Earth through the study of its landforms. To achieve this
objective, an understanding of the genesis of landforms requires not only the
present processes but also the processes which had operated in the past.

The basic objectives of studying geomorphology are:

(a) To study the morphology of the surface of the Earth through its landforms
and features, the materials of which they are composed of and the
processes that shape the landforms.
(b) To explore the conditions associated with their origin and their evolution
over time.
(c) To work out the agents and processes responsible for the formation and
changes of landforms.
(d) To understand how the geomorphological knowledge is linked to our
everyday life and activities.
(e) To make use of the knowledge of geomorphology in resource studies and
to solve problems connected with our environment.

There are ten key points that are proposed for further knowledge of
geomorphology; hence, the ten reasons why geomorphology is vital are
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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presented in Table 1.1. You will certainly have knowledge after going through
the summarized table.

Table 1.1: Summary of the Ten Key Points.

1 Landscapes are Landforms are shaped by geomorphological
shaped by processes, which essentially involve the
processes of movement of Earth materials by different
erosion, geomorphic agents and processes
transportation and
deposition
Landscape shaping Various tectonic, geological, climatic and
processes are weathering processes the rocks and sediments
2
induced by many that constitute the surface of the Earth.
primary factors
3 Landscape Spatially and temporally the geomorphic
processes operate processes operate at various rates and scales
differentially
4 The Earth's Landforms and landscapes are not static but
landscapes are are dynamic and develop through time.
dynamic
5 Landscapes are A ridge/hill can turn into a valley and a valley
often complex can turn into a hill through denudation and/or
tectonics.
6 Landscapes are Landscapes contain histories of their
historical just like development that potentially can be
archives deciphered and reconstructed from study of the
associated landforms and sediments
7 Global climate Atmospheric warming and sea level rise, carry
change is potential to influence landscape changes,
influencing including desertification, ice sheet and glacial
landscape dynamics retreat, and coastline erosion.
8 Human activities are Human activities have a potential to induce
influencing changes in landscapes and landforms
landscape dynamics
9 The Earth's Both global environmental change and human
landscapes are activities are increasing the magnitude and
turning more frequency of geomorphological hazards, which
hazardous occur wherever and whenever land surface
stability is affected and adverse socioeconomic
impacts are experienced
10 Successful Geomorphology can provide key inputs to
environmental environmental management.
management needs
geomorphological
knowledge
(Source: Geomorphic Literacy, British Society for Geomorphologists)

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1.2.3 Nature and Scope of Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the study of landforms, the materials of which they are
composed of and the processes that shape the surface of the Earth. This
helps to know the history of evolution of the landforms in particular and
surface of the Earth in general. Geomorphologists also tend to predict and
simulate future changes using a combination of methods involving field
observation and numerical modelling. Denudation chronology aims at
reconstructing the succession of relief at different times of the Earth’s history.
Scientific nature of study of the spatio-temporal variations in the origin,
evolution, distribution and changing face of the landforms and their spatial
relationship through a geological time scale are the core areas of investigation
in the subject. Its inter-relationship with other disciplines of Earth and natural
sciences like geology, geophysics, pedology, environmental science etc.
exhibits its interdisciplinary nature (Fig. 1.1).

Geomorphology as a branch of academic discipline focuses on the study of

landforms with emphasis on their forms, materials and processes.
Traditionally the scope of geomorphology was limited to the “terrestrial
environment” which has been the home of human. But along with the
advancement of scientific tools and technology, the field and scope of
geomorphology also started expanding its horizon to study landforms of the
aquatic and planetary environments”. Its tools of investigation have also
started spanning from the ideographic methods to incorporate nomothetic
methods, from conceptual modelling through qualitative observations towards
theorisation based on quantitative techniques and computer based numerical
simulations.

Use of geospatial technology and digital terrain modelling has also expanded
the territory of geomorphology contributing significantly not only towards its
core areas but also towards neighbouring disciplines who have been the
users of this branch of knowledge promoting interdisciplinary investigations.
On the basis of characteristics and scale of the relief features, the scope of
geomorphology encompasses the study of landforms of the first order like
continents and ocean basins and second order like mountains, valleys,
plateaux and plains, etc. and third order landforms which are micro landform
features and all other landforms which evolve with in the first and second
orders. The scopes of geomorphic investigations have also expanded far and
wide from simple observations to laboratory based analysis and studies
based on digital technologies and geoinformatics.

1.2.4 Approaches to Geomorphology

Every scientific discipline stands on its own concepts which evolved over time
and which play a key role in its progress. Geomorphology has also evolved its
own concepts and approaches through its history which have characterized
the discipline.

Fieldwork and data collection, application of geospatial technologies,

geochemical analyses of sediments, and computer based modeling of the
landform evolution have been an integral part of the field of geomorphology.

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Block 1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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Fig. 1.1: Geomorphology interfaces with, and contributes to, many

different aspects of the Earth, environmental and social sciences.

Geomorphologists have also relied on geochronology to study the

evolutionary process of landforms using methods of dating to measure the
rate of changes in the landforms. Quantitative techniques and computer
based digital simulations have also been used in terrain analysis on real time
basis to describe the morphology of the Earth's surface. Use of Differential
Global Positioning System (DGPS), real time digital terrain models,
application of drone technology and machine learning are bringing revolution
in inducting new approaches to the studies in geomorphology. Inductions of
new advanced precision tools and techniques have made the subject
applicable in hazard assessments for landslide investigation and mitigation,
riverbank erosion and coastal protection works and so on.

A new branch of planetary geomorphology is also emerging to study the

surface features of the extra-terrestrial bodies collected through space
explorations. This new branch of planetary geomorphology explores the
landforms of the other terrestrial planets and satellites like Mars, Venus and
Moon through Earth analogies like effects of wind, water, glacier, mass
wasting, volcanic processes and meteor impacts (on the Earth) to understand
the surfaces of other celestial bodies. Bierman and Montgomery in their book
on “Key Concepts in Geomorphology” mentioned that geomorphology relies
on an integrative and applications oriented approach to the study the dynamic
nature of the landforms of the surface of the Earth. Some of the important
approaches used in the field of geomorphology are as follows:

(i) Historical Approach

Historical approach tends to derive and deduce sequential evidences from the
landforms and its surroundings about the past processes such as tectonic,
climatic and exogenetic, etc. Historical approach often relies on cyclic and
denudational chronology of geomorphic processes and landforms.

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Unit 1 Development of Geomorphology
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(ii) Cyclic Approach

Cyclic approach started with W.M Davis (1850-1934), who promulgated the
basic idea that landform evolution is a function of structure, process and
stage. His conceptualisation of cyclic landform evolution in stages of youth,
maturity and old age is synonymous with the evolution of human life in a
similar cyclic process.

(iii) Denudation Chronology Approach

This approach attempts to reconstruct the history of geomorphological

evolution of a region using erosion surfaces of different altitudes as a product
of denudation through time. Study of the denudation chronology is based on
the interpretation, identification and dating of planation surfaces exposed in
the study region.

(iv) Climatic Geomorphology Approach

Different climates initiate and influence different processes and produce

different types of landforms. This approach dates back to the period of Von
Richthjofen who developed these ideas of climatic geomorphology towards
the end of 19th century. Subsequently this approach gained strength in
Europe as well as North America since 1950 in studying the landform
assemblages on regional basis across the globe.

(v) Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

In the early phase of development of geomorphology, the subject was purely

qualitative and descriptive. An inductive approach through observations of the
landforms and their processes led to the establishment of a qualitative
approach in the study of geomorphology. But subsequently with the
advancement of technology which gave instruments and laboratory methods,
scientific investigations started.The shift of geomorphology towards more
quantitative methods has started with the work of Strahler, Horton and
Leopold during 1940’s and 50’s advocating for multiple factor-based
assessment of landforms. Nowadays quantitative approach is being widely
used in study of landforms and specifically in the areas of ‘process
geomorphology’.

(vi) Modern Functional Approach

This is generally aiming at explaining the landforms through cause-effect

relationships of multiple parameters. Such studies mostly involve
contemporary processes and materials which are directly measurable. The
systems approach helped in model building, simulation and future predictions.
This has been further strengthened with the advent of geospatial technology,
computerised simulations using machine learning and sophisticated dating
and laboratory analysis of rock samples.

SAQ 1
a) Write any two key points to understand the geomorphology.
b) Explain the importance of climatic approach in geomorphology.

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1.3 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Till now you have studied and understood about the geomorphology and its
significance as well as various approaches to geomorphology. Let us now
briefly discuss the history of development of the subject of geomorphology.

The history of geomorphology becomes a very valuable educational tool for

making students aware about the development of the subject and its sub-
fields over time. The history of geomorphology can be traced back to the
period of ancient and classical times of Greek and Roman scholars and
philosophers. Although it is rooted to the ancient and classical period of the
Greek and Romans, the subject of geomorphology is a relatively younger
science. Modern geomorphology has its origins in the nineteenth century
through explorations and discoveries of many people. Its foundation was laid
by a number of scientists like James Hutton, Charles Lyell, G.K. Gilbert and
W.M. Davis. The history of development of geomorphology can be divided in
to the following four time periods.

1.3.1 Ancient Period (500 B.C-1200 A.D)

During the ancient period the geomorphological ideas which captured the
imagination of the great philosophers like Aristotle, Herodotus, Strabo and
Seneca are worth mentioning here. Chorley and others have also mentioned
that the earliest recorded observations on relief and landforms, nature of
fluvial erosion and hydrological cycle came from the ancient Greece. Aristotle,
Herodotus, Seneca and Strabo had given their ideas on morphological
evolution of fluvial landforms.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) had explained about the hydrological cycle and work
of the rivers in creating alluvial deposits at the river mouths with examples
from the Black Sea region. Herodotus (485?-425 B.C.) is known for his
observations on evolution of the Nile delta by river deposits. Based on the
fossil evidences, he could able to conclude that the sea level rise must have
gone much inside Egypt.

Strabo (54 B.C-25 A.D.) was able to observe that the Vale of Tempe was
formed due to the volcanic activities and Earthquakes. Seneca’s (65 A.D.)
views on occurrence of Earthquakes and role of river abrasion on valley
developments has inspired many subsequent philosophers to think about
origin of landforms in a scientific manner. Avicenna’s views on origin of the
mountains and valleys (lbn-Sina, 980-1037A.D.) by upliftment due to
Earthquakes and down cutting by river actions were classics of their times on
geomorphological expositions.

1.3.2 Renaissance to Post-Renaissance Period

(1200 A.D-1800 A.D)
Renaissance period is often referred to as the dark age of scientific learning
when people were made to believe in the writings and preaching of the Bible
in the western world. Scientists and philosophers were forced to believe in the

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Unit 1 Development of Geomorphology
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Bible and who ever tried to deviate from the dictums of the Bible had to face
the wrath of the fundamentalists. Church played a dominant role in forcing the
people and scientists as well to accept the facts of the Bible. This period
brought a negative trend in the creation of new knowledge. This process took
a considerable period of time to recover from the dogmatic believes of this
Dark Age.

Scholars of the late 17th and early 18thcentury stressed that the concepts and
ideas of geomorphology should be linked to the Bible and its catastrophic
events. The people who believed in catastrophism were Thomas Burnet,
Comte de Buffon and John Woodward. They believed that the Earth is
shaped by big floods. Burnet was of the opinion that the Earth is hollow filled
with water which came out during Noah's Flood. In his works (An Essay
toward a Natural History of the Earth) John Woodward (1665-1728) revealed
that the hard surface layers of the Earth can be divided into different strata,
and its enclosed fossils were generated from the sea. Comte de Buffon
believed the idea that the formation of the planet took place when there was a
collision between a comet and the Sun leading to the formation of the planets
He also advocated that the early Earth began to cool from the poles to the
present form.

In the western world, eighteenth century brought revival in the scientific

learning, rapid industrialization and emergence of democratic values.
Scientific and technological developments started replacing the dogmatic
beliefs and superstitious perceptions. New research and educational
institutions appeared and publications of scientific works have started.
Development of geomorphology took place through introduction of some of
the basic principles in between 1787-1830 through the contribution of leading
scholars like James Hutton of Scotland, Georges Curvier of France, William
Smith of England, and Abraham Werner of Germany.

In the post-renaissance period, scientific explorations, voyages by the

explorers and discoveries of new land and oceans piled up a lot of new
information paving a stepping stone towards scientific thinking,
experimentation and creation of new knowledge. Leonardo da Vinci (1425-
1519) was the first person of this post renaissance period to study stream
erosion, deposition and valley development.

Contribution of James Hutton (1726-1797) to the geomorphological studies

gained significance with his revolutionary concept of “uniformitarianism” and
“the present is the key to the past” opposing the prevailing idea of
catastrophism. The belief that changes to Earth have always been consistent
and that the present holds the answer to the past. Hutton’s ideology of
uniformitarianism was subsequently furthered by Charlse Lyell (1797-1875) in
studying the landforms. Thus, the modern geomorphology got a strong
foothold in the eighteenth century with the contributions from the theory of
universal ocean of Abraham Werner, glacial control theory of Luis Agassiz
and James Hutton’s theory of uniformitarianism opposing the views of
neptunism, catastrophism and William Buckland’s dilluvialism supported by
Charles Lyell and John Playfair.

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1.3.3 Modern Geomorphology and Exploration of
American West (1800 A.D-1900 A.D)
The word geomorphology was first introduced by Lauman in a publication
written in German language in the year 1858. Subsequently this word was
used by J.W. Powell and W.J. McGee in an International Geological
Conference. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the word came into general use
in English, German and French after Powell and McGee used it during an
International Geological Conference of 1891.

Later on geomorphology was used in a book titled “The Scientific Study of

Scenery” by John Edward Marr. Foundation of modern geomorphology was
laid by the pioneering work of William Morris Davis conceptual model of
geomorphic cycle (1884 to 1899) and sequential development of landforms.
Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) voyage of the Beagle and his observations on
the evolutionary history of fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls greatly
influenced the work of Davis. Wide acceptance and application of this cyclic
evolutionary model of Davis in to fluvial, aeolian, glacial and coastal landforms
laid the foundation of geomorphology as an established discipline in the field
of Earth Sciences.

The time 1875–1900 was a golden period of geomorphology in North

America. During this period, the Geological Survey of Western North America
was headed by some pioneers of geomorphology i.e. J.W. Powell (1834-
1902), G.K. Gilbert (1843-1918), C.E. Dutton (1841-1912) and W.D.
Thornbury (1969). Their contributions to geomorphology together with the life
and work W.M. Davis laid a scientific basis to carry over to the 20th century.
Powell’s work on “Base Level of Erosion”, Gilberts work on “Slope
Development and Graded Profile of Rivers”, Dutton’s work on “Development
of Canyons” and Thornbury’s work on “Fundamental Concepts in
Geomorphology” became the foundation for modern geomorphology of the
twentieth century.

1.3.4 Geomorphology of the 20th Century and Beyond

In the early part of the twentieth century, Walther Penck, a German
geomorphologist suggested a new and alternative model non-cyclic evolution
of landforms opposed to Davis. His model of landform evolution was a
manifestation of landform as function of process and time with the premises
that landform evolution can take place simultaneously with upliftment and
denudation, as opposed to the ergodic and cascading system of energy
reduction through a cyclic progression from youth to old age. In the beginning
of the 20th century, the study of climate, glaciations and L.C. Peltier's
publication on periglacial cycle of erosion in 1950 gave rise to climatic
geomorphology in Europe. L. C. King’s study of the South African desert
landforms and pedimentation process was more akin to the ideas of Penck in
the evolution of landforms.

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Unit 1 Development of Geomorphology
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William Morris Davis Walther Penck Grove Karl Gilbert John Wesley Powell
(1850-1934) (1888-1923) (1843-1918) (1834-1902)
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morris_Davis; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Penck;
https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/grove-karl-gilbert; https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/john-wesley-powell-1)

In the middle of the twentieth century quantitative revolution in

geomorphology started opening a new dimension in the study of landforms.
Quantitative analysis of erosional landforms by A.N. Strahler, R.E. Horton and
Ronald Shreve opened a new dimension in morphological analysis and
numerical predictions following a systems approach and modeling of forms
and processes. In this direction the contributions of the following exponents
like W.W. Rubey, R.A. Bagnold, Albert Einstein, John Hack, L.
Leopold, Thomas Maddock and Stanley Schumm are worth mentioning in
adopting quantitative techniques in geomorphological studies and
research. The newly inducted quantitative methods helped in understanding
the past and simulating the future behavior of geomorphic processes and
landforms. Quantitative geomorphology has started involving fluid
dynamics, solid mechanics, morphometric analysis of landform features,
laboratory investigations and field observations, theoretical work, and
full landscape evolution modeling. These approaches are used to
understand the interactions between forms and processes involving a wide
range of elements and factors of landforms through the middle of 20th
century. Introduction of quantitative analysis through the works of the
distinguished scholars like Strahler, Bagnold, Leopold, Miller and Wolman
provided impetus to the emergence of “Process Geomorphology” (Physical
and Chemical) in shaping the landforms.

Progress of geomorphology in the 20thcentury was accelerated by the

establishment of a number of geomorphological societies and publication of
journals. Advances in the dating technology, analysis and collection of ocean
cores, advent of geospatial technology and use of real time aerial
photography and satellite data, use of Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) in
geomorphic data collection process, use of digital surveying system and
advanced computer based modeling tools has brought many technical
developments in the subject during the later years of 20thcentury. Towards the
later part of the twentieth century, the theory of dynamic equilibrium and
geomorphology as an open system in opposition to the closed systems
inducted a new approach to geomorphology.

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Arthur Newell Strahler Ralph Alger Bagnold

(1918-2002) (1896-1990)
(Source: Schumm (2004) doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.00420.x;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Bagnold)

SAQ 2
What are the observations of Herodotus on geomorphic perspective?

1.4 HOW GEOMORPHOLOGY IS RELATED TO

OTHER DISCIPLINES
Traditionally, geomorphology as a distinct branch of knowledge has been a
part of the academic disciplines of geography and geology. In many
universities it has been a part of the departments of either Geography or
Physical Geography. But geology departments across the globe have also
incorporated geomorphology as a part of their syllabus in teaching and
research. Because of the links between geomorphology and some allied
disciplines like pedology, hydrology, marine science and geophysics, it has
been included in their syllabus.

Civil engineering makes use of geomorphological knowledge when it comes

to construction of dams and water harvesting structures. Civil , hydrological,
irrigation and environmental engineers apply geomorphological knowledge
like erosion and sediment transportation while working for irrigation
canals, slope stability in landslide areas, river training works in the deltaic
areas and management of coastal hazards. Glacial movements, glacial lake
outburst and snow avalanches often cause extensive erosion and deposition
in a short time. These phenomena become extremely important hazards in
the high latitudes. Thus geomorphology becomes an important part of
glaciology.

Geomorphology has also played a significant role in the disciplines of

environmental management. Earth scientists have applied geomorphological
knowledge in natural hazard studies and management of landslides, coastal
erosion and in the field of glaciology. While geomorphology is related to many
other disciplines beyond its domain, there are also many branches and sub-
branches with in this discipline. The sub- disciplines within geomorphology
are historical, tectonic, fluvial, aeolian, glacial, coastal, karst, applied,
regional, quantitative, geomorphic hazards so on and so forth. These sub-
disciplines are classified by certain distinctions like processes/agents and
approaches. Some new branches like hydro-morphology, eco-

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geomorphology, bio-geomorphology or socio-geomorphology are expanding
the frontiers of geomorphology making it relevant to the contemporary times.

Soil science or pedology is very much linked to geomorphology because the

terrain, landforms and geomorphic processes to a great extent help in
understanding soil genesis, distribution and classification. Environmental
management is a multi-disciplinary activity where geomorphology plays a very
significant role. A few specific roles of geomorphology in environmental
management can be seen in the applications to natural hazards like
landslides, avalanches, coastal and river bank erosion and its protection,
environmental restoration and conservation as well as sustainable
development of natural resources. In the process of environmental
management, attention is generally given towards understanding
geomorphological processes like weathering, soil erosion by water wind and
glacier, flooding and river action, land subsidence and coastal processes.

Marine science and oceanography makes use of the geomorphological

methods, approaches and principles in the study of coastal landforms,
topography of the ocean bottoms, coral reefs, offshore islands and island
arcs. Many geomorphic processes like action of waves, currents and seepage
of fluids through the seafloor are associated with the marine
environment. Mass wasting along the shore and submarine land sliding in the
deep sea are also important processes of marine geomorphology. Ocean
basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, thus,
erosional and depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment
fans, deltas) are the key features of marine geomorphology. In the field of
agricultural science, scientists and researchers very often use geomorphology
in the evaluation of terrain for land suitability and land capabilities for various
Geomorphology contributes significantly to the assessment of seismic
hazards and its vulnerability and risk. The geomorphological studies
applicable to seismic risk assessment are of two types; (a) morpho-
neotectonic study and investigations for identifying active tectonic zones and
structures; (b) geomorphological and morphometric analyses for identifying
the vulnerable situations which amplify or reduce seismic susceptibility. The
morpho-neotectonic studies help in identification, detection and
characterisation of the lineaments which are very often linked with active
tectonic structures. Other important geomorphologic factors that can lead to
seismic susceptibility are: slope angle, nature of debris, failure of slopes,
paleo-landslides, land slumping and underground cavities. All these
geomorphic attributes signifies its link with seismology and management of
seismic hazards.

Geomorphological mapping is undergoing radical changes due to

technological advancements and availability of high resolution satellite data.
As a result, classic paper based geomorphological maps which were used
during last 50 years are rapidly getting replaced by
digital geomorphic information layers applying GIS. Maps are also being
replaced and updated with a very high degree of precision about the location
of features and thematic contents by adding more geomorphological details,
taken from high resolution elevation data and images. Automatic extraction
and classification of geomorphological features from digital elevation models
(DEM), new digital visualization and computer assisted GIS techniques have
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enhanced the field and scope of geomorphology. DEMs are often used as the
basis to derive Land Surface Parameters, geomorphic and other ancillary
information using pixel based classification alternative to traditional map
based superimpositions. Automated classification processes are increasingly
useful to extract morphometric, hydrological and geomorphic information. All
the above observations signify the interrelationship of geomorphology with
remote sensing, GIS, geo-informatics and geospatial technology.

Geomorphology also plays a critical role in two areas of forensic science.

Geomorphological knowledge is used in searching objects over the land
surface as well as the buried objects and establishing of crime and control
installations. Geo-science and geomorphologic disciplines have substantial
work dedicated to the forensic investigations. It is needless to emphasise that
the location of a crime in a terrain is important and significance of
geomorphology has featured in many works and study of criminalistics and
geoforensics of crime. Application of geomorphology has been widely used in
military science in studying the terrain, in garrison engineering and troop
movements. Recently application of the methods and principles of
geomorphology has been widely used in the study and mapping of surface
features of extra terrestrial bodies like Moon and Mars. In this way
geomorphology has been linked with space science and astronomy.

SAQ 3
How geomorphology important in glaciology?

1.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the following:

 What is geomorphology?
 Significance, scope of geomorphology and approaches in geomorphology.
 History of development of geomorphology from ancient time to 1200 A.D.
 Nature of Geomorphology during rrenaissance and post-renaissance
Period from 1200 to 1800 A.D.
 Development of modern geomorphology during the 19th century i.e. from
1800 A.D. to 1900 A.D.
 Recent developments of Geomorphology in the 20th Century and Beyond.
 How geomorphology is related to other disciplines.

1.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is geomorphology? and describe the scope of geomorphology.

2. Explain approaches in geomorphology.

3. How geomorphology is related to other Earth Science disciplines?

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1.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) (1) Landscape processes operate differentially and (2) the landscapes
are often complex.
b) Different climates initiate and influence different processes and produce
different types of landforms.
2. Herodotus is known for his observations on evolution of the Nile delta by
river deposits. Based on the fossil evidences he could able to conclude
that the sea level rise must have gone much inside Egypt.
3. Glacial movements, glacial lake outburst and snow avalanches often
cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short time. So, landform
study can help in understanding glaciology.

Terminal Questions
1. Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms. Refer to Section 1.2.
2. Refer to Sub-Section 1.2.4.
3. Refer to Section 1.4.

1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHERREADING
1. Bierman, Paul R. and David R. Montgomery. (2014). Key Concepts in
Geomorphology. Macmillan Higher Education.
2. Chorley, R. J., Dunn A. J. and Beckinsale, R. P. (1964). The History of
the Study of Landforms or the Development of Geomorphology. New
York: Routledge.
3. Huggett R J. (2007). Fundamentals of Geomorphology. New York:
Routledge.
4. Thornbury W.D. (2002). Principles of Geomorphology. New Delhi: CBS
Publishers & Distributors.
5. Chorley, R.J., Schumm, S.A., Sugden, D.E. (1984). Geomorphology.
London: Methuen.
6. King, C.A.M. (1976). Landforms and Geomorphology, Concepts and
History. Stroudsburg: Hutchinson and Ross.
7. Ritter, Dale F., R. Craig Kochel, and Jerry R. Miller. Process
Geomorphology. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1995
8. Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., Miller, J.P. 1964. Fluvial processes in
Geomorphology. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
9. Hutton, J. (1788). Theory of the Earth. Royal Soc. Edin. Trans.,1, 209–
304.
10. Baker, V.R. and Pyne, S. (1978) „G.K. Gilbert and modern
geomorphology‟, American Journal of Science, 278: 97-123.
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11. Penck, W. 1953. Morphological Analysis of Landforms: A Contribution to
Physical Geology. Translated by Hella Czech and Katharine Cumming,
St Martin’s Press, New York
12. Stephen,T. & Heather. V.(2014). 10 reasons why Geomorphology is
important, British Society for Geomorphology
13. Tinkler, K. J. (ed.) 1989. History of Geomorphology: From Hutton to
Hack. Unwin Hyman, Boston, MA.
14. Davis, W. M. 1899. The geographical cycle. Geographical Journal, 14,
481–504
15. Hack, J. T. 1960. Interpretation of erosional topography in humid
temperate regions. American Journal of Science, 258(A), 80–97.
16. Horton, R. E. 1945. Erosional development of streams and their
drainage basins: hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology.
Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 56, 275–370
17. Strahler, A. N. 1952. Dynamic basis of geomorphology. Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America, 63, 923–938
18. Stanley A. Schumm (2004) Arthur Newell Strahler (1918–2002), Annals
of the Association of American Geographers, 94:3, 671-673, DOI:
10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.00420.x

26
 UNIT 2

BASIC POSTULATES IN
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Structure
2.1 Introduction 2.6 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 2.7 Terminal Questions
2.2 Geologic Timescale 2.8 Answers
2.3 Catastrophism 2.9 References and Suggested
2.4 Uniformitarianism Further Reading
2.5 Fundamental Concepts

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Geomorphology is the study of landforms, their origin, description,
classification and its application in human welfare. The word “geomorphology”
was first coined and used between the 1870s and 1880s to describe the
morphology of the surface of the Earth. The contributions of Hutton, Davis,
Gilbert, Strahler and many more played a key role in setting a conceptual
base to the modern geomorphology.

Over billions of years, the Earth has gone through many changes in its
morphology and structure through its internal and external forces. The
meteoritic impact, earthquake and volcanic activities, and erosional processes
of rivers, winds, glaciers, oceans, etc. along with the sea floor spreading and
plate tectonics have been constantly operating to shape the Earth. While
many of these activities occurred during a short time span, some the
processes had taken millions of years to create various morphological
regimes. All of these processes are still going on and shaping our Earth. In
the ancient and classical times, Greek and Roman scholars like Aristotle,
Ptolemy, Herodotus, Strabo and many others speculated and discussed
about the origin of the mountains, valleys, deltas, etc. Thus, the study of these
geomorphic forms and processes has been critical to understand surface of
the earth. In the early stage of development of geomorphology, many
concepts and theories put forth by the geomorphologists have undergone sea
changes in the latter times, in their basic postulates. But however, many of
the concepts and theories mark the surges that have characterized and

27
G.K. Panda
Block 1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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shaped the discipline and have yet remained significant still.

This unit makes an attempt to present before you some of the classical
concepts of the past and present and their relevance in shaping and evolving
the field and scope of geomorphology. This unit tends to bring before you a
basic understanding of the geological time scale to relate the major events of
landform evolution, stratigraphic succession of rocks and their fossil
characteristics. This unit is also going to discuss the classical concepts of
neptunism verses plutonism, and catastrophism verses uniformitarianism
which laid a foundation to the development of geomorphology. At the end of
this unit, you will find a discussion on the fundamental concepts of
geomorphology which are mostly found relevant for the modern
geomorphology of the recent times.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand about the geological time scale, formation of major

landforms and evolution as well as disappearance of life forms;
 Describe the basic concepts of catastrophism and uniformitarianism in
explaining the origin of landforms; and
 Describe the significance of fundamental concepts governing the origin
and evolution of landforms over the Earth’s surface.

2.2 GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE

Geologists have classified the Earth’s history into a number of time intervals
of different length of time depending on the major events in the life history of
the Earth depending on the evidences of the fossils.The geological time scale
presents the history of the Earth divided in a hierarchical set of divisions of
geologic time based on geochronology and dating of the sequential events
throughout the Earth’s history. The historical idea of geological time scale
came from the miners of UK who were trying to know the rock sequences of
different times. In 1669 its first idea came from Nicolaus Steno. Subsequently
it came from a surveyor and amateur geologist named William Smith who
produced a geologic map of England through faunal succession. The
accepted divisions of the scale of geological time are age, epoch, period, era
and eon. It has been established by the geologists adopting the principles of
relative dating of landform features and their stratigraphic successions. The
principles followed in making the geological time scale is as follows.

 Principle of Superposition: In sedimentary strata, each layer of rock is

younger than the one below it and older than the one above it.
 Nature of Horizontality: Sediment layers are normally deposited
horizontal to the surface.
 Relationship of Cross-Cutting: An intrusion or a fault in the layer of
rocks is younger than the rocks affected by it.
 Inclusions: The included materials in a mass of rock are younger than
the mass of rocks containing the intrusions.

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 Unconformities: Interruptions in the process of sedimentation in the
rock strata indicates a gap of material and time.
 Basis of Fossil Succession: Fossils of different organisms are found
in succession with respect to one another in an orderly manner from
older to younger rocks and help to establish the living period of the
organisms as well as period of deposition of earth materials.

The boundaries of the geologic timescale indicate the origin or extinction of a

particular type of species of fauna or flora. For example, if you find a dinosaur
fossil from a rock, it will indicate that the rock is of Mesozoic era and Jurassic
epoch during which dinosaurs lived. Different periods in the geologic time
scale have been classified based on different types of fossils found during
different time periods of the Earth's history.

It is important to note that the world stratigraphical community has tried for a
single, universal time divisions and terms for the same. While most of the
geologists have agreed on the divisions of eon, era and periods, at the lower
hierarchical levels, local terms have been used to represent different
environments of deposition. Fossils are used to correlate formation/deposition
of earth materials in different parts of the globe. You may refer to Fig. 2.1 for
understanding the Geologic time scale.

A) EON

Geological time scale has been divided into four major time divisions called
eons. These are 1) Hadean (4570 to 3850 Ma), 2) Archean (3850 to 2500
Ma), 3) Proterozoic (2500 to 540 Ma), and 4) Phanerozoic (540 Ma to
present). The initial three eons such as Proterozoic, Archean and Hadean
represent nearly 90% of the history of the Earth.

(1) Hadean Eon (4500 - 4000 Myr)

Dating (Radiometric) of the meteorites and oldest rocks had indicated that the
Earth is nearly 4500 Myr old. During this time there were a lot of meteorite
bombardments on the surface of the Earth. The rocks of this eon have no
evidence of any life forms.

(2) Archean Eon (4000 -2500 Myr)

Archean eon represents the Earth between 4000 to 2500 Myr. The
prokaryotic life forms like blue-green algae and bacteria are the evidences
found from the rocks of this Eon. During the Archean Eon, evidences in the
form of stromatolites of 3500 Myr old were also noticed from different parts of
the Earth.

(3) Proterozoic Eon (2500 - 541 Myr)

This eon has carried the evidences of multi-cellular organisms in the form of
trace fossils like worm trails and worm holes. Geologists are of the opinion
that the life forms of this eon have lacked shells and these rocks were devoid
of coal, oil or natural gas. But rocks formed during this Eon contained iron ore
formations in the form of hematite (Fe2O3) in different parts of the Earth. The
most common fossils found in the rocks of this eon are stromatolites formed
by the blue green algae and bacteria.
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Fig. 2.1: Geologic Time-Scale

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Unit 2 Basic Postulates in Geomorphology
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(4) Phanerozoic Eon (541 Myr to Present time)

The Phanerozoic Eon refers to a geologic time when there was “visible life”.
Phanerozoic rocks are the most common rocks bearing evidences of various
life forms. During this Eon majority of the macroscopic organisms like plants,
animals, algae and fungi had flourished on the Earth. The animals evolved
during this time appeared with external skeletons, outer shells and also
vertebrates in its later phase.

B) ERA

The Phanerozoic Eon has been divided into Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic era. The three eras come with a "zoic" suffix which means with a
zoological basis. The Pre-Phanerozoic time is usually referred as the
Precambrian which has been divided into three eons as hadean, archean and
proterozoic. During the three eras of Phanerozoic, major changes have taken
place in the composition of faunas. Each of the three eras are characterized
by the dominance of a particular group of animals. These three eras
Cenozoic, Mesozoic and Paleozoic are generally referred to as the "Age of
Mammals, Age of Dinosaurs and the "Age of Fishes" respectively although
other groups of animals and plants lived during these three eras.

1) Paleozoic Era (252 - 541Myr)

Palaeozoic era is referred as the primary era in the geological history of the
Earth. It comprises six different periods known as Cambrian followed by
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. Characteristics of
each of these periods are described below.

1.1 Cambrian (541 - 485 Myr) Period: Cambrian Period is the beginning
of the Paleozoic era. The beginning of the Cambrian period was
marked with the evolution of the first organisms with shells. Trilobites,
the mud-burrowing scavengers are considered as the index species of
this Period, The Cambrian Period was dominated by the emergence of
a large number of multi-cellular animals which is referred to as the
"Cambrian Explosion" of invertebrates. The fossils of these multi-
cellular animals are found in the rocks of this period.

1.2 Ordovician (485 - 444 Myr) Period: This period is known as the
"Years of Invertebrates". Trilobites were one of the abundant species
of this period. In this period, brachiopods and large cephalopods
thrived in great abundance than those of the trilobites. For the first
time fishes started appearing during this Ordovician period.

1.3 Silurian (444 - 419 Myr) Period: The first land plants started
appearing during this Silurian Period. The presence of fossils of
corals, brachiopods, trilobites and graptolites reveal the dominance of
these animals during this period. It is also known as the age of fishes
due to their abundance.

1.4 Devonian (419 - 359 Myr) Period: This Period is also referred as the
"Age of Fishes" due to its dominance. Primitive sharks, insects and
land plants evolved during this period. By the end of the Devonian,
fossil evidence suggests the growth of forests. This period also saw
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the evolution of the lung fishes, lobe-finned fishes and true air-
breathing amphibians.

1.5 Carboniferous (299 to 359 Myr) Period: The Period was marked by
the appearance of the first reptiles on the surface of the Earth. This
Carboniferous period saw the evolution of large tropical swamps
across the globe and specifically these swamps of North America,
Europe and Siberia have becomethe source of large coal deposits of
the world. During the Carboniferous Period, Britain was close to the
equator. Limestone deposits carrying fossils of corals, brachiopods
and trilobites thrived in shallow seas during this period.

1.6 Permian (252 - 299 Myr) Period: The first fossils of this period were
discovered from the Perm region of Russia by geologist Roderick
Murchison in 1841. The name Permian has been adopted after the
discovery of the fossils from the region of Perm. This Permian and
Carboniferous periods are popularly known as the "age of the
amphibians". Some geologists have also attempted to divide the
carboniferous period in to Pennsylvanian and Mississippian periods.
Towards the end of the Permian Period the dominant trilobites and
many more marine species started becoming extinct. This “Great
Paleozoic Extinction" was one of the greatest of five major extinctions
on the earth’s surface during the past 600 million years. Theory of
plate tectonics suggested that by the end of this Permian Period, all
the continents were together as one super continent called Pangaea
which subsequently started breakingand spreading into the present
configuration.

2) Mesozoic Era (66 - 252 Myr)

This era consists of three distinct periods i.e. Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous. This era is popularly known as the age of reptiles as well as
evolution and extinction of thedinosaurs family of the Earth.

2.1 Cretaceous (145 - 66 Myr) Period: The Cretaceous Period has been
well known because of the major extinction event towards the end of
this period and has marked the end of the dinosaurs’ family from the
Earth’s surface. During this period infall of a large meteorite led to the
formation of huge impact crater named Chicxulub in Yucatan
Peninsula of Mexico. The Cretaceous period also experienced the
evolution of first flowering plants on the surface of the Earth.

2.2 Jurassic (201 - 145 Myr): The fossil evidences of this period
established the fact that the dominant species of this time were
Dinosaurs, reptiles and birds. During early Jurassic period, the super
continent “Pangea” started breaking and the Atlantic Ocean started
opening with the west ward shifting of both the Americas. The
westward moving Atlantic plate started overriding the Pacific plate.
The subducting Pacific plates led to the formation of the western
Rocky and Andes mountains.

2.3 Triassic (252 - 201 Myr) Period: This period was characterized by
the predominance of Dinosaurs species across the globe. The

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geologic formations of this period are characterized by mudstones and
red sandstone. Lack of fossils in these rocks is suggestive of a land
environment during this period. Geologists have inferred that the
formations of mudstones, salt and sandstones in the river valleys,
lakes and deserts during this period would have been due to a
prevailing hot climate and dry environment

3) Cenozoic Era (0 - 66 Myr)

This era consists of two distinct periods i.e. Tertiary and Quaternary. The
Tertiary period again is divided into two periods of Paleogene and Neogene.

3.1 Paleogene (66 - 23.8 Myr) Period: It is the early part of the Tertiary.
Before the paleogene major extinction of species of plant and animal
life has taken place on the Earth which includes more than half of the
plant and animal species of the world and the entire dinosaur families.
This period has been further subdivided into the Paleocene Epoch
(65-54.8Myr), the Eocene Epoch (54.8-33.7Myr), and the Oligocene
Epoch (33.7-23.8 Myr). During this Palaeogene Period, Britain was in
a lower latitudinal zone having a warm climate. Gradually Britain
turned cool when it drifted to the present location.

3.2 Neogene (23.8 - 1.8 Myr) Period: The Neogene period is further
subdividedinto the Miocene and Pliocene epochs with time span
ranging from 23.8 to 5.3 Myr and 5.3 to 1.8 Myrs, respectively.

3.3 Quaternary Period (1.8 Myr - 0): The Quaternary Period is further
divided into the Pleistocene Epoch from 1.8 to 0.01 Myr and the most
recent Holocene Epoch from 0.01 Myr to the present. By the beginning
of the Quaternary Period, major plate tectonic movements and there
were many modifications in the distribution and spread of continents.
Glaciation and erosion processes were dominant in this period.
Human beings emerged during this Period. By the end of Quaternary,
glaciers covered the middle and north of Britain, shaping the
landscape we see today.

SAQ 1
Till now we have discussed about the geological time scale. Can you explain?
a) What is the basis on which the geologic time scale has been framed?
b) What are four Eons?

2.3 CATASTROPHISM
Catastrophism states that the origin of the Earth's surface features are
mostly due to sudden, short duration violent events and related processes like
cataclysmic earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and severe floods. The theory of
catastrophism postulates that Earth, since its origin has gone through long
periods of stability followed by sudden events which can explain the origin of
major landforms as well as extinction of flora and fauna.

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Historical Background to The Theory: This theory was a pre 19thcentury
postulation of the geologists who believed that catastrophes like Biblical
floods were responsible for most the Earth’s fossiliferous rocks. The French
zoologist Baron Georges Cuvier popularised this theory of catastrophism in
early 19thcentury (1810) based on the palaeontological evidences from Paris
Basin. He used this theory to explain the major biological and geological
changes in the history of the Earth. While observing the statigraphic records
of the Paris Basin, Cuvier observed several gaps in the succession of fossil
records of the rock layers. Cuvier found several gaps where all evidences of
life would disappear and then abruptly reappear again after a period of time.
Cuvier believed that these gaps in the fossil succession in the rock layers
were due to sudden events of mass extinction which led him to propose the
theory of catastrophism.

Catastrophism explains that mountain ranges are formed due to the sudden
and massive upliftment over the Earth’s surface by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions. This theory was advocated when the European culture was
revolving around Christianity and the scientific community were made to
believe in the writings of the Bible and its stories of catastrophic floods. During
this time the astronomic community was also made to believe in the static
universe adhering to the religious sentiments of the prevailing time.

Baron Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)

He postulated in his Essay on the “Theory of the Earth” (1813) that now-extinct
species were wiped out by periodic catastrophic flooding events. Cuvier therefore
became the most important proponent of catastrophism.
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier)

During those times, geologists felt that they had to go with the Bible. They
also believed that the surface of the Earth is sculptured by rapidly on-setting
catastrophic events. This theory was supported by Abraham Werner, a
leading geologist of the 18th century who had proposed the theory of
Neptunism. In his theory of Neptunism he advocated that most of the rocks
formed over the Earth’s surface must have precipitated out of a vast ocean.
Before the theory of Neptunism, Abbé Anton Moro, proposed a theory called
plutonism which was propagated by the famous geologist James Hutton. This
theory was named after the Roman god of the underworld Pluto. The theory
stated that igneous rocks of the Earth were formed due to intrusive magmatic
activity. Subsequently weathering and erosion of these rocks led to the
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formation of sedimentary rocks by deposition of these weathered materials on
the sea floor with compaction under heat and pressure. But both these
theories got discarded in the 19thcentury in the light of many evidences on the
contrary.

2.4 UNIFORMITARIANISM
Around 1850, in opposition to the views of catastrophism, non-catastrophic
view of the Earth’s geology began to evolve which believed that gradual
processes and uniform intensities were responsible for the origin and
evolution of varied landforms over the Earth’s surface. The theory of
Uniformitarianism was profounded by Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875). He was
a Scottish geologist whose geological discoveries brought a revolutionary shift
in our understanding of the Earth and its history. Lyell was fundamentally
responsible in establishing the popularity and credibility of geology as a
science in the nineteenth century. In 1830, he published a book, Principles of
Geology where he challenged the idea of catastrophism and propagating the
idea of uniformitarianism, which is still a dominant theory in earth science.

Charles Lyell (1797-1875), who established the theory of uniformitarianism.

(Source: https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/717890/view/sir-charles-lyell-british-geologist)

The theory of Uniformitarianism states that the processes by which current

geological features were created were slow, steady, and constant. These
forces, processes, and patterns have always been and will always be present
on the earth. Uniformitarianism is also known as the Doctrine of
Uniformity or the Uniformitarian Principle. This theory assumes that the
same natural laws and processes that operate in our present-day scientific
observations have always operated in the universe in the past and apply
everywhere in the universe. In his theory he advocated for three principles in
explaining the origin and evolution of landforms over the Earth’s surface.

a) The uniformity of law: the uniformity of process (actualism),

b) The uniformity of rate (gradualism), and
c) The uniformity of state (steady state).

Although it got the acceptance of many earth scientists as the first principle of
scientific research, many scientists disagreed considering that nature is not
absolutely uniform, even though it does exhibit certain regularities.
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Theory of Uniformitarianism

Charles Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism is distinctly different from the theory

of uniformitarianism as it exists today.Lyell’s theory was on the basis of the
work of several previous geologists like James Hutton, who was the first
scientist to suggest that the earth had been created through slow, constant
processes. Lyell was one of the ardent supporters of this theory. Lyell’s theory
was based on four basic principles given below.

Basic Principles guiding the Uniformitarianism Theory

Lyell’s theory was based on four basic principles as given below.

 Uniformity in Processes: The same processes that have created this
physical world will continue steadily as long as the Earth exists.
 Uniformity of Rate: The processes have operated at the same rate
throughout the geologic history of the earth.
 Uniformity of State: The surface features will continue to be in a uniform
state as it is now because geologic processes have been extremely slow.
 Uniformity of Law: The nature’s laws normally remain constant across
space and time.

Today the gradualistic concept has been accepted as a part of

uniformitarianism. But, now many geologists no longer accept a strict
gradualism. It has been accepted that "the present is the key to the past".
Although the processes must have been same, their intensities must have
differed. Today, it is accepted that the processes operated over the Earth
have been a slow and gradual with occasional catastrophic events.

Uniformitarianism vs Catastrophism

The theory of uniformitarianism is in contrast with the theory of catastrophism.

Catastrophism regards Earth's geological history as being relatively stable
with intermittent and abrupt events of cataclysms. On the contrary,
uniformitarianism explains that actions that change Earth's crust are
continuous and uniform processes such as weathering, sedimentation,
erosion, continuous and periodic volcanism, earthquakes, and other events
associated with the theory of plate tectonics. When uniformitarianism was
popularized, scientists essentially wanted to distance themselves from religion
and theories concerning cataclysms.

Features Uniformitarianism Catastrophism

Small and Large Earth’s features are due to Earth’s features are due to
Processes small scale processes large scale processes
Geological Time Earth’s features are Earth’s features are
period accounted over a large accounted over a relatively
period of time short period of time
Geological Due to slow and steady Due to geological processes
Processes geological processes of like great floods and rapid
erosion, deposition, formation of greater mountain
compaction and upliftment. chain
Theological Not influenced by theology Influenced by theology
Influence

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Uniformitarianism explains that processes that happen today (erosion,
weathering) happened in the same way and at the same rate since the
beginning of the Earth. That means geologic time is extremely slow.
Catastrophism explains that all geologic processes happened all at once
(volcanic eruptions). Thus, this is the key difference between
uniformitarianism and catastrophism. However, modern scientists have a
more integrated view of geological events, reflecting acceptance of some
catastrophic events along with gradual changes.

In the above section we have discussed about the concepts of Catastrophism

and Uniformitarianism. Let us answer the given questions below.

SAQ 2
How catastrophism different from Uniformitarianism?

2.5 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Geomorphology is the science of landforms. The wide variety of landforms of
different shape, size, composition, structure in different locations and different
environments had intrigued the human mind regarding their genesis and
distribution. Scientific speculations on their origin and evolution have been a
subject matter of inquisitiveness for the earth scientists since the ancient and
classical times of Greek and Romans. Gradually, with the contributions from
the scientists based on their field observations and laboratory experiments,
geomorphology has evolved as an independent field of knowledge.
Simultaneously the subject as a branch of natural sciences built up its
foundation enriching itself with contributions from different scientists through
their ideas, concepts and theories. With the advancement of scientific
observations, real time data bases, computer simulated models and piling of
evidences, many of the ideas, principles, concepts and theories had changed
over time. Some of those had become obsolete and many of those have also
been improved strengthening the foundation of geomorphology. In this entire
process of evolution of subject knowledge of geomorphology some of the
fundamental concepts and theories well known and accepted by the majority
of the geomorphologists are described below. The book "Principles of
Geomorphology" by W.D. Thornbury does indeed have a comprehensive
sequence of development of the geomorphological concepts.

Concept 1: ‘The same physical processes and laws that operate today
operated throughout geologic time although not necessarily always with
the same intensity as now’.

Concept of uniformitarianism has given rise to this fundamental principle.

Origin of this principle dates back to the period of James Hutton who
propagated the idea that "the present is the key to the past" and geologic
processes must have operated on the earth throughout with an intensity as it
is now. But when we look at the process over the earth’s surface, it is
distinctly visible that glaciers were more active during the Pleistocene than
now. Climatic processes have been different from the present time in different
parts of the globe throughout the geologic history of the earth. Regions which
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are humid have been deserts and present deserts have been humid in the
past. There are numerous examples which reveal that the geologic processes
had varied throughout the geologic time. In the initial phase of the Earth,
vulcanism and earthquakes were more intense than now. This concept
connotes that the streams must have cut their valleys in the past as it is going
on now. The glacial valleys formed during the Pleistocene are no different
from the present glacial valleys. It is needless to point out that the coastal
winds which developed sand dunes in the past obeyed the same laws of wind
movements as of now. That means, the laws of dynamics of various
processes and agents being universal, there are evidences of changing
intensities.

Concept 2: ‘Geologic structure is a major controlling factor in the

evolution of landforms and the significance of structure is reflected in
them’.

This fundamental principle has its origin in the Davis’s theory of Cycle of
Erosion. He postulated that the structure, process and stage are the major
controlling factors in the evolution of the landforms. But now a day’s
geomorphologists doubt about the validity of stages of youth, maturity and old
age but there is no contradiction for the control of structure and process.
Penck argued and explained in his theory of pan planation that landforms are
the product of structure, process and time. Geomorphologists like L.C. King,
Walther Penck, A. N. Strahler, William Hack and many others have opposed
the idea of stage as a controlling factor of landform evolution. Rather there
was a general agreement that process and materials together under varying
conditions control and modify the morphology of the landforms.

Concept 3: ‘To a large extent, the Earth's surface possesses relief

because the geomorphological processes operate at differential rates’.

This fundamental concept tends to believe that the Earth’s surface exhibits
varied relief because geomorphic processes operate at differential rates in
different parts of the globe. There are ample evidences that the rivers cut their
valleys at differential rates producing varied relief over the Earth’s surface
depending up on terrain, slopes, rocks and structural controls in different
climates. The main reason of differential gradation on the surface of the earth
is due to different lithology and structure offering differential resistance to the
agradational and degradational processes. Very often topographic relief
variations are reflect differential composition and structures of the rocks even
though the gradational processes are same over different regions. It has been
assumed that areas with topographically higher altitude are underlain by
‘hard’ rocks and those which are low by ‘soft’ rocks. Although lithology and
structure are major controlling factors for differential wasting of rocks, these
are not the only reasons for variation of relief on the Earth’s surface. There
are other local factors like altitude, temperature, rainfall, exposure and
vegetation cover which can affect intensity of processes leading to differential
relief.

Concept 4: ‘Geomorphological processes leave their distinctive imprints

upon landforms and each geomorphic process produces its own unique
assemblage of land forms depicting the evidences of the processes’.

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Unit 2 Basic Postulates in Geomorphology
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The term geomorphic processes refer to the physical and chemical actions by
which morphology of the earth's surface undergoes changes. Just like plants
and animals have their distinctive morphological traits so also, landforms
carry their distinguishing features depending on processes of involved in their
formation. That means, if a landform is identified, process or agent
responsible for its formation can be identified. Alluvial fans and deltas carry
the imprints of the action of streams. Sinkholes and caverns reveal the
evidences of action of groundwater. The shape of the valleys from the glacial
and riverine environment reveals the evidences of their respective agents and
their characteristic processes.

Concept 5: ‘As the different erosional agents act upon the earth’s
surface, there is produced an orderly sequence of landforms having
distinctive characteristics at the successive stages of their
development’.

The idea of distinctive characteristics of landforms in different stages of their

development was stressed by W. M. Davis in his theory of geomorphic cycle.
In his theory he putforth the idea that different erosional agents produce an
orderly sequence of landforms through three different stages i.e. youth,
maturity, and old age. Many critics like Walther Penck and C.A.M King had
pointed out that It is hard to believe that the topographic features evolve
through sequential stages. It has also been further stressed that landforms
can evolve based on the processes and time rather than the stage. It has also
been observed that in tectonically active areas like California and New
Zealand, it is difficult to see sequential landform development. In areas of
continuing uplift or repeated intermittent uplift, landforms may not find time to
complete the normal cycle of erosion. If there is stability, sequential
development of landforms passing through youth, mature and old stages, is
possible. But, earth’s surface had never been stable for long periods of time
facilitating sequential development of landforms.

Concept 6:‘Complexity of geomorphic evolution is more common than

simplicity’.

This fundamental principle conveys an idea that most of the landforms

produced over the Earth’s surface are more complex due to the simultaneous
actions of many agents and their processes with varied structure and
lithology. Although there are many landforms which can be attributed to the
action of some single agent and process but most of the landforms are
attributed to multiple geomorphic processes. So it is more normal to believe
and even be argued that by and large landforms are compound and complex
in nature. It is needless to mention that we designate some landforms as a
product of running water although we realize fully well that weathering, mass
wasting, erosion and other processes may have contributed to its
development simultaneously. It has also been noticed that over glaciated
areas there are upland tracts carrying original glacial characteristics, yet there
are river cut valleys and terraces formed due to the action of running water as
examples of compound landscapes evolving under different set of climatic
situations. Thus, most of the topographic features carry the evidence of the
action of multiple agents and processes in its evolution.

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Block 1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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Concept 7: Little of the Earth’s topography is older than Tertiary and
most of it no older than Pleistocene’.

Earth scientists of present time believe that the present topography of the
Earth’s surface is probably a product of the Pleistocene and subsequent
period. They also believed that little of it is older than tertiary. Geological
history reveals that origin of the Himalayan mountain system started during
Cretaceous and subsequent folding took place during Eocene and Miocene
period. But its present form and topography can be related to all those
endogenetic and exogenetic forces and processes of the Pleistocene or later
in age superimposing and obliterating the pre-Pleistocene-Tertiary landscape.
The climatic fluctuations and tectonic disturbances during Pleistocene have
far reaching implication in shaping the present landscapes.Most of the earth
scientists believe that the present day landforms such as mountain cliffs and
valleys, lakes and shores, canyons and coasts are of post-Miocene time. It
has been estimated that at least 90 percent of the present landscapes are
products of post-Tertiary time and 99 percent is of post-middle Miocene in
age. Around the margins of the Pacific ring of fire, diastrophism during
Pleistocene time has played a significant role in shaping the landscape
around it.

Concept 8: ‘Proper interpretation of present-day landscape is

impossible without a full appreciation of the manifold influences of the
geologic and climatic changes during the Pleistocene’.

In the geological history of the Earth, there is a far-reaching effect of

Pleistocene epoch on the present-day landscapes. Glaciation of this time has
affected many parts of the globe but the effects of glaciations are also felt far
away from the glaciers. Outwash plains of the glaciers and glacial till deposits
had covered many parts of the non-glaciated areas of the Earth’s surface.
Effects of the glacial climate were profound across the mid-latitudes of the
globe. There are evidences that many areas of humid climate have changed
over to semiarid or arid climates during the Pleistocene time. Besides
glaciations of the Pleistocene, we are aware of the diastrophism of the
Pliocene which continued into the Pleistocene and present time. Diastrophic
activities around the plate boundaries have brought many changes in the
present day landscapes. Hence it has become fundamental to the
geomorphologists that understanding present day landscape is not possible
without understanding the influence of the climatic and geological changes in
Pleistocene.

Concept 9:‘An appreciation of world climates is necessary for a proper

understanding of the varying importance of the different geomorphic
processes’.

Elements of climate like temperature, precipitation and wind etc. have been
considered as the drivers of many geomorphic processes. Hence, climatic
variations are some of the important factors which affect the functioning of
geomorphic processes. The amount of rainfall, snowfall, temperature and
wind speed directly affect the magnitude of erosion and intensity of
weathering and mass wasting. The amount of rainfall which controls the type
and distribution of natural vegetation indirectly influences the intensity of
erosion. Climate has changed over the Earth throughout its geological history
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Unit 2 Basic Postulates in Geomorphology
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and has been responsible for initiation of different agents and geomorphic
processes. Right from its origin, geomorphology has remained as an interface
between geology and geography. Geologistsfocus more on rocks and
minerals and geographers focus more on man and environment. This
fundamental principle brings in to focus that appreciation of world climate and
its changes seems necessary for proper interpretation of the landscape
evolutionary process.

Concept 10: ‘Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with

present day landscapes, attains its maximum usefulness by historical
extension’.

Geomorphology is basically the study of landforms, their origin, evolution,

description and classification. It is primarily concerned with the study of the
landforms of the present time which are actually a result of long time action of
processes and agents. So, the present day landscapes are basically
products of long history. As a result, geomorphologist adopt to a historical
approach to unravel their geological past. Although geomorphology deals with
the present day landscape, historical extension of the geomorphic
investigations often leads to a meaningful conclusion. For example if you
want to study the landforms of the Himalayas or of the Aravalli Hills,
understanding its geological past is likely to bring greater relevance to the
understanding of the present day landforms.

SAQ 3
Discuss “Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprints over the
landforms”.

2.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the following:

 At the end of this session you will be realising that we have discussed and
tried to understand the significance of the geologic time scale and its utility
in geomorphology.
 The classical concepts of catastrophism and uniformitarianism and its
acceptance in the present context.
 You must have also understood the most fundamental principles of
geomorphology which governs the origin and evolutionary processes of
landforms.

2.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Give a brief account of the geologic timescale of the Earth explaining
the fossil characteristics of different periods.
2. Discuss the significance of uniformitarianism in modern geomorphology.
3. Elucidate the stanza given in the quotewith suitable examples “Geologic
structure is a dominant controlling factor in the evolution of landforms?

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2.8 ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)

1. a) The principles of relative dating of landform features and their
stratigraphic successions studied in making the geological time scale.
b) 1) Hadean (4570 to 3850 Ma), 2) Archean (3850 to 2500 Ma), 3)
Proterozoic (2500 to 540 Ma), and 4) Phanerozoic (540 Ma to present).
2. Catastrophism regards Earth's geological history as being relatively stable
with intermittent and abrupt events of cataclysms. On the contrary,
uniformitarianism explains that actions that change Earth's crust are
continuous and uniform processes such as weathering, sedimentation,
erosion, continuous and periodic volcanism, earthquakes, and other
events associated with the theory of plate tectonics.
3. Geomorphic processes are the physical and chemical actions that affect
the shape of the earth's surface. Alluvial fans and deltas, for example,
bear the marks of stream activity. The valleys' shapes offer evidence of
their respective agents and their distinctive processes.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 2.1.
2. Refer to Section 2.2.
3. Refer to Section 2.3.

2.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READING
1. Bierman, Paul R. and David R. Montgomery. (2014). Key Concepts in
Geomorphology. Macmillan Higher Education.
2. Palmer, T. (1994).Catastrophism, Neocatastrophism and Evolution.
Nottingham: Nottingham Trent University.
3. Lutgens, Frederick K.,Tarbuck Edward J andTasa Dennis G.
(2018).Essentials of Geology. New Delhi: Pearson Ltd.
4. Thornbury W.D. (2002). Principles of Geomorphology. New Delhi: CBS
Publishers & Distributors.
5. Tinkler, Keith J. (1985). A Short History of Geomorphology.
6. Singh, S (1995). Geomorphology. Allahabad: Prayag Publications.
7. British Geological Survey (2012). The Geologic Time Scale.
Nottingham: Keyworth.
8. Huggett RJ. (2007). Fundamentals of Geomorphology. New York:
Routledge.
9. Davis W.M. The rivers and valleys of Pennsylvania. (1889) National
Geographical Magazine. 1889;1:183-253 (Also in Geographical Essays)
10. Baker, Victor. (1998) “Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism: Logical
Roots and Current Relevance in Geology.” Geological Society of
London, < http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/143/1/171

42
 UNIT 3

GEOMORPHIC SYSTEMS AND

CONCEPTS
Structure
3.1 Introduction 3.5 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 3.6 Terminal Questions
3.2 General Systems Theory 3.7 Answers
3.3 Form and Process in 3.8 References and Suggested
Geomorphology Further Reading
3.4 Concept of Equilibrium in
Landform Evolutionary
Process

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of ‘system’ or ‘general systems theory’ has been used for a long
time in physical sciences, particularly in thermodynamics. Von Bertalanffy is
one of the pioneers who worked on this concept and also is one of its greatest
exponents. Later this concept has also been applied in natural sciences,
particularly life sciences. During 1950s and ‘60s several attempts have been
made by several geomorphologists including Strahler (1950 & 1952), Culling
(1957), Hack (1960), Chorley (1962) and Howard (1965) to apply general
systems theory to the study of geomorphology.

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the Earth's landforms. By the mid-

twentieth century, general systems theory had become an element of
geomorphological research. This hypothesis introduced a novel concept and
method of inquiry to the study of landform evolution. It perceived the
geomorphic evolution as the result of an assemblage of landforms linked in a
system, with several components organised in a structural hierarchy,
interacting between their units and subunits, exchanging mass and energy
with the surrounding environment, and changing towards a steady state or
equilibrium.

In this unit, you will understand how the genesis of landforms has shifted from
the classical approach of cyclic evolution to systems approaches as a result
of scientific advances in parlance with the other areas of science. You will

43
G.K. Panda
Block-1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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also learn about "form and process geomorphology," a novel way to studying
landform evolution and change. You will also learn more about how the
concepts of equilibrium and steady state, as well as geomorphic threshold,
complex response system, and dynamic equilibrium, play a role in
understanding the origin and morphological disposition of landforms.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Understand General Systems Theory, its characteristics and

significance;
 Describe what is systems approach in geomorphology?
 Explain the emergence of form and process studies in geomorphology;
and
 Elaborate the concept of equilibrium in the evolution of landforms.

3.2 GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY

General Systems Theory was put forward by Austrian biologist Karl Ludwig
von Bertalanffy in early 1930s. He formulated this theory to explain a
behaviourism model of stimulus-response to establish a causal reductionism.
The theory states how to see a whole thing in different parts and to see how
the parts are interlinked and function together in a system. This theory is often
referred to as the theory of open systems or System Theory. It is based on the
concept that the system is an interlinked complex of different elements. The
theory is to provide a basis of studying the principles and interrelationships of
interrelated components with in a system. After the emergence of this theory,
many scientists from many disciplines of science and social science began to
see its applicability to their own fields. Systems are often viewed as open or
closed, natural or human-made, static or dynamic and conceptual or physical
depending upon the characteristics, structure, interrelationship and
functioning.

Let us now understand what system is? A system can be defined as a set of
objects together with relationships between objects and between their
attributes. The objects consisting of components or parts or variables or
sections with inter-relationships, act together as a complex whole according to
a pattern or method. Interrelationship or interdependence of parts or variables
is a diagnostic property of systems. Systems can be identified at all scales of
magnitude and with all degrees of complexity. So a type of hierarchy can be
brought into systems, viz. supersystem, system, subsystem, etc.

Systems can be classified into three types: 1) Isolated System, 2) Closed

System, and 3) Open System.

1. Isolated Systems

These systems will have their boundaries closed to the import and export of
both mass and energy. For example, most of the chemical reactions in the
laboratory belong to this category.

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Unit 3 Geomorphic Systems and Concepts
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2. Closed Systems

These systems possess clearly defined boundaries which prevent import and
export of mass but not of energy. For example, Earth which exchanges
energy but not mass with outer space. Another characteristic of closed
systems is that, with a given amount of free, or potential, energy within the
system, they develop toward states with maximum entropy. That means, the
initial fixed quantity of energy is gradually used up during the life of the
system. Entropy is an expression for the degree to which energy has become
unable to perform work. The maximum entropy means minimum or no energy.
Hence, in a closed system, there is a tendency for levelling down of existing
differentiation within the system; in other words, progressive decrease of
energy into its lowest form and also a uniform result. In closed systems,
therefore, the change of entropy is always positive, associated with a
decrease in the amount of free energy, or, to state this another way, with a
tendency towards progressive destruction of existing order or differentiation.

Davis’s views of landscape development contain certain elements of closed

system. It can be argued that Davis’s was not a closed system. But since one
factor (potential energy-land elevation above sea level) was initially added and
ultimately consumed, it can be treated as such. But if one puts the clock back
by uplift ‘the so-called complications of Davis’s geographical cycle’ there will be
an increment of free energy or release of energy which will be progressively
dissipated through degradation. This is again nothing but a closed system. So
in closed systems the initial energy conditions will determine its ultimate
equilibrium conditions and this is inevitable. The condition of a closed system at
any particular time can be considered as a function of the initial system
conditions and the amount of time which has subsequently elapsed. Thus
closed systems can be studied on a time basis. Again, the fact that closed
systems can be studied on a time basis, enables one to draw a striking analogy
between closed system thinking and the historical approach to landform study
proposed by Davis. Stage in Davis’s famous trilogy, structure, process and
stage, implies nothing but time. The sequential development in a system to
attain equilibrium with maximum entropy again speaks of an analogy with
sequential development of Davis’s landforms.

3. Open Systems

These are characterized by an exchange of both mass and energy with their
surroundings. It involves the flow of matter and energy not only out of the
total system but also through interrelated parts of the system. A best example
for this is a drainage basin. A drainage basin receives energy in the form of
temperature, precipitation and relief, and mass in the form of water and
products of underlying bedrock which provide the basis for the outputs of
heat, water, organic and inorganic debris into the atmosphere or the sea.

Open systems will have no boundaries and need energy supply for its
maintenance and preservation. It needs not only supply but also some
removal of energy as well as material or mass or the result. Changes in the
supply of mass and energy from outside lead to an adjustment, called self-
adjustment or self-regulation to accommodate the changes. Thus it may attain
a steady state or equilibrium. This is the most diagnostic characteristic of an
open system. A geomorphic example explains all this like this. Take a (facet
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of) slope. The slope receives water and waste of the slope above it which
discharges its own water and waste upon the slope below. Suppose if the rate
of erosion is increased on this stretch of slope above, the lower stretch, being
clogged by the debris brought from above will have its rate of erosion
diminished. So the overall acceleration of erosion above and declivity is
reduced the rate of erosion likewise will be reduced. So each member or part
is influenced by every other and like this there is an interdependence
throughout. This is what is called form-adjustment or landform adjustment.

Steady state doesn’t mean that the form is static and unchanging. The form is
maintained in the flow of matter and energy traversing the system. It may be
therefore be said that a stream or reach may be adjusted in the sense of
being graded or in a steady state without necessarily presenting the smooth
longitudinal profile. The landscape may get adjusted, may attain a steady
state but still the mass will constantly be removed (unless and until the
landscape becomes featureless). So, force (geomorphic processes) may
exceed the (geologic) resistance and cause mass to be removed. If the
landscape attains equilibrium i.e., once a steady state has been established,
the influence of initial system conditions vanished and with it the evidence for
a previous history of the system.

3.2.1 Systems Approach in Development of

Geomorphology
A geomorphic system is an integrated complex of landforms which operate
together according to some discernible pattern. Any subject of investigation
showing unity and a strong interdependence of constituent parts can be
treated by the systems approach. Systems analysis is employed to organize
the relevant information from physical systems into operational units, so as to
allow them to be treated in a rational manner and evolve a basis for computer
analysis.
The introduction of the systems approach into geomorphology provides a
means whereby morphology can be related to processes in a useful
framework of quantitative inter-relationships. It provides a sound basis to
study and understand the three elements, process, material, and morphology,
which make up the science of geomorphology.
Four geomorphic systems are identified in terms of their internal complexity
or structures: (1) Morphological systems, (2) Cascading systems, (3) Process-
Response systems, and (4) Control systems.

1. Morphological Systems
Morphological systems consist of a network of structured relationships
between the constituent parts. These are consisting of the relationships
among physical properties of natural features or materials. So, for example,
the morphological properties of a beach system might include such
parameters as beach slope, mean grain size, range of grain sizes, beach
firmness and the like. The relationships between these variables can be
expressed by a web of correlations and it is usual to interpret the operational
efficiency of such a system in terms of the degree to which these
morphological variables are related. Thus, although these variables can be
identified individually, their relationships are often indicative of the degree to
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which their dynamic properties are related. An important feature of such
systems is the role played by feed back loops, particularly negative ones, in
governing the general morphological changes that follow changes in
individual variables.
How do you interpret feed back? The mutual interaction of many variables or
a two-way relationship among many variables is known as feed back. It can
be exemplified by the relationship between beach slope and wave steepness.
The wave steepness affects the beach slope, but is in turn affected by the
beach slope. So that a feed back relationship exists between the two
variables. Feed back is positive when the change in one variable is intensified
by a change in the second. It is negative when the change in the second
variable results in the first being modified in such a way that it tends to return
to its original state. The positive feedback loop results in self-generation of
processes, while the negative leads to self regulation. Most of the
geomorphic systems operate dominantly as negative feedback open systems
of the self-regulatory type. That is to say, negative feedback loops are more
important and lead to the concepts of grade and equilibrium. This self-
regulation involves internal reorganization of the system and is accomplished
in a time period referred to as ‘relaxation time.’ Relaxation time depends on:
(i) the resistance to input changes of the individual system components and
(ii) the complexity of the system (i.e., the number and linkages of variables
involved). The relaxation time of some geomorphic systems is short, for
example, the channel adjustments to changing discharge, but that of the
others is long (changes of erosion induced on different terrains by climatic
changes).
2. Cascading Systems
These comprise a series of sub-systems having spatial magnitude and are
dynamic in character. They are dynamically linked by a cascade of mass or
energy. It can also be defined as a structure or system within which the output
from one sub-system forms the input into the next one and so on. For
example, the output of debris and surface runoff from the slope (subsystem)
becomes part of the input (of water and debris) into the stream channel sub-
system, partly governing its operation. So other characteristic of a cascading
system include a regulator or governor within the sub-system. The regulator
may direct part of the mass or energy into a store within the system or create
a throughput, which becomes the sub-system output which in turn becomes
the input to adjacent sub-systems. The regulators in the system are important
from the geomorphology point of view and may be represented by
morphological variables for example, the debris in transit across a slope or
the sediment in a beach or in a river. However, it is at this point that human
can often intervene to make the system into a control system.
The regulators are of three types: (1) threshold regulators, which include
surface infiltration capacity, (2) dispositional regulators, which control the
distribution of energy or mass, for example, the route taken by water entering
a sub-system and (3) presence or absence regulators, such as whether a
stream is present or absent at the foot of a slope.
Each major process produces its own dynamic cascade, as potential energy
is expended on the water and material involved in the system. All these sub-
systems are parts of larger ones. In analyzing a system, inputs, outputs,
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storage or energy, and mass must all the measured and understanding of the
regulators is also necessary. Many different measuring methods are required
to obtain the data, partly because the inputs and outputs are continuous, but
variable, and observations are often made at points in both space and time.
Regulators can sometimes be expressed in the form of mathematical
equations when their operation is fully understood in numerical terms.
Detailed field work or laboratory analysis is often necessary to obtain the
value of essential constants.
3. Process-Response Systems
These are formed by the uniting of the morphological and cascading systems.
This unison is brought about either by a sharing of certain variables by the
two types of systems (as when, for example, infiltration capacity is both a
morphological property of slope system and a decision regulator in the basin
hydrological cycle cascading systems), or when a high level of correlation
exists between a variable in the cascading sub-system and one or more in the
associated morphological system. The process of cascading system changes
the morphological variables. An important element of the interchange is the
negative feedback loop (process), so that the morphological responses to
changes in the energy cascade of such a system are dominated by self-
regulatory processes. It is thus possible to view process-response systems as
consisting of cascading and morphometric components that mutually adjust
themselves to changing input-output relationships. The time requirement for
such adjustments to a new equilibrium (i.e., the relaxation time) is dependent
on such considerations as the amount and direction of change in the energy
cascade and the richness of connectivity of the variables.
4. Control Systems
In physical-process-response systems, there may exist certain key variables
or ‘valves’ (commonly in the form of regulators), which can intervene to
produce operational changes in the distribution of energy and mass within the
cascading systems, and consequently bring about changes in the
morphological variables linked with these key variables in the process-
response systems. Thus, for example, man-induced changes in sand
movement on a beach can produce considerable changes in beach geometry.
Hence this type of systems may be useful in the management of natural
environment.
Time plays a complex and very important role in systems. Time and scale
effects are intimately linked when a geometrical form is controlled by a
number of factors, any change of form with the passage of time is entirely
dependent upon the net result of the effect of time upon those factors. Some
factors are profoundly affected by the passage of time, others are not. The
character of reality alters according to the time scale on which it is viewed.
The large extensive landscape viewed over a long period of time becomes
modified; slopes, for example, decreased in gradient, but not all aspects need
necessarily change, such as drainage density. There is also the problem of
exogenetic and endogenetic processes, which also change their mutual
relationships through time.
You may refer to Figure 3.1, which explains negative and positive feedback in
a geomorphic system.

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Fig. 3.1: Positive and Negative Feedbacks in a Geomorphic System

(a) Negative feedback in a valley-side slope–stream system (b) Positive
feedback in an eroding hillslope system.
(Source: Fundamentals of Geomorphology by R.J. Huggett, Routledge, London)

SAQ 1
a) Define the system. What are the different kinds?
b) What is a morphological system? Give an example.

3.3 FORM AND PROCESS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

The inter-relationship of landforms and their processes are the basic
component of geomorphologic investigations in the study of evolution of
landforms. There are a number of concepts and models, which has evolved
over the last century with the advent of scientific tools and quantitative
methods has attempted to establish that processes can be the most
significant factor of all other factors in predicting the forms. Landforms on the
surface of the Earth are continuously in the process of formation and
deformation due to the continuous effect of internal and external factors.
Geomorphic processes are the internal and external activities that stress
Earth surface materials, react chemically and act physically with them, and
modify the geometry of the Earth’s surface materials.

Various agents are responsible for Geomorphic Processes to happen. But

geomorphic agents are the mobile medium that extracts, transports, and
deposits Earth materials. Running water, glaciers, wind, waves, ocean
currents, groundwater, etc. are a few examples of geomorphic agents.
Gradients, whether from higher levels to lower levels or from high-pressure
zones to low-pressure areas, are the cause of all motions. Different agents
are responsible for the various geomorphic processes to function over the
Earth’s surface. Exogenetic and endogenetic forces are responsible for the
physical and chemical changes to occur, agents to be driven and processes
to operate. Various geomorphic processes and their agents are given in
Figure 3.2.

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Fig. 3.2: Classification of Geomorphic Processes.

Geomorphological studies are under taken based on a wide range of

concepts and approaches varying from historical to functional based on the
form–process relationships. There are several approaches to the study of
geomorphology based on the concepts of uniformity, evolution and
complexity. With the advent of modern geomorphology, significance of form
and process marks a turning point in geomorphological study and research.
The classical ideas of landform evolution was challenged by the new insights
with the believe that landform is neither a function of structure, process and
stage or time (Fig. 3.3). Influenced by the new developments of systems
approaches in different branches of science and more so in geography, the
study of form and processes presented a new framework to the study of
landforms taking geomorphology to the new millennium offering a fresh
insight.

Fig. 3.3: Process-Form Interactions: – the Core of Geomorphology.

(Source: Fundamentals of Geomorphology by R.J. Huggett, Routledge, London)

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The term ‘form’ implies the morphology of a given landform unit or region,
small or big at a given time. It refers to different shape attained by the
landforms while ‘process’ indicates the actual operation of different agents
which bring morphological changes in the physical environment. In a hill slope
evolution, process includes various activities of geomorphic agents such as
weathering, soil creep, and surface flow etc.

Process–response or process–form systems are considered as an energy flow

system which is linked to a morphological system in a way that the system
processes often alter the system forms. This in turn again changes the system
processes. Process-response system in geomorphology normally comprises of
a natural system formed by the combination of morphological and cascading
systems. This explains how form and geomorphological processes are inter-
related. Coastal process-response system which consists of a cascading
system of wave energy advancing from deep water to the edge of the beach
and the swash zone is linked to different morphological features of the coastal
zone. For example, different morphological forms of the beach or their physical
dimensions such as angle of beach slope, different grain sizes of beach
sediments or their porosity may be related to each other in some orderly
manners which constitute a morphological system. Similarly the geometric
properties of a valley-side slope are found correlated with certain
characteristics of soil and amount of flow of water.

Process Geomorphology was originally proposed by G.K. Gilbert who

conceptualised that landforms are a balance between resisting framework
and the forces acting to alter the landscape. This implies that time is one
component of many that affect the appearance of the Earth. He had also
inferred that the landscape remains in equilibrium between driving forces and
resisting forces. Later on John Hack proposed that landscape development
occurs in the way as Gilbert had postulatedadding a view point that most of
the systems remain in dynamic equilibrium. This means that there is a
balance between the opposing forces. If the equilibrium is lost, balance is re-
established under the new conditions.

An evolutionary hill slope system can be considered in the light of dynamic

equilibrium where variables of slope forms and slope process interact with
each other. In this system, rocks coming out of the hill slope and cliff develop
the talus deposits along the foot hills. But however, increasing size of the talus
deposits, burry the cliff face, reducing the area which supplies debris. As a
consequence, the growth of talus deposit diminishes and the system changes
in a decreasing rate. This is an example of a negative feedback in process–
form systems. Systems also display a positive feedback where an original
change is multiplied and magnified. In an eroding hill slope, erosion brings
reduction in infiltration of water, increases the amount of surface runoff
furthering more slope erosion. Dynamic meta-stable equilibrium was
introduced by Schumm (1973), stating that thresholds within a fluvial system
can bring a shift in its mean state of equilibrium. Meta-stable equilibrium was
referred to the episodic shifting of the mean state of equilibrium when there is
a crossing of the thresholds in a system. Meta-stable equilibrium is achieved
when a stable equilibrium is affected by some trigger mechanism or changes
which can drive a system over a threshold into a new state of equilibrium. A
stream, for example, when forced away from a steady state due to some
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thresholds, gradually adjusts to the change to attain a new state of equilibrium,
although the nature and type of the adjustment may vary in space and times
within the system. Thus, the concept of geomorphic threshold brought in the
idea of non-equilibrium or disequilibrium within systems thinking in
geomorphology (Chappell, 1983).

SAQ 2
Explain the form and process in geomorphology.

3.4 CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM IN

LANDFORM EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS
In geomorphological investigations, the concept of equilibrium and steady
state has been used by many authors like Gilbert, Schumm and others while
explaining evolution of landforms. Different types of equilibrium have been
identified where landforms or their processes maintain a steady or stationary
state. Static or stable equilibrium occurs when the processes or forces acting
upon a landform are in a balanced state. A boulder that remains in balance
over a mountain slope or a valley that has reached to the base level of its
erosion can be the examples of static equilibrium. Static equilibrium is
achieved in a system when the system bounces back to its original state after
experiencing a small perturbation due to negative feedback in the process of
restoration.

Unstable equilibrium is associated with forces which move a system away

from its original state of equilibrium towards a new state. Sometimes this state
of unstable equilibrium move towards a disequilibrium or in-equilibrium with
the forces leading towards a change through a process of positive feedback.
A boulder running down a hill slope from its state of rest due to a force
sufficient to dislodge the boulder is an example of disequilibrium. This occurs
through a positive feedback process leading towards disequilibrium.

Fig. 3.4: Types of equilibrium in geomorphology.

(Source: Adapted from Chorley and Kennedy (1971, 2012) and Renwick (1992)/Fundamentals
of Geomorphology by R.J.Huggett, Routledge, London)
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Steady state equilibrium is another type where a geomorphic system
continues to remain in a state of equilibrium by its self-maintenances and
internal adjustments within the system. An example of steady state
equilibrium can be the evolution of a concave-convex hill slope in humid
climatic regions where a concave lower slope and a convex upper slope
continue to exist in a steady state equilibrium along a mountain slope through
the operation of varying intensities of erosion, deposition, and mass
movement. Such type of steady-state equilibrium results from many small-
scale fluctuations occurring with respect to a mean stable state (Chorley and
Kennedy, 1971).

In the steady-state equilibrium, there is a basic presumption that an open

system may attain a time independent state of equilibrium i. e a steady state
in which the system and its components remain unchanging with respect to
maximum entropy and minimum free energy and the system continues to
remain constant passing through a number of transient states with material or
energy passing through it. But during the later part of 20 th century, some
geomorphologists were critical about the concept of equilibrium and steady
state when the idea of geomorphic threshold was considered important within
the functioning of the systems (Alan D. Howard, 1965).

3.4.1 Geomorphic Threshold and Complex Response of

Geomorphic Systems
(a) Geomorphic Threshold

In a systems approach, threshold is a key concept of significance in

geomorphology. It indicates a boundary line situation during the changing
forms and processes. Geomorphic thresholds indicate changing
distinguishable situations in a system. This concept of threshold demarcates a
situation when a process functions to initiate a new balance in the progress of
a geomorphic system. This geomorphic threshold is of two categories: 1)
Internal which originates from inside the system and 2) external, which is
caused by the influence of external variables like climate, tectonic movements
or human induced interventions.

Most of the geomorphic processes function in different magnitudes or

frequencies only when the threshold limit is crossed. For example, landslides
require a critical slope angle besides all other factors remaining constant.
Rivers start depositing their sediments when the surface gradient changes its
threshold limit of carrying the sediments. In geomorphology, the concept of
thresholds is important because it indicates some significant events that bring
a sudden change from one type of landscape to another. These are often
caused by the intrinsic (Internal) and extrinsic (External) forces and processes
affecting the landscape. Thus, a geomorphic threshold is a threshold of
landform stability that is exceeded either by intrinsic change of the landform
itself, or by a progressive change of an external variable.

This powerful distinction between external and internal system thresholds

were introduced by a leading geologist named Stanley A. Schumm (1973). He
believed that a geomorphic system will cross an external threshold by a
change in an external variable. Climate Change can be a prime example of an

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external variable in the functioning of a geomorphic system. Change of
climate as an external variable may initiate a change in runoff of a river
system beyond a critical level which often leads to a changing geomorphic
system by sudden response in reorganizing itself into a new physical state
and regime. No change in an external variable is required for a geomorphic
system to cross an internal threshold. Rather fluctuations in the internal
variables of a geomorphic system may take the system towards an internal
threshold leading towards its reorganization.

When some river channels encounter a changing lithology after a long period
of erosion and deposition in the river catchment, a complex response is
triggered in the system of river channel developing a complicated pattern of
denudation with phases of concurrent accretion and erosion taking place in
the channel system. Thus, a geomorphic threshold is an inherent component
in a system which plays a significant role in changing the landforms. Under
normal situation a threshold develops within the geomorphic system by
changes in the system itself through time. The threshold refers to a critical
situation when a new adjustment or failure will occur. It also becomes difficult
to identify with in a system how much is the response to a geomorphic
threshold or to an external influence.

(b) Complex Response of Geomorphic Systems

In a geomorphic system, a complex response relates to a reaction to change

that occurs at multiple levels inducing a cascading effect to a single initial
change within the system. It is often referred to as the “butterfly effect” where
one small change can cascade through a given system creating new agents,
processes and forms of change operating at several levels. The term is
frequently used in hill slope evolution, fluvial geomorphology or the study of
river basins, networks, their water and sediment discharges and changing
landforms within those systems.

The concept of “Complex Response and Geomorphic Thresholds” plays a

significant role in understanding the nature of evolution of landforms. It is
needless to emphasise that the intricate relationship between the different
components and variables within a geomorphic system implies that any
change imposed by some external or internal forces may induce changes in
the system in a complex manner. These complex responses may bring a
change over a time span in any part of the system leading to a new
equilibrium. The complex response in the behaviour of a geomorphic system
resulting from an intervention or a given stimulus renders the system
indeterminate to predict the change. This can be very well understood with
respect to a small river basin. When a river basin is uplifted and undergoes
rejuvenation in some region, the response is not simply an entrenched valley
rather there develops a new equilibrium with a range of complex responses
like accretion, erosion, sedimentation, down cutting and many more
morphological changes. Their complexity is further accentuated and multiplied
by the development of threshold conditions due to intrinsic and or extrinsic
causes.

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3.4.2 Dynamic Equilibrium Theory of Hack
American geomorphologist J.T. Hack made an attempt to address the
drawback and criticisms of the classical models of Davis and Penck through
his idea of dynamic equilibrium in the evolution of landforms. He tried to
establish that polycyclic evolution of landforms cannot be explained through
multiple cycles of erosion, rather can be explained applying the theory of
dynamic equilibrium. He postulated that geomorphic systems are open
systems. In such a geomorphic system, when the energy remains constant,
landforms continue to remain in the steady state although the denudational
processes continues in reducing the landscape. This model demonstrates a
time-independent process of landform development. This model envisages
that “the morphology of the landforms manifests a balance between the
resistive force of the parent materials to erosion and the erosive force and
energy of the operating processes”. This theory of Hack was greatly
influenced by the concept of dynamic equilibrium developed by G. K. Gilbert
(1877) in his theory of erosion, evolution of slope profile and landscape
development. Hack proposed his theory of dynamic equilibrium in landscape
evolution in the year 1973.

Hack believed that the principle of dynamic equilibrium is not an evolutionary

model like the geographic cycle of Davis. However, the concept of dynamic
equilibrium can be used as a universal principle to explain specific landscape
features and its associated problems, when a landscape development takes
place during a long period of continuous down wasting. Hack was of the
opinion that this concept is distinctly different from the approaches of multiple
erosion cycle concepts by examining a variety of specific features in a
landscape. He mentioned that the Appalachian Mountain system has
developed by continuous down wasting from the period of latest orogeny and
that the diverse forms developed due to equilibrium of action in the erosional
system can be viewed as a model. Simultaneously it can be viewed that
evolution is also an obvious truth of nature and the inheritance of form is a
natural possibility. Such a diverse landscape with widely varying forms cannot
be fully explained through the theory of the geographic cycle involving the
process of peneplanation, It is also difficult to deny that the evolutionary
changes during a cycle of erosion might look like that of Davis, but this is
distinctly different from the approach of multiple cycles and the inheritance of
peneplain forms. The basic assumptions of the Hack’s theory of dynamic
equilibrium are given below:

 There exists a balance between the gradational processes of denudation

and resistance of the rock bodies.
 The landscape exhibits a uniform rate of down wasting in all its
components during the evolutionary process.
 The nature of variation in the characteristics of landforms can be
explained in terms of the spatial pattern of geological structure and
lithology.

Davis’ and Penck’s concepts are ‘cyclical and non-cyclical’ and postulate that
landforms are essentially ‘historical’ such that every erosional process leaves
a largely indelible imprint upon surface forms and deposits. Hence, the
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‘cyclical’ concepts interpret the landscape in terms of an assemblage of
largely independent form elements of different ages.

Contrasting with the ‘cyclical concepts’ is the concept of ‘equilibrium’

landforms proposed by Hack, J.T. which is non-cyclical in nature. Hack
argues for a ‘dynamic equilibrium’ in present landforms where all topographic
elements are eroding vertically at an equal rate with no change through time
of slopes or areal arrangement of the topography. Such equilibrium landforms
would be completely adjusted to the processes presently acting upon them. It
implies that the landforms adapted to the present day conditions rather than
inherited from the past. This is not to deny the existence of a prolonged period
of landform evolution, but to contend that its details are now lost beyond
reconstruction.

Penck viewed landscape as a result of competition between uplift and

erosion. But Hack views it (the landscape) as the product of competition
between the resistance of crustal materials and the forces of denudation. For
example, evenness of ridge crests as explained by Davis is due to
rejuvenation of an old peneplain. But Hack sees it as the manifestation of
equal resistance to the forces of erosion. Within a single climatic region where
stream and slope profiles are controlled by the nature of bedrock, similar
geological conditions should produce similar topography. If there is
orderliness of stream organization, it will naturally lead to a regularity in the
overall pattern of relief.

As the land surface is lowered the available energy diminishes and the new
forms are merely a response to the changing conditions, and no inferences
can be drawn about landform history. So, it is intrinsic to Hack’s argument that
landforms adapt rapidly to changing environmental controls.

SAQ 3
Describe the geomorphic threshold.

3.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied so far:

 Conceptual developments in the approaches towards geomorphic

investigations in tracing the origin and evolution of landforms
 Systems modeling had swept through the geomorphological studies since
1960's quantifying input and output variables and their form and
processes associated with the landforms.
 Simple mechanics and classical thermodynamics gave rise to the concept
of equilibrium whereas, open system thermodynamics brought in the
concept of steady state and dynamic equilibrium. The concept of non-
equilibrium thinking led to the emergence of complex response of
geomorphic systems.
 In a systems approach geomorphologists started assuming that landforms
constitute a geomorphic system comprising of several units and subunits

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organised in a structure and hierarchy, interacting with each other through
exchange of mass and energy within the system and with its surrounding
environment and, and leading toward a steady state or equilibrium.
 Gradually the idea of geomorphic system got established as a general
framework of research but however, criticisms to this idea was brought in
through the introduction of the concepts of equilibrium and steady state,
relevance of form and process in geomorphology, nature of complex
response of geomorphic systems and dynamic equilibrium.

3.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. How systems approach is different from classical approaches in the study
of landform evolution? Discuss with examples.

2. What is form-process approach in study of origin of landforms? Why it

gained importance in geomorphic studies?

3. Give a brief account of the “Theory of Dynamic Equilibrium” of Hack.

4. Explain what do you understand by “Complex Response of Geomorphic

Systems”?

3.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) A system is defined as a group of objects having relationships between
them and their attributes. There are three kinds of systems: 1) isolated
systems, 2) closed systems, and 3) open systems.
b) Morphological systems are composed of a series of organized
interactions between their constituent components, which are mainly the
physical attributes of natural features or materials. For example, the
morphological characteristics of a beach system could include elements
like beach
2. Form implies the morphology of a given landform unit, small or big at a
given time, while process indicates the actual operation of different agents
which bring morphological changes in the physical environment.

3. Threshold is a critical idea of relevance in geomorphology when using a

systems approach. It denotes a position at a boundary during the
development of forms and processes. Geomorphic thresholds show
shifting, observable conditions in a system.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 3.2

2. Refer to Section 3.3

3. Refer to Section 3.4.1

4. Refer to Section 3.4.2

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Block-1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED
FURTHER READING
1. Ahnert, F. (1998) Introduction to Geomorphology. London: Arnold. A
good starting text with many unusual examples.
2. Allen, P. A. (1997) Earth Surface Processes. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
3. Bloom, A. L. (1998) Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late
Cenozoic Landforms, 3rd edn. Upper Saddle River, N.J. and London:
Prentice Hall.
4. Carson, M. A. and Kirkby, M.J. (1972). Hillslope Form and Process
(Cambridge Geographical Studies, Series Number 3). London:
Cambridge Univ. Press.
5. Chorley R.J. and Kennedy B.A. (1971). Physical Geography: A Systems
Approach. London: Prentice-Hall.
6. Chorley, R.J., Schumm, S.A., Sugden, D.E. (1984). Geomorphology.
London: Methuen.
7. Gilbert, G. K. (1877). Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains
(Utah): U.S.
8. Gleick, J. (1988). Chaos: Making a New Science. London: William
Heinemann.
9. Goudie, A. S. (ed.) (1994). Geomorphological Techniques. New York:
Routledge.
10. Hack, J.T (1973). Dynamic Equilibrium and Landscape Evolution
(Mimeograph).
11. Huggett R.J. (1980). Systems Analysis in Geography. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
12. Huggett R J. (2007). Fundamentals of Geomorphology. New York:
Routledge.
13. Kenneth J. Gregory and John Lewin (2014). Basics of Geomorphology-
Key Concepts. London: Sage Publishing.
14. Bertalanffy L. von (1950). The Theory of Open Systems In Physics And
Biology. Science 111, 23-29. DOI : 10.1126/science.111.2872.23
15. Chappell J. (1983). Thresholds and Lags In Geomorphologic
Changes. Australian Geographer 15, 357-366.
DOI:10.1080/00049188308702839
16. Chorley R.J. (1962) – Geomorphology and General Systems
Theory. US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 500-B.
DOI: 10.3133/pp500B.
17. Douglas Ian (1971). Dynamic Equilibrium in Applied Geomorphology:
Two Case Studies, Earth Science Journal Vol. 5, No. 1, Dept. of
Geography, University of Hull.
18. Hack, J.T. (1973) Stream-Profile Analysis and Stream-Gradient Index.
Jour. Research of United States Geological Survey, 1, 421-429.
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Unit 3 Geomorphic Systems and Concepts
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19. Hack, J. T. (1960) Interpretation of erosional topography in humid
temperate regions: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 258-A, p. 80-97.
20. Howard, A.D. (1965) Geomorphological systems--equilibrium and
dynamics. American Journal of Science, v. 263, p. 302-3l2.
21. Horton, R. (1945) Erosional Development of Streams and Their
Drainage Basins; Hydrophysical Approach to Quantitative Morphology.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 56, 275-370.
22. Howard A.D. (1965) Geomorphological Systems-Equilibrium and
Dynamics. American Journal of Science, 263, 302-312.
DOI:10.2475/ajs.263.4.302
23. Kirkby M.J. (1971) Hillslope process–response models based on the
continuity equation. In Brunsden D. (ed.) Slope: Form and Process,
Institute of British Geographer Special Publication No. 3, 15-30.
24. Leopold L.B., Langbein W.B. (1962) The concept of entropy in
landscape evolution. US Geological Survey Professional Paper, 500A,
A1-A20. DOI : 10.3133/pp500A
25. Martin Y., Church M. (2004) Numerical modelling of landscape
evolution: geomorphological perspectives. Progress in Physical
Geography, 28, 317-39.
DOI : 10.1191/0309133304pp412ra.
26. Oguchi, Takashi and Butler, David R. (2017) Geomorphic Systems, in
The International Encyclopedia of Geography. Edited by Douglas
Richardson, Noel Castree Et. al, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI:10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg1118.
27. Ollier C.D. (1968) Open systems and dynamic equilibrium in
geomorphology. Australian Geographical Studies 6, 167-170. DOI:
10.1111/j.1467-8470.1968.tb00187.x.
28. Phillips, J.D. (2009) Changes, perturbations, and responses in
geomorphic systems, Progress in Physical Geography, 33: 1–14.
29. Phillips, J.D. (1999) Earth Surface Systems: Complexity, Order and
Scale. Blackwell, Oxford, 180 p
30. Schumm, S. A. (1973) Geomorphic thresholds and complex response of
drainage systems In Schumm, S. A. and Parker, R. S. (1973)
'Implications of complex response of drainage systems for Quaternary
alluvial stratigraphy, Nature, Phys. Sci. 243, 99-100.
31. Summerfield, M. A. (2005) A tale of two scales, or the two
geomorphologies. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,
New Series 30, 402–15.
32. Scheidegger A.E. (1992) Limitations of the system approach in
geomorphology, Geomorphology 5, 213-217. DOI: 10.1016/0169-
555X(92)90004-8
33. Scheidegger A.E. (1983) Instability principle in geomorphic
equilibrium. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, NF 27, 1-19. DOI:
10.1127/zfg/27/1983/1

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34. Strahler A.N. (1980) Systems Theory in Physical Geography, Physical
Geography 1, 1-27. DOI: 10.1080/02723646.1980.10642186

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Block 1 Fundamentals of Geomorphology
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GLOSSARY
Catastrophism : This concept was believed by Baron Georges Cuvier,
Thomas Burnet, Comte de Buffon and John Woodward.
They believed that the Earth is shaped by big floods. It
states that the origin of the Earth's surface features are
mostly due to sudden, short duration violent events and
related processes like cataclysmic earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions and severe floods.
Closed Systems : The systems can prevent import and export of mass but
not of energy. Eg., the Earth exchanges energy but not
mass with outer space.
Entropy : It is an expression for the degree to which energy has
become unable to perform work. The maximum entropy
means minimum or no energy.
Eon : Geological time scale has been divided into four major
time divisions called eons. These are Hadean (4570 to
3850 Ma), Archean (3850 to 2500 Ma), Proterozoic
(2500 to 540 Ma), and Phanerozoic (540 Ma to present.
Era : The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic era. The three eras come with
a "zoic" suffix which means with a zoological basis.
General Systems : Bertalanffy formulated this theory states that how to see
Theory a whole thing in different parts and to see how the parts
are interlinked and function together in a system. This
theory is often referred to as the theory of open systems
or System Theory.
Geological Time : The geological time scale presents the history of the
Scale Earth divided in a hierarchical set of divisions of
geologic time based on geochronology and dating of the
sequential events throughout the Earth’s history.
Geomorphology : Geomorphology is a part of physical geography which
deals with the study of landforms, their characteristics
and various processes responsible for their formation
and changes.
Isolated Systems : The boundaries closed to the import and export of both
mass and energy are called isolated systems. Eg.,
chemical experiments in the laboratory.
Isolated Systems : These are characterized by an exchange of both mass
and energy with their surroundings. It involves the flow
of matter and energy not only out of the total system but
also through interrelated parts of the system.
Neptunism : It explains that most of the rocks formed over the
Earth’s surface must have precipitated out of a vast
ocean.

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Glossary Block 1
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Planetary : It studies the surface features of the extra-terrestrial
Geomorphology bodies collected through space explorations. Planetary
geomorphology explores the landforms of the other
terrestrial planets and satellites like Mars, Venus and
Moon through Earth analogies.
Uniformitarianism : This concept was proposed by James Hutton. He
proposed that “the present is the key to the past”
opposing the prevailing idea of catastrophism. The
belief that changes to Earth have always been
consistent and that the present holds the answer to the
past. The theory of Uniformitarianism was profounded
by Charles Lyell.

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