INTRODUCTION

STUDY OF THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

 INTKODCCTION TO THE STODY

CHINESE CHARACTERS.

BY

J. EDKINS, D.D,
PEKING, CHINA.

LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO., 57 AND 59, LUDGATE HILL.
1876.

(All Rights reserved. J

 HERTFORD:
-lU-IIKX AUSTIN ANB SONS, PRINTEB8.
 PREFACE.

THE Chinese characters are records of a distant past. In-

stead of being hidden under the rubbish heaps of ruined

palaces, like the Cuneiform Inscriptions, they have, millen-

nium after millennium, been passing in open day through
the hands of scribes. Subject to the caprices of each genera-
tion of writers, they now present themselves to us in a vast

variety of successive forms. Through these forms, if the

inquisitive eye of science trace correctly the process of

change, we may acquire a knowledge of the origin of Chinese

writing, and the method pursued by the inventors.

These men did not make a language. What they did
was to find out a mode of committing to writing a language

which was already made. It was a sufficient medium at

that time for the thoughts and wants of a civilized people.

The Chinese language, judged by the characters, is not

as

barbarous. Though simple and not much developed, it is

civilized, and represents man in a condition marked by high

moral, political, and social characteristics. He is well fed

and well clothed. He is possessed of the conveniences and
even luxuries of life. Many of the principal elements which
make up the social state of modern China existed when the
characters were invented. In these inquiries the conviction
b
-~x f^ f '
p*~ i~*k *r*% r*
200 5236
VI PREFACE.

is forced on us that we are dealing with an old civilization,

and a language well stocked and compacted. The words

of the language were as clearly divided into parts of speech,

and as clearly distinguished from each other by their sense,

as at any later period.

This book is intended to be a guide to the study of the

picture writing of the Chinese and to their conventional

signs of words. It is an introduction to the analysis of the

Chinese characters, and to the history of the words in ancient
and modern times in regard to their sounds and written signs.
Those who have read " China's Place in
my Philology"
know that I believe in the possibility of proving the ultimate

identity of Chinese and European words. My present task,

however, does not lead me into opposition with the opinions
and practice of any modern philologists, by comparing words
belonging to different families of language, except in one
respect. I have found it
necessary to strengthen the proof
of the old sounds of the Chinese characters by citing corre-

sponding words in Mongol and Japanese. After the work

was in print, and while writing this Preface, I have seen
Professor Max Miiller's fourth volume, just published, of
"Chips from a German "Workshop," where, at page 111, are
inserted three posthumous letters of the late Professor Julien

bearing on this very point. The validity of my proof pub-

lished in the "Kevue Orientale" November, 1865, more
of
than ten years ago, of the connexion of the Chinese and

Mongol languages, is contested by this great scholar. I will

endeavour, as time permits, to collect a much larger number

of instances of
identity in roots than is contained in that
article, for I am fully aware that in this critical instance
of contiguity between the monosyllabic and polysyllabic
 PREFACE. Vll

areas the vocabulary of identities should be made as large

as possible.

I have been urged to do this by Professor Max Miiller

himself, who yields to none in the interest with which he

regards questions connected with the Eastern Asiatic lan-

guages, and who has said and done much to stimulate those

who are engaged in these researches. I will here only say

that Professor Julien, when he condemned my views on this

point, did not carefully examine the instances given of iden-

For example, the Chinese word loJc " green,"
tities of roots.

Mandarin lu, admits of comparison with the Mongol logon,

but Julien compared logon with Psing "blue," " green," and
"black." When
comparing the Chinese t'ien "heaven"
with the corresponding word in Mongol, he wrote it tegri,
as in modern Turkish, instead of tengri or tingri, the Mongol.

Besides this, he omitted all references to my arguments from

common laws of order in words, from rhythmical resemblances

and from identity in syllabary.

Words in the languages of nomad races are, it seems
to me, more easily lost or changed than in the languages
of settled populations. Hence the necessity of paying parti-
cular regard to identical laws whether in the syllabary, the

syntax, the system of derivation, or in the prosody. It is

much be regretted that Julien with his vast knowledge

to

of words does not appear to have been conscious of this.

In thisbook will be found by the student a much larger

collection of explanations of characters than has been before

given in works on the Chinese language. The etymologies

are traced to their native sources and frequently criticized.

The compiler of the Shwo wen is the author of most of the

current explanations, but though always deserving of atten-

 PREFACE.

he often as is shown by native students of later

tion, errs,

times. No explanations then should be ascribed

to him for

which he is not responsible. Later authors are also worthy

of being consulted. Their names are here often cited; for

brevity, I have written the initial letters only, e.g. Sw for

Shwo wen, and Tt for Tai tung, author of Lu shu ku.

The early Jesuits were accustomed to interpret Chinese
characters on the wildest principles. They detected religious
mysteries in the most unexpected situations. Kwei " trea-
cherous," is written with Men "nine," and above it one of

the covering radicals fa . This then was Satan at the head

of the nine ranks of angels. The character ^- tfliwen "a
boat," was believed to contain an allusion to the Deluge. On
the left side is the ark and on the right are the signs for

eight and for persons. The day for this mode of explaining

the Chinese characters has gone by.

The form of the characters made use of for explanation in

this work is the modern. This will be most useful and com-

prehensible to the student. Old forms are puzzling to the

beginner. The best collection of old and new forms of the

characters accessible to the European student is that given

by Morrison in his fifth volume. It has the advantage of

being alphabetical.
The acquisition of the written language will become
easier when the characters are explained than if there be
no key to their formation.

Besides helping the student to acquire the written lan-

guage, I have had in view the determination of the phonetic

value of the characters.
There is sufficient
regularity in the construction of the
characters to render it possible for us to arrive at some
 PEEFACE. IX

important conclusions respecting them. Certain groups of

characters have final m uniformly. Others have final p.

Others have final k, and so on. These final letters therefore

were in existence when the characters were first made.

This accounts for their having heen retained as signs of
words ending in these letters till they were lost in the up-
growth of the Mandarin tongue.
In the third chapter, containing a list of 1144 phonetics,
will be found many lost finals restored. A considerable part
of these have the restored final letter in a parenthesis to

denote lack of certainty. In cases without the parenthesis,

I have felt satisfied as to the propriety of restoring the lost

letter, and usually the reasons are given. Whenever I could

find the evidence, I have been careful to mark the authority
of old works, and chiefly the Kwang yiin, for the restoration

of lost finals. This work has been for me the most prolific

and valuable source of information on this point. In it the

initials #, #, #', #, jt?, p^ etc., are kept carefully distinct

throughout.
When the old final and initial letters, or in other words

the ancient phonetic values of the phonetics, are fixed, the

determination of roots must follow. Phonetic characters are

not roots. They key to the
are a roots. Each widely ex-
tended root is written with several different phonetics. The
knowledge of the phonetics will be followed by the discovery
of the roots of which they were the signs.

If it be asked why had not each root a distinct phonetic,

the reply must be that roots rapidly grew. Thus, many
round things were in primitive times called lut or sut, both
from an older dut. Four or five roots soon became ten or

twenty. But it would happen that soon after a number

X PREFACE.

of round things had received this name, it would become

polished, intensified, modified, abridged,

and lengthened, in
each instance after a fashion of its own. Then came the
invention of writing. All the words were written on pictorial

and phonetic grounds. The men who wrote them could only to

a certain degree, while inventing signs for the various words,

act under the impression that any of those words were etymo-
logic ally connected. Thus round things with the sounds leu,
lit, Itij siij t'eu, tettj would come to be written at first with
several phonetics. After the loss of final ,
there was still greater
confusion, for other phonetics which had k would be by
lost

some writers employed as signs for words which had lost t,

while phonetics used as signs for roots anciently ending in p
would be used by modern writers for roots once ending in Jc.
The best way Chinese roots would be,
to represent the

perhaps, that adopted by Pictet in his " Origines Indo-

Europeennes." Philological studies should be perpetually

associated with the life of the people and the objects embraced
within the horizon of their knowledge. I cannot enter in
the present work on so wide an enterprise.
After sketching the principles of formation in the charac-

ters,and the history of Chinese writing, I have described the

sources for the
history of the sounds and the letter changes
which have occurred in the
language. As one the among
means of gaining information on this point, reference has
been made to the Japanese
transcription.
Dr. J. C. Hepburn has been the first in his
Dictionary to
place the question of the old Chinese transcriptions in Japan
in a correct and This he has done in his
intelligible form.
second edition. I have thus been aided in
showing in the
seventh chapter of this work how the Go on and Kan on
 PREFACE. XI

transcriptions may throw much useful light on the history

of the Chinese language.

MM. Sarazin and de Eosny do not appear to have seen

the new account given by Dr. Hepburn when they discussed

the Japanese transcriptions at the Congress of Orientalists

at Paris in 1873, as reported in the " Compte Eendu."

I am obliged to M. de Eosny for pointing out in the
" Actes dela Societe
d'Ethnographie," 1871 to 1873, vol. vii.,
an error on the subject of the Japanese passive into which I
had fallen in my " China's Place in Philology." It was an

inadvertence, as was his when he represented me as seeking

to trace a path for the Chinese of the old ages to go in a

pleasure train to admire the Tower of Babel. An amusing

idea this, but it is not mine, for I was careful in my book to
express the opinion that the Chinese must have gone away
from western Asia before the time of the separation of lan-

guages to which the Hebrew and Babylonian document

speaking of the Tower of Babel refers.

After reading M. de Eosny's opinion of etymology and of

the comparison of words, I still think these comparisons may
and ought to be made, and become eminently useful when
under the guidance of a good philological method. Speaking
of my book he says, " Les indianistes, les semitistes et surtout

les hellenistes n'auront qu'a ouvrir son livre pour se former

une idee de la solidite de ses comparaisons." I know well
that this habit of merely opening a book may lead to a strong

condemnation of it. It is not, however, safe to form an

unfavourable judgment after so brief an examination. These
identities of Greek words, for example, and Greek formative
syllables with those belonging to some Turanian languages,
are too numerous to be accounted for as accidental. The
 PREFACE.

studied by European
Mongol language has been so little

savans that there is till the present time no Mongol dic-

grammar of
tionary or that language in English or French.

The modern Hellenist believes that the Greeks came from

the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, where they were near

the and that the languages of the two races are

Mongols,
not connected. He would perhaps modify his view if he
examined the Mongol carefully in regard to roots and
first

grammar and formed an unprejudiced decision, making

fair allowance for the effect of geographical contiguity.

Probably M. de Eosny is one of those ethnologists who

are opposed to comparisons of words because they seem to

cast a doubt on the widely accepted opinion that the various

families of human speech grew
up separately like trees from
the soil. But however appropriate this way of speaking may
be, it should be remembered that each tree comes from a seed

dropped from a similar tree. Whenever the metaphor of a

tree is used of
languages, of laws, of grammatical forms or of
roots, their derivation ineach case from a pre-existing tree
of the same kind should be
kept in view as a possibility.
Among the new methods in philology that are now
coming into vogue is the use of the laws of position in

determining the family relationship of languages. I rejoice

to see that M. de
Eosny has himself used this method in his
"
Affinites des
Langues Finno-Japonaises." Professor Boiler's
method of proving the connexion of the
Japanese and Tartar
languages by comparison of words only, falls much short
in force because he omits reference
to the laws of
position.
Both these eminent
philologists seem to me to limit their
subject needlessly by passing over in silence the Dravidian
languages. Nor does M. de notice in the Finnish the
Eosny
 PREFACE. Xlll

circumstance that its geographical contiguity to Sclavonic

and Teutonic peoples has caused a rough shaking in its syn-
tactical system. It is indeed so free from that rigidity in

the laws of position that marks the other languages of the

group, that the combination Mongol-Japanese would be better

as a name than that which M. de Eosny has chosen. But
better still is the word Turanian. This may be made to
include the Dravidian races, which it appears to me essential

not to omit. I would keep the word Turanian, but not

extend it to the monosyllabic languages. M. de Eosny has
" China's Place in
praised parts of Philology," and strongly
condemned others. In a few years it will be seen whether
he is right in lending encouragement to the hypothesis of
mutual isolation between the families.

In giving prominence to the laws of position as valid proof

of connexion or disconnexion in language, he cannot claim

to be fighting under the "Sanscritist" banner. His studies

lie in a more eastern region, and his intelligence compels him
to the admission that a careful consideration of those laws is

essential to complete the linguistic process which proves con-

sanguinity. Let him carry the process a step further, and he

will perhaps find himself driven to the conclusion, that

Tartar processes of grammar and Tartar laws of position may

be applied to elucidate the peculiarities of languages nearer
home. His present position, as at the same time the writer
of the Affinites and of the critique on my book, is not very
tenable. Words are more easily borrowed by contiguous
languages than grammatical features. If the close resem-

blance of grammatical features between Arian and Turanian

languages can be proved by extending the method which

M. de Eosny himself employs, then d fortiori the identity
XIV PREFACE.

of similar words in the two systems may be hopefully

discussed.

It is a matter of great satisfaction to me, that in this

book I respond to his challenge in Actes, p. 186, to bring

forward the proofs of my readings of old Chinese sounds. I

wish they were more complete, but hope that the citations
1
from native authorities such as the Kwang ytin will inspire

confidence in the correctness of my renderings.

The Appendices have been separately printed at Geneva,
under the kind care of M. Francois Turrettini.
Here will be found specimens of old forms of the cha-

racters, and among them the radicals of the Shwo wen in the
Siau chwen, or small Seal character. Also rules for the

pronunciation of words given with the syllabic spelling in

K angc
hi. The right use of the tables of sound in K'ang hi
is
very important in the search for the old sounds. Students
who have been familiar only with the Mandarin or Canton
pronunciations, and who may not be accustomed to make use
of the initials g, dj\ dz, will find in hi's tables
5, d, K'ang
proof of their existence.
A
kind friend in China, interested in the progress of
Chinese philology, has assisted in the publication of this
work.

1
A copy of the Kwang yiin, with the initials and finals marked in the
margin, may now be consulted in the British Museum.

J.E.
LONDON,
December, 1875.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE RADICALS.

Origin of Chinese Writing. Its Three Founders. Distinction between

Wen and Ts'i. What are Radicals? What are Phonetics? List of Radicals
as now used. PAGE 1

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING.

Lines, Shapes and Coverings. Natural and Artificial Objects. Man and
his Relations and Circumstances. Parts of the Body. Animals. Names of
Plants and Agriculture. Implements, Clothing, and the Useful Arts. Measures.
Metals. Qualities of Objects. Verbs PAGE 41

CHAPTER III.

THE PHONETICS.

Their Number. First arranged by Gallery. Order of Strokes. Their

Value as Indicating the Sounds of Words when the Characters were made.
Phonetics often acquire two or more Sounds. They present a View of the
Chinese Syllabary and the Changes it has Undergone. List of Phonetics

according to the Modern Writing PAGE 50

CHAPTER IV.
HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING.
The Implements of Writing, Ancient and Modern. Changes in the Forms
of the Writing. Ku wen. Lieu wen. Ta chwen. Siau chwen. Li shu.
K'iai shu. T'sau shu PAGE 142

CHAPTER V.
THE Six PRINCIPLES IN THE FORMATION OF THE CHARACTERS.

The Lu shu as exhibited in the Dictionaries Shwo wen, Lu shu ku. Ex-
amples. Pictures of Ideas. Pictures of Objects. Pictures of Suggestion.
New Characters made by Change in Position of Old Ones. Phonetic Charac-
ters with Radicals. Phonetic Characters without Radicals. . PAGE 151
XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF SOUNDS.
Research shows that the Chinese Language not Compound.
is Sources
for the History. 1. Phonetic Characters. 2. Rhymes of Old Poetry. Results

of the Researches of T\van yu t'sai. The Seventeen Classes of Old Rhymes.

3. Tonic Dictionaries. 4. Old Transcriptions, Japanese, Corean, Cochin
Chinese. . PAGE 166

CHAPTER VII.
ON LETTER CHANGES.
Example of Letter Change in European Languages, k to ch. Chinese
Letter Changes. 1. Surd and Sonant from Simple Mutes. 2. Formation
of Aspirated Mutes. 3. Changes in the Throat Letters. 4. Changes in the

Palatal Region. 5. Changes in Tooth Letters. 6. Changes in Lip Letters.

7. Changes in the Vowels PAGE 184

APPENDICES.
A. Lithographed Examples of Ancient Forms of Characters.

B. Examples to show that Words in s, sh, ch, ts, come from the same Roots
with corresponding Words in I.

C. How to use K'ang hi.

D. Two Old Poems to Illustrate the History of the Sounds.

E. Account of the Fang Yen, an Old Book on Dialects.

F. A List of Sanscrit Words in Buddhist Literature to illustrate the

History
of the Sounds.

O. Radicals of the Shwo wen in the Siau chwen.

H. Gallery's Primary Strokes of the Modern Writing.

/. Notes on some Select Characters.

INDEX TO PHONETICS.

ENGLISH INDEX.
 CHINESE BOOKS USED.

Shu king. Book of History.

Shi' king. The Odes, or Collection of Ancient Poetry of the Court and of

the Provinces.

Yi king. Book of Changes.

Li sau. Poems of C'hii yuen.

Er ya. Dictionary of Archaisms. A work of the latter part of the Cheu

dynasty. Kwo p'u added the sounds and sense of doubtful words, A.D. 343.
Sw. Shwo wen.

Fy. Fang yen. Work by Yang hiung.

Kya. Kwang ya. One of the first Dictionaries containing the syllabic

spelling. Only words looked on as doubtful are spelled. Chang yi collected the
words. T'sau hien explained them and fixed the pronunciation in the Sui

dynasty. He cites Kwo p'u's edition of the Fy for the sound of some rare words.

Yp. Yii p'ien. Dictionary by Ku ye wang, A.D. 543. Arranged according

to radicals. Syllabic spelling used throughout.

Kwy. Kwang yiin. Dictionary arranged throughout like Ty, Tsy, Yh, Chy,

according to initials and finals. It was apparently the first of this kind.

A.D. 600. The work of an Imperial Commission. Contains the pronunciation

of the period in Central China. Kepublished by Ku yen wu in the seventeenth

century.

Ty. T'ang yiin. Dictionary of T'ang dynasty. Cited in Kh.

Tsy. Tsi yiin. Dictionary of the Sung dynasty. Cited in Kh.

Yh. Yiin hwei. Dictionary of the Yuen dynasty. Cited in Kh.

Chy. Hung wu cheng yiin. Dictionary made by order of Hung wu, founder
of the Ming dynasty. Cited in Kh.

Kin shi tsui pien. Collection of inscriptions.

Lsk. Lu shu ku. Dictionary of Tai tung.

Kh. K'ang hi ts'i tien. The most valuable of recent dictionaries. Arranged
according to the radicals. Published A.D. 1717.
NAMES OF AUTHOES REFERRED TO BY THEIR
INITIALS.

Kp. Kwo p*u. An ancient explainer^of the classics. A.D. 343. One of the

most influential of the founders of the syllabic spelling.

Tt. Tai tung, the learned author of Lu shu ku, in the twelfth century.

Tyt. Twan yii tsai. Author of Lu shu yin yiin piau. The most successful

of recent investigators into ancient sounds. End of eighteenth century.

 TONE MARKS.

The old four tones are 2Ji p'ing, _L shang, c'/iu, ^ ju.

These are marked in this work 1, 2, 3, 4.

When the upper and lower series of initial letters, k, t,p, s, etc., g, d, b, z,

etc., are distinguished from each other, the four tones become eight.

Tone class 1 becomes 1 and 5.

Tone class 2 becomes 2 and 6.

Tone class 3 becomes 3 and 7.

Tone class 4 becomes 4 and 8.

This arrangement suits the native syllabic dictionaries of Canton, Amoy, and

Fucheu, and the pronunciation of the old middle dialect, as exemplified in the

dialects of Shanghai and Ningpo.

There was no c'ku sheng in the time of the classics.

In Sir Thomas Wade's system, tone class 5 becomes 2, 2 becomes 3, and

3 becomes 4.

The subdivision of p'ing sheng in Chinese dictionaries constructed on the old

system, into upper and lower, was early made for convenience in binding, and
has nothing to do with difference in intonation.

Later, when the Mandarin dialect was formed, a real subdivision of p'ing

sheng into two classes, each characterized by a peculiar intonation, had already

taken place.

The subdivision of shang and hia p

l

ing in Wu fang yuen yin and other

Mandarin dictionaries is real.
 OETHOGKAPHY.

J, a, o, u, as in Italian.

Lr, o, as in German.

Final e as in the English "then."

Medial e, not having i or y before it, as a in "America."

The vowel 'i is like e in " ladle."

In t, t's,
an aspirate follows t in each case.

p an
( l
In lc
, aspirate follows k and p.

In ch' an aspirate follows t and precedes sh.

 INTRODUCTION

STUDY OF THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

CHAPTER I.

THE RADICALS.

ORIGIN OF CHINESE "WRITING. ITS THREE FOUNDERS. DISTINCTION BETWEEN

AND Tsi. "WHAT ARE RADICALS? WHAT ARE PHONETICS? LIST OF RADICALS
AS NOW fSED.

THE native tradition points to B.C. 2700 as the time when writing
was invented in China. The histories of that country systematically

refer all civilized inventions to a native origin. Since, however, it is

incredible that weaving, pottery, metallurgy, astronomical observation,

the calendar, the use of the plough, of boats, and the cultivation of

wheat, barley, rice, and millet, should all have sprung up in China
without foreign help, it must be allowed to be quite possible that

writing, like other intellectual results of man's activity, may have

been brought to China from some other country. Those who brought
the early discoveries of civilization to China may well have been the
Chinese themselves.
The reputed founder of Chinese writing was Tsang kic, who is

described in fabulous accounts as minister under the Emperor Hwang

ti,and distinguished by possessing four eyes and the countenance of
a dragon, i.e. he possessed marvellous wisdom and great loftiness of

thought.
Other accounts ascribe it to Fu hi, who made the eight symbols of
divinationby and invented a system for records and official
lines,

communications, which took the place of the older method by knotted

i
2 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

From character and the

cords. this beginning sprang the written
1
first books.
Another story says that under the Emperor Hwang ti, B.C. 2697,
two ministers, Tsu sung and Tsang kie, transformed the eight symbols
of Fu hi into a more complete system, and drew pictures resembling
the foot-prints of birds.
The tradition of the first invention of writing is seen then to

hover with uncertainty over three names, and is beyond the reach of
more exact inquiry or any certain confirmation of date or person.
Among the characters, the prominent distinction existing between
the pictorial and the phonetic led to two names almost from the first.
The pictorial characters were called 3^ Wen. Wen, or mun, means
beautiful, striped, ornamented with various colours. The latter and
more numerous class of phonetically formed characters are called
^ T*i (Preface to Sw).
The ideographic characters may be most conveniently illustrated
by the two hundred and fourteen radicals of JKang hi's dictionary.
The word 'radical' is misleading. The Chinese equivalent pu means
classes, and corresponds in use to our words 'kingdom' in natural
' '

history, and orders' and species in botany and zoology.

'

The radicals were reduced in number by the Chinese lexicographers

from about nine hundred to a few more than two hundred in the
seventeenth century. They occur in the same form nearly as in
Kang hi in the Cheng ts'i
tung and Ts'i hvvei, works which were in
circulation half a century earlier.

The following list of radicals is taken from Kang hi's dictionary.

Though from including all the ideographic characters, which,

far

indeed, are said to be two thousand in number, it presents a very full

illustration of the mode in which those characters were made.

It should be
kept in mind that they have been modified to suit
modern writing in the Kiai shu form.
The tendency of the modern extension of education has been to
simplify forms and to diminish the number of variations.
This remark, however, needs limitation. multitude of old forms A
were indeed simplified, the labour of
writing was much shortened
by the use of the modern hair pencil, and diminution in the number
1
Shang shu sii, Preface to Book of History quoted in Kh. Fu hi's period was B.C 2852
to H.C. 2738.
 THE RADICALS. 6

of strokes was in many cases effected. But short-hand writing,

ornamental caligraphy, and the tendency to add new radicals to
characters once destitute of them, have, on the other hand, multiplied
forms beyond all precedent.
The present two hundred and fourteen radicals are the result
of three great modifications. They are fewer and more simple than
those of the Li shu, as these are fewer and more simple than those
of the Chwen wen, and as the radicals of the Chwen wen are

simpler than those of the Ku wen.

The radicals of the Ku wen are the nearest in shape we can
obtain to the original ideographs of the inventors of writing.

LIST OF RADICALS AS NOW USED.

R. 1. ~ yi, tit, "one."

The initial t is derived from the Amoy sound chit, where ch

represents t, Sw. Picture of an idea (ch'i ski). Sw says the Kw
of this radical has R. 56. Tt insists that the
single stroke is more
ancient and that the addition of ye, "to shoot," is modern.

R. 2. \

Opposite in direction to the strokes of Fu

and to the characters
hi
, H, H- The same as kan, "an upright stem or trunk of
anything." First found in Sw, and a result of the study of the
characters by Hii shu chung, its author.

R. 3. ) chit, tu(k}(t}.

" A dot,"
" the
flame of a lamp or candle." Picture of the
object.
Used in modern writing as a comma to mark sentences.

R. 4.
^/ p'ie, p'it.

A downstroke inclined from right to left.

Probably formed by contraction from some more complex character,
like it in sound. For example, it may be the left-hand stroke of
"
7V pat, eight." Inclined downwards from left to right, it is called
put, but by some this form is called na, for as if it came from nap,
A ju> nip,
"
enter."
4 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 5. y, &#.

Second in the cycle of ten. It is very old, for it is found on

It may have
many of the most ancient vases as a single bent stroke.
been formed from some character called kit, and having this for one
of its strokes. be a foreign symbol. Several signs in
Yet it may
the denary and duodenary cycles are not capable of easy explanation
from Chinese sources.
If foreign, it is more likely to be a Babylonian symbol than any
other, because the Babylonians had also the denary and duodenary
cycle.

R. 6. J kiue, git, "hook."

Picture of a hook. In the Chwen form ^-

R. 7.
~ r'i
(er), ni, "two."

Two strokes conveniently represent the number two. In Sw it

consists of three hands and two strokes and in Kw of -

and a
form with R. 62 on the right, as in ^ .

As a radical it includes those characters which in modern writing

happen to contain, as their most prominent feature, two parallel
strokes drawn from left to right.

R. 8. ~, -"-, t&u, du.

This is a fictitious modern character contracted for convenience

from more complex characters about twenty in number, which are
written with it. As a covering, like RR. 13, 27, 40, it is used

chiefly with words which suggest roofs or shade of some kind.

First made a separate character in the Tsi' hwei, a dictionary of
the seventeenth century.

R - 9. A/^w, nin.

Man. Picture of a man. One author says a picture of the arms

and The form used on the left hand of
legs. compound characters is

as in ^fj .

Jen, benevolence. So called because it is natural to man. It is

written fc as if with
~ ni "two" on the Lscw "What
right. says,
the original % is to ^ 'heaven,' such is jen, 'benevolence,' to /en,
 THE RADICALS.

'man.'" Confucius said t^A tfi "benevolence is humanity," jen

1
die jen ye.

Human attributes, things done by man or in which man, in the

mental picture of the idea, is the most prominent element, are classed
under this radical.
Many particles and pronouns find a place here. E.g. j[ yi, "in
order to," "take." Of this the Kw g suggests no likeness to our
radical.

R. 10. nin.
J\^ jen 5,
Man. It is used at the bottom of characters. The same as J{, so

says Tt.
The following examples will illustrate its use :

Sw ~fa yiin 6, dun, "sincere." "From ^ and A-"

7C yuen 5, gon,
" source." "From ~ and J{."
JJ hiung, "elder brother." "From P and A because 5
an elder
brother should instruct the younger."
"
55 si, rhinoceros." Formerly a picture of the animal.

R. 11. \ju, nip, "enter," "within," "obtain."

A picture of entering.
Sw says in explaining the character, f*J nui, net, nip, "From J]
"
and \, entering from '
outside.' This is as if from above downwards.
As a phonetic, 14aju, nip.
The Mong. nebterehu, "to penetrate," should be compared with
this word.

R. 12. J\pa, pat.

Eight.
A picture of separation. Two men or things back to back. Sw.
Perhaps the root derived its sound from the idea of subdivision
and separation heard as pat.

R. 13. J~J kiung, kom.

The outer regions of a kingdom or city. Etymo-

Distant regions.

logically means "empty," and is the same as k'ung, "empty."

it

At the top of some characters it has the form ] and is like R. 73. ,

1
a demonstrative or imperfect relative coming after the word or clause to which
Che is

it
points, and belonging
to the subject. Ye is a demonstrative following its word or clause,
and belonging to the predicate.
 6 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Sw. Immediately outside the city was kiau (kok). Next to this
ye (dat). Beyond this, Urn, "the forest." Last of all, and outside
of the forest, was kiting (kom).

Eiung then the unoccupied land which the Mongols call ejin
is

ugice ne gadjir, "land without a lord" (lord without's land). This

description takes us back to the time when much of China was un-
felled forest or untilled soil, and when the settlements of civilized

men were comparatively distant from each other.

This may, I believe, be one of the roots named from the mouth
in the primitive gesture speech of men, in which, for example, a

guttural initial and final m might be conveniently used for any ideas
implying disappearance and hollowness, accompanied with the closing
of an open mouth as an auxiliary sign of the act.
But since kom
also a bow, the root kom for emptiness and
is

hollowness may have

alsooriginated it, from occasional resemblance
to the shape of a bow.

R. 14. / > mi, mik.

Turned downward.
Sw Hanging downward from one. Another writer says cloth
laid on the floor of a tent. It is contracted from P. 627, R. napkin,
i|g mik, "curtain," "to cover," which occurs in Sc.
As a phonetic, 627 ming or mik, or mien.

R. 15.
y ping, pirn.

Ice. Picture of hanging icicles.

This radical is applied to words of coldness.

R. 16. ki, kik, or kit.

J\^
A low bench or stool. Picture of a stool.
Five kinds are mentioned as
anciently in use, viz. of jade, carved,
red, lacquered, and unpainted. The ancient Chinese learned on these
stools, as they sat on mats. The mats were laid on the ground or on
a dais of wood or mason work.
Used for stools, words of leaning, etc.

R. 17. |J

To open the mouth. A vessel for receiving things. A picture of

the act of
opening the mouth.
 THE RADICALS. /

As a phonetic (166) the sound becomes hiiing by the change of

final m to ng. See P. 109 UJ "violent," "cruel."
See R. 13 for the same root appearing as kiting.

R. 18. J] tan, tot, "knife."

In compounds the shape becomes as in tan. A picture of the fij

back and the edge of an ancient knife. Sii in Sw.

As a phonetic it takes the sound tau, chau, and has lost final t.
When the form with two downstrokes is used it is in compound
characters.
The tau and pit sjiE "brush," are mentioned as the two ancient
writing implements.
R. 19. jj li, lik, "strength."
Sw says, "A picture of human muscles." In the old shapes

preserved it looks like a hand turned towards the ground <?(, or like
a digging implement at work.

R. 20. ^ po, pok. ) cho, tok.

The first is a picture of a man bent and holding something in his

arms. Sw. The sound is that of pau, " to embrace." The second
is a picture of a spoon (dok) with something in it.
This radical is also a phonetic. See 41st phonetic, and 168, 465.
Not only is pok employed as a verb, " to embrace ; " the limbs
used in embracing and the thing embraced are also called pok. The
arm is pik.
1
A
bundle is pau for pok.
With two horizontal strokes inside, our radical is yun, "even,"
"average," "a little of." But the real sound is ktm, as seen in
" even." Here our sign is both phonetic and ideographic.
J^ kitin,

In several words our sign has the phonetic value gut and ktit.

See P. 562.
A common value is kiung, hiung, from kom, as in ^ "breast,"
"chest," and with ^ yen, "words," enclosed hung, 1 kom, "noise."
Further, it has the sound kok in P. 458, R. rice, ku, kuk, " chry-
santhemum." It is also phonetic in 98#, keu, " a hook," though here
the final k is lost.

1
The late Professor Stanislas Julien did not himself
undertake the study of the Chinese
old pronunciation but when I pointed out to him during our lengthened correspondence
;

"
that^t, arm," being pik in old Chinese, it became like the Greek TTTJ^IT, he admitted that
it was a most
interesting coincidence.
8 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 21. b pi, pit.

Spoon. Picture of a spoon. To compare.

Also a phonetic, the llth.
Probable origin in pat, "to spread out," or in bat, "to strike,"
from the sound of the implement. See R. 81, where 21 is doubled.

R. 22. .

Fang 1 pom. A peck measure, or rather a vessel used for

holding a peck. It was, says Lsk, called fang, because of its

squareness. "To place" and "a place" are also fang. Looking
for a physical origin of these abstract terms, we perhaps find it,
"
if we wish to speculate, in feng, abundant, well
Things filled."

that are well filled give out a sound when struck which may have
been heard as pom or bom.
Another source may be suggested. Pang 5 bong, " side." The
side of a bench or wall might give origin to the idea
"
squareness,"
and might receive the name bom as an imitation of the sound of
striking against it.

The peck, ten 5=f "of ten pints," is also called fang.

R. 23. C
Hi 6 gl. A
containing vessel. The idea here is squareness and
not only capacity for it is used to write picn, " an oblong tablet
;

of honour," and ti having a similar meaning.

"
Compare kicei, ku, carpenter's rule," for the origin of the sound.
" to cut."
Through these it
may come from kot, Sw says it is

formed from 22 with "

yi, one," to cover it.

R. 24. -f- sh'i, dap.

Ten. Origin probably in grasping. A bundle of ten would be
called dap, because zhip, dip, is one of the roots for " to
pick up," and
tip to take hold of in the hand. But crossing hands is also tap
and c'ha. This may have been the origin of zhip, for " ten."
Sh'i is the third phonetic.

R. 25. "
\\ pu, pok, to divine."

A picture of the act of scorching a tortoise for the purpose

of divination. Another account says it is a picture of the lines, down
and across, seen on a tortoise shell. Also a
phonetic, the seventeenth.
 THE RADICALS. 9

R. 26. JJ tsie, tsik, also tsit.

Joint. Of bones, of bamboo, etc. Picture of bones, which, fitting

neatly into one another, were used as seals to indicate delegated

power, the king keeping one of them. The oldest sound was tik,
for final t isderived from final k frequently, and ts comes out of t.
Form in Sw B^ , in Li shu fft "When the bent form is as in j^
. ,

it is
g R. 163.

Also phonetic. See 575, 974, both of which, [||} tsi, fjft tsie, are the
same with this radical. Note that tsit is the sound in classical poetry,
and the supposed change from k to t must therefore have taken
place previously to B.C. 1100, unless, as is unlikely, t has changed to k.

R. 27. JT han.

Picture of an impending rock or mountain. A cave in which

men may live. Sw. Lspy says it is a picture of a river bank bend-
ing over and forming both bank (ngan) and shelter. Also phonetic.
See 2a. It describes, like RR. 8, 14, 40, things that are covered.

R. 28.
J\ si, tik.

To think for one's self, same as ^

private." si,
"

Han fei, the old philosopher of that name, said that Tsang kie
formed this character to represent thinking and planning for one's
self. It has the value tik or sik in PP. 5Qa, 120, 186, 287a, and in
RR. 52, 120.
It has also the phonetic value meu, with the meaning "coat
of mail,"
" a certain one." See P. 286.

The shape is probably the half of j^ s'i, " silk," and is that of
a cocoon as in 120.

R. 29. ^ yen, dut, and duk.

Hand, also, other. Sw says it is a picture of the hand, or rather
of three fingers of it.

Written on the left of another symbol or above it, the form is as in

the two upper strokes of /f yen "have."
The hand is pictured also in % c'ha, tap. Here the fingers of two
hands are represented crossing. The action of crossing is tap. Join-

ing hands as a token of respect is called either c'ha sheu or kung sheu,
the former in allusion to crossing the fingers, the latter to raising the

joined hands.
10 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" two hands ;. Sometimes the

The symbol for friend," dok, is

written like the lower.

upper of these two symbols was
The symbol for turning over is ,, the hand is the most con-

venient sign for this action. It is individualized and tied down to

for covering, R. 27. For

this meaning by adding one of the symbols
the sound, the common word fan, pan, was taken.
Words of receiving and giving are also conveniently expressed by
a picture of the hand.
To receive s/teu, zhu, dut $ is a picture of two hands, and one of
the covering radicals between them. The upper hand is R. 87. The
sound is in this case the name of the hand itself.
sheu, 66 pok, 94 chau, there are other illustrations
In the RR. 64
of the use of the hand in the Chinese picture writing.
The use of the hand in the composition of various phonetics should

be noticed.
In " Chwen wen a hand with beneath
R. ts'uii, inch," the is

it, indicating that the hand supplies a measure for an inch. The
stroke a symbol of a measuring unit.
is

In R. 65, j chi "branch," the hand is seen grasping a branch.

In R. 107 p'i, "skin," the hand is seen flaying the skin of an
animal.
In \$, P. 178, pet "give," the hand suggests the idea of giving.
In P. 227 hicei, "ashes," we have a hand and fire. The hand
is put forth to the fire as if, says Sw, to lift the ashes which are, the
fire being out, ready for removal.
In 2fc ki, gip, "to reach," the two strokes on the left are said to
be R. man, and those on the right R. hand.
In 255 " hand held out on each side to
p. c'heng, jjt receive," a is

receive something certain strokes between them.

represented by
At the foot of characters two hands are
frequently represented by
ft. See 315, 308, 367, 490, 498, 861, 854.
The upper part of J| " offer a
tseu, petition or address, etc. to the
emperor," and of c'hun, "spring," consists of two hands with
"ten" above and between them. See 519, 520, 633. In these cases
the hands are represented as above.
In kitten, " to roll," 219, two hands are seen
rolling up what is
meant for a scroll.
In 983 pan, pok, " to scorch," two
pairs of hands occur with the
 THE RADICALS. 11

sun above them and the water below. Here the symbolism ig not l\
explained.
In Shicang, "a pair," two birds' tails, R. 172, were anciently
placed together, with 34 below. Two hands side by side form t),ie

modern contracted character.

R. 30. P k'eu, k'ok, kit, gap.

A picture of the human mouth. Also a phonetic 51.

To the above sounds may added k'ung, kam.
The reason of this variety found in the variety of
of sounds is

ideas that the word 'mouth' or 'aperture' may be used to express.

For example,
Speaking, calling, telling.
Mouth of animals, rivers, caves, hollows.
The opening or closing of apertures.
Gaping, pressing, devouring, grasping.
Disappearance, seizing.
The mouth may have been used in the primitive language of signs
as descriptive of any of these and similar ideas.

If any of these ideas had names already, the ideographic sign

would be likely, in order to prevent confusion, to take a new sound,
viz. that of the object.
This seems to be the best way to explain the fact that this
phonetic has several values, which may not have arisen from one
another by ordinary changes of letters.

That it had properly a final consonant, which was k, appears from

the fact that final k occurs in seven phonetics containing this shape,
and final t in three. Evidence is in favour of a lost k in eight more.

The fair conclusion is that the old sound was kok, and that it
changed
partially to kit.
The sound of the 31st radical is kok, and this is also in favour of

the same conclusion.

For the sound kak cf. 272, for kok 338, 342, for kit 243, for gap
285.
R. 31. I kwo, kok.

Any thing encircling. Circle. According to the native view this

radical takes the phonetic value of certain words of which it came to
be used as the symbol.
 12 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Htcei 5 gut, as in JU hwei, "come back." Sw. "A picture of

jyolting and returning,"

'l*he same sound without the h is found in ^ wei, "encompass."
Il|re, however, the final was probably k.

mother phonetic value is kok, as in |pl "kingdom." It stands

a'Jhe as a symbol for this and the last character in old writing. It
" to shut "
is the sound k'wun in ^ in," keep in close quarters,"
Because this idea is properly expressed by the sound k'wun (which is
the same thing as k'iuen, hwan, ynen, "a circle"), and which takes
derived meanings, "to be wearied," "powerless," "render power-
'less by imprisoning," etc.

This radical probably takes its origin from R. 30, keu, " mouth."
The value of this was originally kok. Kok therefore may be regarded
as the proper sound of our phonetic. Gut and kicun are sounds
derived from special uses of the character.

R. 32.
" earth."
t'u, t'ot,

Picture of the earth (the two horizontal strokes) sending forth its

productions (the upright stroke). Sw.

The final t is deduced from its occurring in phonetics, of which
this forms a part.

R. 33. - " scholar."

shi, zhit,

The uppermost of the four classes of the people. The governing

"
and learned class. Sw. The character is formed from one,"
and -p " ten," the first and last in the decimal notation.
The author seems to have thought numerical perfection a proper
symbol for the learned class. The true explanation of the symbol is

probably lost.
In the Sc and Kw there is on each side of the upper stroke an
additional downstroke.
Words under this radical are classed from connexion, not in
meaning but in form only. This is because probably the character
had originally a physical sense now lost, and was borrowed from
" scholar."
likeness in sound to symbolize

R. 34. ^ chi, "arriving from behind."

Picture of the legs of a man, and of some person or thing pushing

him from behind. Sw.
 THE RADICALS. 13

R. 35. ^ si,
" walk
slowly."

Picture of two legs meeting some obstacle. Sw.

" " to " at
Old form of sui, " rest p. 336, R. silk,; secure," peace."

R. 36. ? si> ziky "evening."

Picture of a half moon. Sw. Sii adds that the new moon as a
crescent is seen in the west in the evening. Hence the symbol for

evening.
R. 37. %. ta, dap, "great."

The same as -fc and ,|jf , but in the last p has become k. Sw says,
a picture of a man, because, after heaven and earth, man is the

greatest of all things. Tt says it is a picture of a man stretching out

his arms and legs in full health and vigour. Tt then proceeds to
explain /$ kia, chia, kap, as a picture of two men seizing on another
man.
R. 38. & nii, nok, "woman."
It is p. 50. The character is the same as p. 187, mu, "mother,"

except that it wants the two dots. It is a part of P. 188, mi, " slave,"
287 " and is in both phonetic.
jit, as,"
Root the same with/w, "like," jo, "soft,"/?/, "soften in water."

R. 39.
" son."
3- s'i, tak,

Picture of a new-born child. See the Chwen wen.

R. 40. fl- mien, min.

Covering of a house. Used chiefly for words connected with

houses and residences. In the Cw the short strokes on the
right and left are prolonged to the bottom, and some phonetic is
enclosed which indicates the name of the concealed object. The root
" "a
is the same with man, hide," curtain," etc.

R. 41. t'sun, t'on, "inch."

"7J~

The tenth of a hand's length. Picture of a hand with a stroke

"
representing one," which is understood to begin from below the
wrist.: Sw and Sii.

Sc ^\ " to if referring to
Origin apparently in tun,
.
cut," as
notches cut in a measuring rod.
14 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" little."
E. 42. >J> riati, sok,

From a downstroke, denoting visibility, and two side strokes, pat,

" Sw. Sii says the downstroke means
eight," representing division.
" on first " see."
seeing." k'an and
Compare both to ktcan, meaning
R. 43. ^C ^ong.
A picture of a bent leg broken. Sw. The true radical and
phonetic for which this stands as representative is rather ~fc yen, dnk,
"fault," "move."
R. 44.
"
J* sfi'i, shut, corpse."
Sw " A The idea is that of spreading or
says, picture of lying."
stretching out as descriptive of a body that has lost all power of motion,
R. 45. "
Cjj c'he, te't, plants."

Sprouting. A picture of the stem and branches of plants.

R. 46.
" mountain."
jlj shan,

A picture of the object. More anciently two upright cones or

triangles connected at their bases.

1 "
R. 47. {(( c'hicen, fun, river, stream."

The same as )]\ . A of the object.

picture Except in the
"
city, province, island," the bent form
character ']fi\ cheu, is preferred

in all compounds. The shape is much the same as in R. 85, shtti,

" " wax." Three
water," and under R. 208, in lap, parallel lines
drawn downward express 'flowing' in all these cases.
"
R. 48. X hung, kom, work, workman, cunning work."
A picture of a man holding a carpenter's rule.
The primitive m
ng is apparently retained in p. 815, kam.
for
"
dare," but this vanishes in the Chwen form of 815. It really occurs
in P. 1039. Since to bend and to work are both called kung, the
name as applied to work may be derived from the bent body of the
workman.
" self."
R. 49. B M,
Also used with R. "silk," for ki, "to manage a matter."
In Sc it resembles p. 34. It is p. 32.

1
Also called kwun. A
single bent line of the same shape is called kitten. Both are
variants of the root kuwn, " hubble "
up," spring up."
 THE RADICALS. 15

R. 50. khi.
fjj

A cloth or napkin hung at the girdle and used as a handkerchief,

duster or towel, or to wrap round the head. Picture of the object as

" to " to tie
it
hangs. The sound from kwnn, wrap," up."

R. 51. ^f kan, "shield."

Probably a picture of the frame- work of a wooden or

leather

shield. East of the Great Pass, says Fy, it was used interchangeably
with tun, with the sense " shield."
In the phrase jo kan, "how many," the usage is peculiar. Jo,
"
that," becomes interrogative. Kan is " many," " several." An
upright staff is also kan. This would be the standard of a shield. It
would also be sticks used as counters laid on the matted floor on which
the primitive arithmeticians sat when calculating or expounding.
Each stick represented something. Thus kan would come to be used
for
"a " a matter."
thing,"
" how many."
Jo kan is parallel to ki ko jfij The slips of bamboo
laid down ina row to help in primitive counting, would be ^j nok kan,
or [|| ki kan, nok kak, or ki kak, in the sense "so many" (demonstra-

tive), or "how many" (interrogative).

Upright staves were used as a fence, and so this root came to

mean kan, "balustrade," han, "to check, ward off," and Men, "to
limit, a boundary." The idea of resistance originated that of offend-

ing, and so we find kan in the sense of sinning against.

R. 52.
^ yau 1, ok, tok.

Small. A
picture of a child just born. Sw. Su hiuen says,
"like something that has just received shape."
When doubled it is called yen. The meaning is the same.
It used phonetically in |$| yen, " secret," " hidden."
is

It is used ideographically in ^
ki, "how many," "a weaving or

spinning machine. In the Chwen form one ball is suspended above

another and they are connected by a thread or needle.

Rejecting the native explanation of the ideograph, it is preferable

to read
z^
s'i as tok, identify it with our radical, and derive the

symbol from silk balls or natural cocoons connected by thread or

a needle piercing them.
The origin of all the words is in fineness or smallness.
16 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

The lower part of s'i, "silk," is then phonetic, tok, ISa. But
this is not a certain appendage in ancient forms. It is therefore

preferable to derive final k from p. 620, where it is beyond question.

R. 53. f" ngam, yen.
Picture of a roofed house.
It is used like RR. 27, 40, for words alluding to residence, houses, etc.

They are such as/tJ, pot, "house," Jft "palace," "office of govern-
ment records;" dan, "a house with a mow and a half of land,
c'han Jj
sufficient for the residence and support of one man."

R. 54. jJL yen, yin.

Take a long journey, to prolong, lengthen. The character is

explained as R. 60 prolonged. If so it is a picture of men walking.

The root is din or tan, which is also written JiE, and occurs in tan,

"occupy time," as in tan yen, tan ko, and in yucn, "distant" j|f; also ;

in tan, "spread out," "stretch." The likeness in sound also enables

us to discover it in ffi c'hen, din, "spread out."
This radical JtE yen, and it is from this origin that
is phonetic in
the whole character has become phonetic, and then by contraction the
five right-hand strokes have also become phonetic.

R. 55.
ft hung.
To elevate the joined hands. Picture of two hands in the Chwen
form. Yang hiung of the Han dynasty says that this character
consists of two joined hands. Sw says it consists of jJj and 3^..

The root is kom "rise," which occurs in king, "rise," k'ing,

"elevate," king, "honour," kung, "to honour, revere."
See P. 21a, 251.

R. 56.
" " dart."
-^ ye, tik, throw,"
Picture of throwing with a sling or shooting with the bow.
The root coincides with J|J she, dik, "to dart," for d changes to t.

R. 57. fj kung, kom, "a bow."

The old Chinese archers used a bow bent in at the centre.
The bow is used as a measuring instrument, and is then five feet long.
has a suggestive remark. The bow " from the near reaches
Sw
the distant." Reaches is here k'iung, "limit," "exhaust." The
author thinks the words etymologically connected.
 THE RADICALS. 17

R. 58. 3 kie, k?t.

Sw. The picture of a boar running to a point ;

above which is

seen the head.

The shape to which reference is here made is like the upper part
"
of jjg hioei, hedgehog," of the head of which animal, says Kwy, this

character is a picture.
It forms part of the following phonetics: 426, sh'i, djit, "thing;"
" " " snow."
438, sau, sot, sweep ; 733, sine, sif,

Consequently it has two phonetic values, ket and sit. The last is

sometimes tat, as in 440.

The second of these values, sit or tat, is probably the hand,
shcu ^ ,
one of the old sounds of which is tut, and written with two
strokes X . This is in the Chwen wen
a rude picture of the hand.
The caprices of writing have caused the two values to coalesce.

R. 59. ^ shan, sham.

Ornaments of hair, real or painted, such as were used on reins.

Long hair. A picture of hair, ornamental or natural.

R. 60.
^ c'tri, t'tt.

A short step. Limping.

A picture of three men's thighs or of three persons walking, the
middle one stopping behind a little.

If the two upper strokes are horizontal, the sound is t'uk.

Kwy.
Sii yuen says the character means standing but Cheng sien still,

says walking. Probably the last is

right, for the root tuk, "to walk,"
appears in j|_ tseu, R. 156. Walking also is the prevailing idea
throughout the words written with this radical.
In pictorial symbols, motion and rest become identical.
" to
This phonetic and ideographic in
is P. 773, si, remove," and
in R. 162, where it constitutes the upper part.

R. 61. >[j sin, sim, tim, "heart."

Picture of the human heart, which in the old form it resembles.

Words descriptive of the feelings and acts of the mind are placed
under this radical.
The compilers of Kang hi's dictionary correctly say that to identify
the sound of this radical with sin, "acid," as is done in the dictionaries
Tsi hwei and Cheng ts'i
t'ung, is wrong.
2
 18 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

They wrote after the labours of Ku yen wu of Sucheu and others,

who brought to light the difference between the old and modern
sounds in a more thorough way than had previously been done.
Their time was the latter half of the seventeenth century. The

compilers of Kang hi could profit by their productions.

In compounds the form is contracted, as in f\^ sing, "nature,"
"
disposition."

R. 62. *$ kwo, kak, "spear."

An even-headed spear rather short. It is formed, like R. 56, with

the addition of a horizontal stroke, which refers to its being flat at

the top, having there a sharp edge six inches long. Attached to the
handle was a blade, four inches broad and six inches long, which had
the edge just mentioned.
Final k is deduced from p. 430, jjjjj hwok, "whether," "some person."

R. 63. p 1m, go(t], "a gate, door."

A
picture of the object. Anciently it was an inner door and single,
while the outer and double door was called men.

Mong. eg ude. Jap. kado:

Some grounds exist for regarding the lost final of this word as k ;

for which see among the phonetics, No. 101.

R. 64. 3* sheu, tu(f), "hand."

Picture of a hand.
Final t is inferred from R. 29. See for proofs those given under
p. 15. But some facts favour final k.

Almost verbs which represent acts done by the hand, or by

all

implements held in the hand, take this radical, and its form is usually
that of the left part of ft fa, "beat."

-
R. 65. ch'i, ti(t), "branch."

The lower two strokes are the hand. It grasps a piece of bamboo,
Sw says half a bamboo ;
hidden by the hand.
the lower half is

The final consonant may possibly be k. Giak occurs as the sound

in Kicy. The initials k (or g] and ch are both commonly used.
Mong. sala, Jap. yeda. The source of / is in t or d in all the
Eastern Asiatic languages.
 THE RADICALS. 19

R. 66. p'u,p'ok, "a slight blow."

The hand which strikes is seen below. The upper strokes are the
same as f> pok, "to divine," which is here phonetic.
In compounds the form $C mil "shepherd," and it is used
is as in >

on the right hand.

The words placed under this radical are such as might with
equal propriety be found under 29 and 64 sheu, "hand."
This radical is called fan wen, the reverse of wen, viz. R. 67.

R. 67.
2$ wen, mun, "strokes," "literature," "characters," "ornament."

When used as a verb " to ornament," the tone changes from p'ing
to c'hii sheng.

A picture of strokes. Two above cover two below, those below

form a cross.

R. 68. =[ ten, tu(k], "ten pints."

A measure, shaped like the four stars in the Great Bear, which are
called Pel tea, "Northern peck."
If this measure is the same as shau, cho, etc., usually translated

"spoon," the old sound will be tok as in ^ cno> '^ a ^ 80 meaning a

spoon.
Properly, however, the three stars in the tail are called cho, and the
four forming a trapezium k'lvei, while the seven constitute together
the ten. When
the ten was employed as a vessel of capacity for

wine, the word "to pour," tok, was used when ladling it from a large
jar or cask into a goblet.
In the variety and complexity of the Sc, Kw, and other old extant

shapes it is difficult to say whether the -f- in this ideograph was at

first the symbol for ten in reference to ten pints, or whether this was
a late modification.

R. 69. ft kin, "a hatchet."

It was made of iron with a crooked piece of wood for a handle.

As a weight it is llbs. English. It is divided into 16 ounces.
The identity in size and weight led the ancient Chinese, in the
absence of weights, to employ the hatchet or the knife, tan, in

weighing.
20 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 70. "ft fang, pong, "square."

Picture of two boats, side by side, Sw.
A boat of a certain kind was called fang. The radical then is both

phonetic and ideographic. Such a combination of the two main

principles which guided the inventors of the characters in their

task
is extremely common.
R. 71.
^ wu, mo, "not."

The ancient form was either this or . The modern is ^ which

was first applied to mean "not" in the T'sin dynasty. When the
Chwen wen was changing to the Li, j came to be read mong. Hence
in editions of the classics it is
requisite to indicate in notes that the
sound was mo, at the time when they were written.

R. 72. Bfi 4, nit, "sun," "day."

Picture of the sun. Originally a circle with a stroke or dot in
the middle.
R. 73. J3 yue, yet, "say," "said."
Picture of the mouth with breath issuing. The middle stroke is

the breath and was anciently & .

R. 74.
" moon."
Jfy yue, nget, get,

The moon was called " the bright one." See p. 733.
Picture of a crescent moon.

R. 75. Tfc
" wood."
mu, mok,
Picture of a tree. Trees are all ranged under this radical, with
the exception of bamboo, which is in China so extensive in its uses
that it is in dictionaries made the head of a separate class.

R. 76.
" " " owe."
?fc k'ien, k'im, wearied," deficient,"

The three upper strokes in the ancient form of the character

represent the rapid breathing which attends fatigue, and the stool
below indicates that on which the wearied man seated on the floor leans.
Words ranged under this radical are concerned with the outward
expression of feelings, acts of the mouth, and the like, so far as they
are conveniently indicated by the breath.

R. 77. j cht 2, tik,

"stop," "stay."
Picture of the stem of plants just
growing above the ground. Sw
and Sii. It is in fact the lower part of J, tsok, "foot." Tsok=tok.
 THE RADICALS. 21

Sw explains the character for foot as derived from ch'i, "to stop,"
and P. It is better to suppose the foot to have been first drawn
by the inventors of writing, and the verbs
-^
tseu, tok, "walk," ^
and ch'i, "to stop," with (
t ok, R. 162, to have been all formed
J^
from it. The author of Sw felt a difficulty in explaining the shape as
a picture of a foot. I would suggest some such outline as one foot

raised, and one on the ground, as in the act of walking. The

application to the act of stopping would occur later. The ground for

substituting a new explanation is in the fact of 35, 77, 156, 157, 162,
having the same phonetic base.

R. 78. ~Z/ tai, ngat, tat, dat.

Broken bones. The form in Sw is H ,

of which see in Kh the

explanation. As a phonetic 65 a, tat.

Perhaps it was the old word
for
" die." was written anciently with this radical, and
S'i, "die," ,

jen, "man," on the right. The tendency of writers was to add

radicals, and the addition of jen may have been subsequent to the
invention of the character.

R. 79.
"a
|
shu, zhut, spear."

A spear twelve feet in length, used in war. Many words of

fighting and arranging are placed under this radical. The upper
is called shu " short feathers," and differs from ki,
part 5, zho,
"
bench," which is very like it in form. It is phonetic. The lower
" hand."
part is a

R. 80.
" do
{: wu, mo, not."

Used anciently as ^ mo, mok,

" do
not," is
among the moderns.
Hence it would seem a final k has been lost. This is more probable
from mei, " every," g, being also used in Kwy once with k final,
R. grass.

An incredible explanation of this character is found in Sw. Sw is,

however, doubtless right in making nit, "woman," the basis. To

account for the middle downstroke I suggest that it was a symbol
of a child. The whole represents a mother holding a child with the
sound mo, "mother" (perhaps mok}. The imperative "do not,"
which also happened to be mo, was written with this symbol pho-
netically. This explanation reverses the native order, which places
"
mu, mother," under the range of this radical. The character which
22 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

had the least number of strokes was made the radical. The radicals

in their present form are only two centuries old, and they were fixed
on for convenience in consulting the dictionary.

"
R. 81. Jfc pi, pit, compare."

Two men, one before the other, represent the idea of following.
Reverse them and you have that of comparing. Sw.
In place of this explanation which rests on the supposition that
" to
XA t'sung, follow," was a primitive character, and that our
radical is the reverse of it I suggest that the verb " to compare,"
"
then called pit, was written phonetically with pi, pit, ^
spoon," and
that it was doubled, because, in comparing, there must be at least two

objects. Any object of simple shape would serve, if doubled, as the

written symbol of the idea of comparing. The spoon was chosen
because it had the right sound. It was called (pi or) pit, and
therefore served as a symbol for the verb pit, " to compare." It was
probably used in measuring as well as eating.

R. 82. ^ mau, mok, "hair."

Picture of the object. Final k occurs in with "

Kwy R. mu, eye."

"
R. 83. j sh'i, zhik, dik, "tribe," family name."

The name dik is the same as Jjfjjg tsu, dzuk, dok, "tribe." It

originated in dik, "to bind." Men first bound themselves into

a tribal relation, and then gave this relation a name from the act
of binding.
As to the shape of the character, perhaps came from i ^>
it

"bottom," formerly tik, used phonetically, or it may have been a

"
picture of binding, and ti, bottom," would then be formed from it.
The horizontal stroke ties the two downstrokes. Final k occurs in
Kwy with R. yen, " words." The Chinese derive ti, " bottom," from
our radical, but do not explain the pictorial meaning, which they

suppose to attach to it.

R. 84. </, k'it, "breath."

^JT
Picture of cloudy vapour. Sw. It
helps to form P. 38 and p. 664.
In the old shape three bent lines
proceeding from left to right,
begin high and end low.
 THE RADICALS. 23

R. 85. 7JC shin, su(t) or su(p), "water."

Turk, su, "water," Mong. oso.

In the Chwen wen three strokes descending indicate the appearance

of flowing water as seen in a river. This was adopted as the written

symbol. The two outside strokes are broken in the middle.

It occurs again in R. 47, which is but a modification of 85, and in
$j lieu, "flow," where it forms the lower right-hand portion of the
character. It occurs besides in p. 502 tap ^, where it is phonetic, as
it is also in p. 980 lap, "wax."
In P. 754 it indicates the dripping of varnish from the tree, or its
t'sit.
liquidity, *{f

R. 86. >X hico 2, ka(t), "fire."

A picture of sparks and flame. Mong. gal, "fire."

R. 87.
" " claws." '

J chau, tok, nails,"

To scratch. Contracted into Tit .

Picture of the hand turned downwards. Sw.

It is like the phonetic 47, c'ha, t'ap, and occurs itself as a phonetic,

102.
The compound phonetic 686, tsau, "early," has the meanings,
" to " to feel an " to feel uncomfortable
scratch," itching sensation,"
in mind or body," which are all derived from the root symbolized by
this radical.

The names of the hand were applied to acts of the hand.

It occurs phonetically or pictorially in 336, 449, 1019. In the

" in the dictionaries. In 336, with woman
last, tsiak office," k is R.

beneath, t'o, "fixed," "secure," final k is supported by the Mongol

toldaho, "to stand," toktagaho, "to make or keep firm." In 449,

? ts'ai, it is supported by the meanings.

R. 88. 4fu, 6, 7, bo, "father."

Perhaps the use of fit as a phonetic 114, infu, "a cooking pan,"
"
R. metal," indicate a lost origin for the shape which may have been
that of some vessel. The upper "
may be eight," used
<

part ) pat,

phonetically. But in that case how can we account for the cross
below ? See under p. 114.
24 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

-^r
R. 89.
^C hiau, 5, gak.
Picture of two crosses, each made by two strokes crossing obliquely.
Sw says it is derived from tlie strokes of the Pa kwa, six in
number, crossing at the top.
Strokes, drawings, lines, are called gak, probably from cutting,
k'ak. In the modern Mandarin sound hwa, and the Old Middle sound
teak, w has been inserted. In the latter case the h is lost. See p. 115.

R. 90. -r t'siang, 5 dong.

A wooden framework, such as a bedstead, a turning lathe, an ice

sleigh. In its full form it has the symbol for wood on the right,
UTJC c'hicang, dong.
It is a phonetic, 118, and perhaps gives a phonetic value, t'siang,
to P. 894, gig snk.

R. 91. p'ien, p'in.

J^
A. split piece of wood. Picture of the right half of the wood radical

#.-Sw.
To cut or divide into two is p'an. That which is cut is p'ien.

R. 92. ;Jf ya, 5, ngat, "tooth."

Anything in the shape of a tooth. Picture of the object.

As a phonetic, 76.

" cow."
R. 93. ^ nieu 5, ngu(k),

A picture of a cow's horns and tail.

Since horn is kak, the animal may be named from its horns.

R. 94.
^ k'iuen, k'on, "dog." Contracted into |, as in $f .

A picture of a dog. Confucius states that it is so when alluding

to the origin of Such was the form the sage had before
writing ^,
his eye when he detected in it the shape of a dog.
Sw "a
says it is
dog with its foot (the small downstroke on the
right) suspended in vacuo."
There are three kinds of dogs,
says an old author the hunter,
t'ien k'iuen the barking dog, fei k'iuen and the
;
dog for eating. ;

Formerly "men ate dogs as now they eat beef."

A phonetic value of this radical is hit or tut, as in PP. 462, 505.
 THE RADICALS. 25

K. 95. ^ hiuen, gun.

" black
Dark Colour of the sky. Black, as in Hiuen wu,
blue.
"
warrior god of the month, in the mythology of the Li ki, i.e. the
;

Book of Rites, and of the Han dynasty.

R. 96. 3 i/ii 8, ngok. Contracted form J, as in Jjc, J|! .

Precious stones. Especially jade, which, from the large quantity

of that stone found in Eastern Turkestan, has always been well known
to the Chinese.

R. 97. J& kwa 1, ku(k), "melon," "cucumber."

Picture of the object. The four upper strokes are the plant, the

circle, now two strokes, is the melon, p. 172.

R. 98. J wa 6, ngo, "pottery."

The invention of Kwun wu in the Ilia dynasty, B.C. 2100 to 1700.
The last Emperor Kie had a palace of porcelain made for him by
Kwun wu. This account comes from the Po wu ki by Chang hwa.
Probably what Kwun wu did was to improve the art which already
existed.

R. 99. -ft kan 1, kam, "sweet."

Picture of the mouth. The upper cross stroke represents some-

thing going into it. As a phonetic, 151.

R. 100. sheng 1, shang, "come into life," "live," "life,"

"produce."
p. 164. Probably formed as a root from twig, dong, "to move,"
"moving," and identical with yang, "produce," "nourish." here Y
stands for d. The primitive source of all these words is the old root
"
dom, move," which again originated in imitation of a natural sound.
Found with the sound lung in p. 835. L has here taken the place
of d.
A picture of _
"earth" below, and tj4 c'/ie, 62a, "springing
plants" above.

R. 101. $J yung, 7, dong, dom, "to use."

Cheu pe k'i says it is formed by contraction from Hg yung, and

that from " See in Kb.
| chung, bell."
26 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 102.
"
t'ien, din, field."

A piece of land, divided among farmers. From the idea of

spreading out, which is

expressed by din, found, e.g. in c'hen 5, din,
" to
spread out." Something flat and wide is what is meant.
This symbol is tik in 701, by dialects and by the dictionaries.
In 792, J3 yi, initial t is known by the following indications :

1st. Resemblance to 701. 2nd. The " to cultivate the

meaning,
ground," is that also of tsukuru in Japanese, and tsok in the Fukien
cho c'han. 3rd. ch'ik, t'ek, is the sound given with R. tseu, "walk."

R. 103. 2E " "

su, sok, must," ought."
"a
"With sound p'it, piece of cloth." Properly 40 feet. At first
a double Hang was called p'it. But a Hang was two ehang=2Q feet.
See P. 161.

R. 104. JJ ni, nik, "sickness."

Picture of a sick man

leaning against a support.
All words connected with diseases are arranged under this head.

K. 105. ;/. pet, pak.

Picture of two legs being stretched out and pushing something

away. Lspy.
Another authority, following the sound of pei> supposes the
character to be the picture of two men back to back.

R. 106. & pe8, bak, "white," "clear."

Picture of a man joining two to two. Sw.

" skin."
R. 107. $ p'i 5, ba(t], P. 170.

Contracted from a hand (the lower right-hand corner) and wci,

" to "
to do," P. 839. So Sw. Another author says it is from
be,"
hand and corpse sh'i.
pTo take off the skin the animal must be
dead. A skin undressed is p'i. Dressed it is kak, R. 177. Softened
it is tcei, R. 178.

R. 108. fff| ming, "chinaware."

Picture of the object, viz. several jars on a table.
See R. 143 for an explanation.
 THE RADICALS. 27

R. 109. g mu 8, mok, "eye."

Picture of the eye. In Kw
two strokes like J{ were usually
drawn above the modern character.

R. 110.
y^ men, "a spear."
A spear twenty feet long set up in the general's chariot.

R. 111. fc shi, shik, "arrow."

Picture of an arrow point wrapped in feathers.

R. 112. ;g s/i'i 8, zhak, "stone."

Picture of a stone lying under an overhanging hill.

R. 113. ffc sh'i, zhi(t] "announce;" also gi, "spirits of earth."

The two strokes above are _ shang, "above." The three below
represent the sun, moon, and stars. Heaven makes announcements to
men by means of the heavenly bodies. Sw and Sii.
This radical embraces words relating to ancestors, spirits, sacrifices
and the like.

R. 114. nok.
pi| jeu, nieu,
Foot of an animal trampling on the earth.
As a phonetic, 117.

R. 115. ^ ho 5, gak, "corn."

From mu "wood," and chui "fall or hang down," to represent the

falling appearance of the ear of corn.

As a phonetic, 167.

R. 116. ^ hiue 8, git.

A hole or house in the ground, e.g. in the loess or light loam of

North China. This soil breaks vertically, and presents in valleys a
perpendicular face often hundreds of feet in height. Villagers scoop
out cave houses in this soft earthy formation.
The root probably is the verb git, "to dig."

R. 117. & li, lip,

"
stand," "set up."

Formerly used for -fjfc wei, which had therefore at one time a final

p, and has lost initial d. In the modern compound form it is an

example of suggestion.
As a phonetic, 128.
28 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 118. fj- chu 4, tok, "bamboo."

Picture of bamboo leaves, and stems. As a phonetic, 2600.

R. 119. ft mi 6, mi(k), "rice."

Seed of the rice plant. Picture of seeds.

See P. 220.

R. 120. 3 & " " silk."

1, aik, small,"

In writing the colloquial si', " silk," the doubled form is used fj.
Another sound used is mik. Kwy. In Kh mik takes the place
of si but the double form is, in Kh, s'i, and this is likely to be the
;

original sound. A
picture of a small heap of fine silk. The Chwen
form rather a picture of cocoons. The silk produced
is by one worm
is called hut. That of ten is called s'i. Sk.
The Mongol sereg and the Latin seres, with the words 'satin' and
'
taken alone, to ser or sat as the root. If so, our k
silk/ all point, if
above written must be changed to t. But the k may have been lost
before the trade with the west began. In this case the r is a Tartar

suffix. be remembered that reg is a common noun suffix in

Let it

Mongol and Turkish words at present. For proof of final k see R. 52.

" " covered

R. 121. jar for wine and soy."
-
feu, put, earthenware,"

Also used as a musical instrument. As a phonetic, 258.

Pottery would greatly facilitate the early extension of the art of

writing, from the ease with which, as in the Babylonian brick inscrip-
tions, signs of ideas impressed on a soft substance could be made

permanent by baking in a kiln.

R. 122.
pXJ, fflwangG, mang, mam. Contracted form DU.
Picture of a fishing net. The author of Sw
apparently connects
this character with the story of the employment of knotted cords
anciently used for writing. He says that Fuhi made nets by tying
cords together for use in fishing and hunting. The inner four strokes
represent the tied strings. The outside strokes are R. 73, i/ue, "say,"
used as a covering radical. See p. 488.

R. 123. :=
i/ang, dong, dom, "sheep."
Goats or sheep. Picture of the head, horns, and tail. P. 218.
 THE RADICALS. 29

R. 124. f} yu 4, tolt, "feathers," "wings of birds."

Hole is another phonetic value. P. 254.

" old."
R. 125. % lau, 6, lot,

Picture of a man's hair. The two lower strokes indicate that the
beard and hair are white. Sw. p. 244.

R. 126. ]}jj r'i(er) 5, nik, "hair on the cheek."

Sw. And, and further. Possibly the same as sit, p. 847 tok,
"
beard," by change of t to n. P. 232.

R. 127. ^ lei, lu(t), "plough."

In Kwy lei and hit. See P. 257.
Picture of the hand holding a bent piece of wood.
In Kwy the sound hit is given when the upright stroke does not
pass the upper inclined stroke. The sense is then, " know the mea-
sure of corn." The other word for a ** li(k) is also used
plough //,

as a verb to plough, p. 344.

R. 128. 5 ri(er), ni, "ear."

Picture of the object. See p. 238.

The common sound when used as a phonetic is shep, nip. The n
here isdental and not guttural. The Amoy hi k'ang, ear," " makes
it guttural, for /?=&. The sound then has passed from teeth to throat.

R. 129. i yu, yut, "pencil," "say," "follow," "only," "self."

See P. 252. Picture of a brush as anciently used in writing. Sw.

In Hunan it was called ot ;
in Kiang nan, put lut ; in Chili, put ;

and in Shensi, pit. In Tiechiu at present it is Int.

Its phonetic use in p. 252 lut, proves the lost initial to be dental.
" to brush."
Let us say it was chit, and identify it with Jgji] shica, sut,

The common word pit, "a hair pencil," is the same as $fi/w, "to
" to dust."
brush,"

R. 130. ju 8, niok, "flesh."

\

Picture of cutting flesh. Used for all words where flesh is the

prominent idea. It is named from softness, says one author, not

without probability.
Its contracted form is jj ;
this mark is narrowed when placed on
the left of a character, and widened when placed below.
30 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 131. gi c'hcn, din, "subject," "servant," "servant of a noble."

A picture of bending and prostration. Sw.
Hence it is used in writing ^ wo, nga, "lie down," a picture of
a subject and a man. The characteristic of a man who serves his prince
is prostration. So Sw.
In accordance with this, din might be expected to mean "lie

prostrate." It is so in P. 533, [g yen, tan, R. "man," "lie down."

R. 132. g ts'i
7, dik y "self," "from," "spontaneously."
Same word with fa p. 202 in the sense "from." Perhaps the
shape of the two characters was at first the same.
Final k is known from p. 676, sik, "to rest," which adds R.
"
heart," to our radical. As a phonetic 176fl.
This word for the reflexive pronoun agrees in sound with ^ sfi'i,

dik, "this," "is." Hence its origin is likely to be demonstrative.

R. 133. g| chi, tit, "to arrive."

Picture of birds flying from above to the earth below. Sw.

As a phonetic, 237.

R. 134. 3 Itieu 6, gu, guk.

A
mortar for pounding rice. Anciently a hole was dug (kut) in
the ground for this purpose, and hence, says Sw, the sound. This

etymology is probably wrong, because the final, which had been lost

in the time of the Sw, was k, and not t, if we may judge by the sound
kuk in Kwy, in the sense of joining the two hands and lifting them,
Hem sheu. Kh treats kuk as a separate word without good ground.
The bottom stroke was originally broken in the middle. It was

joined in the Li shu, the form of the character in which the author of
the Sw wrote.
The character is found, says Sii, in $\ han 5, gam, P. 444, in the
upper part of H, shu, "rat," and in the old form of f$ c'/ti, "teeth,"
but though like, it is really different.

R. 135. s ^ e > 8, zhet,

"
75 tongue."
Picture of the tongue
protruding from the mouth. P. 262.

R. 136. 4- c'hwen, t'un, to each other."

"lying opposite
The right hand is si, "evening." The left symbolizes back to
back. Sw.
 THE RADICALS. 31

R. 137. j$ cheit, to(k), "boat."

Picture of a boat on the water. As a phonetic, 273.

R. 138. & ken, "boundary," "check," "firm." P. 253.

From -
pi, "spoon," and fi, "sun."
The full explanation appears to be lost.

R. 139. ,
she 4, shak, "colour," "expression on the face."

R. 140. ts'au 3, t'ok,

"
Jf grass."
A contracted form -t-r is used at the top of compounds. A picture
of grass growing. It is formed by doubling R. 45 Vet.
As a phonetic, J|L 696.
The four upper strokes of this form came into use in the Li shu.
Final t in R. 45 is
perhaps changed from k.
"
In /tan, cold," ^ the elements are 1, a cover ; 2, a man under
it ; 3, grass ; 4, ice, at the bottom.

R. 141. )& hit, 2, kok, "tiger."

Representation of the stripes of a tiger. As a phonetic, 487.

R. 142. *P c'hung, (long, dom.

Any reptile or insect. Any creature with a shell or scales. Kwy.

Representation of a reptile coiled up.

R. 143. hiue 4, " blood."

jfil kit,

The upper stroke is blood. The lower strokes are the vessels used
in sacrificing. Sw. Each upright stroke represents a vessel.
As a phonetic, 281.

R. 144. fj hiny, gang, "walk."

Picture of the right leg and the left leg in the act of walking.

R. 145.
" clothes."
#c yi,

Derived from the idea of covering.

Picture of clothing inclusive of collar and sleeves.

R. 146.
[P] i/a, "cover," "reverse," "look down."

From "one," f] and Q. Lscw. Looking down.

Under this radical is placed |f s *> "west," which is in Sc a
bird,
R. 196, and inclosed in its lower part a character which serves to
32 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

represent a nest. Sw says it is a picture of birds going to their nests

at sundown.
" see."
R. 147. jf, kien, kin,

From " " man."

g eye," and )l p. 366.

R. 148.
" horn of animals."
j kio, 4, kak,

From ~}j and J^j. Sw. Such was its old shape, p. 346.

R. 149. =" "words."

yen, ngan,

Cheng tsiau of the Sung says it is from _fc written with two strokes
and ^ . Sw says
from mouth and a phonetic meaning "fault," which

may be found in the right-hand lower portion of P. 1014, but want-

"
ing one horizontal stroke or in P. 296, sin, sharp in taste," the
;

shape of which in Sc agrees nearly with our radical.

R. 150. ku4,kok, "valley."

Water half seen issuing from an opening. Sw. p. 338.

7 "
R. 151. _
feu, dut, beans."

A vessel out of which food was eaten, p. 319.

R. 152.
^ sh'i 2, tok,
"
pig."
A picture of the animal, especially the hair, feet, and tail.

The other words for pig are tot, p. 531 kik, p. 357 ; ; ^ yi, tit.

Final k is deduced (1) from p. 412 ffi tok. Yet this is not certain,
for Sw and Lscw say this last character is a picture of a pig tied by
the feet. (2). The animal was called tok because it is dirty and foul
in its food. Tok is one root for "dirty." (3). It is phonetic with the
sound tok with R. "sickness," and R. tseu, "walk."

R. 153.
^ chi 5, dji,
"
reptiles without feet." Ry.
It is however used as a radical with many quadrupeds, and in Sw
it described as " having the appearance of seeking something to
is

devour." Picture of an animal.

" sort
R. 154. g pel 3, pi(t), of shell-fish."

As a phonetic 367. The shells were used as money till the Ts'in

dynasty B.C. 220, when metallic coins were first employed.

R. 155. ^ ch'i 4, ch'-iak, t'ak, "red."

In the Han elemental philosophy, the colour of the south. Sw.
 THE RADICALS. 33

The colour of warmth, abundance, and prosperity. The imperial

colour in the Cheu dynasty. The form in has the character for Kw
earth below, surmounted by the character for fire repeated one above
another. It was formed then on the principle of suggestion at the

sight or thought of some red earth or clay reddened by heat. But

see another explanation in the examples of Hwei yi. p. 318.
R. 156. i. tseu 2, tok, "walk."

From yau, tok, ^ and jfc ch'i, tik. Sw. See R. 77. See p. 318.
The sign yau is probably phonetic, and ch'i also. Sk says yau,
"short-lived," "short," is used, because, in walking, the leg is bent
and shortened. By restoring the old sound of yau, we have here the
advantage of regarding it as phonetic, and thus obtaining a more
satisfactory explanation.

R. 157. AJL tsn, tok, "foot," "enough," "complete."

Picture of the foot. From "mouth" and "to stop." Sw. Mouth
P, says a commentator, is here in fact a picture of the thigh bones.
See R. 77, and P. 376.
This symbol forms, with yi, "one," above it, the character j

cheng, ting, "correct."

"
R. 158. % shen, tin, body."
A picture of the human body. Sw. It agrees in sound with JJH

ts'in, "self," "own," and the senses are so connected that the two
words cannot but be nearly akin.
The native etymologists trace the word to shin, chan, tin, "to
stretch," "to spread." They thought the body was called tin because
it is stretched. In this there is nothing unreasonable. The ancients
always sat with their legs under them, and to rise was to stretch the

body.
R. 159. j|| ku, kut, "carriage," "wagon," "barrow."
Picture of the object. Used to write the common modern word
"
c'he, carriage," which is the Mongol t'ereg.

R. 160. 3 sin, "acid."

Taste of metal. See R. 149, P. 296.

R. 161. Jg c'hcn, din, "an hour," "time," "seven to nine A.M."

Constellation. A celestial space. Morning. See P. 302.

3
34 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 162. "walk."
jj. c'ho, t'ak,

"
From \ R. 60 and ^
Lscw. An example of Hwei yi
R. 77.

suggestion." The and ideas motion

standing still suggest that of
now moving and then stopping, which is the accepted sense. But Lsk
"
says it means walk fast along the road." The sound t'ak, says Kwy,
isinherent in the lower part chi, " to stop."
The ordinary contracted form 5^ was first used in the Li shu.
The coincidence with tseu 2, tok R. 156, "walk," and % t'ak,
" Native authors who saw in
walk," in sense and sound, is striking.
the upper part of the character only a pictorial symbol, would, if they
had known of this coincidence, have admitted a phonetic element also.

R. 163. gq yi 4^ ip } "city," "place where men live together."

In compounds it takes the form $ and stands on the right. As a

phonetic 372.

R. 164.
" five to seven P.M."
If yeu 5, dok,

The eighth month, which ends the autumn. As a phonetic 324.

R. 165.
" to
zg pieu, bin, distinguish."
Picture of the claws of beasts parting.

R. 166.
"
jl /;, li(k), village."
The Chinese mile, one-third of an English mile. 240 pu, each
pu being five feet. p. 369.

"
R. 167. ^ kin 1, leant, gold."

Any sort of metal, p. 478.

R. 168. J| c'hang 5, dom, "long."

p. 402.

R. 169. pj men 5, mun, "door."

Swsays "the picture of two moons." More likely the picture
of the object, which is a double door. p. 439.

R. 170.
]| feu, bu(t], "an earth hill." Sw.
The form is used on the left in characters.
p compound
See P. 474.
 THE RADICALS. 35

R. 171. tai 3, dat, "reach."

j|
From 3 "hand," and J| "tail." The hand, which is the upper

half, grasps a tail, and comes from behind. Sw.

As a phonetic 440. Final t is found in Kwy.
R. 172. \ chui, tok.

Picture of short bird tails. Sw. As a phonetic 472.

R. 173. ff yw, "rain."

Picture of rain falling from the clouds.
The Amoy ho, "rain," shows that an initial g has been lost.

R. 174. ^f Wing, fang, "blue."

Picture of the appearance of newly grown plants. Sw. Colour
of the eastern quarter in the Han dynasty physics. By the letter

changes it is the same as lam "blue." L= ts, final m = ng. P. 420.

R. 175. ^ fei}, pit, "not."

From fei, "to fly." P. 583. The root seems to be a demonstra-

tive pi, pit, used negatively. The demonstrative having taken a
negative signification, and requiring a character to represent it, the
character fei, "to fly," was modified to serve this purpose. P. 451.

R. 176. p5 w?V, min, "face."

Picture of the face. P. 526.

R. 177. Jpt ke 4, kak, "unprepared leather."

When prepared it is icei. R. 178.

"
R. 178. u'ti, nguk, prepared leather."
jp.

Apart, oppose. From y?L ideographic and P phonetic, p. 550.

R. 179. " onions."

j^jr kieu,

The stroke below here represents the earth, and above it is the

object. Sw.
R. 180.
" sound."
fj i/in, am,
Formed from iff with a stroke inclosed, p. 508.

"
R. 181. I hie, git, head."
Same as "f^, and should not be called hie. Lsk. From JL, Sw.
p. 525.
36 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 182. " wind."

JH, feng, bam,
The inclosed part is
" When the wind blows,
c'hiuig, reptile."

reptiles and insects are born. The outer shape J^ bam, is here

phonetic. Sw. P. 571.

R. 183. /,!>," fly."

Picture of birds flying, p. 583.

R. 184. ^ sht, dik, "eat," "food."

" head."
R. 185. "If sheii, tut,

Picture of the object. Same as hie, 181, with which it agrees in

the old shape, except that it has R. 47 { at the top, and wants the
two strokes at the bottom. The three top strokes are representative
of hair. p. 516.

" "
R. 186. ^f hiang, kong, kom, incense," sweet smelling."

Probably the root is kam, "sweet." p. 561.

R. 187. ^ ma, " horse."

Picture of a horse. It contains head, hair, tail, and four feet.

p. 642.

" bone."
R. 188. ku, hot,
*pf
The kernel of flesh. Sw. The lower part is flesh. The upper
agrees with p. 605, kap. The final is doubtful in that phonetic. As
a phonetic, 700.

R. 189. ft kau, kok, "high."

"
Picture of a high tower. Sw. The radicals |3 yue, say," and
"
13 k'cu,
"
mouth," are used below with the same significance as in
"
^
granary," and cottage." P. 622.

R. 190.
j^ pau,po(t), "long flowing hair."
One of the radicals for hair.

R. 191.
" to
| \
ten, tu(t), quarrel."
Picture of two soldiers fighting, their spears behind them. Sw.

R. 192. tfhang, t'ong, t'ow.

^g
Name of a fragrant herb
anciently used to flavour alcoholic drinks.
 THE RADICALS. 37

R. 193.
pna
H } lik, a certain three-legged vessel, whose feet were bent.

As a phonetic, 649, its value is ke, kak.

R. 194. & kwci, ku(t), "demon," "ghost."

A picture of the fancied shape of a demon, r. 684. The lower
"
part is like p. 9, ki, bench," which is kit or kik, and may be phonetic
here.

R. 195.
" fish."
$S yu, ngu,

Representation of a fish. The four dots below are the tail. Their
resemblance to " fire" is accidental. Perhaps final t has been lost.

R. 196. J| niau, tiau 2, tok, "bird."

A picture of winged animals.

The sound tiau is found in the dictionaries Ty, Tsy, Yh, and has
been changed since the time of these dictionaries into niau. In
Shanghai tiau is used colloquially at the present time.
Proof of final k. 1. Phonetic use in Kwy with kieu "a mortar,"
above, in place of the usual heading, sound sak, t'ak. Yet since kieu
is also tak, this proof is insecure. 2. Ts'io with k final, used for the

sparrow, magpie, and peacock, is sufficiently generic to suggest an

identity between it and our radical. 3. Comment on Heu han shu

has tsiak, i.e. tak, as the sound.

This radical, withits old sound tak, has given its form to the

phonetic 964, "to write," JH, through the medium of sic, si/,-,
sie

"a wooden clog to keep damp from the feet," which is written with-
out the three upper strokes. See P. 775.

R. 197. In, dik, "potash."

|j|j

The Chinese call it native salt. Land impregnated with natron.

p. 787.
R. 198. $| hi, lok, "deer."

The tail of the deer is on the left. The four legs are the four
lower strokes. The remainder is the body, head and horns. p. 722.

R. ^ me, mak, "wheat."

199.

Derived, says Kh, from ^ "come," and

lai, lak, #, which is the
same as ^ yen, "hand," "and." The seed and root are believed to
be pictured by these two parts.
38 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 200. jft ma, mok, "hemp," "flax."

Lscw says the inner part is mak, and represents the pieces
called
of hemp. The outer part is a picture of the house in which the
labourer works in preparing the materials, and weaving hempen cloth.

p. 719.

" " brown."

R. 201. ^ hicang, gom, yellow,"
Colour of the earth, colour of the centre in the Chinese physical

philosophy. The upper part t'sau, "grass," alludes to some plant

that produces yellow or brown colour, p. 824.

R. 202.
"
shu, glutinous millet."

Sw says it is called shu because it is sown in hot weather (shu),

and adds that it is formed from ho, "grain," jfr. and yu, "rain," |pj,
the last being contracted.

R. 203. Eg
Tiff he,kek,
"black."

Sw says that the four dots meaning fire are placed to represent
that exposure to fire causes blackness, p. 862.

R. 204.
" sewed
IJjjj
ch'i, clothing."

Sw says it is from 'jjjjj piet,.o.ndi ^ nip, "shortened." The upper

part is phonetic in p. 871.

R. 205. Hp ming, min, "frog."

p. 922. A radical which shares the reptiles with R. 142, c'huiiy.

R. 206. JgJ ting, tarn.

"A vessel having three feet and two ears or handles." It is used
to cook food.

R. 207.
gj ku, kok, "drum."
Formed from p. 65, ki or ch'i. This is on the right. The left is
p.817, pang, here used to suggest sound. The phonetic element is

probably on the right in p. 65, which has giak in Kwy.

R. 208. H shu 2, fo(0,

"
rat,"
" mouse."

The upper part is a picture of the teeth, and the lower of the
abdomen, claws, and tail. Kh. A generic name for burrowing
animals. S\v.
 THE RADICALS. 39

It forms part of the phonetic 1016, Tsican, "to steal away,"

" abscond." The name probably originates in the verb te'u, " to
steal," old form tut. The most prominent characteristic of the rat
and mouse is " are clever thieves." If this
thieving. They Kwy.
be correct, a final t has been lost.

"
R. 209. pi, bit, nose."
|p
Derived from " and " The last
tsi, self," bi, give," phonetic 498.
of these is composed of a field and two hands below it. The hands
suggest giving. They appear clearly in the Chwen wen.

R. 210. jj|f ts'i, dit, "even."

Corn, when mature, has an even appearance. More than any

other produce of the soil, it grows to a common average height.
This radical is a picture of ears of corn of uniform height, p. 934.

R. 211. c'Jii, fit, "teeth."

j|j
The rude square is the mouth, and the inclosed strokes the teeth.
The phonetic value of the upper four strokes is tik, but it does not
occur in old forms, and is therefore modern. Mongol, shidun,
" teeth."

R. 212. f| lung, lorn, "dragon."

A fabulous winged animal that has four legs with claws and
a scaly skin. It mounts in the air after lying hidden in marshes and
rivers. Since dom means
" to
rise," the chief idea is here. It is large
or small, hidden or revealed, long or short. At the spring equinox it
mounts in the sky, at the autumn equinox it descends and hides itself.
In the Chinese dragon there seems to be no prominent re-

semblance to the serpent. An identification of the ideas which

revolve round the old Chinese dragon with those which revolve
round the serpent of Persia and the worship connected with it
appears forced, p. 989.

R. 213. H. kwci, kit, "tortoise."

This animal was used anciently for divining. The shell was
heated, and the marks which appeared on it, read by certain rules,
were viewed as portents of coming events.
40 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. 214. ^> yo, dak, "flute."

A picture of a bamboo flute having three holes for producing

harmonious sounds,
From |5p p'in, "rank," "order," and |^ Inn, "law," "discourse,"
"reason," R. man being omitted.
The same word as ti, dik, "flute," "fife." The dik is pierced with
seven holes. P. 1013.
 CHAPTER II.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING.

LINES, SHAPES AND COVERINGS. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. MAN AND HIS
RELATIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES. PARTS OF THE BODY. ANIMALS. NAMES OF
PLANTS AND AGRICULTURE. IMPLEMENTS, CLOTHING, AND THE USEFUL ARTS.
MEASURES. METALS. QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. VERBS.

AMONG the 214 radicals there are 28 lines, shapes or coverings.

There are 23 inanimate objects of nature. Man and his relations
occupy 23 radicals, and the parts of the body 33 more. There are
15 names of animals, 13 names of plants, 25 names of implements,

clothing, etc., 6 names of measures, 17 names of colours and other

qualities, and 29 names of verbs.

The use of simple natural shapes, such as the mouth, nose, eye,

ear, hand, foot, as well as the shape of branches, trees, grass, caves,

holes, rivers, the bow, the spear, the knife, the tablet, the leaf; these

formed, in addition to pictures of animals, much of the staple of the

Chinese ideographs.
Attention should be drawn to the fact that the mouth and the hand

play an exceptionally important part in the formation of the symbols.

Men were more accustomed then than now to the language of
signs, by the use of these organs. Perhaps three-twentieths of the
existing characters are formed by their help as one element.
This large use of the mouth and hand in forming characters is, as
we may very reasonably suppose, only a repetition of what took place
when the words themselves were made.
There is likely to be a primitive connexion between demonstra-
tives and names for the hand, because the hand is used in pointing.
42 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Words descriptive of ideas that are most easily expressed by the

mouth, such as a pit, fall into a pit, totality, compression, disappear-
ance, roundness, may be found to terminate in m or p, because these
are labial letters formed by the lips, as would be done in the primitive
gesture language. Possibly Chinese researches may thus throw light
on the origin of words. The intellectual task of forming the charac-
ters was in several respects a renewal of the original task of forming
words themselves. The classification of ideas could not but be in
these two successive undertakings somewhat similar both in its con-

trolling principles, and in the proportional extent of its parts.

Observe further, for example, that guttural letters are found ex-

tensively in words expressive of acts and things which the action of

the throat easily pictures. Such are Jean "tube," gap "press," gut
"throat," kok "cough," sik "sigh," hap "grasp," yam "hold firmly."
Throat letters naturally represent throat action. Labial letters do the
same for labial action. Dental letters occur when dental action has
to be described. They may be combined
in various ways. Un-
fortunately the connexions of words and their objects are obscured
through the growth of language. At first a word was as nearly as
possible pictorial. It is very important that attention should be
drawn to the conditions of those times anterior to linguistic history,
when language was a true idealism, every word the clear and ex-
pressive sign of some natural sound, and the human sensations in the
hour of their juvenile freshness and truthful sharpness were assisted
in the formation of
language by an intellectual faculty which only
acted in accordance with the unartificial laws of nature.
It is easy to trace the
process of symbol making in the words
used for the crenelated top of
city walls, which are ya and c hi, both
i

"
meaning teeth," and both being pictures of the object, and further,
when the former is found also to be used for tree buds and to bud.
Such instances of word creation show how considerable has been
the prevalence of
analogy and the association of ideas. The picture
writing of the Chinese is to a
large extent a continuation of the
process of forming analogies to which the human mind had already
become accustomed in the earlier
stages of the history of language.
Another instance of this analogy is in the treatment of
species.
Almost all fish are spoken of in Chinese with the word fish subjoined.
Thus U "carp," is never called
iju li
only, unless preceded by a
 GENEKAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 43

qualifying word. The same thing is done in the written character.

The radical for fish is added. It is natural to the human mind to

distinguish species and genus, and the province of language

it is

to give it expression. The eye sees the object, and therefore the
species is first mentioned in Chinese. The mind then refers it to its

genus from a habit of generalizing. It is on this account the word

for genus follows.
Among the first radicals are several strokes and lines representing
numbers. The dot (3), inclined line (4), bent line (5), horizontal
line (1), perpendicular line (2), hooked line (6), all are represented,

together with the numbers one, two, eight, and ten. To these may
be added two pairs of strokes crossing each other obliquely, R. 89, and
wen, the common word for the written character as a product of the

caligrapher's art, and

as a collection of symbolic pictures (67).

Several of these are rather modern than ancient, and are the result of
contraction. Thus chit, a dot, was originally the picture of a flame,
and called tok.

Simple shapes, such as a branch, a joint of bamboo, and of other

grasses, an upright stem, a circle, a square, a hand, a foot, a sphere, a
wheel, and so forth, all found their way into the written symbols.
Most of them occur among the radicals, and very many among the
phonetics.
Natural and artificial objects requiring symbols are drawn
pictorially. A few strokes are enough. In making a written symbol,
what need of elaboration ? A
short conventional mark agreed upon
is sufficient if
only be recognized by readers.
it

Three downstrokes parallel to each other were adopted as the sign

for water. The two side strokes were broken in the middle. An up-
right stem and two cross strokes, or one cross stroke and two inclined
strokes, to indicate branches, form the symbol for a tree. In every
case the common name of the object became the recognized symbol.
Wood may assume in Chinese symbols the shape of a staff, a
tablet, 91 ;
a bow, 57 a spoon, 21
;
a shield, 51 a bedstead, 90
; ; ;

a gate, 63 ;
a door, 169 ; incense, 186.

Earth, 32, and stone, 112; jade stone, 96; a tile or earthen

vessel, 98 ; potash, 197; pottery, 121, and metalkirn, 167, represent

the mineral kingdom. Fire is delineated by a few strokes represent-

ing ascending flames and sparks, 86.

44 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Heaven was symbolized by three parallel curved lines. The sun

was a circle with a stroke in the middle, 72. The moon was a
crescent, 74. Slightly modified it became evening, 36. Stars were
three small circles. Mountains were triangles standing side by side.
They either rest on their bases, 46, or stand on one end, 170. The first
was shan or tan, a mountain generally. The second was feu and but,
"a hillock." Rain was
falling drops, drops one over 173. Two
the other formed an icicle. A
valley was water issuing from an
opening, 150.
Man, represented in R. 9, 10, seen using his muscular strength
is

in field labour in
" He pants for breath when
19, lik, strength."
fatigued, and leans against astool. The breath and the stool are the
objects chosen to the sj^mbol in 76, k'iin, " to be weak and
make up
fatigued." Man is lying as a corpse in 44. In 48, kung " work,"
he holds in his hand a carpenter's rule. Man appears prostrate and
"
bending in 131, c'hen subject." Man in his self originating activity
occurs in the form of the reflexive pronoun in 132 and 49. The
ideograph of something else has here come to be used phonetically
for a pronoun. Man, as father, 88, is probably phonetic. The
pictorial original is unknown. A general name for tribes, 83, is most
likely a symbol of joining. Woman, 38, is an unexplained ideograph.
A scholar, 33, is also probably a picture of something else used for
this sense on account of identity in sound. Sickness is indicated by a
man leaning against a post. So it is explained in 104.
picture of a
This symbol once invented, all words descriptive of disease can be

conveniently classed under They form a numerous group of com-

it.

pounds in which this symbol occupies the top and the left hand side,
and some phonetic the remainder.
The parts of the human body are extensively delineated in the
primitive Chinese writing.
The hand, mouth, face, 176, eye, ear, teeth, head, 181, 185,
foot, heart, 61, nose, 209, are all pictured. Not only are these parts
of the human body drawn become signs of themselves, but they are
to
drawn also to represent
very many other ideas. One hand above
another represents a friend, 225. A man's two hands
joined denote
" to
make a bow in token of
respect," R. 55. The mouth embraces
two radicals, 30, 31, but occurs in
it
many more, and with the sun,
the inclosing walls round houses and
cities, 13, 17, 163, and any
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 45

natural hole or opening, 116, helped to originate many of the square,

circular, and other shapes found among the ideographs.

Kok is the commonest sound for the square, and proceeds from
"mouth." Kiung 13, ham 17, k'am, come from an original verb
gam, which expresses holding in the mouth, opening the mouth, to be
hollow, etc. The original symbol for mouth was a semicircle open
upwards, with a straight line crossing it above from left to right.
A small addition is made to the picture of the mouth to indicate

sweetness, kam, -y* Speech found a symbol in breath in the act

99.
of issuing from the mouth, and is expressed by one stroke across the
circle in R. 73, yue, yet, "say," and by four strokes above the

circle in R. 149, yen "words." This

furnished a symbol for
last

yin, Urn, "sound," 180, one stroke more being added for the sake
of distinction.
Breath is represented by horizontal lines, one, three or four in
number, drawn from left to right, and straight or waving. In 84,
k'i "breath," and in 76, they begin high on the left, and descend

more or less as they pass to the right. In 73 and 149 they are more
"
horizontal. Straight and bent lines are both used in yun clouds,"
p. 64.

Spirits, principle of life, soul, are represented in 84, and heavenly

influences in 113. Demons have a class word which is used as a
radical for ghosts, for all outre shapes, and generally for such things
as are not canny, 194. Some Chinese authorities say that jpljl
shen

"spirit," is so called because the spirits "lead out" things into life

and order, shen ^, meaning "to lead." They also say that fy kwei
"ghost," is from | kwei "to return," because the proper agency
of the kicei, or spirits of darkness, is to cause all things to return, in

opposition to the agency of the shen. A more probable explanation

would be to refer krrei to k'it "breath," and shen possibly to din
" " to
spread out," and shen or chan, stretch," the word deing derived
from the animated human body stretching out its limbs, or the ex-
pression of the face when animated with emotion.
The foot and leg play a part in RR. 105, 60, 144, all of which

represent two legs, but differently employed.

The foot is represented in 156, 157, 162. The acts of the feet in

walking, standing, or halting, are depicted by representations of one,

two, or more, feet, slightly differentiated to suit variety in sense.
46 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

The foot of a large beast appears in R. 114, and serves as one of

the class symbols for the zoological portion of the vocabulary.
Feathers, yii, tok, 124.
Hair, sham, 59, mok, 82, er, mok, 126.
Head of a boar, 58. Horns, kak, 148. Blood, kit, 143.
Bird tails, chut, tok, 172.
A bone, kut, 188. Broken bones, 78. Claws, c'hau, t'ok, 87.

Teeth, ya, ngat, 92, tfM, fit, 211.

The whole body is represented in 158.
The animals pictured in Chinese writing are such as the horse,

sheep, cow, dog and pig, 152.

They also delineated the tiger, 141, hare, dragon, 212, rat, 208,
deer, 198, frog, 205, tortoise 213.
A picture of a reptile coiled up, 142, served as a generic symbol
for almost all reptiles and insects.

Birds are represented by a single symbol, which probably was, to

judge from the old sound, tok, the magpie or the sparrow, 196.
Fishes are also symbolized by one character, 113.
Here appears the wisdom of the inventors of writing. They
declined to overburden themselves with too great a variety of pictures.
For each species among reptiles, birds, and fishes, the phonetic

principle was called into play. E.g. the shad, a fish long in use in
China for consumptive diseases, as the cod more recently among our-
selves, is called sh'i yii, "the time fish," in allusion to its punctuality
in returning in May to the rivers of central China. 1 R. fish, p. time.

The bamboo, so useful in many ways in China, is looked on as a

thing sui generis. The people do not call it a tree, or write it with
the tree symbol. The number of words which bamboo has connexion
with is so great that it heads a distinct and extensive class in Chinese
dictionaries.
The Chinese agriculture fills so large a space in their ideas that
no fewer than four radicals, names of seeds, are employed in con-
structing the agricultural vocabulary. Besides this, they have a
picture of a cultivated field and a plough.
The productions of the soil delineated among the radicals are
plants 45, trees 75, corn 115, rice 119, grass 140, onions 179,
wheat 199, hemp and flax 200, millet 202, melons 97.
1
Dr. Macgowan.
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 47

The metals are all embraced under one word kim, which also
means gold in particular. The name kim was probably derived from
the sound given out by metals when struck. The k'ing (old form k'ini)
isa flat sonorous piece of metal or stone which is struck in a hanging

position. name perhaps originated the word "gong" employed

Its

by Europeans name for the Chinese h.

as the

Gold being found in the form of dust and nuggets in river beds,
and on the surface of the soil, we need not be surprised that in the
Chinese vocabulary it should be identical with the idea of metal as

being the first metal known. It should also be remembered that

"
etymologically Jnvang yellow," is gom, and thus is nearly the same
in elements as kim. It is therefore possible that kim,
"
gold," may
derive itsname from its colour; or it may be the other way, the
colour may be named from gold.
Copper, dong, dom silver, ngin; iron, Pit; lead, yuen=tan; tin,
;

sik, are all written with a phonetic on the right, and on the left the
radical kim "metal."
Although gold may have been the earliest metal known, all these
metals may well have been known at the time of the invention of the
characters. They may each have had a symbol, and the radical sign

may have been afterwards added, or have been in use from the first.
The inventors of writing finding the name kim applied indifferently
in the language of their day, as since, both to gold and to metal,
would proceed to relieve the ambiguity of the symbols for other metals
by prefixing the sign for kim.
It is difficult not to believe ii'on, silver, and copper to have been
in common use in China at the time when the characters were made ;

for they occur in the oldest historical fragments, as in the Yu kung,

a topographical section of the Shu king, and ascribed to B.C. 2200.

They are there mentioned as objects of tribute. Polarized iron seems

to have been known from the time of Cheu kung, B.C. 1100. It is
found in abundance in some parts of the iron districts of North China,
"
as for example at Ts'i cheu, city of the load-stone."
Implements made of metals and wood mixed are such as, knife,

tau, 18, kico, kak, javelin, 62, kin, knife, catty, 69, man, spear, 110,
lei, plough, 127, ku, cart, 159, mortar, 134.
From the time of T'sin sh'i hwang, destroyer of the small states,
the manufacture of iron, silver, salt, and other minerals extended
48 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

greatly in China. Uniformity in government, brought about by this

conqueror, B.C. 221, gave a stimulus to trade and to the working of
minerals.
Common utensils occur such as a knife, 18, stool, 16, spoon, 21,

spear, javelin, 62, bow, 57, drum, 207, flute, 214, pencil of hair, 129,
net, 122, arrow, 111, spear, 79.
A general name for earthen utensils is ming, 108.

Containing vessels, definite measures, or mere receiving vessels, are

22, 23, 68, a three-legged vessel, 193, 206. Among measures of
length are found, an inch, 41, a foot, ten feet, a mile, 166, and a piece
of cloth about 40 feet in length, 103.
Skin and leather are expressed by three radicals, 107, 177, 178.
Clothing, cloth, yi, clothes, 145, ch'i, sewed clothing, 204, a napkin,
50, silk, 120.
The industry of the people in weaving silk and flax, has caused a

picture of balls of silk or cocoons to take its place in the vocabulary.

It indisputable then that when writing was invented, weaving was

is

already in use. See 52, 120. Boats have originated radical 137.

Coverings are represented by RR. 8, 14, 20, 27, 40, 53. The
peculiar senses are those of river banks or cliffs impending, of
wrappers inclosing, and of roofs.
Oblong and square shapes are expressed by 13, 23, 31, 70, 73.
The colours among the radicals are no fewer than six. They are
white 106, blue 174, yellow 201, red 155, black 203, dark blue 95,
and a general word for colour, shak, 139, is also included.
Adjectives, not being colours, are great 37, small 42, 52, square
70, sweet 99, acid 160, fragrant 186, high 189, even 210.

Among the radicals are found the delineation of 28 verbs :

To divine, 25.
To shoot, tik, 56.
To walk, 3, tak, gang, 144, t'ak, 60, 162.
To take a long journey, din, 54.
To enter, nip, 11.
To stop, tik, 77.
To stand, lip, 117.
To hang down, 14.
To open the mouth, 17.
To embrace, hold in the arms, 20.
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 49

To elevate the two hands, 55, negative, mo, 71, mok, 80, put, 175.
To speak, 73.
To compare, 81.
To arrive, 133. This is a picture of birds flying down to the
ground. To reach, 171.
To look down, 146.
To see, 147.
To distinguish, 165.
To eat, 184.
To fly, 183.
To dispute, 191.
To be fatigued, deficient in energy, 76.
To use, 101.
 CHAPTER III.

THE PHONETICS.

THEIR NUMBER. FIRST ARRAKGED BY CALLERY. ORDER OF STROKES. THEIR VALVE

AS INDICATING THE SOUNDS OF WORDS WHEN THE CHARACTERS WERE MADE.
PHONETICS OFTEN ACQUIRE Two OR MORE SOUNDS. THEY PRESENT A VIEW OF
THE CHINESE SYLLABARY AND THE CHANGES IT HAS UNDERGONE, LIST OF
PHONETICS ACCORDING TO THE MODERN WRITING.

THE phonetics of the present Chinese language are characters used as

signs of sound. As the 214 radicals are used for classifying words
ideographically, so the phonetics are used for writing them down
phonetically. The phonetics body of sound symbols.
constitute a

They are here presented as they appear in the modern writing, and
make up in all, many rare ones being omitted, eleven hundred and
forty-four. They are a hundred and four more than in Gallery's

Systema Phoneticum Scripturae Sinicae.

The order and numbering of Gallery are here preserved. He was
the first to make a list of the phonetics, which he has embodied in his

Systema published in 1841.

The order is that of the number of strokes, as in K'anghi's
dictionary. But where the number of strokes is the same, it must
be remembered that the strokes themselves take an order. This
depends on the practice of Chinese caligraphy and school teaching.
Gon9alves and Gallery fixed the order for application to the arrange-
ment of words in a dictionary. It is that order which is the basis of
the arrangement adopted in the following list. The names and signs
of the nine strokes in use are 1, chu f ; 2, hwa ; 3, keu 7 ;

4, pie J; 5, yi & ; 6, kwun \ ; 7, kiite ] ; 8, t'i / ; 9, na \.

 THE PHONETICS. 51

The sound of the phonetic part of a character is an index to the

sound of the words when the characters were first made.
To the primitive sounds, the losses sustained by letter
learn

changes, and by wearing away, and all additions made through the
acquisition of new elements, must be carefully examined. This I
have endeavoured to do in each case and following the Mandarin ;

pronunciation of the present day, will usually be seen the nearest

approximation I have reached to the primitive sound.
When a phonetic has final k, t, or p in the dictionaries under a
part of the examples, it is to be attributed to all the examples. The
is to be ascribed to phonetic
partial loss of such letter decay.
The modern n and ng have both changed from m in a
final

larger or smaller number of cases. They are here indicated in each

instance.

Many phonetics have two or more sounds, which may be entirely

unconnected or derived the one from the other. Thus wu, hu, mu,
wen, are sounds all given to 96 wu "do not." They can be divided into

three, kot, mot, mon. The first two have no connexion but in meaning.
They are different roots. The last may be connected with the second

by an ancient change from t to n.

If we look phonetic 187 mu "mother," we find the sounds

at

mu, wu, meu, connected by interchange of letters. Here,

all closely

then, is no likelihood of two sounds having been originally attached

to the character.

Phonetics acquire a new sound when they are applied through

resemblance in idea to write some word whose sound differs. Thus

wang, mong 18 "to disappear," "be lost," is used in hwang, kong

"
waste, desert, vast," 217, on account of similarity of idea.
The guiding principle on which this chapter has been compiled is
that anciently words like in their phonetic symbols were like in sound.
This is at once recognized by every one in simple cases. Thus flj pi 2
l

"he," f^ p'i 5 "skin," were written with the same symbol because
their sounds were regarded as like.
We may proceed farther than this, and say that where difficulties

occur in discovering similarity of sound, it is in every case due to the

1
"When in this list the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 occur after the modern pro-
nunciation of any character, they are tone marks. Usually the old pronunciation follows
them.
52 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

changes effected by time in the sounds of the words. Of this state-

ment, the facts of the present chapter may be taken as proof.

It has been a chief aim throughout to obtain as nearly as possible
an approximation, by the light of the phonetic signs, to the sounds
given to the words at the time the characters were made.
There a circumstance that can scarcely fail to strike the student.
is

The limitation in area of the letter changes is very remarkable on

account of the peculiarity of the Chinese syllabary. Thus in English
the initials k, t, and p can take after them the letter r, and k and p the
letter /. In Chinese,
i can take after it s or sh. In English, s may
precede or p
k, at the
t, beginning of a syllable. For example, scan,
crumb, clan, plan, etc. The expansive power of English is as eight
to two therefore as compared with the Chinese in regard to the pre-

fixing or affixing a consonant to the radical initial in a syllable.

There a similar lack of expansive power in the other parts of a
is

Chinese syllable. Changes take place within a very small area, and
can be reduced to a few simple principles. There are few known

languages which are so limited as the Chinese in the faculty of syllabic

development.
Through the four thousand years of its history since the invention
of writing, the Chinese language has never been able to extend its

syllabary after the fashion of the more richly developed types of speech
to which in Europe we are accustomed.
The changes undergone by the syllabary within its very small
circle of variation are registered in this chapter in an imperfect
manner, with references to native authorities.
As a whole, the phonetics are here given as they are found in the
modern writing, but an eye has been kept on the ancient forms.

LIST OF PHONETICS IN THE MODERN WRITING.

! 2* y*y 4, kit, second in the denary cycle. K'it in 38 k'i, "beg."

Initial t deduced from the sound kieu, with RR. 142, 157, 167, and
from HI ngit in Kwy, R. ear. Perhaps also tat, as in cha, p. 150.
" one." Also him,
la. yi, 4, tit, Tiechiu, chek 8, it 4. 8, gak,
" a stroke."

16. f ktcun, kon, a downstroke. Perhaps a contraction from 20.

 THE PHONETICS. 53

le. J pi, pit. Found in 11, 13, 132, etc. First occurs in Sw. A
contraction for some longer character.
Id. * chu, 4, tok or tot, " a dot." Tak, tok, in PP. 29, 41, 42, 69,
129. Tot in 148 shut, with several radicals. See 53.
le. \. fit, put. The reverse of \c. Sometimes na, nap.
If. J kiue, 8, get. Found in kie 37, ya, "tooth," 76. See 311 sie.

"
Iff. L kiue, 4, kit, hook." Found in kieu, 16 yue, ket, "spear," 154.
lh. *~* mi, mik or ming. Found in 627.
2. ^ k'au, 2, k'ok. Found in 19, 21, yu 111, hi 194, hau, "sign,"
236 k'wa, 241 k'au 427 kik 603 ngok, 731, 1006. Final k in 427, 603,
indicates loss of k in the others.
2a. JT tfse, 4, ta&, ##, # or ngam, "impending cliff." See for
tak 140, 166 ;
for cjan, ngan, 512, 637 ;
for ngam, 939, 1035. It is

ideographic in 810, and may be so considered in many of those just

enumerated. Also yai, ngat, 410.
2b. .
t'si, tsit, "seven." Found in 74 t'sie.

3. -p sh'i, 8, zhap, dap, "ten." Chi, 4, tap, "sap, juice," R. water.

Chen, Urn, "needle," R. metal. Hip in hie, "rule," R. water; and in
" to
hie, agree," R. mouth.
4.
"J* ting, 1, tang,
"nail." Phonetic in 513, dang. The forms
on old bells and vases are often only a dot or small black square.
5. JJ tau, 1, tok and tot, "knife." Tak in the Odes, RR. sun,
water. Tyt. Found in 160 chau, tok, "shine." Tit in 74 t'sie,

"cut." Kit and sit in 567 hie.

6. j[f K, 8, lik,
"
strength." Found in 189 yeu " young."
6#.
" ended." Lio in Kwy, RR. metal, boat.
~jf liau, lo(k],
" " rule."
7. (2 /, 5, 5ffw, contain," Phonetic in fan, bam,
45, 127.
8. 75 na?; 6, #, "then," "therefore," "thou," "it is so;"
"milk," "breasts," R. woman. K is inferred from the meanings.

See in 287 "milk" and "thou." Also ning. It is used in 564 yiug
"full."
9. Jl ki, "bench." Kik in 309, k'ek "overcome" 487. Kit in
22 of, 103 ku, kot. Also she, tit. See 777 ten and sfo, " place," 103.
10. -Jikicu, "nine." Kuk in Kwy, RR. 44, 32, 72, 157, 170.
Kuk in the Odes, R. hole, III, where it
rhymes with words in k.

Kik in Kya, RR. earth> corpse, combined.

11. ^ pi, pit, "spoon." Found in 108. Bit in Kwy, p. 108.
54 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" The meanings, as well as the instances

Pin, Um, female," R. cow.
in Kwy, favour final t, which however is lost in modern Chinese
dialects.

12. J^jen, niti; "man." Used ideographically in wo "lie down,"

with g.
13. A pa, P^, "eight." Found in 451 fei "not." But this is

better derived from, fei "fly."

14- X n $ai> nga(k\ "cut," "rule." Found in 16, 306, etc.
y*> 7>

14a. fc ju, 8, nip, "enter." Found in 121, artemisia, R. grass.

15. 3t yeu, 3, tttk,
" "
another." S/iok in 484, dok
'
hand," and,"
in 511. See 29, 69, 675, 681, 686. Uk in the Odes, Tyt. Shut in
103. Ehymes with tik 799, R. words, and with k'ak 309 in Odes.
Ideographic in "place," 103; sheu, "receive," 447; shot, "kill,"
she,
"
778 ; tsu, take," 417. In the last it is perhaps tup.
"
16. l| kieu, kut, tie," "wrap up." Also sheu, tut, n.p'u (strike).
16. ^ si, tik. Found in t'ai 186. See upper part of 360 yi, dik,
and 237 chi ]g
" arrive at." See 70.
,

1Gb. LI kan, k'am, "mouth of a pit or vessel." Found in hinng

109, where m has become ng. K'am in Kwy, R. hand. Phonetic in

" "
151 kan, sweet," and in ham, hold," 444.
17. \\ pu, 4, pok, "to divine." Also fit, 3, pok, as in/w, "to arrive
at." RR. words, walk. Fall, R. man.
17. 7J " desert waste." Found in k'iung
kiung, 1, kong, 206,
which is the same word. The sound resembles that of hiang 280,
which is also See also 489 kang and 562 hung.
shang.
18. " " Found in hwang 217,
tcang, 5, mong, die," disappear."
where " broad
it symbolizes and desert vacancy," without connexion
in sound, and in wang, 5, mong 488, where sound and sense agree.
"
18a. >]* siau, 2, sok, little." Shau in 123 " few." Sha in 295
" sand."
Siau in 380. Sfiok in 484, 707. Final k occurs in 380,
484, 407 ;
and it
may be concluded to have been lost in 18#,

123, 295.
" "
19. -^ yti, gok, in," at." From 2. Yet in Kwy, with R. rice,
above inscribed in f} . Final t from k. Same as 21 //?/.

20. -f- kan, 1, "a shield." Phonetic in 261 kien, 364 han, 653 kan,
895 kan. Also in lb, which is
probably derived from it
by contraction.
21.
^f yu, 5, go(k), "in," "at." Hu in Kp, R. words, eye.
Another form of 19.
 THE PHONETICS. 55

2la.
j^j- kung, 1, kong, two hands held up respectfully. Found
in kung, "together," 251.
" "
22. 7C wu 8, ngot, high,"
> a stool." Resembles in form and
"
sense ki bench" 9. From man and one. Sw.
"
23. ^ ta, 7, dap, great." Wasteful, R. heart. Load, carry a load,
R. horse. Tap in Kwy with R. ear underneath, and this again is used
as a phonetic with p'i\ "skin," 170. Tat in Kwy, R. water. (Tfrom
p.) Found in yen, dam 413. Found in cha 529 with to "many"
underneath, and with the sound yip in Kwy, RR. flesh, metal, eat, etc.
See to "many" 265. Found in jican "soft" 527, and this phonetic
is Hap in Kwy with R. ear. These instances indicate final p in ta,

"great."
" measure of ten The lower
24. T cliang, 6, 7, done/, staff," feet.

stroke to the right is a hand grasping the staff. Phonetic in 739

" " " fresh."
shivang clear," cold,"
- "
25. to shoot."
yi, tik, Dak in 176. Shak in 225 and 799.
Yik 4 in Ty. Tik 8 in Tsy, Yh.
26. f hia t 6, 7, ge(t), "go down," "down." Japanese kudari
" descend." Kw has one downstroke only.
27. X kung, 1> kom, "work." Kong in Kp, R. water. Found in

k'ung "between" 250, king "straight down," the direction of flowing

water 310, k'ung "empty" 384, kung "tribute" 646, hiang 827. Also
in 32 lor, 1039, where final m is retained.
28.
l
t'u t o(t), "earth." Found in ch'i "arrive" 237, lau "old"
" Chinese mile" 369. This last has final k in See
244, li Kwy. ta,
l

8, dat, 885; t'ie, t it, "iron," 888. Men, mu, "thumb," R. hand.
See 369.
" " learned
28a. i ski, 6, 7, zhi(f)> scholar," man." Found
in 313. T in 814.
29. t'sun "inch." Tok, shak, tsiak in 681, 1019. Zik in
TJ-
240, 491. Nok in 636. The likeness in 942 disappears in old forms.
Yet we find dzuk in Kwy for 942 with R. gem. T'sun is the sound
with the sense "inch." Found with the sound lie, 8, hit in 334.

Tsim in 748, 854.

30. jf t'sai, 5, da(t), "power," "wealth," "materials." Also pit
in Kwy, close up, hide, R. door.
31. ^ kung, 1, kong, "bow." Found in k'iang 359. Much con-
nected in meanings with 27.
56 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" l
32. ki, 2, ki(t), self." Found in 331. Also p'ei, p ot, R. earth.

33. g, si, 6, 7, zi. Dze 6, and cfeefc in Odes. Tyt. Nine to

eleven A.M. To sacrifice, R. shl, announce.

"
330. p sh'i, I, tit, corpse." Chi, 5, dit, in656 chan, tan, in 657,
;

671, 897, 833. Kuk in Kwy, R. nine (kieu). K'ut in 442 "crooked."
34. Ifl jen, 7, nin, "sharp," "edge of a knife," "patient/'
R. heart. Phonetic in 332.
34a. J^ yen, 5, din, " walk slowly." Phonetic in 350 yen. See 141.
35. -fl) "and," "also," final particle of simple indication.
ye, 6, efop,
Found in 165 yi, t'o and in 510 sh'i, " give." dental initial occurs A
in half of the examples. Final p is shown by the meanings which
connect 35 with to "many" 265, tso "left" 136, and
t'o
"carry" 125,
its kindred phonetics, ye, yep,
" to draw," 289, and others. Final p,
while lost in most examples, is preserved in 289 and some other

phonetics.
" son."
36. ? ts'i, 2, tik,
" "
37. % kie, 4, kit, alone," solitary." See I/ kiue, where the
downstroke has the sound kit, and is perhaps contracted from 37.
38.
*C k'i, 3, k'it, "to pray." Found in k'i, "breath," 89 a
and 664.
39. ^ to, 4, tok, t'ok, "leaf," bud appearing above the ground,
sprout. Dzak in 210, for which dak in Kp. Young girl, R. woman.
"
Dzak, house," R. 40, mien.
"a
40. ^ tsien, 1, t'sin, thousand." To engrave, R. knife. To
correct and reform, R. 162.

j cho, 4, tak, "spoon," "draw water."

41. Tik in Kp R. heart.
Also pok, which occurs in pan " embrace" 168. Yau, dau, dok in
465. See 929.
"
42. ?
si, 8, zik, dik, evening." See 394 ye " night." From
"
yue moon," as seen at evening.
43. ^ shan, 1, sham, " hair." Phonetic in shen, t'sam, 780.
Perhaps also phonetic in 328, in 183, and in 829 sitin, dim.
44. & kieu, 2, ku,
"
past,"
"
long time." Final k is probable
from the resemblance in meaning to 153 ku, kok, " and
ancient,"
to 349* kieu, 6, 7 guk "old."
" From
45. Jf. fan, 5, bam, all." 7. Bung in Kwy, RR. water,
grass. Sw says that it is phonetic in fcng "wind" JU,, referring to
the outside line.
 THE PHONETICS. 57

46. |L wan, 5, ngan, " pill," " small globe." H often commences
the sound. This is
changed from ng.
47. " fork."
jHj, ch'a, 1, t'ap, Meanings favour final p. Seize hold
of. Cross way. Cross branches. Quiver n. leather, kek.
" streams."
48. J|j c'htven, 1, Von, Originally the same as R. water
in form.
49. ft, sin, 1, "light in weight," "swift." Also sh'i, si, sip,

ship, as in 899.
" woman." Found
50. ;& nu, 6, nok, in 188, 287. The latter,
" "
ju as is nok in Odes, Tyt V.
500. ^ yen, 1, M-, "small." Found in 189, 2870, tik 619,
t'sttk 620, so& 641.
51. P k'eu, 2 k'ok, kok, "mouth," any orifice. Kok in kok,

"each," "every," 272; ku, kok, "valley," 338; kau, kok, "tell,"
342; kau, kok, "high," 622; ke, kek, "to separate," 649; kwok
"suburbs" 727. Evidence favours final k in 169, 194, 378, 153,
497, 441, 544, 306. Gok occurs in 330. Kit in ki "good luck"
243. Gat in hai "injure" 610 and in 262. By clear majority of
instances the old final was k, T was formed from it.
"
510. ktco, 1, kak,
I ] kingdom." Final k occurs in 497, K.
" dried "
water, Jiak, up," 794 kwo, kok, kingdom." Also hiung,
;

and the same in fact as 170 and " waste." Also

1, kong, 206, kiung,
k'tffun, 377; R. wood inclosed,
kon, as in k'wun "confined in a circle"
499 k'iun "granary ;" 702, hu-un "boar."
" mountain." Phonetic in
52. ilj shan, 1, twan, 606, which
retains the old t that has become sibilated in 52. Mam, name of a
place, R. stone. Mam, R. mouth. In the Wu dialect this last means
give the breast. See in Kwy.
"
520. c'he, 4, t'et. Found in c'hu " go out 207, with sound
|J4
t'ut, and in ku "crooked" 442, with sound k'ut. See 693, ch'i.
53. ^ten, 2, to(k), "ten pints." Final k is inferred from

41, Id, etc.

" Phonetic in 615.
54. ~fj fang, 1, pong, square." Pong in Kp,
and is there used in spelling 475 with R. bamboo. But 475 never
appears with initial/. Hence 54 was formerly pronounced with p.
" " " "
55. / hang, 5, gong, neck," strong," sincere," vestige,"
" " "
tracks," ditch," "resist," "boat," greedy," with the appropriate
radicals.
58 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" " the "

56. ]JC icen, 5, mun, literature," characters," beauty."
Phonetic in 830.
57. ~fT pien, 1, pin, "law," "method," "Rejoice," R. heart.

58. *fc yin, c'hen, 5, dim. Phonetic in 398, and in t'san 813.
59.
" fire." Used in modern writing for hwo,
>J hwo, 2, kat,
kap, "associate," "partner," for which kico, kap, 605, is usually
employed. be from p.
Possibly final But the Mongol is
t
may
gal "fire" =.kat. The phonetic value of 59 is dik in 352. Also
yen, dam in 400, and in 398 as sometimes written.
60. fo sin, 1, tim, "heart." Phonetic in 403 ticm.
61. % yuen, 5,ngen, "origin." Phonetic in wan "to finish" 294.
62. ifc tsing, 2, tarn, "a well." Called tarn in Kwy, with a
dot in the middle. Also keng, 1, kang, "to plough," R. plough,
R. field. The character was chosen to express ploughing because
it represents the old division of land round each city in nine

squares. From it comes the character king, "punishment," 222,

according to one etymology.
63. $ifu, I,man, "husband."- "Bran," R. wheat. "Hatchet,"
"
R. metal. Support with the hands," R. hand. Pak in the Odes,
Tyt Y.
64. w yun, 5, gun,
"
say."
"
Cloud," R. rain. Initial g inferred

from hicun, "soul," R. demon. In yim 764 it is not phonetic but

ideographic.
65. 3 wang, 5, gong, "king," "feudal prince." From this come
k'wang 223, 353, and hwang 574.
" Kw corpse below mouth. A new
65rt. y? tai, ta(t), bad." In
character used for one in the Li shu, where "
pit, divine," takes the
place of the horizontal line at the top.
66. /g nge, wei, ngek. Wok in Kp R. feu " hill." See 267.
" "
67. JA tse, 4, tak, bent," crooked." From 2a.
68. Jx/tf/*, 2, pan, "turn over," "opposite." A hand with a
covering radical.
" " " fault."
69. % yen, 5, tsieu, duk, excessive," strange,"
Found in 803, which see for proof of k final.
" arm." So
70. ~fc kung, 1, kong, called from its curved
shape,
which represented pictorially by the two lower strokes.
is The two
upper are one of the hand symbols. The lower part is found in
"
kung "just" 116, and in hung great" 156.
 THE PHONETICS. 59

70a. QT p'i, 4, p'it. Numeral of horses. Forty feet of cloth.

Sw. A pair. To pair. Kwy. Same as 161a p'i.

71. ^ pu, 4, pot,
" not." Found in
p'ei 138, feu 308.
"
72. ft k'iuen, 1, &'<w, dog." Phonetic in 1033 Men. T'ot iu
505 " sudden." Li in 462 " crooked."
72#. fj k'ai, 1, k'a(t), "to open." The part inclosed is here the

phonetic.
73. g
hu, 6, 7, gok, "mutually," "together," "interchangeably."
Final k deduced from the meanings.
74. UJ t'sie, 4, t'sit, tit, " cut," " important." From 2b and 5.
*
75. kico, I, kak. See 303, 857. Gak in 430, hwo, "suddenly."
76.
" tooth." The downstroke is kit in Found
^p y, 5, ngat, I/.
in ki, kit 776, where Kwy has kit. Also apparently sie, da(t) in sz'e 311.
But here the true phonetic is R. 180 dap, and the true primitive final
in "
is p, as c'ha, erroneous," ^'tf/> 629.
77. ft fei, 3, pit, "short clothing." Lungs, sheep, shady, run.
Pat in Kwy, RR. heart, hand, clothes. Bat in Kwy, R. foot. Pz^ in

Kwy, R. grass. Found in p'-ei, " carry at the girdle."

78. j c//i', 1, tik, tit. Also 7cz, giak. Giak in Kwy alone and with
R. cart. Gi, gik, with R. 60 on the left and R. corpse above it.
" Also
79. U| mien, 7, min, dark," a protection from arrows. kai,

kap, "beg."
80. yfc mu, 8, mok,
" wood." Also hieu in 278.
81. -^ yn, 6, zut, "give." Su, chii, shu are common sounds.
" a mile."
Also ye, R. li, Mongol yara, "wild," "desert," retains in r
the lost final t.

81a. ^ yin, 6, yz, #, "govern," "rule." See yi "he" 279,

where 81a is phonetic.
82. 51 yin 6 din, "lead," "guide," "draw." Djin in Kwy,
RR. silk, flesh, eye. Shin with RR. words, arrow. Shen " to lead
out" 196, probably the same word.
is
"
83. jj c'heu, 2, sieu, tok, nok, second in the cycle of twelve,"
"one to three A.M." Niok in Kp, R. reptile. Nok in Kwy,
RR. heart, spear (man}, reptile, blood, water. Found in 730 sieu "be
ashamed."
"
84. Q ku-ai, 3, kit. Also k'wai 3, quick," R. heart. Kiuc, 4, kit,

"counsel," R. words.
85. ^ mu, 8, mot,
" draw from the water." R. water gives the
60 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

sense submerge in water, die, disappear. A hand is seen taking

something from the water.

86. pa, 1, pak, "would that!" "tail." Found in 459 fei

"fat," the meanings of which indicate final k.

87. -^ fa, 8, bap, "exhausted." Also/aw, 3,pam, "float." Offend,
R. dog. Also pien, 3, pirn, R. hole, "bury." Pung in Kwy, R. west,
" cover." The m to and
R. yen, letter changes are p to m, ng, initial

.pto/.
" hair of animals." Mok in Kp,
88. 3g mau, 5, mok, R. wing, and
with " Odes
in Kwy, R. eye. Rhymes yo, gak, music," in the II,
R. grass.

89. tf
" moon." For final k see 90 and the
wu, 6, ngok,
meanings.
89a. " breath." Same as 664. One stroke less
-^ k'i, 3, k'it,

gives the sense to "beg," "pray." It then becomes the phonetic 38.
" cow."
90. ^ nieu, 5, nguk, Gu in Amoy and Tiechiu.
Phonetic in kiai "loosen" 902. Mongol uher "cow," where h
stands for the lost k in the Chinese word.
90. 3& jen, 5, nim, the ninth in the cycle of ten. Also t'ing,

5, dam. Phonetic in t'ing 341, c'heng 373, sheng 886. See 10376,

282, 448.
906. ^f feng, 5, pong, "abundant," "beautiful in face." Phonetic
in 339, 348, 401, 1021, 774, and perhaps in 452.
^j yau, kok or tok. Final k with R. water. See 162, 378,
91.

ngok,845 k'iau, k'ok, "bridge." It forms the upper part of 845, and
thus we might recover initial and final k. Note, however, that in
old forms of 845 the upper part differs. With R. bamboo it is siau.
" " to tend as a
92. pu, 4, pok, beat," and as in $fc mu > m0 ^^

shepherd," R. cow. P'ok in Kwy, R. fire.

93. $ tan > 1> mm * t am "red," "elixir
->
of life," "red oxide
of mercury." Nam and tarn in Kwy, but the dot within becomes
there a horizontal stroke. Dung in Kwy, R. sham 59.

94. *J yun, 5, kiiin, kun, "even," "smooth." The outer part is

phonetic in stun 264.

" moon."
95. /j yue, 8, get, nget,
96. ^7 icu, 4, kut, "do not." Phonetic in 466, hu, 4, kut,
"
suddenly." Also wu, mut. Also wen, mun.
97. 2fc h\ 8, gip, "reach to," "arrive at." Also cha, sa, 4, sap,
 THE PHONETICS. 61

with RR. hand, dog, words, leather (kek}. The upper curve is want-

ing in some old forms.

" to "be Also
98. owe," deficient." c'Awf, t'o
<fc k'ien, 3, k'im,
" Sw
blow," R. mouth. It is with reference to this sound that says
98 is phonetic with R. fire.

98a. j
See final k in 458, 562. Also hung. See 908.
keu, 4, kok.
"a "
99. Jf kin, hatchet," pound weight." Also si, she, tit, as in
" "
c/ie, break," 326 s'i, that," 823. Phonetic in Am, 468.
;

" rise
100. 5t sheng, 1, upward." Agrees in sense and sound
"
with shang " go up," c'heng " to present 373, and other kindred words.
101. Jz Aw, go(f), "door of a house." Found in heu 268, k'i

463, AM 769. But in Kwy 101 with 1 below it is ok. Other grounds
" " Other
for a lost k are the meanings to meet," union," as in 167.
for final t are found in the shape of PP. 442, 760, kut, wei.
grounds
102. Jft chau, 2, to(k), "nail," "scratch," "comb." See 449
for the contracted form.

103.
Q 1
shu, 5, shot,
"
"long spear." The sound is shortened to
yi in 737. Ku 2 kot, goat," R. sheep. A form like it is found
in kia "false" 549. Also sham, RR. knife, grass. Found in 670a
"
Also yik, pestilence," R. sickness.
yin.
104. Ig t'un, 5, don, "assemble," "heap," "generous," "bud,"
"
pure." Ton in Kp, R. fire.

105. " "

-ffc hmt, 3, kap, renovate," change in nature and
" be transformed."
appearance." Mong. hobilho Flower, to R. grass.
"
Goods," "merchandise," R. shell money. "Boots," R. leather (kek).
The other hwa, " flowery," 860, has final p with several radicals.
Final p is therefore inferred in 105.
106. J5
" "
sh'i, 6, 7, dik, family name," tribe." Also k'i, gi(k).

Tik in Kwy, R. words. See "low," 174, and R. 83.

ti,

107. f]J yang, 5, ngong, "look up," "look up to." Also y, yik,
RR. wood, hand.
108. Jfcpi, 2, pit, "compare." Formed of two spoons, 11, used
in comparing. Sit in Kwy. Phonetic in pi 354, 685.
109. L*J
hiung, 1, kong, "cruel." From I6b k'am, which is here
phonetic.
110. ^ kin, 1, kim, "now." Phonetic in ham, "take into the
mouth," 356, in Urn 379, in niem 477, in t'arn 779, in k'im 808a, 909,
764 yim, and in 478 gold.
62 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" "
111. ^ hi, 5, gik, Ah ! A final particle in poetry. From 19.
" " division." The two upper
112. ft fen, 1, 7, pun, bun, divide,"
strokes mean parting and those below are the knife which effects it.

Pan in Kwy, R. bird.

" " "
113. # kiai, 3, kat, great," firm," help." Sot, gut in Kwy,
RR. stone, heart, bone, earth.
114. 3 fu, 6, 7, bo, "father." Fu, "stewing pan," R. metal, is

also in Fy exchanged with 514 fu, bok, R. metal, as if fu, "father,"

was also anciently bok.

115. 5 hiau, 5, gak, "imitate," "join," "cross." Kok in Kwy,

R. cart. See 14.
115fl. XA t'sung, 5, dom, "follow." Abridged from t'sung 771,
"follow." Zemin 911.
116. Q kung, 1, kong, "just." First of the five titles of here-

ditary nobility. Formed from part of 70 by resemblance in sound.

See 156. Also sung, tung, RR. word, words, etc. As such it is
phonetic in sung 434 and in 690 weng. Sim in Odes Ty, where it
"
rhymes with sim, heart," and feng, "wind."
117. -fa yun, 6, dun, "assent to," "nod the head." Zhun or dun
in Kwy, R. mouth. Compare 359. From g and A- Sw.
Il7a. tb\ jeu, 6, nieu, nok. Tok in 577. Picture of the foot
of a wild beast trampling on the ground. In Cw three strokes

only. Ctt.

118. j{ t'siang, 5, (long, "bedstead," "wooden support or frame."

Accusation, R. dog. So called because written on an oblong tablet.
Used in 783, 361, 438 tsang, " hide."
chi, 2, tik, "to stop." The lower part l
119. T'si, t ik in 191.
of 593 and 773 is like 119 in form and sound. Lik in 993. It is

only in the modern form of c'h'i, "teeth," R. 211, that 119 appears to
be phonetic. It is not in old forms.
" sun."
120. ^ j'i,Also
8, nit, hu, got, RR. hand, water. Mong.
nara "sun."
121. j^j nei, 7, nip, "within." From ju, "enter," 14fl. Nap in

Kwy, R. fish. Also nat in Kwy, RR. flesh, wolf, etc. Final t from
final p.

122. 4 1
chung, 1, torn, "middle," "strike the middle." Mong.
domda "middle." Same as yang, "middle." Y has taken the place
of t. Phonetic in 323 sung " elevate," " fear," etc.
 THE PHONETICS. 63

123. $? shau, 2, sho, shok, "few." Mio in Kp, R. wood. "Mo-

ment." For k, see 776, 380, 484. See 180 siau.
124. * " roofed "
chu, 6, to, tot, tablet," space between
the outer screen and door." Clear, R. water. Winding sheet,
R. napkin.
125. " Stone
.*g t'o, 5, da, dap, carry." roller, R. stone. Camel,
R. horse. Cake, R. wheat. Bundle of silk threads, R. silk. Rudder,
R. boat.
"
She, snake," R, reptile.
126. $t hiue, 8, git, " "
hole," pit."
127. $t fan, 5, bam, " overflow." Also bam in Kwy with p. 452,
ping, R. water. From 7.

128. " in with RR. hand and

j #) 8, &J9, stand." Lap Kya
" concubine." Found
grass combined. Also ts'ip, shap in 388, t'sie,

in tcei 349, yu 590.

129. " lord." To* in 419 " poison." Su for so&
c/i, 2, fo,
in 634 "plain," che for taA- in 735
" chastise." See 850 tsiau.
130. =j 7w/e, 5, gun, "dark." Silk is probably used as sug-
gestive of colour.Phonetic in 725 and perhaps in 618.
1300. 7, zhik, dik, "market,"
ifr sh'i, 6, Tsi in 180 "sister."
T'si 249 "thorn," "choose," " a bundle of leaves or sticks." Si, 8,
zikin 6l7a "mat."
131. ^j< yiaig, 6, dong, "eternal," "long." Same as c'hang
"long" 402 in regard meaning. Kwy,to Also Tiling in R. sun.

hung. Yung, to sing, RR. mouth, words. In explanation of the form,

notice that water bubbling up is called yung. See under 327.
" once." Found in 708.
132. $ " must." Also
pi, 4, pit, bik,

Mit with R. cover, mien. It occurs as pik in Kwy, RR. 182, wind,

31, 109.
132tf.
" " divine intimation." Found
fj* sh'i, 7, dit, announce,"
in " 768. Nat in 414.
tsi, sacrifice,"
133. Zp p'ing, 5, bang, "even," "flat." Criticize, R. words.
134. TJ\; icei, 7, mit, yet." Mit in Kwy, R. rice. Savour,
"not
R. mouth. Met, "younger sister," R. woman. Dark, R. sun.
" end of a " " " to
135. % mo, 8, mot, thing," saliva," flour,"
obliterate." A sort of turban. Picture of a tree, with a stroke to
denote its
top twig.

"
136. & tso, 2,
" follow."
tsap, "left hand." Found in 522, 629 c'ha
err," 883 sui
 64 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

137. " See 322p'ok, for likeness in shape.

fa pa, 8, bat, pluck up."
"
138. 21 P <e i> 1> ptt-> great." Other meanings sun-dried bricks,
:

fear, full, foetus, strong. From 71, pu, pot, "not." See 71.
139. :fj yen, 7, duk,
"right Jo, niok in 587,
hand," "assist."
" "
if." Ni, nik in 745 hide." From hand and mouth. Sw.
140. ft sh'i, "stone." Weight of 120 Ibs.
8, zhak, dak,
" cloth." That
141. tfft pu, 3, pot, which is spread out. To spread
out. Final t is inferred from the meanings. Compare them with
155 fu, etc.

141#. JiE yen, 5, din. The phonetic here

the right-hand portion. is

It is phonetic in yen, din "prolong," 350, tien, din 382, and in siuen,

dzun 716.
142. J cheng, 1, 3, tarn, "correct." Subdue, R. 60. Phonetic in
ting "to fix" 382, which see.

143. -5^ k'u, 3, Final p occurs in one-third of the examples.

k'op 90.
Also fa, pap, "law," R. water. Found in kai, kap, "to cover" 645.
In 317 k'io, ku, "valley," 338 should rather be written when the
final is k, as with RR. heart, flesh, man. But when p is the final, R.

mouth, reptile, this phonetic is correct.

144. |H kit, 6, 7, gut, "great." Out in Yp, R. bow, kung. Found

in 797 ku " canal."
145. pj"
k ( o, 2, Wat, "may be," "can." Perhaps k'ak, for the

Mongol has gagwei used exactly in the same way, "you may," "it
" "
may be." Found in k'i 408 strange," and in ko, ka, elder
brother," 650.
" third in the
146. ^ ping 2, cycle of ten."
" round." In Kwy the bounding line
147. 01 tsa, 1, tap, is want-

ing except the part at the top.

148. /K shu, 8, zhut, "glutinous millet," a kind of edible root.

Timid, R. heart. Method, R. walk, /tiny. Formed from mu, "wood,"

with Id phonetic. See Kw form.
149. TjS pen, 2, pun, "root." Phonetic in pen 528. Picture of a
tree with its root.

150. ^L cha, 1, tat, "slip of wood." Right-hand part same as 1.

151. -ft kan, 1, kam, "sweet." From I6b k'am. See 109. Mam,
" old in woman.
woman," Kwy, R.

152. itf; sh'i, 3, shap, "age," "thirty years." Generation. Formed

by the character for "ten" thrice written. Also sit by change of p
 THE PHONETICS. 65

to t. Found in ye "leaf" 542. Final p, lost in 152, is

uniformly
preserved in numerous examples under 542.
- " ancient."
153. ku, 2, ko, kak, Eak, gak in 497. Found in
kii 441, hu 544.
153ft. jrj| wu, 7, mu, "name of the fifth symbol in the denary cycle."
Still called men, with R. grass. Found in 982 nrie, mit.

"javelin." See \g kit, the hooked downstroke,

154. \% yue, 4, kit,

which is the phonetic element in 154, the right portion being kak
also "javelin." Initial k is recovered from the sound het in Kwy, with

KR. 46, 85, 124, 157.

155. " "
i$j fu, 4, pot, not," opposed." Like, mallet, strike, resist,

overflow, boil, waste money. From pat "eight" 13. This root for
the negative seems to take its origin from separation as signified in
the character for eight.
156. j hung, 5, "great." Both parts are phonetic. See 31, 70,
116. The right-hand part is a picture of a bent arm, called from its

curved shape kong 70.

157 /g ni, 1, nit, "peace." Name of the hill near which Confucius
was born. Nit in Kya. Nit in Kwy, R. sickness.

158. fj s'i, 1, sik, "oversee." Sik in Ta tai li.

Tyt I.

159. J min, 5, "people." Use strength vigorously, R. strike,

p'u. Destroy, R. water. Sleep, R. eye. Another phonetic is formed

with R. strike, p'u on the right.
160. |3 chau, 1, to, tok. From 5. Rhymes with 978 yak
"
music," and other words in k in Odes, Tyt II. RR. sun, fire, water,
161. jjfj kia, 1, kap, "add." The left part tripled is read hie, 8, gip,

659. Senses the same in kap 304.

161#. 3E sit,, sok. See 553, 593. In 593 djik occurs in Kwy.
Also p'it = 70a. See 141 dien.

162. 3f> hu, 5, gok. Final k inferred from 784, where 162 is

phonetic with hu, kok, "tiger" 487. Compare hi, the poetical final

particle 111.
163. *J= she, 4, " lose."
tit,

163fl. ^ sh'i, 1, shik, "arrow." Found in yi, dik, % 360, ch'i

"know" 454, tsuk 717 "tribe." Tik in 454, ch'i "know" in Kwy,
R. water, and t
l
ik, dik, R. to see, kien. Tit in 163, and in tsi

" " " " in these cases

sickness 616, yi shade," heal," 737. Probably
t is
changed from an earlier k.

5
66 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

164. sheng, 1, shang, "to produce," "live." Phonetic in sing

"star" 595, and in 835 lung "flourishing."
165. ^ yi, 5, mountain tribes in Kwang si. T'o, dap, "stone

roller," R. stone. From yc, dap 35. Rudder, R. boat.

6,
"
166. ^ cha, 4, 8, tuab, dzak, suddenly." Tsab in 611. Narrow
R. hole. Yesterday R. sun. Do, make R. man.
167. Jfc hico, 5, gak. Nywei in 457. Lik in 993. Sicu, tok

in 343. Shuk in Kwy R. 162. For final k see 978, yo, gak
" music." Tok in 343 in RR. words, bird, hand. Li in 344
Kwy,
for lik=sik, "interest for money." Tsieu for tok in 560. Su for

sok in 998.
" to use."
167fl, $ yung, See 327.
168. Q pau, l,pok, "bundle," "to embrace." Pok in Kwy, RR.

rain, horse, gourd, bone, hole. P'ok in Kwy, RR. 177, 182. From 41.
169.
" sentence." Kik in Kwy, R. grass. See
'pj ku, 3, kok,
330, 458, 562, and 98.
170. Jfjt p'i, 5, be(t], ba(t), "skin," "skin with the fur on."

Exhausted, broken, to suffer, robe, he.

171. ft ch<e > 4 *'* "break off," "blame." Sib in 433. In
modern writing it has become like ki)t "hatchet" 99 in shape, the
hatchet being used in the action of breaking or punishing. Tit in

326, t
being changed from k.

172. " " Kut

Jffc kwa, 1, ku(k) or ku(t}, melon," gourd." in Kwy,
R. grass, but attended by kit "luck" 243, which may be the source
of final t in that example.
173. 3 " winter." "
tung, 1, Pain, R. sickness. Chung end,"
R. silk. The upper part is phonetic in 423 ling, 835 lung " flourish-
" "
ing," 776 t'sung hearing clearly," 582 tsung glad."
174. &
ti, 2, tik,
" "
bottom," low." From sh'i phonetic.
" six " to
175. ^ man, 6, mo(t), A.M.," negociate." The phonetic
is without R. sun above. Also lieu, 5, dut, as in 673, " willow,"
" to touch."

176. f tai, 6, 7, dak, "generation," "instead of." From 25.

Tek and dek in Kwy, R. 154. T'ek in Kya, R. reptile.

176. g tn, 6, 7, dik, "self." Sib in 676. Chen, t'ok in 677.

Hieu, kieu in 677. See 411.
177. ( " hill." For
k'ieii, 1, l; uk, final k see the lower part of
857 liu, which is 177.
 THE PHONETICS. C7

178. ]$ fii, 3, pot, " to give." Bubbles, rotten, boat, strike, near.
Phonetic in 393. Final t deduced from meanings.
179. " white."
pc, 8, bak, Phonetic in 230, 473, 475.
" From 130.
180. tfe ts'i, 1, tik, sister," R. woman. See 249
"
thorns," 617a
" mat."
Note that " younger brother" is dek.
"
181. *
pan, 2, half." The verb " to cut in half" isp'an, and
in this the noun " half" finds its origin.
" command."
182. ^ tiny, Lien in
7, RR. rain. Kwy, heart,

Rhymes with final n seven times in the Odes. Ny for a more

ancient n.
183. ^ chen, 2, tin, "tangled hair." Precious, R. jade, metal.
Shine, R. sun.
" marsh
184. ^ yen, 6, dun, among mountains." Zhun in Kwy,
R. boat. Compare the upper part of 386a, 396, 802, 879. From
mouth, and water breaking its bounds. Sw.
185. ^ pien, 7, ban, "helmet."
Picture of the object. Sw.
Fromp'an "take hold of," as that which holds the hair. Yp. From
ban " great," as that which gives a dignified appearance. Comment
on Yi Li. The picn was a hat used in the Cheu dynasty.
186. -* t'ai, 5, dat,
" terrace." Same as 945, where the parts
indicate final t. Hai, ga(t) is also found.

187. $ mu, 6, mo(k], "mother." Phonetic in mei "every" 340,

and final k isfound once in Kwy with this phonetic and R. earth.
188.
" slave." From woman. See 287 and 50
* nu, 5, nok, 50,
for proof of k. In Kw, instead of yen on the right, we find A on
the left.

189. tyj ycu, 3, tok, "young." Final k is inferred from 620 and
641. Initial t is inferred from 634, 641, 619, 620. See 287 a, 619, 50.
190. |5 chan, 1, tarn, "to divine," "occupy." Also tie, tip, RR.

heart, foot, etc.

191. jfc t's'i, 2, t'ik, "this." From 119 ch'i
"stop."
192. H tan, 3, or ta, tat,
"
dawn." Phonetic in 264, 503, 879.
The stroke below is the horizon.
192. g kit, kok. Found in 490, 1023, 1034. Also mok " eye,"
of which our phonetic is a picture.
193. ^
t'sie, 1, t'ik, "and further." Tsik in Kwy, R. grass.
Chit for dok in 370.

194. 5^ hau, 7, gok, " signal." The five strokes on the left are
68 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

the phonetic. From 2. The left-hand part is 487, and may be

exchanged for RR. mouth, wood, mountain, etc.

195. ^p kia, 4,bursting bud of plants," "coat of

kap, "first

armour," "shell," "covering." In "Kwjen "man" is above.

" " " second time." The
196. ^
shen, 1, shin, extend," stretch,"
root is tin, tan. Phonetic in din 425. Same as 81, 82.
197.
" cut flesh from the bones." Stafi R. wood.
-g- kwa, 2, ku(t), ,

To kidnap, R. hand. Kwa is not a classical character. It first

occurs in Yp.
198. Jg, Mung, 1, kong, "elder brother." From 206 and 51a.
Also tok, RR. announce, wood. King in 309.
199. j^ " Cart ruts, R. cart.
ch'i, 4, tit, only."
" centre." Same as Phonetic
200. Jfe yang, 1, tong, chung, 122.
in ying "flourishing" 588.
" think"
201. fg t ien, 5, din, "cultivated field." Also
(
s'i,
as in s'i

600. Wei in 601, 602. Lei in 763, 881, 985, 1037a. Lu in 917,
981. Since s, I, d are interchangeable letters, these nine phonetics may

be all derived phonetically from 201. Final t changed formerly to n.

202. |J[ yen, 5, dok, " from," " cause." Fife, R. bamboo. Same
rootasfoii "from" g 176a.
203. fy jen, " Also without the middle
6, nim, gradually."
vertical nim
" to Picture of the act.
carry."
204. ^f c'he, 4, t'ak, list on a tablet, or on a bundle of slips
of wood. Also shan, 1, tan. Altering t to lit appears as lun in 480.

L=sh=t. Like tien 500. See Men " field" 201. The slips of wood
are tied together by a string, which is represented by the long hori-
zontal stroke.
205. si, 3, si(k), "four." Also hik R. man. Also c/i'i.

"
206. |tjj k'iung, 2, k'ong, desert." From 170, if that phonetic
is not rather contracted from this. Meanings :
full, robe, sincere,

flame, wide, cold, distant.

" vessels of
2060. fill ming, porcelain."
6, Phonetic in meng
" dream."
445, and in 958 meng
" "
207. fij c'hu, 4, t'ot, go out." From 52<z, plants budding."
Found in 442 k'ot, which indicates that k'ot is also a phonetic value
of 207.
208. Jl yi, 2, yit, "in order Phonetic perhaps in kwan
that."
" Note that 208 has final n in the Tiechiu dialect.
magistrate," 386.
 THE PHONETICS. 69

208. $ ni, 8, ngak. Tok in 630. Kit in 6300, 810. Ngak.

ngiak in Kwy. RR. reptile, silk, mouth, and R. 162.

209. f^ " written From

ts'i, 7, dzik, characters." Sheep, R. sheep.

ts'i 36.

210. 32 tse, 8, cfe*, "house." Dak in Kp.

211. 4^ ngan, " rest." For
1, , (), initial t see the meanings.
Lower part phonetic in 533.
212. Jft dik " also."
yi, 8, yik, Tsik
"
vestige," R. foot.
213. ^C yi, 1, F(0> " clothes."
214. ? A-/Vw, 1, kok, "join together." .Sff& in Kwy, R. cart.

Also in Odes. Tyt.

215. ^ c'fatng, t'ong, "fill." Take the position of, fill the post of.

Same as tang 914, in respect to

meaning and ultimate sound. For
shape, see kung "just," also sung 116.
216. <
hai, 7, gak. From 14. Nine to eleven P.M. K'ek
"
cut," R. knife.
217. fa hicang, 1, kong, " waste," " wide." From 18 mong " die,"
" " blind." The resemblance is in sense and
wide," shape of the
symbol, though not in the sound. The three lower strokes represent

water, a frequent accompaniment of desert spaces. See 699.

"
218. :=, yang, 5, dong, sheep." The initial d appears as t's and
dz with RR. words, etc. Phonetic in yung 729, yang "nourish" 969,
t'sung "gathered together" 1017a.
219.kiiien, 3, kon. The same phonetic as in kiuen 453. The
radical below may be changed for various other radicals. Picture
of the hands rolling something up.
" rice."
220. ^
mi, 6, mi(k},
221. -<fr t'si, 3, t'ik, "in order," "rank," "second." Found in
518. Tsik in Kya, R. reptile, with R. pe'i "shell money" underneath,
222. JflJ hing, 5, gong, " punishment." In Kh it has two forms,
one derived from tsing " well" 62, and the other from 261, kien "join
hands."
" basket."
223. ^ k'icang, 5, gong, Other meanings are fear,

deceive, urge. Bony cavity of the eye. Door frame. From wang 65.
224. :j jung, 5, nong, "military weapon." "You" as in Shang-
hai dialect " Great."
tiling.

225. ^ sh'i, 4, shak, "rule," "measure." From yi

" throw" 25.

Root the same as tit, dok jr . T=sh.

70 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

226. |1| yi, 5, dik, "eastern barbarian," "destroy." Di, dik

"brother," in 301. Tit in Kwy, P. 226, R. metal. From R. great

and R. bow, as suggestive of eastern Compare ?$ men. tiau, written

with kung " bow," and one straight downstroke through it, and called
tik in Kwy R. 162. T'e in Kya, R. water.
227. ^ hwei, 1, ku(t),
"
ashes." From hand and fire.

228. keng, 1, kang, "constant."

~JJL In Kh. there are two ex-
273 "
planations of the shape (1) from cheu; boat," between the two
strokes of r'i, er "two ;" (2) from yue " moon" 95, and r'i "two."
229. JlJ lie, 8, lit, "order," "arrange." From 65. Same root as
lu ^, and all those words called lu, lut, which are written
"tubes"
"
partly with |U and have the idea of arrangement."
,

230. "g pe, 4,pak, "hundred." From 179 bak "white," phonetic,
and "unity."
231. ^ yen, 6, guk, "have," "there is." Guk in Kwy in four
words. Rhymes in the Odes with six words in k, R. man. Tyt I.

232. ffij
r'i
(er), 5, ni, "and," "and further." Shame, nok in Ty,
R. heart.

233. j$ c'heng, 5, ding, "make," "complete."

234. % Psun, 5, dzun, "remain," "keep under protection," "place
in safety."
235. $1 su, 4, sut, 7 to 9 P.M. Also hii, kut. Kut in Kwy.
236. ^
k'wa, 1, k'ok, "boast." From 19 phonetic and ^.
237. ^ ch'i, 3, tik and "arrive at a place," "to."
tit, Rhymes
with final k in Odes II. Tit in more than twenty words. Found in
tau "arrive" 415, ch'i "to cause" 639, t'ai "terrace" 945.
238. 5 r'i
(er), 6, nip, "ear." Niak in Kp R. eye. Top in 314.
Tsat in 417. Tsip in 599. Nong in 694. Dzip in 941. Shep, nip
in 1018.

239. rfr kicei, 1, ku-a, kuk. Sceptre made of a precious stone.

Cassia, R. wood. Women's apartments, R. door. So named from

cassia. Deceive, R. words. Yai, ngak in 410, Kica, kuk in 421.
See 422 kwei, 316, 346, 428.
240. 3f s'i, 6, 7, zik, dek, "official apartments," "monastery." T'e,
dek, R. cow. Shi 5, dik, "time," R. sun. From 29, which has final k.
Tck in Kya, R. wood.
241. ^ k'au, 2, k'o(k), "examine," "old." Beat, R. hand. From
^7, 2, as phonetic. Kw has 2 on the left and fan wen, R. 66, on the
 THE PHONETICS. 71

right. A father after death is styled kau. Lau "old" is

ideographic
in this character.

242.
j|{ tsfii, 3, tak, "to load," "carry." R. cart on the left below

may be exchanged for several other radicals. Tsai and tak in the
Odes, Tyt. Also tat.
243. * hi, 4, kit, "good luck." The root the same as hi "joy"
818. Here 243 isfound as a phonetic.
244. % lau, 6, "old." See t'u "earth" 28. Picture of hair.
244#. f\ hwei, 2, kit, "flowers." Ngot in Kwy RR. mouth, tree.
In Kw R. 45 c'he "sprout," thrice written.
245. ^ siuen, 1, son, "promulgate." The cover radical mien is
not here part of the phonetic. It goes to make up phonetic 503 siueii
"promulgate," which see, Phonetic 245 is also hivan "strong," with
R. wood. Anciently HJ was used instead of . Also yuen " low
wall," R. earth.
246. ]|? //, 7, lit, "servant." To send, to use, ^ sh'i, 2. Historio-

graphers were called jj sh'i without the upper stroke. The first
historiographer was appointed in the reign of Hwang ti. T'sang kie,
inventor of writing, was the man. The bottom stroke was formerly

5(, i.e. a hand grasping something, viz. the symbol of office pictured
in the upper part of the character.
247. |f si, 7, sik, "west." Same as lok "fall." 8=1. Also sha,
shen. Yen in 324. Tsieu in 324, R. water. Yen, t'siett in 581. In
324, R.
dog, yeu "like
"=287, 587, ju, jo "like." In 651 lit

" In the older Lw

chestnut," P. 247, began to appear in the Sc. it

is not seen. See 722 lok "deer," 826a sok "millet," 1026 lik

" Final k in 826 indicates final k in all.

bright."
248. Jg yi, 6, (jit,
"cheek." Also yai.
" thorns." See
249. ^ t's'i, 4, s/iak, t'ik, 323 shok " bind." T'sik

in Odes, Tyt xvi, R. knife. Picture of a tree bound round with a

wisp (mang~) of straw.

"
250. JfL k'ttng, 2, k'om, embrace." Lest, hold in the hand, firm.
From kioig "work" 27. Same as yung 876 "embrace," R. hand.
The right-hand three strokes are found with p. 614 kinng "lonely,"
" sad." See chu 836.

251. ^ kuHy 7 gong, "together."

t ?
Kuk in Kwy, RR. hand, cart.
Two clumps or sprigs of grass above. Two hands below.
" "
252. ^: yii, 8, ut, dut, obey," writing brush." Lu, 8, lut in
72 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

569, tubes used for measuring. Used ideographically with sound pit,
and R. bamboo, for "a pencil of hair."

"
253. ^ ken, 3, kin,
"
"firm." Ngin "silver," R. gold. Ngen
eye," R. eye. Hen hate," R. heart.
253a. jjft} yu, 4, tok. In the middle R. rice may be changed for
other radicals. Also bit. Nok "weak" in 655.
254. " Also hit. and
ffl yu., 6, yi, tik, kik, wings." Lieu, lok,

kiau, kak in 763. Ti, tiau, tok in 948. Also hit, where t
may come
from k. Hu 6 in Tsy, Lp.
255. ^ ch'eng, 5, ding, "present," "receive." To offer with

joined hands. To receive with joined hands. Lift up, R. hand. Go

up, R. mountain. Rising vapour, R. fire. The strokes on each side
are the hands held up respectfully. Phonetic in 660.
256. kie, 4, kat, " a contract," " that which binds." The left part
is phonetic. The right is ideographic, and describes the cutting of
documents. Found in 567, 809. The left-hand portion is found in

Kit " to
" to
610. is tie," bind," as in ki 243.
257.
^
lei, 7, lu(t),
"

"
plough."
258.
fa feu, 2, put, urn." Tau 5 dok in 465. Used in the
Han dynasty for du in bedu " grapes," then first known to the
Chinese. Final k was already lost. You 5 dok in 668.
259. " red." Final t inferred from tit
" to
^c chu, 1, to(t), ch'i,

cut" 455, from likeness in shape. The stem of a tree is called c/tu.

Hence the occurrence of R. wood in the picture.

" before."
260. *fc sien, 1, sin, Phonetic in 1028 tsan.
"
260. ft chu, 4, tok, bamboo."
261. Jf kien 1, kin, "join hands." Ki 1 ki(t) "cross piece of
"
wood," needle for the hair." Same as 72, the inner part of k'ai " to

open." Also hing "punishment," "figure," "shape," "wine cup."

"
See 222. From kan shield" 20, repeated.
"
262.
3^ she, 8, dit, tongue." Used as an ideograph with R. words,
"
and called hwa 7 gat words," " to speak." Thus a second phonetic
value hwa, gat, was gained to this symbol. Shat in 481 she "cottage."
T'iem " sweet," R. sweet, kam. Kica " scrape," " shave," R. knife.
"
263. $fe to, 2, tap, anything hanging down." Lobe of ear,
hanging bud or flower, sleeve, bundle of stalks, butt shot at with
arrows. Also "to fall," "cut in small pieces." Connected in sense
"
with leaf," ye, dep 542.
 THE PHONETICS. 73

" The sound hiun from

264. ty sitin, 5, din, period of ten days."
The sound "
94 kiwi. siun is tan in 192 dawn," with one horizontal
"
stroke below, and in siiten "proclaim" 503, fan altar" 879.
265. JJ to, 1, tap, "many." Found in cha, tap 529. The root is

connected with ta " great," which also had formerly final p. For
final p see 10370.

266. ^g ming, 5, mini, "name." The upper three strokes are mim
in Kwy, with the addition of a horizontal stroke, and R. fire above
them. The sense is skull. The upper part is perhaps phonetic in
" "
meng dream 958.
267. j& wei, ngu(k] "danger." See 66. Kwei in most of the

examples. The two strokes at the top are man standing on an im-
pending cliff. Sw. The two strokes below are phonetic ki. Sk.
268. jg- hen, 6, gu, "ruler," "empress." Title of nobility. From
hit
" door."
101,
269. $< p'ai, 3, p'ak, " streams of water," " reticulated lines."

Me, mak "pulses." P'ak in Kwy, R. 91.

270. ff king, " " "

5, elemental powers,"
gang, walk," the five
elements." The ideograph often goes into the middle.
271. ^jj> kiang, 3, koiig, "descend." Inundation, red, strike. Also
"
p'ang 5 bong, sound of the tambourine."
272. & ko, 4, kak. Also lo, 8, Idk. Kieu for kuk in 469. K'ek
in 504. See 338, 342, 603, 994. Also lieu in 469. Lu 1 lok in 865.

273. ft cheu, 1, to(k), " boat," " ship."

274. " Dio in R. hole.
;) chau, do, do(k], portent." Kp.
275. |f ch'i, 2, tik, "will," "decree." For final k see 119. To
point, R. hand = Mongol jigaho "to point."
276. f fu, 8, bok, "prostrate oneself." Fulcrum of abeam, R. wood.
277. ffi fa, 8, bat, "punish," "strike," "boast." Boat, to dig.
278. fft hieu, ku(t], "to stop," "cease," "good."
279. $ yi, 1, "he," "that." From 81a. Sin in Kwy, R.

bamboo. Also hin, R. cart.

" " direction." Also shang, RR.
280. jpj hiang, 3, kong, towards,"
door (Jni), rice, eat, day. See Via. Perhaps 280 is contracted from

501, to take the sound shaing.

281. jfiL him, 4, hit "blood." Also hik. Also su, sut.
" From 90. Let for
282. ft Jen, 5, mm, burden," "to carry."
hire, R. shell money.
74 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

283. $>} cheu, tuk, "island," "province." Tok in Kwy, with

R. mouth above doubled.
284. t'siuen, 5, dun, "all."
285. fe ho, 8, gap, "combine." The root is the same as that
of kia, kap 304. Also zhip, with R. hand. Found in 853, hip.
See 837.
286. muk " to
f men, 5, bellow."
Desire, companion, excite to
diligence, barley. K is deduced from the meanings. Compare 541 men.
287. in /, 5, nok, " as," "like." Same as -g 587.
"
2870. jjjr ytfw , smaU," minute." From .

" "
288. ^ kong,
*MWi<jr, 1,
light," in 699 Incang. glory." Found
"
288a. fa hu, 3, yfo, tiger." Phonetic without the lower strokes.
See 487, 784, 857, 915, 916. Final k in 915.
"
289. \jji yi, tap, drag." The lost dental initial appears as s,
with RR. water, silk. Final p occurs in several words, RR. hand, man,
water, silk.
" cause."
290. @ yin, 1, tin, "because," Marriage, mat. Smoke,
cloud. Throat. Initial t is inferred from the meanings.
290ff.
" in 486.
|jL tsau, 2, tok, early." Clio, tok,

291. If t'ung, 5, dong, (km, "same," "together," "like." The

same root as siang "like" 848.
" crooked."
292. $ k'ii, 4, k'ok,
293. m hicei, 5, gii(t], "return." Mong. haireho. Jap. kayesti.
R and y here stand for t. Found in 604 hicei.

294.^ wan, 5, gan, From yum 61.

"finish."
294. ^ sung, a family name. Sam in Kwy, RR. man, head.
Ham in Kwy, R. hand. Lam in Kwy, R. water. Ng from >n.
295. $? s^ a > 1> s hak, "sand." From 123, which see for final k.
" "
296. ^ sin, 1, acid," sharp." Phonetic in t'sin 988. Also

sing, ting, RR. horse, horn. Also tsi, ti(t], as in 656 si, ch'i, and in

607 tsai. Also pik in 898.

=" " words." For explanation of the form,
297. yen, 5, ^ew,
see R. 142.
298. $c " flow." R. water isnot part of the phonetic.
lien, 5, /?/(),

The lower part represents flowing water. Shu "comb," R. wood.

929. 7y heng, 1, kany, " penetrating." Mute, stupid. P'eny
"to cook," with R. fire. Forms hiattg "enjoy" 396. Resembles
"
partiaUy king great," "the capital," 397.
 THE PHONETICS. 75

300. JL Hang, 5, " long," " good," " mild." Niany with R. woman.
Phonetic in latig 624.
"
301. |H ti, 6, 7, rf//i-, brother." Order, rank, R. bamboo. See
226.
"
Hong, degu brother," dogar, ordinal suffix, as in gorabdogar
" the third." Read tik in Kwy, without the two upper dots, alone
and with R. 162. Once 301 is dit in Kwy, but with U 926 attached,
which may give the sound t.
Compare 221 for final k.
302.
jfp^ c'/i-en, "morning."
5, din, From 7 to 9 A.M.
302tf.
$& jan, 7, mam, "to dye."
303. J$ kiai, 3, kak t " prohibit." Kak in Kwy, R. 145 and p. 323.
Kak and ka 2 in Odes. Tyt.
" "
304. ^
kia, 4, kap, compress with the arms," pincers," etc.
Name of any compressing implement, as scissors, the shells of
molluscs, shells of fruit. Hence the butterfly, straits, the jaws, etc.
Also sham. It forms 521 with a circle. Also tsie, tap.
"
305. 2 icu, 5, mo, mo(k\ enchanter." Also hi, kik. Also sh'i,

zhik. See 409. Compare Mongol huge "enchanter."

306. H WK, 5, nrjok, "I." See 7Qa, 272, 342.
307. ^ many, 5, mong,
"a
dog with thick hair." Head, R. head,
hie. Much, large, R. cover, yen.
308. ^ feu, 2, put,
" is it so or not ?" From put " not" 71. See
138 jto
309.
"
%
k'e, 4, k'ak, "shoulder," "overcome," "carry." Also
king trembling," R. ice, as if from hiiing 198. Note that in Kw
the upper five strokes are the same as in 7? heng, and in T king.
310. ? king, 1, kom, "branches of rivers." Notice the running
water and at the top the bank of the stream. Below is the phonetic
kung" work "27.
311. flft sic, 5, za "crooked,'-' "illicit desires." Also ye "father,"
Ye " earth below.
R. father above. mud," R. First used as a phonetic

character to write the name of the old city Lang ya, and afterwards
" crooked." Hence the R.
applied to the sense city, yip. Tt.
" "
312. -f: po, 8, bat, rebel," comet." Rebel, to be unfilial,

pluck up, cake, suddenly, flour. Once bak in Kwy, R. horse. About
twenty examples have final t. Ts'i ^f is used to denote rebellion

against parents. Comets are called po, as opposing man's happiness.

313. -- chi, 3, ti(t), "will," "counsel," "intention." Descriptive
article in a history on some special subject.
76 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

314. JJ che, 4, top, "hanging ears." Also t'up, t'ip. Tim in

Kwy, R. kin "napkin." Also ngit "noise made by birds and fishes."
Picture of hanging ears. Sw.
315. Ojj. lung, 7, long, "play with," "do." It agrees nearly with
167 a, yung "use" in sound, and in some senses. L=d. Picture of
two hands holding a jade ornament.
"
316. ^ hiau, 3,
" to
kak, filial piety." See 14. Rhymes with
p. 338, R. 76 yu, ok, wish," in Odes III. Tyt.
317. ^J k'io, 4, k'ak, "to refuse." Also k"ip. From 143. But it

is irregular. It should be written, when the final is k, with p. 338,

as is done in Kwy.
318. jfc. tseu, 2, tsuk, "walk." See R. 162 t'ok, and 376 tsok
" The four lower strokes are the ultimate phonetic.
foot." See 119,
ch'i
"stop." They are also read tset in Kwy, with RR. 30, 64, 78.
Here t is for k.

319. "bean." Final t inferred from yit "one" 814.

gt ten, 7, dut,
" to
Found in 816, 965. See also 158 s'i
govern," for the form.
320. jfi "carriage."
ku, 1, C'he for t'ut in the modern
kut,
"
sound, which stands for another old word t'ut carriage," and is con-
nected with lun "wheel," lut "anything round or which revolves."
Hwei in 515, where it is also kiun. Final t is inferred from final n,
which anciently often came from t.
321. gl keng, 1, kang "watch," "to change." The root means
"
change."
3210. ^ hung, "
gom,
quicksilver."
5, Also hung 1.
322. Iff fu, 4,pok,
" an honourable name," " many," " beginning."
Phonetic in 648.
323. fja shu, 4, shok, "bind." See 249. Picture of a tree with

something tied round it. Ti for tik in 507. Sung with RR. heart,
stand, hand. Shok and sen for suk in 750. Nun once in 750.
" six in the
324. |f yen, 6, duk, evening." Wine, spirit, R. water.
"
Sok in Kwy, R. grass. Tsieu, sieu, and yeu in 581 See si " west 247,
.

979. Yep once in K wy, R." square "fang. Ok in Odes III, R. dog. Tyt.
325. ^c k'ieu, 5, guk, "seek." Quk and gu in Kya, R. hand.
Globe, R. jade.

326. Jjf ch'i, 4, tit, "break off." Know, wise, R. heart. From
171 tak (t for k), and 208 with R. 53, "covering" yen. Picture of a
hand grasping a hatchet. Suggestive of breaking.
 THE PHONETICS. 77

327. pf yung, 6, dong, "central path," R. walk, /ting. Dung

"bucket," R. wood. Tube, R. bamboo. T'ung "pierce through,"
R. 167. Yung "brave," R. strength. From 1670, yung "to use."
But the parallel lines seem to indicate a bamboo tube or some such
thing as the original of the symbol. The top stroke and middle down-
stroke are han, 5, gam, bud of flowers and trees, ideographic. Tt.

328. " moisten."

ff? tsin, 3, t'sim,

'328a. Jfjp twig, 5, dong, dom. From tan " red stone," and sham
"
hair" 43.
329. ;g ki'un, 1, kon, "ruler." Ngun in Kp, R, cart. In idea
the same as kwan "officer" 386. "to lead," and R. From ^ yin
mouth. Mouth denotes the giving out of commands.
330. jij A-W, 8, gok, "any place where people come and go."
From 168. See 98a. Circle, ring, R. metal. Bent, R. cover, mien.

Mouth under J^, " foot measure."

c'/i'i Sw.
331. ,a lei, 2, kit, "fear." From 32, ki "self," here phonetic.
332. % jen, 2, nin, "patience," "enduring." From/era "sword
edge" 34.
"which?" Name of a city. Hence
333. 3$ na, 6, 7, no, "that,"
R. city. Change place, Two sounds nam and na. Tt.
R. hand.
The left-hand part is phonetic, with sound nam. The final m was lost
early. In Odes has the sense " peaceful," " many." As a pronoun
= #0 , and nai 414.
334. %. lie, 8, lit, "thumb." Dig, R. field. Weak, R. heart.
Weight of twenty- four ounces, R. metal. From t'sun "inch" 29. A
measure roughly indicated by the thumb. The upper part is the
hand. Lid in Kya, R. earth.

335. ^ fu, 5, but, "float," "brood." Picture of suggestion.

A bird sitting on eggs. Claws are the bird. Tsi " son," indicates
the eggs. Tt.
" " safe."
336. ^ t'o, 2, t'ak, certain," The upper part is the
hand, t'ok in 102, and the lower is 50. Mong. t'oktaho "to fix."
Sk. says R. woman is contracted from ^ tig an "peace."
337. ^ tso, 6, 7, dzak, "sit on the ground," "sit."
" sit."
Dzitk in

Kwy, R. metal. Mong. sago

"
338. ^ kn, 4, kok, valley." See 272, 5810, 317. Su for zok,

with R. man. Yu for tok, with RR. water, clothes, mountain, deficient.

See 689.
78 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

339. ^|5 pang, 1, "kingdom." The left-hand part is 90&, and is

phonetic infeng 348, 401, in ping 452, /ewjr 1021, 774.

340. | mei, 5, mu(k), "each," one of the demonstrative roots.
From 187 mu "mother." Mik once in Kwy, R. earth. Also hicci,

kuk. Rhymes in Odes with sh'i 8 zhik "eat." Also min,fan. Also
hai 2 ka(k) "
sea," R. water. Mei " apricot," R. wood, was formerly
written with mu, mok "eye," above R. wood. Yp. This proves
final k.
" " " central hall in
341. ? t'ing, 5, dim, hall," imperial palace,"
a house." From 90a. the phonetic of
See 373. T'ing in 90,
341 represents plants growing out of the ground with the sense t'hig
"
grow upward."
342. & kau, 3, kok, "tell." See 766 tsau "make." Final k
occurs with eight radicals. From mouth and cow. Sw. The cow
striking a man with its horn, kio, kak, suggests the sound.
" beautiful."
343. H sieu, 3, sok, Rust, R. metal. From 167 ho

"corn," and, say some, kung "bow." S/iok in Kp, R. 162. Sok and
shok in Kya, R. words. Yen for dok " tempt," R. words, mouth.
Teu "pierce," R. 162.
343. ^ t'o, 4, t'ok,
"
"bald." T'ui for t'ok "fall," R. head, hie.

344. ti, ^
7, lik, sharp." flay, pear, oyster, Other senses
to plough, clever, hate, dysentery, have the appropriate radicals.
Lit in Kwy, R. wind. Probably t from k. From hico " harmonious."
Sw. Note that in 993 hwo "corn" is lik. Hence hwo "corn" 7^,
is phonetic here with sound Uk.
345. 3 ngo, 6, ngak, " I." Found in 880, 1006. From 75 ktco
"
spear," and 167. See 430 for final
primitive sense con- k. The
nected with a spear is lost. Used phonetically with the sense "I."
346. $
kio, 4, kak, "horn." Found in 770 hu, 902 kini.
347. ^ mien, 6, min, "avoid," escape."
"
Ban once in Kp, R.

woman. Some say from t'u hare," without one foot.

347. /^rt ch'wen,
t'un. Lin in 805, shun in 838. Also kit in 669.
From R. 34 and 45 t'et.

348. 2jx feng, 5, bong, "meet." Lower part phonetic in 339, 401,
452, 1021, 774. The root is bam, which occurs in fan, bam, "sin
against," 7.

349. -fit icei, 3, o(p), "rank," "seat." From Kp "stand" 128,

and R. man.
 THE PHONETICS. 79

" a
349#. 3 pounding mortar." Kuk in Kwy.
kicu, 6, 7, gttk,
Phonetic in 906 hwei "destroy," and in kieu "old" ff. Tok in
Kwy, R. rice. Also tso for tak. See 7746.
3496. ^ ?rt, 7, wo/.-, "shape," "appearance." Phonetic in 949a.
Picture of human face. Sw. Mok in Ty.
350. 5jE yen, 5, din, "prolong," "spread out." From 34. Outer
part from 34a. Inner part 141cr. Found also in 716. Ch'in in Kwy.
Din in Kwy R. water.

350rt. ^g kic, 4, A-?}?.

Also pz, pip, which are both in Kwy. Also
hiang, 1, bi, 8, Up. Ty. Corn in the bag. The spoon below is to
lift the corn. Some say a single grain. Also pik in Kwy by change
of p to k.

351. f yen 5, duk, "who," "which," "suddenly," "gaily." Sieu,

"to ornament," R. man and R. flesh below. T'iau for dok, "long,"

anything long or found in lengths, R. man with R. wood below. In

Kwy sieu is tik with RR. grass, eye. In Kwy t'iau is tik with RR.
grass, water. Formerly R. water was used in this phonetic for R. man.
From R. strike p'u, R. man and R. water.

352. $ ti, 4, dik, "enemy," "northern barbarians." See 212.

From yi "also" 212 7$, as phonetic. Tt.
353. $ k'wang, 5, gong, "mad." Troubled, walk about leisurely.
From 65.

354. 4 pi, 2, pit, "together," "turn." From pi 108. Steps to a

building, R. hill, feu.
355. $ yu, 5, did. "I." In the sense "!," = of which y and
d are both initials. Other senses are, slow, vomit, way, mud, put
away, with the sounds ZH, fit, du, dju. The ultimate sound for all
these senses is dut. Found in c'Jiu 355, and c'ha "tea" 695, but in
the last R. wood comes instead of the three downstrokes, which in the
other examples imply flowing water.
356. -^ han, 5, gam, "take into the mouth," "hold in the mouth."

Formally from kim "now" 110, but actually that phonetic may be
formed by contraction from this.
357. ^ hi, 1, ki(k), "hope for." From RR. 115 Man, and kin
"napkin." Final k deduced from 115. Also kit in Kwy, R. words,
and three other words. Also ch'i, ta(f), with RR. tile, silk.

358. ^ tui,7, dut, "exchange." Yne, 4, yet, "rejoice,

7 R. heart.

Shwo, I, shet "say" R. words. Yui, 7, nut "sharp," R. metal. Final

80 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

t in eight words. T changed to initial y in four words. Form de-

rived from RR. eight, mouth, bench, which suggest the idea.
359. $* tsi'un, 1, tun, "glad," "right." Upper part the same as
in yun "to assent" 117, where it has the sound dun. P. 359 is also

ts'utin Kwy, R. fire. Also so, 2, sot, "shuttle," R. wood.

360. ^ yi, 6, yik, dik. The old form Lw has in it ^ lok "six,"

with RR. grass, eye. It is not then from 163. It is used as a final

particle in predicative sentences.

361. fa chwang, 3, tong, "robust," "fertile." From 118 tsiang,

phonetic and sh'i "man," "scholar," ideographic.

362. ^
yi, yit and tsa, tsat, "flowing water," "narrow," "compel."

Tat in Kwy, RR. foot, knife, hand, water. Tai, R. 78, is the lower

part, and is here phonetic.

363. ip pu, 7, bok, "step." Bak in Kwy, R. foot. Chi for tik
with R. hill/ew. Formed by combining 119 and 123. Also she, tap,
"to ford," R. water. See 1001 pin, for the explanation of the ideo-

graph.
364. ^ han, 6, gan, "dry." From kan "shield" 20, and R. sun.

365.Iji nie, 4, net, nget, "stop up," "descend." Nget in Kwy, R.

170. Nit RR. 85, 30, 32, 62, 114, 130, 140. Meanings: black,
tumultuous, shout angrily, take up with the fingers.
366. H, kien, 3, kin, "see." From R. eye and R. man. A
suggestive picture.
367. j| pei, 3, pu(t), "precious things," "pearl oyster-shells"
used as money, found in 551 fu. Ting in 959, 1015, so called from
the use of pei as head ornaments in a circular shape, which is ying.
368. %
p'ing, 5, bing, "quickly," "to drag."
369. J[ /t, 6, lik, "third of a mile." From earth and field. Tt.

Rhymes with fu, pok "happiness," in Odes, R. fish. See 28, 365.
T'uk, huk, each once in Kwy, R. grass. Mai "bury," R. earth, where
the phonetic force may lie in the radical as in earth, R. cow. See 28.
NoJt in Kya, R. grass.
370. $[j ehu, 6, 7, dok, "assist." From 193 t'sie, phonetic, R.
li.
strength
371. "other," "to separate." Also bit. The
%\] pie, 4, pit, Kw
has one eight above another, i.e. a double symbol of separation.
372. yi, 4, yip "city." The meanings "moist," "use a
|a
ladle," etc., indicate initial t. Dip in Kh, R. man. Also yung with
 THE PHONETICS. 81

tsa, the water symbol 50b above, in 606#. The square above ia the

city. The lower part is phonetic. Sw.

373. ^ "offer a petition to any one."
c'/ieng, 5, ding,
" to
Phonetic
in 886. Radically the same as sung present." From 90. The
upper part is mouth. The lower is phonetic.
374. " excite." Picture of certain small insects
pj yuen, 3, kon,
with R. flesh below. Be angry, R. heart. Throw away money in

subscriptions, R. hand. To throw away. Taffety, R. silk. Oftener

than yuen.
kiiien See j| yuen 703. Hicun in Kwy, R. head. Sun in

Kwy, R. hand.
375. g- lu, 6, "vertebrae," "emperor's servants,"
ltif(f)(k),
" "
ministers." The resemblance to 789 gallery," is in favour of
final k. The resemblance to 682, 683 favours final t. Ku with RR.
bamboo, grass. Kung, R. mien "covering." Picture of vertebrae in
conn exion Sw. .

376. tsn } 4, tsok,

" foot." Picture of the knee, leg, ancle, and
jg,

foot. Tt. For the explanation inSw see R. 157.

"
377. ^ k'icun, 3, fcon, wearied." Bind, R. silk. From 51a
k'mtn. See 499, 702.
378. ^ tcu, 5, ngok, "kingdom of Sucheu." Kok without the

upper square in 91, and in the upper part of 845. Also tsak in Kwy
without the upper square.
379. ^ c'/ien, 5, dim, "high." From kirn "now" 110, which
has also a sound t'am as in 779. Also ngim.
380. f=| siau, 3, sok, "like." Cut, R. knife. Saltpetre, R. stone.
Sheath, R. leather, kek. Melt, R. metal. Waste away, R. water.
From siau 18a, and R. flesh, which alludes to cutting flesh.

381. ^ tsitng, 1, torn, "ancestor," "source." Three-cornered

cakes of boiled rice. R. rice. Also ham in Kwy, R. rice.

382. 5f? ting, 7, ding, "fix." Tarn in Kwy, R. yellow. Also ticn,

tan. Note that sound connects the phonetic with 141^, 350, 716.
this

383. $g yuen, 2, kan, "the centre made lofty," "surround,"

"
bend/' One of the roots for "circle."
384. k'ung, from, "empty." Sincere, R. heart. Strike, R.
hand. Throat, cough, bend the bow, admonish, high. From kung
27, as phonetic, and R. hole, ideographic.

385. gj yi, 5, ga, nga, "ought." It was anciently written with

to
"many," below. In Odes rhymes in a.

6
82 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

386. *jr kican, 1, kon, "officer," "to rule." The same etymo-
logically as kiiiu "ruler" 329. Phonetic in 961 Men "to send,"
where, however, the radical differs.

386#. Uf tan, 5, dan, "sincere." The upper part is the phonetic.

Phonetic in 878 tin, 879 tan. See 184. Same as sin "believe," tun
"honest," c'hun "genuine." S=t=c h. <

387. f chan, 1, tarn, R. water. From 190. Dzien once in Kwy,

R. bamboo.
388.
"
^ t'sie, 4, ('sip, "concubine." From lip 128. The original
idea is connecting." Hence the meanings, join, receive visitors,
to

graft. From 128 lip, phonetic.

389. -fife pei, 7, but, "double," "to double." R. man may be

exchanged for others. Bok in Kwy, RR. grass, walk (tseii),

foot.

Also t'eu. Also t'ak in Kwy R. 78.

390. ffi tm, 4, tsot, "soldier." Meanings: sudden, sad, intoxi-

cated, stop up, high, leap. From yi "clothing," in allusion to the

costume worn by a soldier, especially as the servant of some chief.

To this is added in Kw } Tsik once in Kya, R. fish.

.

391. jf keng, I, bang, "to change." The five watches of the

night. The idea of the watch is named from changing. See 721.
The seventh in the cycle of ten. See 321.
392. ; yii, 1, tot, "at a place." Meanings: mud, dark, eat

greedily. See for similar meanings and likeness in sound 355. Ot in

Kwy, R. door. The varieties of ancient shapes are endless. Same as
tcu "crow" 680. The form 392 first appeared in the Li shu, with
" on the
fang flag," left. Picture of a crow.
393. Jjjf -fu, 2, pot, "house," "city." Formed from 178 phonetic.
394. ^ ye, 7, dak, "night." Tik, with RR. water, fire, hand,
flesh. Tik, with R. clothes. From 42.
395. ^f yu, 8, dok, "nourish." Walk, R. 162. Bright, R. fire.
See 298. The lower four strokes are R. flesh. The upper four strokes
are tet in 801. Tfromk.
396. 3f!C2, kong, "enjoy," "offer sacrifices."
hiang, Also chun,
shun, tun, with the senses, sincere, pure, reverential, yellowish brown,
dark, dun. Used in 802 tun "sincere." See 184 yen.
397. / king, 1, kang, "capital," "great," The shape resembles
hiang 396, and heng'299. Liang, cool, distant, dry in the open air,

carriage for coffins. Also lio 8, liak, " to rob."

 THE PHONETICS. 83

398. $g shen 1, shim, "deep." From yin, c'hen 58. R. water may
be exchanged for others.
399. ^ kiang, 1, kony, "strong." tribes. R. sheep yangWestern
is used in allusion to the habits of the Si kiang people as shepherds.
400. jj| yen, 5, din, "flame," "flaming." Dam in Kwy, RR.
mouth, water. The symbol is fire doubled.
401. |p; feng, 6, bung, "to offer respectfully with joined hands."
The lower part is
phonetic in 339, etc. The upper part consists of
two hands offering something respectfully.
402. J| c'hang, 5, dung, "long." Chang, 2, tong, "senior," "elder."
403. ffi t'ien, 2, t'im, "to disgrace." The lower part is here

phonetic and is sim, tini 60. As the upper part, t'ien "between,"
seems to be phonetic in |^ chen, dim, "I," it may also be so here.

404. j u-u, 6, mo, "military." Also/, po. Pak in the Odes, R.

pci, shell money. It rhymes in the Odes with/0, 7, nidk, "if." Tyt V.
405. ^ t'si, 1, t'sip,
"
"wife." Final p inferred from resemblance
to 406. Formed from ^
woman, c'he plant," and yen 3 hand.
Sw. Formed from t si "even" 934, as phonetic 3^.
l
Tt.

406. ;|f nie, 8, nip, "pedal of a loom." Tsie and tie with eight
radicals. Also she.

407. " shoulder." Picture of a shoulder. Sw.

)pf kien, 1, kin,

Lower part isju "flesh." It is phonetic in Iricn 832.

" " " odd."
408. ^ k'i, 5, gi, yi, extraordinary," single," Crooked,
bent, lame, to ride, alone. From Up "stand" and k'o "can" 145 pj"

phonetic. Standing suggests standing on one leg. Tt.

409. 2j la 5, dak, "come."
/',
See 305 for the double man with
sound zhik. Zh=L Lai, 5, Tyt. and lak in Odes.
" "
410. JH yai, ngat, bank," precipitous shore." Kwei 239
phonetic. See 2a for the covering symbol, which is here phonetic
and ideographic.
411. H cJii, 8, dik, "straight." See 176*. From pi "spoon,"
sh'i "ten," mu "eye," and yi "a bent stroke."
412. 2F< c/ni, 4, tok, "fetter." From shi "pig." The cross

stroke denotes that the animal's legs are tied. Strike, R. hand.
R. hatchet, gem. Footsteps, R. earth. Chung in 625.
Engrave,
Sh'i for tok in R. 125, pig. Here the cross stroke on the left is want-

ing. Chu for dok in 636a "drive." Sui for duk "follow" in 910.
The cross stroke does not affect the sound.
84 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

413. ^ yen, 2, (t)am

"
hide." A few of the words have ap. Am
" and d are probable.
I," R. man. Initial t

414. $fc nai, 7, na(t], a fruit of three colours, white, red, and
black. From 132 ski "announce" and mu "wood." For wood we
also find ta
"
great."
415. ?ij tan, 3, to, tot, "arrive at." From ch'i 237, and tan

"knife" phonetic.
"
416. 2*? king, 6, ging, good fortune." Perhaps connected by
its sense with heng 299. Much, cold, hate.
" to
417. EX t'sii, 2, t'&ut, take." For final t, see 864 tsui
"very."
R. hand is
ideographic. Radical ear is phonetic. See 238 t'up and
314. Final t is
probably changed from p. See 599, 1018. Tap in

Kwy, R. fire.

418. jf| piau, 2, po(fy, "to manifest," "make an official state-

From " " hair."

ment." yi clothing," and man
419. ^ tu, 8, dok, "poison." From 129 chu "lord." Final*
lost in 129 is retained in 419.
420. ^ t'sing, 1, "blue," "dark blue." Rest, pure, feelings,
invite. Also t'sai. The part below is fan, "red," here used as a
( " red."
phonetic, probably through 328 t ung
"
421. ^
ku-a, 3, ka(k), divining lines." To hang up, R. hand.
From kicei 239 phonetic.
"
422. 3? lu, 8, lok, dry land." Also kicei (for kuk} and mo];, both
once.
" " " side of a table."
423. ^ ling, 5, hill," "treat coldly," angle,"
From R. earth and 173 tung " winter." R. ice may be changed for
others. Also lin, Kp R. heart. The upper part, says Sw, is formed
of mountain and six and means " high."
424. gg ya, 7, (K)ak, "second." Found in 819. For final A- see
819. For initial k see g| hit, 5, gok "a pot," "a pot with a lid."
Lime plaster, to plaster, ya, 4, ak, with R. earth underneath.
425. Tf? tung, 1, "east." The idea here is rising, sheng, shang,
100, 164, etc. The sun
seen rising through a tree.
is T sh. It is
phonetic in chnng, dung, 558. Also c'/trn, din, as if like shen in 96,
and lin in 746.
426. "^ *Jn, 7, zliit, "thing," "matter." For final t see sit
"snow" 733. See 158. Probably from sh'i j|? "use" phonetic, and
a hand consisting of the three lower horizontal strokes ideographic.
 THE PHONETICS. 85

427. ijji hi, 4, hih, "quick." K'ak in Kp. From man, hand,
mouth, and two. Sw.
428. ^ hica, 8, gak. The radical yii at the top is removable.
The phonetic is the lower
part with a complete square round it.
See 14, which gives the sound of the inscribed cross, and 205, 51,
which give that of the circumscribed square. The phonetic without
the radical yu is not ancient. Picture of a pencil sketching a map
of a field with its four boundaries.
429. Jg hicn, " firm." R. earth below be changed
1, kin, may
for others. Also shen, din. Also " to raise."
shit, 6, do(t), R. bean,
"
Hien, virtuous and wise," R. shell money underneath. Also k'eng
" from
firm," KR. hand, metal. Ng n.

430. ^ htco, 8, gok, "if," "perhaps." Found in 794.

"
See 57a.
A kingdom, and hence from mouth and spear. Sw. Region,"
yu, oh, R. earth.
431. f{9 Hang, 6, long, "two," "ounce." From \ ju "enter"
doubled, and kiung |~].
Sw.
432. ffi tin, 5, lini, "forest." Lam. in Kp, R. hill, feu. Also
sham in Kwy, R. net. Phonetic with sound kirn in 892 "to limit,"
"
forbid." From mu " tree " doubled.
" " break or cut in two." From
433. /f si, 4, sik, divide," 171,
which has here lost the cross stroke.
434. $ sung, 1, tong, torn, "fir." That is, "the high tree."

From 116 sung phonetic.

435. it k'i, 5, "he," "that," one of the demonstratives.
gi(t),
" The original
Same as kiue, hit "that." See 490 ku 6, 7, guh, all."

final of435 was perhaps h. In Kw a horizontal stroke and two

downstrokes beneath.
436. ^ si, 4, tik, "formerly." Found in 950. See 511, 718,
for likeness in the upper part.
437. f$| t'sien, 5, din, "money." R. gold be changed for
may
other radicals. To wound, robber. Two spears denote wounding by
robbers. Same as t'san "to injure," R. tai. Money was
"cruel,"
called din (t'sien) from thinness, and written as in 437 for the sound,
R. gold being added.
438. ^cheu, 2, tot, "sweep away refuse." Final t probable
from 733 sui, sut, RR. rain, hand. Picture of a hand grasping a
broom. Tt. The hand is the upper part. See 426 for the hand.
86 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

439. PJ men, 5, mun, "door." From hu "single door" |5

doubled.
440.
jj* tai, 2, tat, "arrive at." Tut in Kwy, RR. heart, foot.
See t'ap 705. From hand <5 and "tail" wei abbreviated.
441. Jg ku, 1, kok, "dwell," "be at a place." From kit

"ancient" phonetic and "corpse." sJii Sw. Tt says the upper part
is rather an abbreviated picture of man.
442. Ji k'u, k'ut, " crooked." From 52 and 207.
443. " connect."
J| cho, 4, tot, Also got in Kwy.
444. " " that
jlj han, 5, gam, hold," which holds." Picture of a
hole or of the mouth. From 16b. Ham 5 and kam 1 in Kp, R. water.

445. jjg; meng, 7, mang, "great," "first." From ming 206

phonetic.
446. " " river bank."
|^f ngo, la, great mound,"
" receive." A
447. jg sheu, 6, 7, dut, hand above, chau, and a
hand below, yeu.
448. |g yin, 5, nim, "adultery," "sensual excess." From 90#,
Sw, and 282. Nim, the lower part is phonetic.
449. 3fc t'sai, 2, t'sa(k), "beautiful," "many coloured." See 102
for the upper part.
450. |fc cheng, 1, tang, "contend," "struggle," Two hands
grasping something. Tt. From ^and /"* han. Sw.
" not." Found
451. jj fei, I, put, Fromfei "to fly." in 1000

gat and in 1025 mi, mit. Tsui "sin," R. net. Sin entraps like
a net. Tt.
452. ffi ping, "combine," "join."
1, Bam in Kwy, R. foot.
Also picn, pin. Perhaps from 905, the phonetic element in 339 feng.
But it is
preferable to follow Sw, which gives a doubled J{ above and
^ below phonetic.
453. % kitten, 3, "roll up," "a roll." From 219, with which
it is indeed identical.
" " be
454. p ch'i, 1, tik, know," acquainted with a fact." Tik
in Kwy, R. water. T'ik, dik in Kwy, R. see kien. From 163a
and mouth. Tt remarks that sin
" mind" would be more appropriate
than mouth here.
455. -ijilj chi, 3, tit, "limit," "cut," "law." Tat in Kwy, R.

heart, and t'et, R. hand. See 259. From R.knife ideographic.

456. fjg c'hui, 5, dop, "fall." Picture of flowers drooping.
 THE PHONETICS. 87

"Weight, staff, to strike, pound in a mortar, hanging ball of a steel-

yard, sleep, heavy. Final p is inferred from the meanings 502.

457. ^
wet, 2, tuk, "send," "unjust," "officer's post." Nui and
j'ui with four radicals. Send away, low, lame, From nu and hwo,
both of which have final k.

458. ^
kii, 4, kok,
" that which is
" take with
both hands," " the two hands,"
held in the two hands." In the picture rice is held in
the hands.
459. " fat." From Sw
8| fei, 5, bi(k), pa, pa(k) 86. says the
"
right hand is tsie
temperance."
460. " i.e. one with whom one daily
JJJJ p'eng, 5, bang, friend,"
From " to Kh
meets. bang against." strike says from feng
"phoenix," because thousands of birds begin to follow it immediately
on itsappearance.
461. IJJ fit, 8, bolt, "submit." In Kw, moon and man. Also
in Kw, boat and man. Bind. Clothing.
462. ^i " " evil." Lit and lut in Kwy, RR.
li, hii, lit, crooked,"
See 505 " From
silk, hand, mouth, foot, stone. t'ut suddenly." dog
and door. A
bad man stoops and bends his body like a dog, coming

out of a low door. Sw.

463. Jjjf k'i, 3, k'i(tj, "open," "instruct." From hu "door"
101, R. strike, p'u. The radical mouth below is removable.
464. JU clieu, 1, tok, "round," "complete." T'ik in Kwy,
R. man. To in Kp, R. clothes. From yung "use," and k'eu
" mouth."
Sw.
" kiln for
465. j|j fan, 5, dok, making pottery." Sw says pan
"
wrap," is the phonetic here, but it is in fact cho, tak, the middle dot

being lost.

466. '$ hu, 4, hot, "suddenly." K'ot in Kp, R. hand. From 96.
467. ^ //ien, 5, gim, "to fall into a pit." Picture of a pit and a
man falling into it. Also tan, tarn " absinthe," R. grass. Also kap,
UR. hand, knife.

From kin
" hatchet" 99
468. jfr hin, 1, "joyful." phonetic.
469. JQ k'ieu, 5, gu, "calamity." Also lieu "bundle of thread,"
Also " From man and kak
R. silk. kicei sun-dial," R. sun. ko,
"
every," i.e. men all acting in opposition to one another.
470. Jj^ ri, er, 5, ngi, hik. Hik in Kwy, RR. 76, 161. Picture
of an infant, the head bones not yet closed. Also ngit and kip.
88 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Ngit in Kwy, RR. 142, 145, 173. See 3496, 906. Perhaps it was
first jo, as in Mongol hubegun. This changed both to k and to t.
" an instant." Sen for sok in which see
471. f yu, 5, duk, 675,
for final k. Ok in Kwy, but the identity of the form is doubtful.

From yi 289 turned round.

" short-tailed birds." Final k in 7766 and
472. \ chui, 1, tuk,
948. See for tok la, 129. See 796, 850. Also hok 992. Hwei, kak
in 472, 626, 957, 992, 1003, 1023. Also kican 1022. Also chun,

tun, as in 904.
4720. ^ yo, yue, 8, ngak. Same as the more ancient 954. High
mountains.
" silk
473. ^
" silk
pe, 4, pak, plain woven." From 179 bak phonetic.

Kin, 2, kim embroidery," R. gold.

" hill." Shan " mountain," here turned
474. J feu, 6, bo(t), is

on its side. For the upper part, see 1014.

475. f^ pei, 1, pik, bik " low." Bak 179 is phonetic. The two
hands below are represented in the act of giving. Bak, pik, in Kwy,
RR. wood, silk, grass, hair. Once p'it in Kwy, R. bird. Here t is
probably from k. Once in Kwy bit, R. silk. T from an earlier k.
" " dull." Sw
476. -p hwun, 1, Icon, dim," Also tm'n. says the
" " allusion to sunset.
upper part is ti J^, down," going down," 'in

477. fe nien, 7, niam,

" " recite." Also with
think," nie, trip,

several radicals. From kim 110.

478. ^ kin,
"gold." From kim 110 phonetic, kican
1, kim,
meaning "ore," and earth as representing the place from which
metals come. Tt.
479. ^ hiau, 6, go, gok, "food." The upper four strokes are
hiau 115, the lower arej'u "flesh."
480. " " " round." R.
ffif lun, 5, order," arranged principles,"
man is not part of the phonetic. Cf. shun, tan, 204. See tien 500.
L=t. The prime physical idea is that of wheel.
481. >
she, 3, shot, "cottage." The meanings indicate final k,
but R. tongue, she is shet. Perhaps the use in this character of R.
tongue was not primitive.
482. " "
-fa lu, 8, lok, engrave," good fortune," R. announce, sh'i.

R. silk. Also pok " to a covering,"

Green, strip off R. knife. Lok,
lok is the sound of chopping wood. Sw.
483. " untilled
gj chi, 1, ti, land." Ti in Kwy. See 362, 980,
 THE PHONETICS. 89

which render final p possible. The symbols only speak however of

land and water upon it.
484. fy shu, 4, shok, "uncle." Good, R. water.
Lonely, R.
cover, m-ien. From 18. Nik in Kp, says the left
R. heart. Sw
portion is
phonetic. But in fact the right portion, yeu " hand,"

may be phonetic also as tok. Sh=t.

485. -^ k'eng, k'en, " The lower part is jit
2, k'eng, willing."
"flesh."
486. " " From 290a. The two
j cho, 4, tok, high," excelling."
upper strokes, says Sw, are shang "above." 2 1(

sau, 2, tok in 696.

487. J& hu, 2, kok, "tiger." From 288. See 784, 857, 915,
916. Kok in 915.
488. j^j ivang, 6, mong, "nothing," "net." Picture of a net.

Disturbed, R. heart. Speak falsely, R. words. From 18 icang, mong,

which contains in fact some of the same roots. In Sc 488 is made
up of wang 18 and R. net.

489. [23 kang, 1, kong, "mountain top." Steel, water, jar,

diamond, with a pole between two. From I7a as phonetic.
to carry

The mountain within is covered with what seems to be a picture

of something on its summit.
490. ^ ku, 6, 7, guk, "all." See 1023, 1034. From 192a mok
and kok @.
491. $p ngai, 7, ngak, " obstacle." R. stone may be changed for

others. Final k with four radicals. Te for tik "get" R. 60. Te for
dik "alone," R. cow. For lower part see 29. For upper part see
494 and 436. Both parts are separately phonetic.
492.
" naked."
^ kico, 2, kap, "fruit," "in reality." Also lo, 6, la(p}
Picture of fruit (the square) upon a tree (the lower part).
" Picture of the sun and moon.
493. 0$ ming, 5, mang, bright."
" " "
494. %, yi, 8, dik, change," viper." Easy, 7. Sik tin,"
" a
Picture of viper.
give," R. metal.
495. H kuntn, 1, k'on, "same," "elder brother," "together."
496. ^ c'hang, 1, t'ong, "flourishing," "bright." Two suns
express this idea. The same root is found in lung, sheng, t'ttng,
which all mean flourishing. L=sh=c'h=t.
497. gj ku, 3, kok, "firm." Used with RR. bamboo, man, as a

numerative of many substantives. Anciently, ku ancient with heart

beneath. Ku is phonetic.
90 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

498. |f pet, "give," "distribute." The field is the thing

I, pit,

given. The two hands below denote the act of giving. Found in
pit to "finish" 791, and in bit "nose," over which R. ts'i "self" is

placed. P'i occurs in Kp in the third tone, R. flesh, with the

character jot "nose."
499. ]H k'tcun, "mushroom." R. grass may be removed. It

then means "granary." From 510. See 377 k'wiin, which is

radically the same.

500. ^ tien,"law," "rule," "example."
2, tin, Phonetic in
710. Like tan in sound under t'se 204 and lun 480. See t'ien
"field" 201, tun "shield" 565, for physical objects the names of
which resemble the character in sound. From t'se "book" 204,
and icu "bench," "table" 22. The book rests on the table.
501. f^ shang, 7, zhong, "yet," "still." The lower part is the
same in form nearly as 280, shang and hiang. Above is pa "eight."
Phonetic in fang " hall" 786, c'heng "support" 858, c/t'eny 870, tang
" " flavour " below.
914, tang 1032. See 776c " to taste ch'i ^
502. ^ ta, 8, dap, "heavy." To fall, converse. Similar mean-

ings in 456 dop. The upper part represents water dropping, which
was called dap, dap. See 980 "wax" lap, which was also named
from dropping. See 505, 362, and 705 "
ta glance of the eye."
503. ^ siuen, 1, sow, "preach," "proclaim." Same as shen
" to

stretch out." Also hiuen. From hiuen 245. The sound siuen from
tan 192, see 879. The covering radical above alludes to the house
from which the imperial decrees were sent forth.

504. %. k'e, "guest."

4, Ko, kak is phonetic.
k'ak, The
covering radical alludes to the house in which the guest is received.
505. *$ t'u, 4, t'ot, " suddenly." The phonetic element is in the
lower four strokes, as in 462 Ini, U, /it, " crooked actions." Picture
of a dog suddenly coming out of his den.
" constant."
506. 'jg heng, 5, geng, From keng 228.
"
507. j^ U, 3, tik, "emperor," supreme governor." Sw says it
is from shok 323
" to bind," as its phonetic. See 755 tai " girdle,"
which is like in shape.
" sound." Kw
508. ^ yin, 1, yim, him, Found in a form of yim
"dark principle in nature" 764.
" banner." From 36 " son."
509. jft yen, 5, ok, ts'i
Probably
dok, and as it means " flowing," it is
very likely=/i<?w
"
flow."
 THE PHONETICS. 91

510. $ ski 1, ship, "give," "send forth to." From 35 ye. See
165. For final^? see 35.
511.g tu, 7, 8, dok, "think," "measure," "cross a stream," R.
water. Cover with gold or silver, R. metal. Two phonetics, sik 436
and ym, duk 15 " hand," are here found. The hand was used as
a measure of length.
512. ^ yen, 7, ngan, "wise sayings." Also fan in c'han "pro-
duce" 723. The two middle strokes are phonetic in 2 and 637
"
yuen spring of water."
512a. Ijjt yen, 6, dan, name of one of the nine provinces of ancient
China. The five middle strokes are the phonetic yen 184, which is
dun with R. boat, cheu.

513. 2| t'ingr, 5, ding, "portico." A house on pillars without

walls. To stop, R. man. Here the root is identical with that of chan

7 dam " stand." M became ng. The lower two strokes ting are

phonetic.
514. f fu, 8, bok. Found in 849.

515. j|t kiiin, 1, kon, "battalion," "wings or centre of an army."

From 320 ku "cart." Hun or gun in Kp R. water.
" head."
Final t inferred from 319 ten
516. "if" sheu, 2, shut,
"head." "
"bean," head with R. hie Mong. t'ologai head." jij| tan
"road" in Kw, has both R. 162 and R. walk, hing.
517.
" before."
"fjif f'sien, 5, dzin,

518. ^ t'si. From 221 t'si and mouth.

519. H 3, to(k}, "speak to the emperor."
tsett, Heaven below is

the emperor. For upper part see 520.

" " the
520. ^ c'hun, 1, fun, spring," bursting season." Phonetic
in t'sin 633. The sun as ideographic speaks for itself. The upper
part represents hands offering gifts. T'un "bursting" 105 was

anciently used for the upper part.

520#. ^ he, kak. Kak in Kwy, RR. water, fire, knife.

521. ^ kie, 4, kap. From 304.

522. ^ t'o, 5, dap, "lazy," "fall." From tso "left" 136.
Subordinate phonetic ; pff to fall in ruins, R. earth.
See 883.
523. J^ wei, 1, ka(k], "dignity," "authority." See 457, 75.
524. j^ Men, 5, gam, " all." Also chem. Phonetic in- kam 884.
525. g hie, 4, kit, "head." Found in Ma "summer" 638, yen
"sad" 871, kie, kit 927. S'd for sut, with R. 59, san "hair." Fan
92 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

"give trouble," with R. fire. See suk 847. For meaning head, see

515, 319.
526. fSJ mien, 3, min, "face." Picture of the face.
527. ^
jwan, 6, non,
" "
"soft."
Liap in Kwy, R. ear. Upper
part twan in 606. From 23 ta, dap great and 232. Nu " woman,"
sometimes takes the place of ta "great" underneath. NU in Kwy,
R. hand.
528. 3jt* pen, 1, "to run." From pen 149. The six lower strokes

are phonetic in pen 887. They are three cows in Kw and three
hands in Sc. See 821.
" " extend."
529. ^ cha, 1, tap, boast,"
"
large," From 23 dap,
265 tap. Yip in Kwy, RR. flesh, metal, etc. This character occurs
in Chwang Tsi, B.C. 330.
"
530. ^ feng, 1, pong, heap up earth for an altar." Earth over
earth expresses this. A hand on the right points to human agency.
To seal.

531. ^ che, 2, tak, "that which," " he who." Same as shi, dik

& "is," "this." Found in 812, 8320, 919a. Tak in Kwy, with
RR. grass, bamboo.
532. 6|5 kien, 2, kin, "divide," "distinguish." Also lien. Lan
in 1009. From shok " to bind" 323. The two strokes in the square
and the two supporters below, are each ). pa "eight," symbol of
division. Tt.
533. m yen, 2, tan, "hide," "cover." Mole, R. rat. Lie down,
R. man. Also ya, 4, yat "pull up." Earth-dike, R. earth. Tot in

Kwy, RR. hand, eye. For initial t, see 536, 192, R. 131. The inner
seven strokes are phonetic here.
534. jjj| fu, 4, pok, "happiness." The right-hand part/w "full,"
is the phonetic, the upper four strokes on the right are phonetic as in

Zj% po, 8, bok, "an ancient city," having R. 14 below and t'ok 39 below
it. From kau "high" ^, as being that which is high and thick.
Sw.
535. ifl "sharp speech," "cruel," "beat," "to be sick."
la, 8, lat,

From R. knife, and 249 ts'i, tsak. Final t from k. The phonetic is
the part on the right.
536. ]3C yin, yen, 1, tin, kin, "stop a water gap." Zhu and du in

Yp. Kin in Kwy, R. tile. From si "west," and t'u "earth." Sw

says the natural bent of water is to flow east, but through the inter-
 THE PHONETICS. 93

ruption of earth banks and rocks it will sometimes flow west. Hence
the use of si. See in 533 earth dike, R. earth.
537. H yau, 3, tok, "want," "desire." From 247 and 50, both
of which have final k. Also the dictionary Po ya says it means the
"
same as yak, to bind."
538. /fg slang, 1, sioiig, "together," "assist," "chief minister."
Phonetic in 1007. Formed of two ideographs, wood and eye. A side
border, houses on the side of a court, etc., are called slang. Same root

as 1005.
539. 3H c'ha, 5, daf, "seek." From tan, tat "dawn," phonetic
and R. tree.
" Also k'am. The
540. jJ shcn, 7, zhun, dim, exceedingly."
upper part, "$ kam "sweet," is phonetic. The lower part is p'it

"a "
Hence the explanation doubled sweetness" or "sweet-
pair."
"
ness in pairs found in Sw.
541. ^ men, 2, muk. From 80 mok "
wood," below ideographic,
and mil, mok "eye," above phonetic, for which kam "sweet" has come
to be written in later times. Meanings :
go between, a certain one,
coal, muck, machinate, form stratagems, desire. Apricot, same as mci
340, R. wood.
542. Pj^ ye, 8, dep, "leaf." Agrees in some meanings with dzip
851, sit 1014. For initial y are found s, t, s/i, ch. The ruling signi-
fication is anything in the shape of a leaf, e.g. butterfly, plate, slipper,

ticket, slip of wood, metal leaf, sickle. From R. wood and sh'i
phonetic.
543. ] nan, 5, nam, "south." From the lower left portion of
" hold in the hand."
742 ch'i, tip, tim,
544. $3 hu,5,gok, "how," "what." Ku is phonetic. The
right-hand part iaj'u "flesh." Throat, neck.
" soft."
545. ^
jen, 5, nok, Young twigs as an ideograph suggest
softness. Final k inferred from the meanings. See 655, 636, and in

compared with the Tibetan nig "black." The upper

sepia, R. fish, as
and lower parts separately are both mok. RR. wood, spear.
546. J wu, 8, mak, "strong," "limits." Mok in Kwy, R. eye, see

92. Helps to form 893, and is formed itself from 92 mok phonetic.
gg Men, 3, kin, "build," "make firm," "set upright."
547.
Same root as kan " upright stem." From "
" the
lu rods," and t Ping ^
court," i.e. the setting up of the court rods. Sw.
548. H wu, 4, (t)ok, "house." For initial t see 1037. Sh'i
94 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

represents the master. Sw. Another says sh'i is the picture of a

house and " which men go to rest.
clii to," the place to
549. fj kia, 2, kat, "borrow," "false." R. man not part
is

of the phonetic. Initial h in Kp, R. fire. Also twan, ton, with

which compare twan 572.
550. ja wet, 5, ngu(k], "prepared leather." From #4- clncen and
mouth phonetic. Hwei and wei in Kp, R. clothes.
" owe "
551. H fu, 6, 7, pot, money," carry on the shoulders."
Married woman, R. woman. To imitate, R. man. From 367 pel
" Sw To have money permits a
money." says the upper part is J{.

man to be in debt.

552. jj^ hwan, " " brilliant." Also twan. From

1, Jean, great,"
two hands placed together, kung below and hican above, the last

of which wants R. eye and R. si 35 beneath it.

553. Pf sit, 1, sok, "all," "flesh of crabs." Son-in-law, R. woman.
Found in 893, 593. The upper part, su, is, says Sw, tsok, " foot,"
and is here phonetic. The lower part is R. flesh. Zhik in Kwy, RR.
40, 85, 162.
554. Jjji niei, 5, mu, "eyebrows." Picture of the eye and hair
above it.

555. ^ yuen, 6, gan, "lead by the hand." From t'o "secure"

l|
and ff*. yu. Hwan, gan in Kwy, R. bamboo, silk, fish. Also
Van, R. field. Also mean, R. fire, day. Upper four strokes yin
in 949.
556. ffy'c'heng, 1, t'ing, t'im, "raise out of a well." Weigh,
R, corn. From a hand above chau, and keu 635.
557. 5; kicei, 2, Jcut y tenth of the denary cycle. Kut in Kwy,
RR. horse, door. In Kp 557 occurs inserted in R. door, with R. eye
added on the left, with sound ngat and sense "ignorant," "deaf." In
Kw water is seen flowing from four sides to the centre of a piece
of land. Sw.
"
558. tfr chung, heavy." To move, R. strength.
6, 7, dong, dom,
Tung "east" 425 is here contracted and used phonetically. Tt.
Liang "to measure," is in Kw formed from chung '"heavy" J|. In
the modern shape it is formed from U " a mile."
559. j$j
l
c ha, 4, t'ap,
" to beat." Picture of a pestle and mortar.
See 662, where a mortar also occurs.
559<7. $C mtt > 8, mok, "shepherd," "to do a shepherd's duty."
 THE PHONETICS. 95

"
From 92 and R. cow. P'ok " strike 92 is also ideographic, and
alludes to the shepherd's staff.

560. $fc t'sieu, 1, t'sok, "autumn." The ripe time, as c'hun

"
spring" is the swelling and bursting time. From 167, which is sok
in su "coagulated milk," in su "to revive," and in "private," "that
s'i

which is one's own," same as ts'i 176a "self." For final k see 3430, 993.
561. :ff hiang, 1, kong, "incense," "fragrance."
562. =|| hung, 1, kong, "noise." See 17a. Also ku, kok, R.

leather kek. From R. words and y'iin 94 "even." Sw. But it is

better to regard the wrapping radical as a hand indicating noise made

with the hands. See the same hand in 438.
"
562tf. ^ ki, 4,kip quick." Kik once in the Odes, Siau ya.
The present form first appears in the Li shit. From R. heart and ki,

8, gip, phonetic ~fc

563. j|. t'sung, " the whole." The phonetic is the five strokes
1,
in the upper right-hand corner. Hasty. The primary idea is

piercing through. A
window piercing a wall is c'hicang, R. heart
"
below, R. hole or p'ien slip of wood" above. Intellectual penetra-
tion is frsung, R. ear. To stimulate is t'sung, R. strength on the right.
" "
T'ung penetrating," reaching through," is the same root.
T' =c'h =
t's. Picture of a hole made in a house or wall. The wall
is the outside cover, which in Kw
is a circle with a dot at the top.

564. || ying, 5, dong, " full." From jeng, 8, phonetic, and R.

vessels, ming.
565. ^ fun, 5, dun, "shield," "follow," "sow," "flee." Also
tu, 4, tut, R. flesh. It may be phonetic in 956 siun, 674 chen, etc. A
picture of covering the eye.
566. f| pien, 2, pin, "inscription written over a door." From
We " " door."
book," and hu
" contract." Also sit and zip. R. great, ta,
567. Jig k'i, 3, k'it,

may be changed for R. silk, as in 809. From 256, where the knife
indicates the cutting of characters on bamboo and wood, and the
four strokes on the left are phonetic.
568. f^f yen, 6, gin, "overflow." From R. water and R. walk hing.
Sin, k'ien, R. heart.
569. f " " " laws." From R. 60, short
lu, 8, hit, rods," rules,"
"
step, c'h'i, tik, and 129 " brush yu, I'ot.

569a. ^ lieu, 6, 7, guk, "after." K'ok once in Kwy, R. hemp.

96 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

From RR. f, A^, the last of which means

^, behind. Sw. The
second, silk, keeps a man back by binding him. Sk.
570. j; kiai, 1, hat, "all." Kat in Kya and Kwy, R. corn. P*
"compare," and bak "white," suggest "all."
571. JH
" " customs." Bam in
/<?>*<7, 1, .pew*/, 5am, wind," Kwy,
R. horse.

572. J twan, "a cut-off portion of anything." See 549. From

R. spear, shu, and ^ ^><w.
573. A> an d on the right ^, _pt>, 6, 7, bin, "convenient." From
keng, "watch." Sw.
"
574. Jl. emperor." From 65 wang, with which
hicang, 5, gong,
it is ultimately identical as a root. Also from g ts'i " self," here to
be readjui, as in^', bit, "nose," "beginning," m .

574. j!^ t'siuen, 5, zin, "spring of water." Picture of water

flowing from a covered place.

575. |p tsi, 4, tsik, tik. Also tit, as in Odes Tyt xii, in Kwy, R.

hand, bamboo. Here probably t is for an older k. The right-hand

portion of 575 is omitted in Kwy, R. fire.

576. ft heu, 6, 7, gu(t), "inquire," "wait for," "go to see."

Without the middle downstroke it is the second rank of nobility. With
the middle stroke "to wait for," " go to see," "inquire about."
it is

The arrow on the right refers to archery, by success in which noble

rank was anciently acquired.
577. $i yu, 6, nguk, guk. Name of the founder of the Hia
dynasty. Tok in Kwy, R. 44. See H7a. See 598 and 929.
578. { pan, 2, pot, " to protect." Citadel, to reward or praise
the good, baskets for carrying children. In the right-hand part Kw
is nearly ^fu.
579. ^ yen, 1, ngem, "to cover." Kam in Kwy. Picture of
two hands covering something up. Ho fe suggests closing up.
580. -Sr yu, 5, du(t], "yes." Initial t occurs in t'eu "rob," R.
man Initial sh occurs in shu " lose
"
; dig, R. knife. in gambling, R.
cart. inferred from the meanings, "pass over," "rejoice,"
Final t is
"
exchange," etc. See 154.
581. jflj t'sieu, 5, du, "a chief." Spirits, R. water. From yen 324
and a half 7JC above.
581tf. g|< k'io, 4, kak, "meet," "division," "union of relatives."
" "
Kok valley is phonetic.
 THE PHONETICS. 97

" to " coir."

582.
hung, 1,^ plant,"
" small branches of
trees,"
See for the lower part 173 tuny "winter," and 423 ling. L=t.
Upper six strokes phonetic. Tt.

583. f[| fei, 1, j9'/(0, " to fly." Picture of birds flying.

584. ^
t'wan, 1, t'on, fix the meaning of the lines used in the
ancient divination. A
pig walking. Sw. Also hwei, ku(f) "wearied,"
R. sickness. Yuen " R. silk. cause,"
585. ^ nau, 2, no(k). Upper three strokes the same as in 283,

which is tok. See 782. Hence final k is inferred, as is also deducible

from the meanings, e.g. poison as compared with tu, dok "poison."
D = n.
586. J| clteng, 1, ting, "chastity," "correct."
587. ^ jo, 8, nok,
"
if,"
"
that,"
" like." One of the demonstra-

tive roots. Same as #0 287. From yen "assist" 139.

588. 1, yang, tang, "flourishing."
jj^ ying, Same root as c'hang
"flourishing" 496. From 200 yang "middle," phonetic.
589. g miau, 5, mok, "early growing corn." Final k is inferred
from meanings like those of 546, 594, "beautiful," "small stalks,"
" " "
good," and from Kw, which has mok eye" above and mok wood"
below.
590. M yu, 4, tok, "brightness." For the upper part see 436,
491. Yip in Kwy, R. fire. JTfrom p. The lower part is 128.
591. glj tsc, 4, tsak, "law," "method," "limit." Found in 921a.
From knife and shell money, the ancient standard of value.
592. ijj yang, 5, dong. Same as c'hang " bright," nam " south,"
"
long bright," by change of d to y, d to n, final m to ng. Phonetic
in 767, 798.
593. J| sin, 6, 7, zhfk, "this," "is." See 553. Zhik in Kwy,
R. 40, etc. Dik in Odes, Tyt xvi, R. hand. The lower part is cheng
The upper is
" sun." Sw.
IE .

594. >> miau, 6, mok, "mysterious," "small." From 123 >>

and R. eye. What the eye sees to be few.
594. -fL kieu, hieu, k'ok, "dogs looking." K'ik, h'ik in Kwy,
RR. cart, horn. From RR. eye, dog.
595. Jl sing, 1, sing, "star." From
sheng "life" 164. It means

and same " to illus-

sparks, with R. fire, is probably the with chang
"
trate," make bright." Ape, R. dog. Apes are perhaps so called

like," = siang
"
as being imitators. Sing= |^J t'ung
" like"
^ .

7
98 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.
"
596. & ho, 4, kat,
"
why ?" From R. say, yue and ko, kat ask,"
"
take," the lower five strokes.
" " From mu,
597. gmau, 7, mok, blindly," sacrilegiously."
mok "eye," and R. moon. Sw. Mok in Kwy, RR. woman, boat,
wood. Placed in Kh under R. desert, kiung, on the ground of the Kw.
598. & yu, nguk, "ape." For final k see 577 and 117a. Ngung
in Kya, R. fish. Ngu in Kya, R. reptile.
" flatter." Twist a cord, From 238
599. g- tsi, 4, tsip, R. silk.

ear and R. mouth.

" think." The upper five strokes are sit in
600. jg, s'i, 1, sit, $$
" small." From
si the upper part of 7760 as phonetic in Kw, and
R. heart.
kut or " fear." If the lost initial of this
601. Pj| icei, I, tut, t is

and the next phonetic, they are to be understood as derived from 201,
finals t and n being interchangeable. Ut in Kwy RR. wind, hand, eye.
R. mouth is not part of the phonetic.
602. ^ wei, ku(t) or tu(t), "stomach." Picture of the object
with R. flesh below. Sw. Witt in Kwy, RR. wind, eye, hand, and 60.

Kwei R. mouth. A lost t is inferred.

" to alarm." See 994. See 2 for the lower
603. 3f ngo, 8 ngak,

part of 603 and 14 for the cross of 994. Beat a tambourine. The
two mouths express two voices singing in harmony, one answering to
the other. Tt. The lower part was anciently 208a, ni, 8, ngik, con-
trary, opposed to Sw, and was phonetic.
604. ^g hwei, 5, gu(t), "return," "bend." From 293.
604a. ffi fan, 3, "charcoal." From R. fire and ^ an "bank,"

phonetic.
605. j^ k'wai 1, k'a. Rhymes with nik 655 in the Yi king, Tyt
xvii. Source of ku, kot, "bone" 700. But since Sw takes no notice
of the connexion, perhaps it is
merely a modern resemblance. The
meanings seem to require final p. Found in kwo "pass" 674.
606. [^ ttcan, 1, tan. Lower part see 527. From shan
"mountain," where sh has changed from t. But Sw says the upper
part is growing plants and the lower roots.
606a. m ynng, 1, "bank up water." Same as 876. Formed from
water, 48, 362, above, and 372 "city" yip, below. Two mouths some-
times stand for city, and these mean banked-up earth to keep in the
water. Tt.
 THE PHONETICS. 99

607. 3J tsai, ta(t), "ruler." Butcher, to kill, R. 79 shu. From

R. cover, mien, and sin "acid" 296, which has also the sound ts'i, fit,

See 656.
608. ^ Iden, 2, k'in, "tear up." The radical below may be
changed for others. Sai and chai for sak, with RR. earth, heart, shell,
wood. Phonetic in 1004, with R. foot and sound k'ien.

609. ^ kia, 1, ko(t), "house," "home." Mongol ger "house."

Picture of three men under a roof. Tt.

610. ^ hai, 7, gat, "injure." The middle part k'i is the phonetic
as in 365. The cover and the mouth below indicate, says Sw, that

calamity begins at home.

611. % chai, 8, dzak, dak, "narrow." Compress with the hand, R.

hand. Wine press R. yeu (six P.M.). From 166 as phonetic.

612. J& wa, 1, "hollow," "concave." From melon phonetic.
Melon is sometimes doubled. Not a classical character. The same
" to " hole."
probably as kiue, 8, git, dig," and hiue, 8, git,
613. 5, dong, "contain," "hold."
yung, Same as c'heng
" " to stow." the same as t'ltng,
receive," chioang Easy. Probably
passable, capable of reaching. From R. cover, mien, kit, kok, valley.
Sw. From R.hole hiue, and kung "just," al^o called sung. Tt.
614. ^ ying and yung, 5, dom,
"
light of fire." Same root as in

400. The
radical wood is changed for others. Ying for vase, encamp-

ment, grave, etc. Yung for cover, light, glowworm. King with p.
250 with the senses " flax," "alone." Lo, liau, lok, brightness, R. cow;
fat, R. flesh. See 806. The recovered by the help of Ty, in
lost k is

which lok occurs with R. cow. To measure with lu ^, below. Ying

= linng, "measure." Y for d. D=L
615. ^ p ang, (
5, long, "side," "broad." From fang "square"
54, phonetic. In Kw R. cover mien over fang.
616. g| "sickness," "hasty."
tsi, 4, tsit, Tsit in the Odes, Tyt

xii. The phonetic is 163.

617. ^
fang, 5, dong,
" name of
a dynasty." See 720 yung for
form and sound, and 391 for the form.
617a. " mat." See 1300. From shu 718 Sw.
fjfg si, 8, zik, ]&.
618. ^ k'icun, 1, k'on, "embroidered robe." Perhaps from 130
hiuen " dark." From R. clothes and 5V. Sw. From 184. Kwy.
619. 2 ts'i, 1, tik, "this," "black." From hiuen 130 doubled.
Tt. But this is improbable. See oOa, 620, 641, etc. Final k in 620,
 100 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

641. Soften, R. water. Bring to life, R. son. Pity, R. heart. Stone,

R. magnet. Hoe, R. metal.

620. jf ch'-u, 4, t'ok. The six domestic animals. Take care of.

An animal that is taken care of. Same root as 395. Also hu, 4. hok.

621. *jj*i
"straw coat used as a protection against
shicai, 1, shat,

rain." Picture of the object. Tt. Decayed. The form in Sw

indicates that we may perhaps look to 778 shat "kill," for an explana-
tion of the middle portion of 621. There are four oblique crosses called
shat. These may be the phonetic. The remainder is R. clothes.
622. ^ kau, 1, kok, "high." Final k with three radicals. Found
in 845, 935.
623. JH mung, 5, "obscure," "covered," "ignorant boys." From
R. pig, that animal being a type of stupidity.
624. j|)3 lang, 5, long, "man," "portico." The portico is said to
be used for the lord of the house honorifically, but since the word is
"
employed for shepherds, and the Amoy dialect has lang man," it is

more likely to be an original word. From 300.

625. ^ chung, 2, tony, "great," "hill summit," "tumulus,"
"tomb." From 563 t'sung, phonetic, and pan "embrace," ideographic.
In Kw the upper two strokes, pan, surround the whole character.
626. ^
ho, 8, ngak," high-flying bird," "high." From 472. See

957, 992. See 7766 tak, and 729 tuk.

" dark." From R.
627. HJ ming, 5, sun, fc, and R. cover mik.
Mik in Kwy, RR. 50, 145. Also mien.
628. 3 kau, 1, kok, "lamb." Final k deduced from 880, 1006.
Kok in Kwy, R. corn. Tak in Kwy, RR. 113, 115.
629. H c*Aa, 1 V<*P, "to err," "slip." From tso
"
"left" 136,
"
below, and a form which in Kw is much like chui, dop fall 456, in

shape. It seems to be a double ideograph and also a double phonetic.

630. sho, 4, skok, tok, "new moon."

ijljjj
Sok is "to return." The
new moon is the light returning. To suck, R. mouth. Sok, plaster a
wall, R. hand. K is lost in su " to mould a statue in clay," R. earth ;

su " to tell," "

accuse," R. words.
630a. JJG/J kiue, 1, kit. See 810 kiiifi. To dig, to pierce.
631. j$ mi, 5, mi(k), "deceive," "go the wrong way." From
120 mi " rice," phonetic.
632. Hf tsi, 4, tsik, "backbone." Picture of the spine, R. flesh
below. See 1037 for the four horizontal strokes.
 THE PHONETICS. 101

633. Jj| t'sin, 5, dzin, ancient name of north-western China.

Upper part phonetic in c'hun "spring" 520, but note that in Kw

c'hun has a different form.
634.
" white."
^ su, 3, sok,
"
white,"
" uncoloured."
Mongol
"
c'hagaii,

Upper part chu, tok is phonetic. Lower part si silk," is

descriptive of material, butis also phonetic. See 2876.

635. j|| ken, 1, kok, "connect," "join by crossing." Same as
kiau 214. Kak in Kwy, R. peck. Kiang with four radicals. The
upright characters are R. tree. The horizontal are beams of timber
interlaced with the tree. Tt.
636. Jf| ju, 8, niok, "to feel shame." Soft, moist, R. water.
Same root in this sense as 545 and 655. The lower part tok 29 is

phonetic.
6360. %j " " From 412 and R. pig
chu, 8, dzok, drive," pursue."
phonetic.
637. " " source." From
Jfj( yuen, spring of water,"
5, ngen,
" a 2.
t'siuen jf spring, flowing from under a cliff." See
638. J[ liia, 6, 7, get, "summer," "to dance," "large house."
" "a
Name of the Chinese people. Sw. From hie head," kieu
mortar,"
" the two
hands," and clii R. 34 " the feet." This is in

allusion to dancing. Sw.

" to cause." From 237 and hand p'u.
639. ffc clii, 3, tit, R.

640. |f " receive." Same root as tsin

" to enter."
tsin, 3,

641. ^ so, "rope," "search." Blow, R. wind. Lower

4, sok,

part, 2876, is both ideographic and phonetic. See 50. Upper part
isshok "bind" 323.
" horse."
642. JB| ma, 6, mo(), Mong. morin.
643. f keu, k'io, 4, k'ak, "husk of grain." About 16 radicals
take the place of R. bench, ki in the lower left-hand corner.
644. -f| k'i, gi(t), "old." From 244 lau "old." Also ski, zhik.

See 275 " which the four lower strokes of 644 are
ch'i, tik decree," for
a contraction.
645. ]H ho, 4, kap, " why." Also with ta "great," with a stroke
" Also kat in Kwy, R. stone. From
underneath, instead of k'u go."
143. Kat in Kya, with R. fire, instead of the upper three strokes.
646. ^ kung, "gift," "tribute." Also found in 1039. From
kitng "work" 27. Pei below is the ancient shell money and other
precious things presented in tribute.
102 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" robe."
647. H yuen, 5, gon, Far, R. 162. Monkey, R. dog.

Cart-shaft, R. cart. From R. clothing and |f|

k'iuen "circle"

phonetic. Tt.

648. 3lf fu, po, 3, 4, pok, "publish," "wide." From R. inch,

indicating measuring, and fu, pok 322 phonetic. With R. water on

the left it becomes itself a compound phonetic. In this form it is
bak in Kwy, RR. grass, bamboo. Note that this form with R. grass

is also a double compound phonetic with RR. wood, stone, fish,

metal, eat.
649.
" to Feu on the right is
jjfjj ke, 4, kak, separate." changed
for several radicals. See 622, etc. Lik in Kya, R. fish.
" From 145 phonetic.
650. H3 k> ha elder >
brother." pj"
k'o

651. H U, 8, lit, "chestnut." Not from si "west." The Lw

The upper part is Kw jeu " and represents
form shows this. in flesh,"
the chestnut.
"
652. 7H pei* 7, bik, prepare." Usually with R. man. Bik in
the Odes, Tyt I. Bik in Kp, RR. man, fine. Mongol beldehu. Bit in

Kh, R. man.
653. f$ kan, "skill," "business." The radical kan "shield" 20,
" and One of the words for
may be changed for yu feathers," others.

morning being kan, j|t cho, a symbol already in use, was employed

for it. The symbol thus acquired a new sound kan. Some say kan
"
shield," is phonetic here.
" " refuse." In Kw, 34
654. 5 t'ui, 3, t'u(t), go back," R. is

phonetic in this character. It is U.

655. |Jj jo. 8, nok,
" weak." Nik " to
immerse," R. water. Mud,
R. earth. This is the same as ni "mud" 157, which was used in this
sense after the k was lost. Cover with the hand, R. earth. Nan
"soft," R. woman. The bow indicates bending through weakness,
and the separate strokes soft and pliant hair. Sw.
656. Jp si, 1, si(t), "to be slow." From s/ii "corpse" 33, and
sin 296 "acid," "new," etc., which also has the sound tsi, ti(t). See
607, tsai.

657. H? chan, 1, tan, " stretch." See 671, 897. Upper part from
33a, which here is read tan. Lower part shwai 621.
658. JH sic, 4, sit, "fragments," "to despise." Sw uses /V instead
of the three strokes in the middle, of this character, so that siau, 2, sok
"
little," is not phonetic here.
 THE PHONETICS. 103

659. ^ hie, 4, hip, '-'ribs." From 161 kia, 1, kap "add." But
the six upper strokes are also to be viewed as a picture of ribs. Below
is> "flesh."
660. " to " cook " rise in
%jj> cheng, 1, ting, steam," by steaming,"
the form of vapour." The idea is that of rising. From 255 c'heng
" offer
with two hands," as the phonetic.
661. 3& sun, 1, son, "grandson." From tsi "son," and hi
"
thread," i.e. thread of descent or succession.
662. j?| yau, 6, dop, "to draw water with a ladle." The lost

dental appears as d and t' in almost all the examples, as t'au, Pop

"sheath," R. leather icei. See 559, where the picture of a mortar

occurs with the same sound.
663. ^ " servants and
hi, 5, gi(t], dependents." From R. great
ta, and the rest R. claw above and doubled silk below, phonetic. Sw.
664. ^
k'i, 3, k'it, "breath."
" to
From 89a and R. rice.
"
665. ^
c'heng, 5, ding,
"
mount," a carriage." Same root as
teng and shang to go up." In Kw
apparently a picture of objects
with a stand on which they rest and a cover over them.
666. Jjf sheng, 3, ting, ting, "conquer." R. strength below is not

part of the phonetic. The right-hand upper part is phonetic in 991.

The left hand is R. flesh. This radical may be changed, as for R.

reptile below. Djim in Kwy, R. reptile.

667. ^
c'/ni, 5, dok, "fodder," "grass." Widow, R. woman.
Cheu "wrinkle," R. clothes. C'hu "run," R. walk. Zhuk in Kwy, R.
metal. From R. grass and cho, tok 41, phonetic.
668. $ft yau, 5, dok, "pottery," "kiln," R. hand. Servant, R.
man. Tsok in Kwy, R. metal. Upper part the same as chau 102.
From 258.
" hero." To go up and stand on the high
669. %, kie, 8, git, parts
of a tree. Also kik in Kwy. See 348a c'hwen, t'un, for the upper part.
670. )| pan, 1, " kind of anything." The left part is phonetic,
being composed of p'ien, R. 91, in the old character with a winding
stroke on its right.
" " "
670tf .
| i/in, 1, flourishing," correct," many." See 94 yiin,
329 kiiin. See 103 for the right-hand appendage.
671. /g shan, 3, " fan." Radically connected with 657. Shan=
tan = chan. From yu " "
wing" and hu door," both of which a fan
resembles.
101 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

672. " mouth.

J^f ti, I, tik, transmit to another," R. 162. Call, R.

Examine, R. words. From R. 27 "cover" and || ch'u 3, t'ok "place,"

phonetic. Note that R. 34 in ch'u is tok in 394, 701. Compare also
" flute"
the meanings, as flute, R. bamboo=^' 8, dik 202, for additional

proof of final k.
673. fjg lieu, 5, ln(t), "remain." From 175 mau, lieu, according
to the modern form. For the old form see Kh.
674. Jj| chen, 1, tin, "true," "genuine." Phonetic in tien 1029.
See 500. See tun "shield" 565, Men "field" 201, for physical objects
which may have originated the form. From (1) R. eye, (2) "to
" renovate " hwa "a
change," (the upper two strokes), and (3)
hatchet" kin.

675. j "old man." Sail "sister," R. woman. Sok

seu, 1, sok,

in Kwy, R. Sheu "

words.
thin," R. sickness. Like 471. Tu " mo-
ment." To in Kwy, R. insect. Modern form is R. kieu "mortar."
In Kw fire and hand appear to be phonetic here with sound sok or tik.
" to " cease."
676. Jj, si, 4, sik, rest," Interest of money. From
tsi, dzik "self" 17 6a. Son's wife, R. woman.
677. ^ ch'eu, 3, t'uk, "bad odour." From tsi "self" 176.
With R. ^ below. With R. eye above the pronunciation is hieu, kek.

See 594. See 811 liok.

678. f|| ye, 8, ngit, "judge of a province."

Ngit in Kwy, RR.
door, mountain, and with 267. The older senses are, door-sill,
hindrance in walking, which occur also in 810 kiue, kit. From R.
wood, which refers to the sense door-sill, and R. self, where the allusion
is not traceable.
679. Ipt kau, 1, ko(k), "information," "prolonged sound," "sound
uttered in entering the hall of audience." R. white alludes to in-
formation, and pen to walking fast, as is done when approaching the

hall of audience. The root agrees with kau " to tell," and hau, ffok,
"
to call."

680. ,| wu, I, o(k), "raven," "crow." Probably tok. Picture of

the object.
681. $ she, 7, zhak, dak, "to shoot arrows." See nguk 772, and
cheu, tok, 29. Sie for dak "thank," R. words. She "musk deer," R.
deer. S.ee in Kh several examples from the Odes and the C'hu t's'i,
show that " to
tending to she shoot," anciently always had final k.
682. zJ3 chui, 1, tut, "pursue." Mallet, R. wood. This word is
 THE PHONETICS. 105

called dui in Kp. The six strokes on the right with the sound tui

mean a small hill, and form the phonetic of 682, 683.

683. |j|j sh'i, 1, shet, "instructor," "leader." Sieve, comb, R.

bamboo. Shut in Kwy without the upper right-hand stroke. The

left-hand portion is sit and nget in 1014 and kut in 1020.
" "
684. % kicei, 2, kut, demon," From
ghost." man, below, and
a picture of a demon's head, above. Sw. The upper part, says Tt,
"
is phonetic in wei "to fear 601.
685. gl p'i, 5, bit, "clear," "to help," "thick." Pit in Kwy,
RR. hand, strength. From pi In modern writing t'ien
108, phonetic.
'"
field," is written usually instead of the upper part, and often on the
left hand.
686. ^ tsau, 2, tsok, tok, "louse." Early. Scabies, R. sickness.
To trouble, annoy, R. horse. Pride, lofty, R. man. Rebellious, R.
heart. From R. insect, and
claws chau, phonetic. Nails, to scratch,
R.

and the insect that causes scratching, have one root tok.
" "
687. jjr t'sang, 1, t'ong, granary." Same as 938 hang hide,"

"treasury." From shi, .eat, and k'eti "mouth," which represent a

granary. Sw.
688. ffi kien, 1, kirn, "altogether." Also lim. Kim, k'im and
ngim in Kya, R. 170. Phonetic in lien, 5, lim 875. In Idem, hico,
"corn," ^; twice written and joined by three horizontal strokes
is

which represent a hand holding the stalks.

689. ^ yi, 4, yik, tik, "gain." D=s
"
in 676 sik "gain," and z in

su, dzok in 838 vulgar, and ch in chai, dak, narrow," in 611, compared
with yai "narrow pass," feu, hill.
in. From water and R. vessels.
" "
689. ^ na, 5, nap, take," carry." From 285 ho, gap, and R.

hand.
" old man."
690. H weng, 5, yong, Initial g is inferred from the

meanings "wasp," i.e. the yellow insect, etc. From kung 116.
691. |j| sang, 1, som, "mulberry." Forehead, throat. Final m
is inferred from the representation of three, sam, in the upper part.
692. ![{? neng, 5, nim, "to be able." Nim 282, is " to carry," and
is the same root. Nai with RR. clothes, fire, reptile. Tai with RR.
"a
man, heart. Hiung, 5, gom, bear," RR. fire, yellow. Nek in Kya,
R. reptile doubled. From R. flesh.

693. |g c'h'i, 1, fit, "stupid." See 52 c'he. From R. reptile, and

R. sprouting plants, c'he, with a horizontal stroke to represent the earth.
106 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

694. " From ear 238, which

Jj: jung, 5, nong, growing plants."
is shing, ting in 886, and is here phonetic. N
and t interchange.
694a. " to " skins of animals."
3p[ ke, 4, kak, separate," dyed
695. 2fe c'ha, 5, dut,
" tea." From 355 dut "
yu, and R. I," grass.
696. |fC t'sau, 2, t'ok, "grass." From tsau "early," tok 290.
See tsau 686 " early."
"
697. H$ sJii, time," hour, of 120 minutes in length.
5, zhik,

From s'i 240, phonetic, and R. sun.

698. ff| to,, 4, t'ap, tap,
" The upper part is dap in
fly high."
502. From R. feathers, R. say yue. Sw.
699. ^ hwang, 2, king, "light," "brightness." From 288 kwang,
phonetic. Uncertain, vast space of water. Same in roots as hwang 217.
700. ^ ku, 4, kot, "bone." From 605, but this is not substantiated

by Sw. If 605 is kop, as is likely, the connexion in form may be

viewed as accidental and modern.
" "
701.
"
^ t'si, 4, t'sik,
" different."
R. corn.
spade," See
sharpen." Grain,
792 yi other,"
702. ||<j hwun, 7, gon, "pigsty." From k'wun "shut up in a
circle" 377. See 50. Picture of a pig shut up within a barrier,
which is k'iuen=hwun.
703. J| yuen, 5, (d]on or (g}on, "magistrate." Sun "take
from," R. hand. Tt says it is from pel "shell money." Kiang t'ai

kung was the first to introduce gold pieces of money, which were
called yuen. The square hole in the money is P, the round circum-
ference is J^.
704. Jj|; wen, "warm," "kind." Also wu for ot. Ut in Kwy, R.
mouth. See 596 ho, kat "why?" From R. vessel and t'sieu 5
"prisoner," in allusion to kindly feeding of prisoners. Sw.
705. ^
ta, 8, dap,
"
glance of the eye." See 502 ta. See tat
440, dap 502. Also kwan, R. 162. From R. eye and P. tai 440, as
Sw. It is thus shown that 440 had
phonetic. formerly final p.
706. t|* k'i, 2, k'ut, "how?" Sw gives as one of the meanings ^
teng "a
vessel of earthenware used in laying out offerings of food."
R. mountain probably refers to the shape of the piled- fruits in up
some vessel named k'i. See 841 teny.

707. B so, 2, sak, "small particles of anything." Clink of shell

money. Sw. From siau " small," and R. shell

money.
 THE PHONETICS. 107

" small
7070. *== k'i, k'iak, window in a wall." K'iak in Kwy, RR.
150, 170. See for the lower seven strokes 811 liok. Initial k and /

often interchange. From R. small and R. sun, in allusion to the use

of the window.
708. ^ mi, 8, mit, "hidden." R. mountain below is
exchanged
for R. insect and R. eye. R. cover mien is sometimes omitted. Honey
R. insect.

709. 5j$ k'eu, 3, k'ut, "rob," "robber." From R. p'u "strike,"

and wan "complete," as if to say, robbers carry away all that is

valuable.
710. ^ yin, 5, din. From 3 to 5 A.M. Compare 500. The Kw
forms favour the idea that y was formerly d.

711. Jf sieu, 3, 4, sok, "to lodge," "pass the night." Same root
as si, zik "evening," ye, dak, "night" 42, 394. Lower part is pak in
230.
712. J|L chang, 1, tong, "chapters" in verse or prose. From ^ yin
"sound," and, in allusion to rhythmical arrangement, -f- ten. Tt.

The upper part is phonetic in 715, 714, 800 t'-ung "boy." Tt views
the character as entirely suggestive.
713. "boundary," "end," "in reality." Strong. Mirror.
fjjt king,
From yin "sound" ^
508, and man J^, below. Sw. Tt suggests
kin hatchet below.
714. \jjft ti, 4, tik, "root," "harmony." Drop, R. water. Bank, R.

wood. Oppose oneself to, R. strength. The lower inclosed portion is

kok 153 ancient. phonetic, just as in 799.

Upper part Below, ku is

of
" firmness."
ideographic in the sense
715. ^ shang, 1, shong, "merchant," "consult," "learn men's
thoughts by consultation." The form
partly resembles shang, "still"
501. From chang "illustrate" 712, as phonetic, and below no,, not
" Sw.
speak in whispers."
716. WJE siuen, 5, dzin, "revolve." Lower right-hand corner is
phonetic in 382 ting, dien, and has also the sound din in 350, 141a.
From fang "flag," and sti "the foot." Sw. Men in beating bounds,
adds Sk, follow a flag with their feet till they have completed the
circuit.

717. ^ tsu, 8, dzok, dok, "tribe." T'sok, t'su and tsok inKya, R.

metal. From "to bind," which is lik and shok, forming the root.

The sound is from 163a sh'i, tik. Tribes were distinguished in ancient
 108 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

as inmodern times by banners. Hence the use of fang 54, and 435
"
k'i banner," which explain the ideographic part. Note that k has
become t in 163, 454, 616.
" "
718. $ shu, 1, tok, many." Che partridge," R. bird. To cover,
R. 162. Sugar-cane, R. grass and 40. Tik in Kya, R. hand. See
436, 511, 722.
719. j$t ma, 5, mo(t], "hemp." To grind, to rub. Grindstone.
Found in mei 1025.
720. Jjjf yung, 5, dong, "common," "ordinary." Same root as

c'hang "constant" 501. Walls. Workmen. Great bell. From

167 and 327. The upper part is the same as in Vang, dong 617.
Zhung in Kwy, RR. fish, heart, leather.

721. Jjfc k'ang, 1, k'ong. "peaceful," "tranquillity." See 391

" "
keng, for the phonetic. Used for ge k'ung empty both words

having been formerly k'ong.

722. J| lu, 8, lok, "deer." Found in 718 and 1026 as a phonetic.
723. jH c'han, 2, fan, "produce." Also ngen in 512 with R.
hair sham, instead of R. produce sheng. Shan in Ty.
724. [|3 "dawn," "separate," "depart." Final p known
li, 5, lip,
from the meanings, as wet R. water=shap. See 762.
725. ^
k'ien, 1, k'in, "draw," "pull or lead by a rope." From 130
hiuen " dark," as phonetic, but the included ideograph silk refers to
the rope. The ox below indicates the animal that is
being led.

726. ^ sho, 4, shot, "a

proportional," "to lead." In the middle
is silk 50a sik. Lnt occurs as the sound with several radicals. Com-
pare 793 lu to wind, revolve, pile in layers. The ten -p, below and
the two pairs of parallel strokes, all refer to laying out in order, and
are ideographic.
"
727. |J5 kieo, 4, kak, suburbs." Like 728 in form. Vast, R. 53.
Extend, R. hand. Scatter, R. rain. Coffin case, R. wood. The idea
is that of a circle beyond the city wall. As a root it =.
jj||
kico "king-
dom," and R. 31, in both of which bounding circle is the prominent
idea.

728. ffc shu, 8, zhok, dok, "not raw," "ripe," "who?" Same as
shui "who" 472, Left-hand part also hiang "to enjoy,"
R. words.
In Kw the left-hand portion was icei " prepared leather," in allusion
to the sense "not raw." The present form comes from the Li shu.
729. fj| yang, 5, yung, dong, "great," "waves." Model, shape, RR.
 THE PHONETICS. 109

wood, hand. Move, R. man. R. heart, not part of the phonetic. The
" wave." L=d. Same as chwang, 7, dong "shape." Same
same as lang

as tung
" move." From yang 218, ideographic and phonetic and yung
131, phonetic.
730. ^ sieu, sok,
" blush." From 83
" to offer."
ch'eii, which see for proof of

k. One meaning is A
sheep was often offered. Hence
sheep is the ideographic part of the character. Sw.
731. p. 19
J^l yu, 5,
name of a sacrifice for rain. To lie,
gok,
R. words. Hu "beautiful," woman. C'hu, 5, for dok "fuel,"
R.

R. wood. To extend, R. hand. The lower part is phonetic for the

sound gok.
732. ^ shung, e'hung, 1, t'ong,
" to
pound corn." A mortar
below kieu 6, 7, guk. Two hands above are working the pestle. T'ong
is the sound of the verb imitated.
733. |y| sui, 3, sid, "large broom." Sit "snow," R. rain. Also
/ncci, 3, hut, wise, clear-minded, small stars, stellar brightness. The
lower part is the hand, which also occurs in 438 cheu "sweep," "a
small broom." Each is a picture of the implement with the hand
it.
grasping
734. ^kicei, 1, kit(t), "rule." From kien "see." The root is
the same with ku " carpenter's rule," by changes of vowels. In Kw
sh'i "arrow,"
^, takes the place of ^, and shut "water" occurs below.
The arrow and water would both be used in determining the level, as
also the eye in seeing, kien.

735. j| tsc, die, 4, tak, "blame," "punish." From 129 chu, tok,
as phonetic.
736. H| U, 5, lik, 1000th part of an ounce. The radical U below
is changed for many others. In Kw we find Jai "come," in place of
wei "not yet," and ch'i "branch," in place of fan wen. Lai, lak "come,"
is phonetic and indicates final k.

737. H yi,\, yit, tit, "cure," "heal." R. yen below is not part of
the phonetic. For the inclosure see 163 sit. For the right-hand
portion see 103. Yit in Kwy, R. feathers below and R. reptile above.
" relations
738. jg$ t'si, 4, t'ik, by marriage," "grieved." Ascent
" wrinkle." See 667 cheu, i.e. ruga. From
by steps, R. earth. Tsu,
484 shu, shok, phonetic (and ultimately 18a), and R. spear, which
alludes to a kind of hatchet carried in the hand in the Shang
dynasty and called t'sik.
110 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

739. J$ shwang, 1, shong, "bright," "clear," "fresh." Same as

t'ung "passable," "communication open." From chang 24, phonetic.

But Sw says from ta "great," and It "bright," which is written with four
crosses. Sk says the four crosses are cracks and holes that let in light.

740. 2H yen, 1, kin, "how?" Kin in Kwy, RR. woman, mouth.

But perhaps the upper part indicates tin as an ancient value. See
14. Picture of a sort of pheasant. Tt.
741. jfa ngau, 5, gok. For final k see 907. Earth on the left is

radical and is exchanged for white as in 907. See the same form in
the Cw of 693. From go." $Sw.c'hu and fang " let

742. cn 4, tip, " take hold of."

^ 'iy
Also tim in Kp, R. earth, in

Kwy, RR. earth, rain, etc. The five strokes on the left-hand lower
corner are nim in Kwy. See 282 mm.
743. pn?sj[ k'ing, 3, k'ing, "musical stone." Also sheng "sound."
This last may be in fact the original sound of 743. It occurs as a
"
root in t'ing " to hear 10375. T=sh.
744. fJl " to " "
yi, 7, ngit, plant," office," duty." Hot, jo, nit,
R. fire. Also sh'i influence and authority, R. strength. Treat contu-

meliously. Sie, 4, sit, R. clothes. From lok 422. K to t.

Nget in
Kwy, R. corn. Since earth is the radical, the sense "to plant" ngi, 7,

ngit, should be regarded as the primary meaning.

^y inclosed in R.
745. n> m > 8, nik, "to perish," "hidden,"
"hide." Jo, nok "if" 587, is here phonetic.
" connect." Same as lin 1008.
746. ^ lien, 5, lin, Compare c'hen,

din 425, otherwise tung east. But see 748 chwen, where the inclosure
of 746 is phonetic.
" " cut off the head." R. cart alludes
747. $ff chan, 2, tarn, kill,"
to the carts in which criminals are conveyed to execution, and which

stand in a row while the execution takes place. Sw.

748. ;fs chwen, 1, tun, "whole," "with one mind intent," "single."
Same as tan " single," c'hun " sincere." The lower part is phonetic,
" inch " 29. Kw
as in t'sun Upper part is like 746 lien. In it is
I-J4

c'het
" and below that two round cocoons.
springing plants," above,
See 50a. R. water is not part of the phonetic.
749. ^ k'u, 1, k'u, "hide," "place where things are hidden,"
"place of residence." A plurality of
persons is represented by the
inner part consisting of three mouths called p'im-, alone, and ngam in

Kwy, with RR. mountain, stone, words. See also 923 sok.
 THE PHONETICS. Ill

750. $jgfc sho, 1, shok, "suck in." From shu "bind" 323,

phonetic, and R. k'ien, to indicate the action of the mouth.

751. "H> t'sau, 5, dzot, "many persons." A
sign of the plural.
From "
Imperial gaoler. yue say," below, alluding to the speaking
by which the gaoler performs his duty, and east T|f above, alluding ,

to the position of the gaol on the east of the emperor's court. In Kw

east is doubled.
-TT|

752. J^ piau, 2, po(k), "fire-sparks flying." Final k is inferred

JJ>
from meanings agreeing with such as those of 41, 179, white, flag
signal. The lower part was formerly R. fire, and the upper part
" "
hing to rise 5U.
753. ||[ sien, 1, sin, "go up high." Also t'sin. From si "west,''
and ta
"
great."
" varnish."
754. |H tsi, 4, fit, Knee, R. flesh. "Water as an ideo-
graph appears to have been introduced below in the Sc. Picture of
sap (R. water below) dropping from a tree (the part above).
" " to
755. ffi tai, 3, tat, girdle," carry." Tat in Kwy, RR. heart,
earth, mountain. From fei, 1, put 77, and above it the picture of a

string for tying.

756. H han, 3, kan, name of a river, of the milky way, and of a
dynasty. R. water is not part of the phonetic. The right-hand part
is phonetic in 757. Also fan. In Kw, R. spear, kico on the right,
and mouth and heaven on the left, as if in allusion to the milky way.
757. " See 756. R. strength not part of
JK| k'in, 5, gin, diligent."
the phonetic. From R. leather kek and R. earth t'u. Sw. The
phonetic without the radical is the name of a kind of sunflower.
" full." From
758. $| man, 6, twenty above and two Hang below.
Sw. The phonetic without the radical water means "even,"
"
peaceful."
759. ijfjf) kiang, 5, gong, "strong," "violent." A rice insect. From
156 /noig, phonetic and R. insect.

760. |j*[ wei, 1, tut, "comfort." Here Sw and Sc have R. fire

below, instead of siau "little" on the left side.Ut in Kwy, RR. fire,
grass. The five upper left-hand strokes are yi "barbarian" 226, here

phonetic. A hand seizes fire to impart warmth to some one.

761. P
^f leu, 7, hi, "to leak." From yu "rain," and wu M "house."
"
762.
H si, 8, zip, to be accustomed to." Picture of birds flying
112 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

irregularly. Moisture, shining, fear, incline. Trowsers, from the

verb chap to gird. See 724. L=s.
763. |g
lieu, 7, 8, lok, "fly high." R. grass not part of the

phonetic. Imitation of the sound of birds' wings, thus lok, lok. Lok
= tok in 254 wings. Hence the upper part is phonetic and ideographic.

Kieu, 4, kok, with RR. wood, hand. The senses bind, hang, twist, glue,

call, with appropriate radicals, prefer initial k. Solitary, lofty, deep,

to kill, to go, prefer initial L Final k throughout is probable from
the meanings.
764. [^ yin, " dark From kim
1, principle in nature."
yim, gim,
"now" 110. R. hill/ew, alludes to shade. Tim 64, at the right-hand
lower corner is ideographic in the sense of " cloud." See 508. In
Kw forms, ^ yim "sound," and ^< yung, "long," formerly yim, are
both used as phonetics.
765. 3^ si, 4, sit, "all," "to make oneself acquainted thoroughly
"
with." Some think the upper part is pien distinguish," here ideo-
graphic. In Kw we find shu, shot 148, instead of it, and this could

only be phonetic.
766. jfr tsau, " make."
From 42 kok. Rhymes in the
6, 7, dzok,
Odes with kak " to iii. In Kw cheu " boat," was
kio, perceive," Tyt
phonetic, instead of the radical on the left, with sound tok.
" wound." R. man is not
767. fH shang, 1, shong, tong, part of
the phonetic. Same as yang, any sickness. From 592 yang, dong,
as phonetic. Initial sh=t=d=y.
768. fg tsi, 3, tsat, "to sacrifice." From R. sKi "tell." The
upper six strokes are pronounced t'siet in Kwy, R. words. They
consist, says Sw, of a hand (on the right) holding flesh (on the left).

But they are, as the example from Kwy shows, also phonetic.
769. )f| hu, 6, go, name of a kingdom. From R. city, and hit

phonetic 101. Servant, name of an office.

770. jJ|=J- hu, 8, gok, measure of ten pecks or teu. From kio,
"
kak horn," phonetic, and teu ideographic. ^
771. $ t'sung, 5, dzung, " follow." There are two men above on
the right. These are contracted into 115. The lower part, tseu "to
walk," contracted, is ideographic. See 318. The sound dzung is the
"
same as t'ung, dong "together 291, and is akin to it in signification.
772. ^
yu, 7, ngu, ngak, "to guide horses and chariots," "go up."
"
Honorific word for anything imperial. Rhymes with she, zhak to
 THE PHOXETICS. 113

shoot" 681, in the Odes. Tyt v. The non-radical part is sie, 3, sik,

and means to unharness a cart, unlade a cargo. Final k is known

from jt tik.

773. " remove." Formed from

$jj si, 2, sik, Shoes, R. corpse.
119 above, 161 below, both phonetic, and radical 60. In Kw we
find R. 34 ch'i, and RR. fire, rice, on the right. See 553, 993.
773a. ^ me, 8, mek, "seek." Mok in Kwy, R. 113. From the
" see."
hand employed in searching and Men
774. ^fcng, 5, bong, "meet." From feng, 348.
77 4a. HJ sie, 2, sik. R. cover mien not part of the phonetic.
is

"Shoes." Shak in Kp, R. metal. Sik in Kwy, RR. stone, water,

leather kek, grass. The upper part is tak in 349. The lower part is
contracted from 775 "bird" tiau.
" bird." Tak in Comment on Heu Han
775. ,% niau, tiau, 2, tak,
Shu. Tton.
776. gj ki, 3, kit, "end," "already." See 350 for the left-hand
part. Kit in Kwy with tan "morning" 192. The right-hand part
is not ya tooth, but is called ki, and, says Sw, it is here phonetic. See
in Kh under R. 71 tcu.
" to From 351 and more
776a. (iff sieu, 1, sok, beautify." yen,

immediately from
" "
^
sieu, sok, "to adorn," where sham "hair," takes
the place of jw flesh in our phonetic.

7765. -^ t'sio, 4, t'sak, t'ak, "magpie," "bird." From 123 shau,

and 472 chui. Both these parts are phonetic, and the last is ideo-

graphic. Also tat by change from k to t. Tsit in Kwy, RR. water,

heart.
776c. ^ t'stotg, "hearing and thinking clearly." Same idea as
in t'ung 327 penetrating. Inclosed part phonetic in tung 173. The
outside is like 501 shang, and may also be phonetic.

777. (& teu, 1, tu, "helmet." Picture of a man with a helmet on.
Tt. Note that the lower two strokes are most likely pictorial, but
if phonetic they have the sound tot in shwo, shet " say," and in she

"place" 103.
778. f sha, 1, shut, "kill." Left portion is phonetic. Right-
hand portion is shu R. 79, and in Kw R. strike p'u.

779. ^ fan, 1, t'am, "covetous," "covet." From kirn "now''

110 and R. shell-money, pel hair. In Kw sam "three," below, and
meu above.
114 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

780. ^ t'san, 1, saw,

"
together." From men, jen and sham 43,
below, and the triple si above. This triple si is called lei in Kwy
alone, and with several radicals.
" " "a The radical
7800. 11 kwan, 1, kon, shut," gate," pass."
door is changed in 1008.
781. J| kwan, 3, kon. Pass through a coin or anything valuable
with a thread (the horizontal line). Accustomed, R. heart. Also s/t'i,
" "
8, zhit, true," real," R. cover mien. Also in Kwy without R. shell-

money below. Pei below alludes to the stringing together of the

ancient shell-money. Tt.
" nest." Picture of a nest on a tree with
782. jj| c'hau, 5, do(p),
little fledgelings appearing over the nest. Tt.

783. m "about to," "near," "help," "a general." Also

tsiang, 1,

sap, soy, exhort, praise, oar, to row, lead an army. Radically the
same as sung praise, ling lead. From hand on the right, and 118
t'siang phonetic.
rf?
784. * hu, 1, A-0A;, "alas!" A crack, fissure, RR. stone, earth.

From hit
" and hu an exclamation, ideographic and
tiger," phonetic,

phonetic.
F& " fierce and
785. t'so, 5, dza, dzat, crafty like a tiger." From
|V
tan, dat, phonetic.
786. ^ t'ang, 5, dong, "hall." From 501 phonetic, and R. earth

t'u, representing the site of the building.

787. " salt before it is refined." Dik in R.
|:|j
lu, 6, lok, Kwy,
water, and with the sense "moist," "unrefined," "salt." Picture of
the object in a pan. Tt. In Kw si "west" is like IK, and Sw derives
lu therefore from si, because salt is found extensively in "Western China.
788. ^ mo, 8, mok, "do not." Name of an edible plant with
red joints and hairy leaves, of which in Kw the character is a picture.

789. ;H leu, 5, lok, "gallery," "upper story of buildings," "tower."

Phonetic in shu for shok 984 "number." For k see 984. From kmni
"pierce," chung "middle," and nu "woman." The idea suggested
is that of hollowness. Sw.
790. man, 7, "lead."
*jj*
From R. hand yen, and man "blind."-
Sw. The middle portion is R. eye, mu, and the upper R. say, yue.
Other meanings :
long, end, light in weight. Bread, RR. wheat, rice.

Veil, R. napkin. The hand holds the veil which mau blind suggests.
 THE PHONETICS. 115

791. j|| pi, 4, pit, "finished." From R. field, and cross lines

below, which suggest cutting and boundaries.

792. fS yi, 7, dik,"strange," "different." See 701. T ik in l

Kwy, R. walk. Ok in Odes. Tyt. Wings, RR. wings, fly. Also

to aid, R. wings. Here the root is the same as " assist "
chu, 6, 7, dok,
From " " offer with two
193. Jj$.
kiai boundary," above, and kung
hands," below.
793. ^ lei, 5, hit, "place in layers one over another." Mule,
R. horse, i.e. the grinding animal. Also Cap, R. water. The phonetic

part the upper five strokes.

is See 881, 985.
794. |<j kico, 4, kok, "kingdom." From 430 hwok, phonetic.
The word kok is derived from the boundary of the kingdom pictured
as a square, as in R. 31 |
kok or wei. See 727.
j

795. fJ hwan, 7, gan, "misfortune." See 386 kwan, which has

>c*
two mouths. A stroke pierces the doubled character chung, which

represents the heart.

796. >g t'sui, 5, dzok, "high." Chui 472 is here phonetic.
797. j| k'u, 5, got, "canal." From ku 144, phonetic, and RR.
water, wood.
798. \% fang, 1, t'ong, "hot water," "broth." From 592 yang,
(

phonetic. Initial y and t

probably both from d.
799. f chi, 4, tik, "fire," "signal." Office, mark of secret duties

(Sw.) and responsibilities, R. ear. Weave, R. silk. Banner, R. napkin.

Call to mind by a mark, R. words. SKi "know," R. words. See 714
tik. From R. spear, kico, and yin sound. Most of the senses imply
mark or signal, to the eye by fire or banners, or to the ear by sound.
800. fji t'ung, 5, dong, dom, "boy." Upper part phonetic in 712
chang, 715 shang. Sh=ch=d.
801. HJ c'he, I, t'et, "penetrating," "intelligent." Root same as
ta 885. The left-hand radical may be changed for others. See 395
yii for the shape.

802. f tun, 1, "sincere," "liberal." Anvil, hill, tower, strike

with the fists, sunrise, breathe, much. From 396 tun, which has
similar meanings. A rounded shape is the physical idea in most of
the meanings.
803. jjfc tsieu, 7, dzuk, duk, "to complete," "go to a place," "im-
mediately." Dzuk inKwy, R. mouth. Tsuk in Kwy, R. 78. Tsok
in Kya, R. reptile. From T king or liak, R. hand, and 69 -fc ycu, duk,
116 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" " im-

phonetic. Common roots are such as tso, tsak do," f tsi, tsik

mediately."
804. |f shan, 6, don, "good," "virtuous."
7, zhon, In Kw, R.
goat above, and "=f yen "words," below, for which k'eu "mouth" is a

contraction. The odour of the he-goat is called shan and the goat
itself. Hence R. goat is used as suggestive of sound.
805. HP Jin, 5, "neighbour." Lower part is c'hwen in 348#, and
shun in 838. L=ch=sh. Lower part kit in 669. The right hand, R.
not part of the phonetic.
city, is Without this Kn means "fire caused

by the ghosts of the dead." In Kw, instead of R. rice above, we find

jj| yen, din, which is phonetic (d^l) and also ideographic. The light
of the glowworm is called lin.

" labour." Draw from Same

806. ^ lau, 5, lok, water, R. hand.
root with fik "strength." Lok in Ty, R. cow, instead of R. ^/. Hence
the upper part may be phonetic. In Kw ^ occurs for R. strength, as

if in allusion to the bending of the whole mind to labour. See Tt.

807. A group of three hearts, >jj, jui, 6, noli, "suspect," "impede,"
" buds." Stamens and of R. wood. Nok in Odes, Tyt
style flowers,

xvi, R. silk. Picture of buds not yet opened. Tt.

807.
^ man.
|
t'i, 3, fit, "for," "instead of." T'it in Kwy, R.

But in tai 176 for, instead of, the final is k. Perhaps t in 807 is

from k. Lip "to stand" doubled, and bak "white" below.

808. fj er, r'i, ni, "two." R. throw alludes to throwing shell-

money, R. pei, in counting.

808. Ip k'in, 5, gim, "harp." From kim 110 phonetic. The
upper part is a picture of the harp. In Kw kim "metal" occurs for
kim "now."
809. fg kie, 4, kit, "clean." From 256 phonetic, with R. silk.
810. ^ kiiie, 4, kit, "that." Throw a stone. Sw. From 630tf,

and 630 with the cover 2a. Since ngik is the sound of the left part
of the inclosure, final probably comes from k.
t See also s/iok 630.

So then it comes ultimately from ngak 2Q8a. In Kw 106 J^ with -f-

or pj"
occurs. Here 106 is phonetic with sound kit.

811. jg liau, 6, lok, "burn," "signal-fires," "shine." The radical

is not part of the phonetic. Bind, little, high, inundation, far, with

appropriate radicals. From R. fire at the bottom, next R. sun, above

that R. fire, and at the top a cover. See in Sc.

 THE PHONETICS. 117

812. 3| she, 1, tak, "wasteful," "extend." From ta "great," and

^3
che 531, tak, phonetic.

812a. A group of three dogs ft, piaii, pa(k), "wild," "uncon-

trollable." Said of dogs and of wind. Picture of three dogs. Final
k is known from pan, pok, 168, used convertibly with it.
813. W t'san, 1, tarn, "cruel," "sharp-pointed." Calumniate,
silkworm, hide, to punch, usurp. Also tsa, 8, dap. Partly from yin
" "
58, which is doubled. Four strokes added are Q say yue. Tsam
in Kp, R. eye.

814. j! yi, 1, tit, "one." Die, R. 5. Spoiled food, R. eat. For

the form see 319, 816a. It is an ancient_form of yi "one." Picture
of the sacrificial vessel called tcu with a double cover over it. The
upper one may be ^fc stii, zhit, dit, phonetic.
815. jf kan, 2, kam, "dare." Phonetic in yem 1035. The
present form dates from the Li shu. In Kw a hand or shu " spear"
occurs on the right. On the left a hand above, and ku ancient OTJ'U
flesh below.

816. 3& yau, 5, nyok, name of a royal sage. From earth heaped
on a bench as a symbol of height. Also kiau, nan, hiau, shau. Hiau
in Kwy, R. corn, identified with a word having p. 622 kau "high,"
which indicates final k. The nine upper strokes are read ngau " high
earth." For final k see 944. K'ik in Kwy, R. 66. Niau in Kya.
816a. $ c'hu, 5, djot, "kitchen." For final t see 814, 965. The
radical may be removed. It is then chit, 7, djot, "stand up," "set up-

right." From hand on the right and feu 319 phonetic. In Sc

3 were used above ten.

817. sound of cymbals, of wind, of water

j|2 p'eng, 5, beny,
bam. An
implement attached to the side of (p'any, and hence the

sound) a war chariot to injure an enemy. From R. hair sham and

the rest phonetic. The phonetic is formed from R. teu in the sense
implement.
818. :g hi, 2, kit, "joy," "joyful." From 243 kit "good luck,"
with which it is the same in sound and sense fundamentally.
819. H "bad," "to hate."
nffo, 3, 4, ak, From ya 424, which is

shown by this example to have final .

820. 3g hwei, 7, guk, " favour." See 889 kik. K'ak in Kwy, R.

79. Also sui, suk. Also mit in Kwy, R. black. Gik in Odes, Tyt
xvi, R. silk.
118 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

821. H/flw, 5, ban,

"hedge." See for the crosses 528. The
"
character is phonetic without ta great" below. The crosses indicate
the weaving of twigs to make the hedge. Tt.
822. !p fan, 5, dam, "extend to," "spread out." Djam in Kp,
R. hand. Wine-jar, R. vase. Probably a picture of a vase originated
the character, for in Kw below R. west is found a contraction of teng
>f or teu, both pictures of vessels.
823. $f s'i, 1, si(t) or si(k), "that," "to separate." Kin "hatchet,"
on the right has the sound sik in 433 R. wood, and sit in 326 che " to
break." See 99. K'i on the left ideographic. Final t probably
derived from final k.

824. ^
hwang,
" wide " 966. In
5, gong, "yellow,"
" "
"brown."
"
Found
"
in kicaitg

Kw kieu long above, hico fire below, and R.

grass in the middle.
825. fjfc san, 3, "to scatter." Also sa, 4, sat, "scatter." Other
meanings : flour and any powder are called san. Also umbrella, RR.
silk, napkin. Final t
changed formerly to n. On
the right is the
hand employed in scattering. The left is probably a picture of some
implement used in scattering with sound sat.
826. ilJj chatt, 1, tok, "morning." To see the emperor in the
morning. The court. Sw says it is derived from 486 with/tw "man"
"
on the right, that is, 895 kan " brightness of the sunrise, and that
"
the rest is cheu, tok 273 boat," phonetic.
826or. 3 su, 4, sok, "ear of corn." Picture of the object. Tt.

From 247. Fear, R. heart. The true old sound perhaps of si "west"
" chestnut " the
In
is here seen. lit writing has become irregular.
In Kwthree chestnuts on a tree with their stalks and four prickles
on the husk of each, are plainly seen, but no si " west."
827. 3g hiang, 7, gom, "matter or thing," "neck." From 27
work phonetic and R. head.

828. j|g yu, 8, got, zhot, "to pierce or bore." Zhitt with RR. 30,
85, 142, 187, 195 in Kwy. See 81, 545, 546. Also kiue, kit. From
man spear ideographic and the lower part phonetic.
829. sf|[ siiin, 5, zi), dim, " seek." From knng " work," k'eu
" " " "
mouth," yeu hand" and t' sun inch." In Kwju flesh" and c'hi
"foot," occur in place of mouth and work. Since t'am, to search
for the depth of water, is the same word, the foot measure would be

alluded to as used in measuring depths.

 THE PHONETICS. 119

" to
830. jfjij
fmn > 6, pity." From teen 56 phonetic and door,
representing the visitor who goes to the house of mourning to
sympathize. Sw.
831. |1|] jun, 7, non, "intercalary month." At the beginning
of other months the king stayed in the temple of ancestors. At the
beginning of the intercalary mouth he stayed within his own door.
Hence the use of R. door.
" " crevice."
832. ^ Men, 5, gin, 1, kin, interval," Han in Kp,
R. hand. Inclosed part phonetic in kien 407. The inclosed moon
may be exchanged for wood. The moon seen through a crack in a
door is suggestive of " crevice." Sk.
832. J|f t'u, 5, dok, "kill." From 531 che, tak, phonetic and
"
JH house," the butcher's shed.
"
833. p and below it written thrice J* c'hwcn, 5, zhon, weak,"
"
tyrannize." Same as jican 527. Upper part from 33a. See 897,
657, etc. Picture of three children in a house, suggestive of weak-
ness ; but the three children are also phonetic with sound zhon, with-
out the radical.

"
834. H siuen, 1, sun, "condescend." Sim, shun both mean
bend." From a double s'i, 9 A.M. to
11 A.M. and two hands joined.
The hands offer gifts. In the modern form a bench is added below
on which to place the gifts. This Kw is without.
"
835. ^ lung, 5, long,
"
abundant," prosperous." High, R.

mountain. Vault of heaven, R. hole, is called lung in reference to

height. From R. hill, feu. For the upper part see 173 tung here
phonetic, as also is sheng "life" 164. T=.l=sh.
836. ft and below it jfl, chu, 4, tok, "guitar." From 2600,
bamboo phonetic. The lower part is kiung 250, which is here

ideographic. The instrument has a small neck and thirteen strings.

837. ^ ta, 4, tap,"answer," "recompense." T'ap in Kp, R.

foot. In Kw field below instead of bamboo. Ho, hap, implies exact
agreement.
838. %fe shun, 3. Name of an ancient emperor. From R. claw,

R. cover, and P. 348 c'hicen. In Kw yen, burning brightly, is

probably phonetic with sound din.

839. 2 wei, 5, 7, hicei, gi(t), "to be," "to do," "for." Kid in
Kwy, R. woman. Form of a female monkey. Sw. The hand at the
top is intended for one of the fore limbs of the animal.
120 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

840. ^ fan, 1, pan,

" foot of a "
quadruped," people on or beyond
the boundaries." The upper part pien is phonetic. Same as pien
"side." Ban in Kp, R. side. Also po, 1, pat, "to send forth,"
"
distribute." Found in shim 963, to inquire into as a judge.
841. %j
" " sit on something elevated." The
teng, 1, ascend,"
lower part teu points to the use of the ancient wooden vessel which
contained flesh at the sacrifices. Another of earthenware was named

teng. The upper part on the right is hand and on the left flesh.

A hand holds the flesh over the teu.

842. |f fa, 4, pat, " to send forth." The upper part R. pel
isphonetic and also expresses separation. The bow and the other
implement or implements shu are the instruments of sending forth.
^
843.
^^
"
t'sui, 3, t'u(t), "thin hair of animals." Also kiatt.

From mau hair."

844. |Bt wu, 5, mo, mo(k) or mo(t). Also ho in Kp, R. napkin,
heart. Also fu, po. In Kw R. wood, mok, occurs in place of R. fire,

and is phonetic. found in twenty-two out of forty-one old forms

It is

of the character in Lsfl. This agrees with mok 788. It is also used
" not."
interchangeably with mot. 85, 96, both meaning
845. f| k'iau, 5, gok, "high." With R. wood, "bridge." From
"
yau and kau, kok high," both phonetic.
846. %% jan, 5, nen, "set on fire." From hwo "fire" ideographic
and the upper part phonetic. Derivative senses, " thus," "it is so."
" " "
847. ^
su, I, sok, beard," must," ought." For final k see
123, 553, with which several senses of 847 agree. See R. 126 er, nik,

"whisker." From hie "head," and sham "hair ornaments." Sw.

848. ^ siang, 7, zung, "like," "elephant," "likeness," "image."
The elephant, of which this is a picture, would seem to have been
known to the inventors of the characters. In Kw the ear, tusks, and
four legs are pictured. Sw.
849. $[ fu, 8, bok, " going backwards and forwards." From 514
bok. Also It. The Kw comes from 534 and 168 fu and pan. The
radical on the left indicates walking.
850. jjjL tsiau, 1, tsok, tok, "to dry," "upper viscera." Tsak in
Kwy, RR. 86, 119, 115, 140. See 948. Tsam in Kwy, RR. grass and
wine combined. From chui 472 phonetic, and R. fire.
" The upper part, as a phonetic,
851. ^H (si, 8, dzip, gather." is
 THE PHONETICS. 121

toky perhaps by change of p to k. It is dzap in 1017 tsa various.

" " bird " where t'ak
Compare Mongol shibegun bird," with t'sio 176c,
is the old sound. See R. bird. Picture of birds on a tree. Sw. In
Kw three birds and no tree.
852. |ft chung, 3, tong, "all." The lower part represents a group

of three men. The upper part is in Kw an eye written horizontally.

Sw. Same as tsung 77 Qa. Ch = ts.
853. &
V9
hi, 4, kip, "unite." Attract, R. hand. Cut, R. knife.

Drink, R. water. Dry in the sun, R. sun. From no, gap, 285
phonetic and ideographic, and R. feathers.

854. H
tsun, 3, "name of a wine vessel," "honourable," "title of

parents." The lower part from t'sun, the hand engaged in offering,
" wine "
but also here phonetic as in 748. The upper part is tsieu
contracted. Instead of t'sun, R. earthenware, feu was often used on
the left hand. Sw.
855. ^ tseng, 1, and t'seng, 5, "already." From
eight at the
top, R. 5)
and the Kw
at the bottom, of c'hwang " window " in the
middle. C'hwang means " that which
pierces
" = t'ung, t'sung, etc.
C'h=t's=t'. C'hwang is here phonetic. Sw.
856. 3$| ki, 2, ki(t), "weaving loom," "how many," "any cunning
machine." From R. silk, and sut 235, which is here, says Sw, ideo-
"
graphic. It is not then from kak " spear 75, though found there
inKh.
857. jig hii, 1, hok, "empty." From k'ieu "hill," and hu "tiger"
phonetic. Tt.
"a
857a. jjt~JQ ki, 4, weapon with two prongs."
kik, Cho
" "
high on the left suggests great length. The spear on the right
is ideographic and phonetic.
858. '$ and under it 5f, c'heng, 1, fang, "to pole a boat,"
" fulcrum." From 501 and R. ya, tooth. The hook or spike at the
end of a boat pole seems to have originated the use of this ideograph.

ifr
859. & tsui, 2, tsok, "beak of birds," "lips," "point of horns."
From R. horn and t's'i
phonetic. For final k see 191. The lips
are so called from sucking. Sok is to suck.
860. " in R. words. Final
l|? hwa, 4, gap, flowery." Ngo Kp, p
in Kwy,RR. sun, eat, fire, white, eye. See hwa, 104. The lower part,
" "
is chid
says Tt, |g flowers drooping 456.
122 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

861. ^ many, 5, a kind of evergreen grass. Also men 6, 7, "a

certain person." Mo in Kp.
862. "
^F!
JiTS
?, black." At, nat, in Kwy, RR. woman, ear.
he, 4.
T from A. Formed from 400. Jf<?& with R. earth. Form explained
under R. 205.
863. ^ king, 2, hang, "bright." Ting "shadow." Beautiful
view. From R. sun and king " metropolis," phonetic.
864. 1 5
" Tsut in RR. silk.
*V>
tsui, 3, tsut, very." Kwy, hand,
From 417 t'su phonetic and R. say, yue. Sw. Collect, take by
violence.
"
865. $ hi,way." Reveal, dew, R. rain. From lak,
7, M,
kak, 272 phonetic and tsu "foot" on the left ideographic. Final k
known from the phonetic.
866. jlr kwei, 3, ku(t], "noble," "dear in price." Also t'u, 5,

du(f). Also with R. 162 yi, disappear. From R. shell-money, pel.

With R. cover, hi, nearly surrounding it, kwei becomes a compound
phonetic.
867. | tan, 1, tan, "only," "single." Also t'o, 5, do(t), "fall in
ruin."
868. J| mai, 6, mak, " buy." Mik in Kwy, R. water. Mok in
the Odes, R. grass. Tyt. From R. shell-money, pei, and R. net.

869. f|| pu, 8, bok, " slave," " servant." R. man is not part
of the phonetic. From R. grass, R. wood in the middle, and two
hands below offering a gift.
870. j$c c'hang, 2, "high," "wide." Business court yard, R.

cover, yen. From 501 shang and R. hand, p'u.

" "
871. $$ pi, pit, worn," spoiled." To cover, strike lightly,
hill, bent, cup, to go past a place outside. Picture of worn-out

clothing. From kin "napkin." Sw. The two pairs of strokes on

each side of the upright line are, say some, the pattern of the cloth.
872. ^ yi, 3, "thought," "intention."
(t)ik, "sentiment,"
Upper five strokes phonetic in 590 and 714. The middle four
strokes are phonetic in 799. By Sw yin "sound" above is supposed
to indicate that the thoughts are known by sounds.

873. )H chai, clii, 6, dik. A fabulous reptile. Final k in 722

lok"deer," and in 775 tiau, tok "bird." Also tsien "straw," "to
recommend any one to another," R. grass.
 THE PHONETICS. 123

874. ||c ying, "eagle."

2, The meanings "ought,"
tang,
"
bosom," indicate initial t. Inclosed part phonetic in 876. Probably
the covering radical is also phonetic with value yung, ding, Urn, as in

875, 876, 878. R. heart not part of the phonetic.

is See fring, a
name of houses, 5, ding 513, and t ang 786.
(

875. |H lien, 5, Urn, "economical." From lien, 5, Urn 688, and

R. cover yen.
" Same
876. ^jf yung, 1, ong, tony, peaceful." as 606#, which is

the Kw. Formed from and part of 874 above. The lower right-
hand part c/mi, since it alludes to birds, belongs naturally to ying
"
eagle" 874 in the first place.
" " " to
877. f|| lo, 6, la, naked," wasp." Also ying, dong,
" " to " Kwo " fruit" below is not
conquer," fill," full." part of the
phonetic, and is exchanged for several radicals. The phonetic is,

says Sw, a picture of the animal lo, some unknown wild beast.

878. Spy I'm, 6, Urn, "to give." Also pirn. Upper part tan in
386 and in 879. From R. corn, implying a present of corn, and
" " " return."
lin, the upper part, granary," from ju enter," hwei
Here, says Sw, a picture of a house with a window and door in it
to let out steam and heat. In modern times the sense "granary"
is expressed by attaching R. cover, yen.
" sincere."
879. fj{ tan, 2, tan, Same radically as chen " true,"
c'hun " " dawn." Upper part see 386a, 878.
honest," tan
880. j| yi, 7, ngak, "right," "justice." Rhymes with lok in
Yi king " I " below.
xvii. Tyt. The phonetic part is wo, nga
881. ft lei, 5, lut, "thunder." See 981, 985. From 201, lei, si,
"
lut, tit, and R. rain. In Kw Vien field," is repeated two, three, and
four times, perhaps to indicate successive peals of thunder, it being
here phonetic with the sound lut.
rr?

882.
j sa, "bad," "torn," "negligent." Also kut in
4, sap,

1000, 1010. A
bottom stroke is often added. From "not," im-
moral and t'ten
" heaven."
plying condemnation,
" follow." From
883. J)ff sui, 5, dzup, to, dop, 522 phonetic, and

tso left 136. The R. flesh is in allusion to "marrow," one of the

meanings. In Kw R. hill was added within R. walk. R. walk
alludes to the act of following.
884. |jj| kan, 2, kam, "to influence," "affect." As a root prob-
124 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

ably from kam "sweet." Phonetically from hien 524 "all," R. heart
below.
885. 5|| ta, 8, dat, "reach to," "be successful," "arrive at a high

point." Other meanings: otter, flee, beat, knot. The same root
in the sense "beat," occurs in 888. From RR. great, sheep, and
walk.
"a
886. |g sheng, 3, shim, " wise," sage." Phonetically from
"
cheng 373. Etymologically from the root shin deep," or from sheng
" to rise." See 90# and
282 jen, nim. The ear on the left is nong
in 694.
887.
^ "ornament." five strokes
n fen, 1, pun, "strong," Upper
phonetic in 528 pen "to run." Also pi, 3, pit, "ornament." R.

shell-money seems to be phonetic here, but is certainly ideographic

in the sense
" ornament."

888. H t'ie, 4, Pit, "iron," "to beat," "iron-coloured."

" earth."
A
variation of 242 tsai, tai, perhaps derivable from 28 t'u
R. metal is changed for R. horse, hand, sheu.

889. |$ " to strike." From 820 hwei phonetic. Also

ki, 4, kik,

bind, R. silk; urn, R. earth. R. weapon s/ni, points to the action

of the hand.
890. J| kiting, 1, kong, "boundary." Same radically as 713,
"strong," "stiff," "violent." Also ginger, reins used in riding.
From three strokes and two fields indicating boundaries of land.
891. j^ Ma, 2, ko, " to sit in a shop and sell goods." From R.

shell-money.
892. *| kin, 3, kirn, "forbid," "check." R. announce, sh'i, is

ideographic. As a root it is from kam "cut," R. announce, shi.

Phonetically from Urn "forest" 432. K=.l. Gim in Kp, R. head, hie.
"a " "
Name
893. iH c'htt, 2, t'ok, thorny plant," grief," trials."

of the province kwang. Hu The wooded character of the country is

indicated by the two trees. The lower part is phonetic. Tt says it
was the abundance of the plant called ch'u that caused this name to
be given to Hu kwang.
893<z. ;}$cji men, 7, mok. A phonetic of rare use found in Kwy.
894. ^ "reaper," "avaricious." Harvest, R. corn.
she, 4, shok,
"
From lai "come," lak and Urn granary" 878. Sw Also t'siang, 5,
doncj, "mast on a boat," R. wood. "Wall, R. earth. In Kw field

sometimes takes the place of kicci.

 THE PHONETICS. 125

" "
895. f> ban, 3, kon, skill," light of morning." According
to Sw it helps (without R. kan "shield") to form 826 chau "morn-

ing." Kan both phonetic and suggestive of meaning.

is Cf. the

senses arrow, stalk, stretch anything out with the hand.

896. i|f su, 4, sok, "reverential." From R. brush and yuen.
Sicu "rust," R. metal. Siau "fife," R. bamboo. Siau "blow,"
R. wind. The present shape was completed in Lw, and Sc. Sw says
the writing brush held over an abyss denotes reverence. In are Kw
seen two hands beneath offering some vessel, or, as in another shape,
R. heart on the left and two hands on the right, one of them grasping

a staff in an upright position. Sw.

897. $$ "hall," "temple."
ticn, 7, The left-hand upper
din,

part is properly a house, and beneath it are in Sc two benches to

indicate furniture. On the right hand is R. spear, shit, which may
allude to the warlike implements placed in the temple. Temples and
halls are not mentioned under this name before the T'sin dynasty
B.C. 220.
"
898. f p'i, 4, p'ik, prince," whether lord paramount or feudal
baron. In Kw
R. man on the left, and on the right a hand of three

horizontal lines above, R. cover, mik, in the middle, and R. fire below.

Wall, R. earth. Arm, R. flesh. Noise of a thunderbolt, R. rain.

899. Two of 1JJ above, and below them two of jfc , she, 4, shap,

"rough," "hard." From s'i "four" above, and ch'i "to stop"
below. Sw. Checks on all sides.
" swine."
899a. j^j ch'i, 7, dit, Yet in Kwy, RR. jade, stone.
The swine's foot being like the deer's foot, the two ^ of the picture
are the same in both. part Sw.head, ki. The upper is R. boar's
"
In the middle below is sh'i arrow" phonetic. Sw.
900. ^
ngai, 3, ai, ak, "love." From R. heart, and in Sc a line
drawn round it, as if to denote embracing. The foot radical si at the

bottom is in Sc wanting, but appears at the top turned the other

way. To cover, R. bamboo. Clouded, R. rain, with yun "cloud."

Clear, R. white. Dark, RR. sun, eye.
901. ;& chan, I, tarn, "too many words." From yen "words"
below,
"
pa eight" in the middle, and icei " a man standing on a cliff"
above. Sw. Courage, liver, R. flesh. Jar, R. tile. Carry, R. man.
901. $,|J kie, 4, kit, "keep fish," "cut," Kit in Kya, kit in
"
Kwy, RR. walk, grass. Also ki, 3, loosen."
126 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

902. ^ kiai, 2, kale,

" to unloose." From 346 kak " horn," tau
"
knife," and R. cow. Kak in Odes, Tyt xvi. Sw says it is a knife

cutting off a cow's horn. Kak " horn," is phonetic.

" "
903. ^ icei, 5, mi, subtile," minute." Tt connects
it
by resemblance in sound and meaning with fei, pit "not,"
wu, mo "none." May it not be allied to mo "grind," mot
"fragments"? The hand on the right will then allude to striking
or grinding.
904. ^| tsiuen, 5, dzun, " fat flesh." The lower part is a bow.
"
Upper part is chui 472 small bird," which is to be shot with an
arrow. Also tsui. Found in 1003, hi.
905. Jft hio, 8, gak, "learn." Instruction, a sense which is

derived through the notion of imitation. is The radical son below

removable. About twelve radicals take its place. See 14, 115, 349a,
the last two of which, " imitate," " mortar," are phonetic here. See
"
953. R. 14, meng boy," alludes to the pupil.
906. Q% hwei, 2, ku(k), "break," "destroy." See 349, which is
here phonetic. R. the instrument in destroying.
implement, shu, is

Below kieu "mortar," on the left/en 90#, ,

is used in Kw.

907. ^f " venerate." Without the

ki, 4, kak, radical, final
k is lost in two-thirds of the words. Hit once in Kwy, R. corn.
Sw "
says the meaning is light flowing," and that it is formed from
bak "white" andjoow^ "let go."
908. J|L ngau, 3, (k)ak, ()ak. Ok in Kwy, R. earth, and in Kya,
R. water. From the inscribed radical lien and R. white. Kh. In
Kw no ta
"
great." The upper stroke of the inscribed radical is

often wanting. In Kwy, R. hole above, R. sun in the middle, and

R. spoon, pi, below, occur as one form. In Sc two hands instead
of ta below.
909. -fj k'in, 5, gim, "birds." From kim, 110. The lower part
is R. 114.
" " From
910. 3H sui, 7, dzuk, follow," immediately." eight and
In Kw we "
R. pig. Sw. find ts'i sister," instead of R. pig. This
indicates final k. See 412 t'ok.

911. j$ t'sien, 1, t'sim, "all." Sim "inquire into," R. words.

Lim " face," R. flesh. To dress a corpse, R. 78. Gather up, R. 66.

Kim "select," "pick up," R. hand. Gim "parsimonious," R. man.

The four lower strokes are t' sting, dom, in H5a and 771. From a
 THE PHONETICS. 127

man, a stroke, two mouths, and two men, i.e. consultation among
several speakers and consent to follow. Sw.
912. -* hwei, 7, gut^ "join together," "assemble." Kot in Kwy,
RR. wood, knife, woman. In Kw
with [El below. . These words
indicate (yue) speaking (ho) unitedly. The modern character is

modified from ho in the upper part.

913. ^
hiang, 1, kong, "village." Village of a hundred houses.
From R. city on each side. The middle part occurs in 300 and 481.
In Sc the left-hand part is R. city turned round. The middle part is
|pj phonetic (?).
914. 'H' tang, tong, "ought," "act in place of," "to be such
1,
"
and such a person," to give in pledge." From 501 shang phonetic.
The use of R. field seems to imply that land or its produce was given
in pledge in early times.
915. "a
||i| ki, 8, gik, play." Circle, R. gem. Chicory, R. grass.
To shake, R. foot. Ashamed, R. heart. Laugh, R. mouth. R. knife is
not part of the phonetic. See 910 duk and 916 and 412. From
RR. tiger, boar, because these animals when
fighting will not cease
from the contest. Sw. This alludes to the meaning of the phonetic
"fight pertinaciously." But hii "tiger" is also phonetic, having
final k.

916. J$| hi, 3, kik, "a play." Without the radical on the right,
" a
vase." R. tiger is phonetic. Ten "vase" is ideographic. The
character is phonetic with and without R. spear, kico.

917. J^ and below it 03 and below it jj IH, 6, lot, "carry off as

plunder." From
tiger, which points to the ferocity of the
R.

plunderers, and fH "field," which has often the sound hit. See 981,
999, 881. Tt says it is from jj phonetic, and kican J| ideographic,
and imagines kican "to pierce with a needle," to refer to tying up
the captives.
918. f| t'san, 1, fan, "eat," "food." With R. rice in place of R.

eat,"good rice," "rice for seed." The upper part is phonetic hero,
and ought also itself to be classed as a phonetic. It consists of R. tai

and R. hand.
919. jH "year." In
sui, 3, sok, Kw
j]^ above and >p below. Both
have final k. Final k is found in the similar phonetic 738 t'sik
"relation by marriage." This phonetic is also kicei, hwei with RH.

knife, feather, etc. Once it is yet in Kwy, R. mouth. See ISa. Kwy
128 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

says it is formed from sit, sut, 235. Also hut in Kwy, R. 37, 85.

Probably t from k.

919#. jjz cho, 4, 8, tak and dak, "make public," "show." From
531 die, tak, and R. grass.

920. ffc king, 3, kang, "to honour," "elevate," "fear." From

R. hand j9' on the right, and R. kiung J] phonetic. Compare |^J. In
Kw R. grass above is varied by the use of R. bamboo, and seems to
allude to some bending instrument. The ideas "to bend" (as in kioig
"a bow") and "to raise" (as in king] are united in this root. Raising
the joined hands and prostrating the body are both reverential.
921. 'H wan, 7, man, "ten thousand." Insects such as bees that

fly in great numbers together are so called. In Kw we find fu

"father" above, net in the middle, and R. grass below.
R.

921. 3% tse, tsei, 8, dzek, "thief." The left-hand part is

phonetic as in 591 tse "a law," here contracted. The right is jung
"weapon."
922. Bp| ming, min, 6, mang, "frog." Picture of the animal.
Sw. Also ying, 5, zheng, ding, Sheng, ding, "cable," R.
"fly." silk.

Sw says it is the same without the three strokes on each side.

"With R. heart rhymes in the
923. DP sau, 3, sok, "birds' voices."
^PC
Odes with yak "music," nidk "tyrannical," ii. Tyt. Picture of the
mouths of three birds calling or singing, as the case may be, upon
a tree.
924. i^ kwo, 3, ka(p], "to pass." From 605 kwai, which see.

Also chwa, ta "beat," R. hand.

925. J| nung, 5, nong, "farming pursuits." From R. c'hen, 8 A.M.,
time, morning, alluding to the time of farming labours. Above c'hen

in Kw is si "west," for sok "millet," or Urn "forest," or R. grass, etc.,

all indicating country life and objects.

926. iflj! U, 6, lit, "ceremonies." The phonetic without R.

announce means a vessel used in sacrifices. It is dit in Kwy with p.

301. It with RR. bone, body. In the upper part the offerings
is t'i

are in two piles in a vessel. In the lower part we have ten R. 151,
p. 319.
927. j| yi, 5, tak, "look at from aside." The upper part is R. eye,
mu, and the lower itself a phonetic consisting of ta "great" above and
five strokes below, the same as here, and called nip in Kwy. Lead,
give, glad. Also nip in Kwy.
 THE PHONETICS. 129

928. jgj hwan, yuen, k'ing, 5, gwan, gung, "round." The square
isnot part of the phonetic. Without the square the sense is " look
in a frightened manner," and the sound hican or Muen. Also siuen.
In Kh gung and zitten. Delicate, quick, return.
929. J| shu, 8, zhuk, dok. Old name of the province of Si c'hwen.
From R. eye, mu, above and pan "wrap," with R. reptile inclosed
in it, below. Picture of the silkworm that lives on the sunflower.
The eye above is its head, and the two middle strokes its body. Dok
in Kp, R. dog. Kp infers that without R. dog the sound was
anciently dok.
930. " " source of income."
ff| ye, 8, niep, gnep, business," Niep
in Kwy, R. silk. It is now placed under R. wood. In Sw it is derived
from P. acid, sin, R. grass, R. napkin. It is there explained as a large
board for suspending bells and drums. Of this use R. napkin is a

picture f[J Upright boards were called hii jjj[, the modern ngok.
.

The were called siun, R. wood, p. 264. The niep was

horizontal
a larger board placed above the siun. It became a symbol of riches
because every rich man had a large one.
931. 3| ning, 5, "rest," "peace." From k'au, p. 2, and the
"
upper twelve strokes, which are ning. Connected with tang firm,"
"steady." Cf. ting, ning, "to command," where ting = ning. T=n.
"
932. pin, 1,^ guest." Middle part phoneticin 1001. In
Kw the upper five strokes are R. hole, hiite. In another old form,
R. pei becomes RR. eye, fire.
" The sound " to
933. |$ pien, 6, bin, distinguish." is pan act,"
The shape is connected with
"
with R. strength. pan half," 181.
" even." The
934. 3J|f t'si, 5, dzik, meanings suggest final k, e.g.
ascend, full, fast. Those which are suggestive of final t are govern,
level, sickness. In Sc the form ^
16o, written three times, with
~
" two" favours final k. Another old form has three upright
beneath,
lines with a small circle at the top of each, indicating ears of corn

of equal height.
935.
|| ha-u, 5, gok,
"a hero," "boar." From R. pig and kau
"high" phonetic.
936. " blouse." Without R. clothes the phonetic is
fjg ju, 5, dok,
" woman. Ju
sii, 1, tok necessary." Weak, R. Fringe, R. silk.
"
timid," R. heart. Warm, R. fire. Shoes, R. leather, kek. Literati,
R. man. Moisten, R. water. Connected with jo 655 " weak." From
9
130 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. rain and er phonetic, 232. Another form, in Kw, has t'ien

" heaven " in
place of er.

937. f$ ri, er, 6, nik, "thou," "you." Near, R. walk, c'h'i.

Nai "milk," R. Si "imperial seal," R. jade below. Mi

woman.
"great," R. bow, kung. Final k from the meanings. Originally
there was R. man at the top. This with >J* just below it formed the
phonetic with sound ni. The lower part consists of [~] kiung and
four crosses. Sw. Niep in Kwy, RR. bamboo, metal. Kap in Kp
and Kya, R. metal.
" "
938. jjijl gather into a granary,"
tsang, 1, good." Hide, R.
" "
grass. Same root as t'sang granary 687, where the idea is
"
pictured as a house. From R. t'siang wooden frame," representing
the hiding place, R. spear kwo, and R. servant c'hen, both suggestive.
939. )P yen, 1, am, "dislike." Quietness, fullness, satiety.
Also ye, ap. Probably initial k is lost. From 2a, ngam, which is here

phonetic and ideographic. Also from kam ^ and $ Jan. Kam is

phonetic. Tt.

940. 'Jjt ch'i, 3, ti, tek, "hindrance," connected in shape with 553,
593, su "all," and sh'i "it is," which both have final k. Of. c'hu 893.
From tying, which implies hindrance, R. field and R. foot. The four
upper strokes in ^
641 indicate the sense to tie, and have the sound
sok. Ch=s=t.
" The lower
941. fpfc tsu, 6, 7, dzup, gather." part a picture of
is

three men. The upper part is tsu 417, phonetic.

Tmng with R.
bamboo, with sense "cage for fish." Here the sound tsung is not
altered from tsu, but borrowed from p. 230. The character tsu is used

suggestively.
942. f| sheu, 6, 7, zu, zhok, dok, "old age." Zhok in Kwy, R.

gem. The three right-hand strokes below are tok in 29. In Kw

they are altered into yen "hand." In lau "old" is also used for Kw
the upper part of the character, and kii "sentence" below.
943. HE tsie, 8, dzit, dzik, "cut off" Varied from tsai 242, and
formerly written with >]?, instead of ^. In this case the left-hand

part wholly phonetic with sound

is t'siak. See 776e. R. kwo is the
instrument of cutting.
944. C'/ii ^ twice written forms the phonetic
he, 4, knk, "bright."

To threaten, R. mouth.doubled red

suggests the idea.
R. Note
c'h'i

that the upper part resembles that of 316, 816, both kuk.
 THE PHONETICS. 131

945. ^ t'ai, 5, dai, dat, "terrace," "tower." From ?g below,

above, and ]^ in the middle. Sw. Same as 186 t'ai. Final t is
found in the upper and lower parts of the more modern of these two
forms. See 243 kit, 237 ch'i. But the last is also tik, and a doubt
lies between final t and k. In the Kw in Kh kail "high," and t
e
u

"earth," occur, and not ch'i.

946. fg kien, kam, "inspect." Ten "salt" Lam "covetous," &

R.heart; "blue," R. grass; "burn," R. fire. Upper part phonetic in
995 f. From 5; ^m "come down," and hiue "blood." Lscw. It
is added that in ancient times, when treaties, meng, were made, blood
was drawn and the spirits of heaven came down to inspect. Hence
the use of hiue in meng "treaty," and in kien "inspect," as a

suggestive sign. In Kw, yen "words" occurs in place of hiue or

rather ming.
947. !J t&in, 7, chin, "exhaust," "end." From ming "vessels,"
which when empty suggest exhaustion, says Sw, and tsin "ford,"
which occurs under 252 with R. water. Here R. fire occurs instead of
R. water.

948. ff ti, 8, dik, the long and many-coloured feathers of the

pheasant. Tau "brightness," R. sun. Cho "wash," R. water. Yo

"leap," R. foot. From p. feathers, 254 tik, and chid, tok 472. Both
are ideographic and both phonetic.
949. If, i/in, 2, "hidden," "hide." Without R. hill "diligent."

The radical is not part of the phonetic. From R. heart and yin, the
remainder phonetic. The phonetic consists of hand above, kung
"
work," and hand again below, and is suggestive of diligence.
949a. ^i with, on the left, R.
^f c'hai "wild animal," man, 7, mok,
"face." From pe "white," jen "man," R. beast, c'h'i. See 3490.
Mok in Kwy, RR. 61, 64, 140, 162. Rhymes in the Odes with words
in k. Tyt ii, R. grass.

950. |^ tsi, 8, dzik, "cultivate the ground," "plough." From

sik 436 phonetic, and R. plough.
951. Hf. hiiin, 1, kon, "to smoke," "flames and smoke rising and
going out." From ty\
c'he "plants," and hck "black." Sw.
Anciently R. \\\
instead of c'he. Sw.
952. |j| yi, 5, ngai, ngak, "suspect." Consider, R. hand. Obstacle,
R. stone. High, R. mountain. Ngik in Kwy, RR. mountain, mouth,
etc. C'h'i, 5, dik "stupid," with R. sickness. Ying, 5, nging,
132 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

R. rice. From " and the left-

"congeal," -^ tsi "son," j^ ch'i
stop,"
hand side 2^ yi, 360 phonetic (sik and nyik}.
953. $a yu, " " with." Ku " hand below.
6, dok, give," raise," R.

Hing "rise," with (pj in the middle. Zu in Kwy, R. grass. For

final k see 471, 774b, 964. The oldest picture was that of four hands
and called kit. After it came to be used for " to give,"
lifting,
"
and with," a hand was added below for lifting.
954. jfUiyo, 8, niok, ngok, "prison." Mountain, R. mountain.
The five Confucian mountains are E. T'ai shan, S. Heng shan, "W.
Hwa shan, N. Heng shan, R. heart, Central, T'ai shi.
" succeed in order." Also twan " cut,"
955. m ki, 3, kit,
"
R.

hatchet. See ki "

how many 856. From silk ^ ,
as a symbol of
connexion and succession. The outer strokes are the outline of the
cocoon.
956. ijj jui, nu(t), "wise." Also siun "deep," "astrolabe," with
RR. water, jade. See 565 tun " shield." In it becomes like kit Kw
"valley" 338, with a double covering over it. As a picture it seems
to have represented at only a deep stream overhung by rocks.
first

957. ff| ho, 8, gak, "obtain." Without R. dog, "to measure."

From line, hwa 428, as used in measuring. Take, get, R. grass.
Guard, R. words. Cooking vessel, R. metal. See 626, 472, 992,
1003, 1023. Final k lost in one-fourth of the words.
958. | meng, 7, mang, "dream." From 2060. Lower part
"
ideographic, si, zik evening." Upper part phonetic from miatg
" Sw.
dim," written with RR. bamboo, vessel miny, cover mik, eye.
" collar."
959. H ying, 5, ding, R. tile. Vase, Infant, R. bird,

woman. The woman below

not part of the phonetic here,
radical is

and may be changed for several others. See 1015. To bind, sur-
"
round. Wreath of head ornaments. From R. pel shell," doubled,
which is here suggestive, from its use in decoration.
" shine." It is also used without the upper
960.
II Men, 2, kin,
" The upper
four strokes. Also sh'i, shop, moist," with R. hill, feu.

part is dap in 502, t'ap in 691. RR. sun, silk, suggest seeing silk in
sunlight. Sw.
961. Jj| k'ien, 2, k'in, "send." The middle part is phonetic in
"
kwan " magistrate 386.
962. U tuiy 3, tot, "opposite," "a pair." Mongol, t'os "op-
posite." On the right is a hand. On the left a pair of articles are
 THE PHONETICS. 133

seen resting on a stand. Sometimes in old forms the hand is under-

neath and is
occasionally doubled. If the hand is phonetic, the old
sound is tok. See 352 "
ti, dik, enemy."
" "
963. :j shen, 2, shim, judge." Radically from
distinguish,"
tiin, one of the verbs " to cut."
It helps with p. 19 to form Jg., with
the sense of caution and discrimination. From RR. cover, mien (here

meaning to turn over), and distinguish pien. In Kw, R.

wanting. field is

964. |g "dismiss," "discharge," "write."

sie, 2, sik, It is a

phonetic with or without the radical. Same as 774.

965. )|J c'hu, 5, dot y " kitchen." From R. cover, yen, and 816a.
See also 319, ten " bean," for final t.

966. J| kwang, 2, kong, "broad." Also ho, kwo, 4, kak, "to

"
widen." From 824 hwang " yellow phonetic, and R. cover, yen.
967. J|| piau, 5, bo, "a one-horned stag." From R. lok "deer,"
and here representing the animal's legs.
R. fire

968. Ifl chan, 5, dan, "a men and a half of land, suitable for one

family." Chun, 5, djan, "warehouse" (which omits the lower five

strokes and the dot at the top), is a contraction from this. From
yen a covering radical, li
"village," pa "eight," t'u "earth."
969. 3Jj yang, 6, dong, "nourish," "bring up." AVide, R. water.
Itch, R. sickness. To excite, R. hand. From yang "sheep" 218,
phonetic, and R. eat below. The roots are the same as appear in

shcng "produce," "bring to life" 164, tung "move" 558.

970. 970. ]g U, 7, lit, "cruel," "severe." Exhort to diligence,
R. strength. Dit in Kwy, R. rice. From R. cover, ngam, and a
phonetic written with ^ above and R. reptile below, and called c'ha,
4, t'at.

971. |g yen, 1, yo, ket, "grieved." From R. heart and hie, kef

"head" phonetic. Sw.

97 2. ^f hie, 8, get, "straight neck," "flying upward." From R.

head hie, and kit "luck," phonetic.

-=t?

973. J| yu, 8, dok. From R. shell, pei, and the rest phonetic. Once
dap in Kp, with R. words doubled. Mak in 868 "sell," our phonetic

pronounced mai, 7, "sell," has c'hu f} at the top abbreviated. For

final k see Kh, who says mok "harmonious" was used in Kw for
" sell."
yu
974. US tsie, 4, tsit, joint or nodule of bamboo, of a finger, etc.

From tsik 175, and R. bamboo. from k. T

134 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

975. jg ch'i, 4, tit, "substance," "reality," "plainness." Strike

against anything, fall, R. foot. Shiver, R. ice. Connected with t'i

"substance," as one root, as also with *j^.

Kin "a. pound weight,"
"
pei money," are suggestive of real value.
976. ;fL lu, 5, lok, "rude," "rustic." In Kw "to stop," with
ch'i

two men below. Ch'i is tik. In Kwy this phonetic is identified with

787, 865, which are both lok or dik.

977. ^ cheng, 1, ting, "evidence." Dim or nim are old sounds
of the four middle strokes at the bottom, as in 282, 373. From Hfc
wei "mysterious," "unknown," and nim "pledge," phonetic.
Evidence only needed in unknown matters.
is

978. |H yo, 8, ngak, "music." Drugs, R. grass. Sho, 4, shak,

"bright," R. fire. Refine metals, R. metal. Lo, 8, lak, "joy," "joy-
ful." Bright, RR. gem, white. Run, RR. cart, foot. Shak in
Kp, R. metal. From RR. wood, silk, white. Silk alludes to stringed
instruments.
979.5 cheng, 7, ding, "prudent." Also ch'i, tik, dik. On the
left the upper nine strokes are tuk in 581, and yen, tok in 324. From
R. city on the right, alluding to Cheng, an ancient kingdom.

980. $| lie, la, 8, lap, "hair hanging irregularly." Wax, that

which drops, R. insect. See 50>, 362, 502, for the upper portion with
sound tap. Twelfth month, R. moon, which is not part of the phonetic.
From R. rat shu, suggesting hair, and R. ch'wen.
981. {| lit, 7, lut, "think," "revolve in the mind."
See 917,
201, 881. The use of R. tiger would begin with p. 917 "to carry off
as plunder," in allusion to the habits of the animal. Here it is simply

phonetic. The formation of 917 must have been earlier.

982. f^i mie, 8, mit, "extinguish." Cover, mat, stockings, strike.
From 153 wu, meu, as the phonetic base. Mit "to extinguish" is

also written \^ mie, 8, mit. From RR. grass, eye, alluding to lamp
wicks when extinguished, and the eye when spiritless.
983. B| pan, 3, pok, "cruel," "scorching," "high wind." The
side radical is often omitted. Half the words have final k. In Kw,
deer above, fire in the middle, sun at the bottom. The cruel kill men
as they would deer.

984. |fc shu, 3, shok, "numbers." Shok in Kwy. From 789

ku, lok phonetic, and R. handjo'w, as employed in calculation. L=sh.
" broad fields." raise in layers,
985. J|j lei, 5, lut, Meanings :
 THE PHONETICS. 135

push, cup, overthrow, bind. See 917, 201, 881, 999. Picture of
a wall of earth. R. earth may be changed for others.

986. jjg pa, 6, 7, bat, "finished." From R. net and neng, to be

able, 692.
987. ;fr hien, 3, kin, "magistrate." From hai ^ "injure," mu
@ "eye," and <fo sin, heart." Kh. This explanation fairly cor-

responds to the form preserved on the Stone Drums.

" " " From
988. ^H t'sin, 1, f-sin, near," relation," approach."
sin 296, which omits the radical on the right.
989. HI lung, "dragon," "that which ascends."
5, long, long,
The dragon disappears and appears at will, is sometimes long and
sometimes short, ascends the sky in spring, and hides in the depths in
winter. Symbol of imperial power. Also /*, sip, Up, RR. clothes,
words, etc., 712. The upper five strokes on the leftare tung in
"
712, 715. The right part consists of ffi and fj| to fly." Sw.
The left part is fjr[ 800, and is here phonetic. Sw.
*-*-.

990. ga(p], "embrace," "take an infant in the arms."

Jg. hicai, 5,
From R. clothesand some unknown object represented by the inclosed
part. Since gap and kap are common in the sense of pressing and

drawing things close together, it is probably the same root. The

character is not classical.

991. ?|| t'eng, 5, dim, "leap up," "go up." Same root as shang
" " The in 666
up," upper." upper part is phonetic t'eng. R. horse

below may be changed for R. woman and R. reptile. Djim in Kwy,

with R. reptile.

992. !g! ho, 8, gak, "sudden." Bean, R. grass. White, R. white.

From chui, 472. See 626, 957, 1023.

Probably is here R. rain
"
In Amoy rain is ho. The root gak quick" is also found
phonetic.
in 915 kit, kok, and in 427 kik. Then clmi below is ideographic.
The notion of birds taking flight as a sign of haste.
is
" to Calendar. Corn
993. ]H U, 8, lik, pass over a country."
inclosed represents the country travelled over. The doubled hwo
"corn" in the middle are "standing alone" and t'ok in 343, 343.
lik
"
See 344 H sharp." See 978. The lower four strokes are tik in
119 chi " stop."
" fear."
994. H ngo, 8, nnak,
"
reverential," See 603. See 2L
and 14 for the cross, which is here phonetic. Tt. Crocodile, R. fish.
Same root as SB ku " fear."
 136 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

995. H^ Ian, 6, lam. See also kiem. Upper part phonetic in 946
kien, kam "see," where the radical below is hiue "blood." See 946
for an explanation.
" Final Lan
996. j|| lai, 7, lat, rely on." t occurs frequently.
with RR. woman, heart. From 535 lat
" and R. shell. Sw.
cruel,"
997. J^B yen, 1, (t)an, "swallow," "rest." Picture of the mouth,

wings (on the sides), and tail (at the bottom) of a swallow.

998. " return to life." Same as sok "

jjfc su, 1, sok, return."

Rest, same as sik "to rest." From 167 hico "corn," which is tok in

343, and lik in 993.

9980. 1 Pan, 5, dam. The three parts may be all ideographic.
Upper four strokes phonetic, as in 822, 813.
999. ^ lu, 5, fat, "round furnace or stove," "ploughman."
Meanings :
anything round, as a basket, skull, cucumber, hut made
with branches, reed. See 201, 917, 881, 985.
1000. || liiai,"strong," "narrow," "daring." From
3, ka(p),

kieu
" here used as a phonetic. The upper part is a
onion," R. 179,
"
phonetic with sound t'san, 5, dan to pierce," as in 918 with R. rice.
"
Final p is probable from the likeness in sense to kap, gap narrow,"
and kam " dare."
1001. ipJK p'in, 5, bin, "quick," "many times." Resembles the
middle part of 932. The left-hand part is pu, bok, 363. The
phonetic resembles in some degree 932 pin, and the two characters ^
are often used for one another. The left-hand part is ideographic,
" which
as in $? R. water, she, to ford," is its probable source.
1002. $ hien, gin, "connect," "hang." From si "silk thread,"
symbol of connexion. Same as hiuen "hang," and kican "connect."
The sense "district" is from the idea of connexion. The smaller
cities were suspended on the larger, or kiun, in T'sin shi hwang's

empire. Hien kican ^

means the Emperor. Shi ki.
1003. -^ hi, hwo, 5, gak. Hicok, boast, R. mouth. See 472, 957.
Picture of a swallow, called Cheu yen. The ch'e at the top is the
bird's crest. Mountain is modern.

"lame," "walk lamely." From

1004.
H kien, 1, kan, k'ien 608
and R. foot.
" "
1005. H siang, 1, tong, complete." From R. clothes.
upper,"
Also nang, niang. Phonetic in nang 038, nang. Radically the same
1

" "
as siang 538, shang, above," and sheng ascend."
 THE PHONETICS. 137

1006. ^ hi, 1, ki(k). See 2, 343 tok, 167, 75. From H and
p. 111. Sw. The larnb above and spear, or the two combined in yi
"right," favour final k. Name of Fu hi, an ancient king.
1007. J-B s/ncang, 1, shong, "frost." Widow, R. woman. From
538 siang phonetic, and R. rain.

1007#. H sie, 4, sap. The inclosed radical may also be sin

"
pungent," R. 60.

1008. ffjj lien, 5, lin, "connect." Same as lien 746. The right-
hand part " to
is phonetic in 780a, pierce," with sound kwan, and
the double silk symbol is hien in 960. silk thread piercing wooden A
tablets or other objects binds them together. The ear on the left
refers to certain ornaments strung together to be used as earrings.
1009. |?J "check," "railing." From kien, lien, 532,
Ian, 5, Ian,

and R. door, in allusion to a door or something that hides a door

or checks entrance by it.
1010. m t'sien, 1, sun, Urn, "mountain onions." The two men
at the top with the spear on the right are also used as a phonetic

with sound sham in Kwy, with RR. rain, sound, sham feathers. The

remaining nine strokes, here ideographic, are sap in 882. In Kwy

1010 is dzien "once," with R. bamboo.
1011. ^f- c'han, 5, The upper part alone is
zham, dam, "hare."
"
c'Jto, 4, tok, hare," some animal like a hare, but larger. Compare
this phonetic with 813 t'sam. T'sai with R. silk, the adverb "just,"
"
has lost final m. From t'u " hare and c'ho.
1012. $ sien, 1, sin, "fresh." R. fish and sheep, yang, phonetic
make up Perhaps sin "new" 296, has to do with the
this character.

sound Also see shan "good" 804, and yang " sheep" 218,
sin here.
"
having 221 below it, with the sound sien, to admire."
1013. i/o, 4, tak,
^s" "flute." Form explained under R. 214.
Shak in Kwy, R. fire. Initial t is deduced from initial sh and also
from the meanings; for example, "key" 553, zKi "flute," dik, 202
" The lower five strokes are
leap." t'se, t'ak.

1014. jpp sie, "juncus." From -^ 296 ts'i. R. mountain

4, tit,

is used instead of R. grass. Also nget, nit. The left-hand part is also
used alone in the sense " high." Nget in Kwy, RR. son, wood, reptile,

woman, rice. See 682, 683.

10140. j^ " sound of " " a
hi, 3, kik, sighing," laugh," play."
From 784 and hco " spear."
 138 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

1015. H
ying, 1, "infant." From ying 959. There is an idea
of circularity in several of the meanings. Head ornaments are so
called as being in a circle. Cherries are ying t'au, as strung in a
circle. Pet "shell-money" is doubled in allusion to the use anciently
of shell-money or shells in wreaths for head ornaments.

W15a. |g c'hunff, c'hun, "rush impetuously." T'im in

"rush out," i.e. like a horse rushing through a gate. R. water.

o on water.
Floating: T'am.

1016. la t'swan, 3, Pson, "flee," "hide oneself." RR. hole, rat,

are combined in this phonetic as suggestive of the sense.

1017. ^ t$a, 8, chap, "mixed," "mixed colours." The right-hand

portion is dzip in 851, but it may be ideographic as distinguishing

colour or some other feature of variety in birds. See 304 for instances
of the use of the two men represented on the left hand.
1017. JH; t'sung, 5, dong, "collected together." From ye "pro-
perty" fH, and f|J. Sw. From yang 218 phonetic, and tsu 941,

contracted and used as an ideograph.

1018. | "speak secretly in the ear."

nie, 8, nip, From 238 ear.

Tep and shep occur in examples with several radicals.

1019. f$ "cup," "office." The three right-hand
tsio, 4, tsak, tak,

strokes below are tok in 291, 636, 491. See 41. The four top strokes
are hand, as in chau "claws" 102, and in yau "kiln" 668. They are
the hand that holds the cup or its lid. The middle five strokes are

zhuk, s/tuk, in 1037, 429. The lower left portion is tsik in 575. In
older forms the wine and fragrant herbs infused in the cup were
drawn.
1019tf. j| shwang, 1, shong, "pair." Picture of two birds held in
the hand. Suggestive of the idea.
1020. |f ktcei, "to return," "go home."
1, kut, Of a woman
being married. From fu "woman" 438, and ch'i jfc. See 1014, sie,

nget.

1021. "
From 90 as phonetic. Ten
Hf} feng,
prosperous."
1,

below a vessel containing food.

is Above it are seen piles of food
heaped like mountains. Hence the use of shan llj On the tables .

where offerings are placed food is usually piled very high over the
vessels.
 THE PHONETICS. 139

1022. " exhort."

The phonetic without R.
Ijjf k'iuen, 3, k'on,
ktcan
" to a To
strength is pour," R. water, jar, R. crockery, feu.
words. "
From R.- chui birds' in reference to
call, R. R. tails," mouth,
the calling of birds. Afterwards R. grass was added, when the word
was used for the sign of a plant, ciconia.
1023. fl, ku, 7, guk, " fearing," as in the sentence Hang mu ku
ku jan " the two eyes express extreme fear." From 192 and 472.
See 957, 1003, etc. See 490. Fear, R. heart. Street, R. 144. The
eye, mu, obtains the sound ku because in birds it is that organ which
most readily expresses fear.
1024. f|| liven, hcan, 5, Ian, " confused." Also man, pien. In
"
Kw chau " claws above, a triple R. 52 yen in the middle, and yen
" hand " below.
Law, connect, to rule. Also ican, man, and pien.
The modern form was originated in Sc. The meaning "connect"
is that of lien 746, 1008. " Confused " =
Iwan " disorder." Silk thread
is the sign of connexion. R. words alludes to the sense "words without
end."
1025. =| mi, 5, "not," "without." From 719 ma phonetic and
fei 451 ideographic. The last is modern. In Kw R. c'/te, walk, and
R. hemp.
1026. ]H //, 7, lik, The upper eight strokes are used
"bright."
in Kw alone, with the same sound and sense. The lower part is luk
" It proves the loss of final k.
deer," here phonetic.
" difficult."
1027. H nan, 5, 7, tan, fan, Name of a bird. From
756 han and chui " bird."
1028. f|r tsan, 1, " to praise." Assist. Go forward with a person
into the presence of the Emperor, in order to introduce him. From
" before "
260 sien doubled, and R. shell money, pei, which refers to
the precious ornaments carried in the hand on approaching the

Emperor.
1029. H tien, tin, "turn over," "head," "top." From chen
"true" 674 phonetic, and R. head, hie.

1030. JH pien, 1, pin, "side," "border." Same radically as

932 pin. Pan in Kp, R. man.

" net."
1031. H lo, 5, net for catching birds. From
lat, High
wang "net" and wei, in allusion to the cords called tvci used in this
net. Other meanings :
hedge, choose, gong, cake, to go round beat-
ing the watch. They indicate final t.
140 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

"
1032. ]
*rrt
j tang, 1, tong, eldership of five hundred families."
From shang 501 phonetic, and R. black. Parties, assist, one-sided.
"
1033. fR /n'en, 3, hm, " offer in sacrifice-." From kiuen " dog
72 (here referring to a kind of dog anciently used in offerings to
ancestors), and the remainder phonetic.

1034.
&
JTT ko, 4, kok, "to look timidly and furtively." From ku

1023, and yen "the hand." This phonetic is important in the proof
of final k having existed in 1023. See also 957. To dig, R. metal.
Look, R. see. Fear, R. heart.
1035. JH yen, 5, ngem, "strict," "venerable." From kam "dare"
815, phonetic, and two mouths to indicate strict prohibition. Tt.

1036. SB pa, 4, pak, "black part of the new moon," "usurper,"

"use violence." In Kw R. rice above inclosed in R. cover, kiting and
R. moon below. Same as p'ak "animal soul." Pak in Kwy.
1037. JH shu, 4, 8, chok, tok, zhok, dok, "belonging to." The root
is the same with sok, lik, zik, "to bind," tsu, dzok, "tribe." The upper
part is iru, 4, ok, "house," abbreviated. For the five strokes in the

middle see tsi, tsik, "spine" 632. The remainder is from 929, which
is here phonetic. The upper part, says Sw, is J "tail." The tcei

tail is a continuation of the body.

1037a. j| ta,.8, dip, "fold over," "doubled," "place in layers."
The upper part, t'ten "field," is the sign of anything flat and square.
It written three times as a sign of repeatedly laying something
is

upon something else. The lower part is half of to, tap, "many" 265.
See 793, 881, lei, lit.

10376. H t'iny, I, 3, Vim, "hear." The lower left-hand part is

like 900 and Ping in 341, 373.Sam "three" agrees in sound nearly
with the phonetic t'ing 5Qa, as it resembles it also in shape. Sam
"three" was anciently tarn, and therefore three strokes were used for
the sound tarn when its meaning was very different. In ILwjen 50a
ison the right, and R. ear on the left. Same radically as ling "hear,"
and sheng "sound" 743.
1038. fH nang, 5, nong, "bag," "pocket." The upper seven
strokes are ]}(
shok "to bind," here a radical, though not regarded as
such by the compilers of dictionaries. The phonetic is siang 1005.
1039. i|c on the left, and on the right R. #, having below it J|,

kung, 3, "to give." Also kan, kam, RR. water, bamboo. In this
 THE PHONETICS. 141

phonetic lies concealed a curious and convincing proof of the change

from final m to ng. K'am and kam occur in Kwy, with RR. grass,
water, square vessel, and 164 yen. In Kwy, R. tooth ya occurs
instead of hung "work." This suggests a connexion with kiang
"descend" 271. The radical is pei
" shell." The rest is phonetic.

1040. fS| ling, 5, "efficacious," "soul," "influence." From rain.

From R. rain and /g icu "enchanter." Tt. This author says the
enchanter by his reverential divination brings spirits down, and is able
to foretell future events. Sw says it is from R. rain to denote the
celestial source of beneficial influences, and from R. yu "jade-stone."

Note. The preceding phonetics with the radicals of the first

chapter form a body of between 1200 and 1300 signs. They con-
stitute the basis of Chinese writing, and by compounding them in

various ways most of the remaining characters are formed.

The native etymologists, whose researches have been made use of
in the preceding explanations of the formation of characters, have

from the old shapes that presented

naturally in each case selected
themselves some one which was at the same time old and easy to

explain. Sometimes they explain new forms, and leave the primitive
shape unaccounted for. But they deserve on the whole the greatest
praise for their ingenuity, industry, and judgment.
By omitting all compounds, the number of phonetics may be
greatly reduced but for the student this would not be the best course
;

to adopt.
 CHAPTER IV.

HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING.

THE IMPLEMENTS OF WRITING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. CHANGES IN THE FORMS OF

THE WRITING. Ku WEN. LIEU WEN. TA CHWEN. SIAU CHWEN. Li SHU. K'IAI
SHP. T'SAU SHU.

THE natives of China rejoice to trace all useful inventions and new
attainments in knowledge to their ancient sages. Among these some
are mythical and others historical. The invention of writing belongs
to mythical times.

Chinese accounts say that Fu hi taught the method of cutting

certain symbols on wood, that is to say, the Eight Diagrams are
believed to have been engraved. Hien yuen taught the use of a
knife as the implement in writing. Shun made the first writing
brushes, and employed black paint as an ink, and oblong strips of
bamboo to receive the writing. Another author ascribes the first

use of the brush in writing to T'sang kie, who also first recommended

glue and paint to write with and pieces of silk to write upon.
Cheu kung, who died B.C. 1105, is said to have painted with

a brush the shapes he saw upon the shell of a tortoise.

When it is stated that Meng kwa invented the writing brush
B.C. 220, this explained as meaning that he improved it, for
is

writing by the brush is mentioned twice in earlier books, viz. the

Shu king in speaking of Cheu, and the Li ki in the passage Sh'i tsai
" the historian carries a brush."
pi,
The brush of Meng kwa is supposed to have been made of deer's
hair, while later it was common to use the hair of hares, black sheep,
squirrels, weasels, rats, and foxes.For the handle, ivory, rhinoceros'
horn, rock crystal, and particular kinds of wood were employed.
Afterwards bamboo handles became common.
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 143

In the fifth year of T'ai k'ang, A.D. 280, the Roman Emperor
made a present to the Emperor of China of 30,000 sheets of paper,
who ordered the Ch'un t'sieu of Confucius, with the text, comments
and explanation, to be written upon them. Paper is spoken of in
China before that time, but not before the Han dynasty, and it
should be kept in mind that commerce in the Indian Ocean, and
caravans passing through Parthia and Turkestan, would introduce

paper and ink during a long period before the mention of the 30,000
sheets.

Paper has been made in China from hemp, from mulberry bark,
and from tender bamboo. Rattan, moss, wheat stalks, rice stalks,
cocoons, have all been tried and used on a limited scale. The word
ch'i
"paper" means a thin flat fold of silk or linen. Others say
it means something smooth, as a grindstone, which is called by the

same name. The radical of paper is silk. That of a grindstone is

stone. The phonetic is s/ii, di, ti, 106 J. Ti J^ is also used.
Ts'ai lun in the reign of Hwo ti, A.D. 264, made paper of old
linenby pounding and maceration. He also used fishing nets, hemp,
and bark. To him is commonly attributed in China the invention
of paper.
In the cyclopaedia Ke ch'i king yuen, a passage is quoted from the
work Tung t'ien t'sing lu, " Exact account of investigations into
heaven," which states that anciently a bamboo style was dipped
in paint and used as a writing implement. From the third century
of our era downwards, writers began to use ink balls made of lamp-
black and pine-wood soot, 1 which I suppose to be made by the
Chinese after their becoming acquainted with Greek ink. They
were rubbed in concave ink stones.
The word mek "ink" means black, and is the same etymo-
" coal." Final k has been lost from both of them.
logically as mei
Ink stones are called yen, from yen " to grind." Flat and concave
ink stones are now used. In the temple of Confucius the ink stone
that he used is said to be still preserved.
The Chinese never appear to have used the style in writing.
The knife was employed in cutting characters, and the brush in
writing them, in ancient as in modern times.
Sw states that when the writing is upon bamboo or on silk or
1 " smoke mixed with pine-wood soot."
Literally, paint
144 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

other cloth, it is called s/iu, a word which implies in its symbolism the
idea of painting as distinguished from graving. Thus shu "write,"
"book," is in the upper part the same as pit "hair pencil," ^
"writing brush," in its lower part.
The word commonly in literature from the
pit for pencil occurs
T'sin dynasty, B.C. 200 onwards. The pencil then introduced by
Meng kwa, builder of the Great "Wall, was made of deer's hair in the
middle and goat's hair on the outside. The tube that contained it
was red, and vermilion was the colour of the paint made use of in all
documents in the office of the historiographers.
Before that time the usage may be judged of by passages such as
that in the Sh'i yi ki of the Han dynasty, "In times when there was
no teacher who might give constant instruction, pupils did not fear
long and mountainous paths which they trudged bravely with book
tablets on their backs. Their pens were made by cutting willow

twigs, and the sap of trees was used by them as ink." There seems to
be an allusion here to the Chinese black varnish, which exudes from a
tree and was anciently much used in writing.
In another passage tan "knife," and pi "brush," are spoken of as
the commonly used ancient implements of writing. The knife would
be used in cutting on bamboo tablets or on stone, while the brush
would be the implement in ordinary use. The proper meaning of the
word shu, when used classically as a verb, seems to be "brush." This
is the sense when, in the Li ki, the six accomplishments of an
ancient education embrace writing as the fifth among them. The
others are li ceremonies, music, archery, riding and driving, and
arithmetic.
The Buddhist cyclopsedia Fa yuen chu lin, by a Chinese author of
the Sung dynasty, says three men invented writing. The
first was

Brahma. He taught to write from left to right (Sanscrit). The second

was Shu ku lu, 1 who taught a method of writing from right to left
(Semitic). The third and most recent of these three inventors was
T'sang kie, the maker of the Chinese characters, who originated the
method of writing from top to bottom.
The extant examples of the most ancient writing are known as the

1
See Kh under
^j
with R. man. The same character here used to write the syllable k'u
is in expressing the second syllable of the name Bokhara.
employed Hence Shu ku lu may
be Shakra, i.e. Indra, as suggested to me by Prof. Max Miiller.
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 145

j^f 3 Ku wen, and are found in old monuments and in the dictionary
Shwo wen.
They are rude pictures of objects and suggestive groups of two or
three pictures. A large number of the pictures when formed were
borrowed words that could not be represented by pictures. Thus
for

one picture came to be the written sign of two or more things, the
same in sound but different in sense.
Thus cho ) dok "a spoon" takes as another meaning tik "to
catch fish." Afterwards the radical kin "metal" was added on the left
to indicate a special sense, suggested by the material of which fish-

hooks are made. In such a combination we call spoon the phonetic

and metal the radical.

In the Ku wen pictures and suggestive groups were more common

and phonetic combinations fewer than afterwards.
The number of characters that had radicals added to them in the
Ta chwen, Siau chwen and Li shu is very great.
There is no record of any change in the character from the times
of T'sang kie to B.C. 800. But many different forms described as Ku
wen are found for the same character.
In the old vases, which reach back some of them to about B.C.

1500, the pictorial form of characters, as it was originally, may still

be traced to some extent. The more ancient the form, the more true
would it be to the original. It is rather in the modern shape of
the characters that difficulty is found for after they had passed
;

from the Ku wen to the Lieu wen, from that to the Siau chwen
and the Li, and so to the modern shape, it must not be expected that
the primary form will be in all cases easy of detection.
There some other forms of writing known as fro feu,
are

yu chu, etc., which are fanciful. The k'o ten is a very ancient
style, older than the ta chwen, and like tadpoles. Hence the name
7$ ^ . The pa fen /^ ^
intervened between the Siau chwen and
the Li shu. The Hiny shu or rapid running hand is of recent origin.
The discussion of all these may be omitted here, except the chwen,
li, t'sau, and kiai.

The
large chwen was the form introduced by Lieu, the historio-
grapher of Cheu siuen wang, B.C. 800, whose name was applied to the
new style. It looks as if it were properly a stone cut character, or a
character made with a thick pointed brush. It is the shape used on
10
146 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

the Stone Drums, the legends of which have been recently translated, 1
and belong to the same period and emperor.
This style is Ta chwen or Lieu wen. Yet there
called either
is a difference. When 200, made the Siau chwen, that
Li si, B.C.

which was before known as Lieu wen received often the designation
Ta chwen, to distinguish it from the new. There is more elaborate-
ness in the Lieu wen than in the Ku wen. A fondness for orna-
mental flourishes crept in. The increased number of strokes thus
brought into use rendered writing more laborious, and led to the
reform which gave origin to the Siau chwen.
In the collection Kin sh'i tsui pien, published at the close of

last century, the text of a large number of old monuments is given

in chronological order.
Atthe beginning the Stone Drums occur. Then follows the
inscription of Yii, known as Keu leu pei, attributed, but on in-
sufficient grounds, to Yii, B.C. 1900. It is followed by the basin
of Pi kan, who was minister of state B.C. 1123, and another of the
San family. Both of these basins are assigned to the Shang dynasty,
and are authorities for the Ku wen.
Of the Cheu period are given Tsiau shan ting, the tripod of
Tsiau shan, in the province Kiang su. Then comes an inscription
of four characters on the T'an mountain, at the town called Tsan

hwang, and of the period B.C. 1000. In objecting to the genuineness

of this inscription, native critics remark that the form of the four
characters is more like the Siau chwen than either the Ku wen or the
K'o teu, the styles then prevalent.
The other inscriptions belonging to the Cheu dynasty are Kau
k'e tsun ming, of about B.C. 600, and containing about fifty characters,
Mau tuy ming of forty-nine characters, Chung keu tui ming of
thirty-two characters, and a brick with a single character on it.
Tsun was a vessel for holding wine, and tui for holding millet.
There are three of the T'sin dynasty, and about eighty of the Han.
The Yin and early Cheu inscriptions represent the Ku wen.
From 800 B.C. to the end of the Cheu the inscriptions belong to the
Ta chwen. They constitute the first great change, so far as we
know, after the characters left the hands of T'sang kie and Tsii sung.

The word chwen lj refers to the appearance of slips of bamboo

i
By S. W. Bushell, M.D.
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 147

written upon and tied round with tangled strings of silk. The
writing
looked like the strings in regard to their presenting rounded and con-
fused shapes, and hence the name chwen.
Li si, minister of T'sin shi hwang, was a great initiator of changes.
His part in the introduction of the Siau chwen was the composition
of the treatise called T'sang kie p'ien. He was assisted by Chau kau,
who wrote Yuen li
p'ien ; and by Hu mu king, who wrote Po hio p'ien.
Their main object was to diminish the number of strokes and make

writing more rapid. The change was easily accomplished under an

arbitrary and strong government such as China then had.
The Siau chwen comes next in order. In this writing there is

a great preponderance of round curves and circles, instead of the

squares which are common in the modern writing.

was anciently much used on seals and flags. Hence
It it has been
called by French and English authors the seal character. It is not,

however, said of the Ta chwen that it was used on seals, so that the
name is of doubtful propriety. It is better to transfer the Chinese
word chwen. See in Kh the word li under radical tai 171.
Itthe form used by Hii shu chung in the Shwo wen for the
is

text. The explanations he wrote in the Li shu. The radicals of the

Shwo wen in the Siau chwen are given in Appendix F to this work.
The Li shu must now be considered. This form of writing was
intermediate between the old and the new. It arose in the Han
dynasty.
Many of the contractions of modern writing had their source in
the Li shu. Thus, the two upright crosses, as in J^, crowning
botanical words, are the contraction for t'sau "grass," introduced in
the Han. 1
In the T'sin dynasty public business greatly increased. Docu-
ments were multiplied. The seal character was felt to be cumbersome.
A man named Li 2 was ordered to prepare a more convenient mode of
writing. The Li shu was the result, and it was named from its
inventor.
Another account is that it was done in the peaceful times of the
Han dynasty.
1
So the three dots on the left in words relating to water took the place in the Li shu of
the three downstrokes which in the earlier writing represented water.
2
The word li means attached to government directly. The new writing might be so
called as used hy official persons. See in Kh R. 171, nine strokes.
148 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

A distinct approach isobservable in the Li to the quick movement

of the modern writing. The Li shu looks like the first writing done
with a finely pointed brush. The width of the stroke increases or
diminishes in certain circumstances. There is nothing of this feature
in the Ta Chwen or Siau Chwen writing. In the Li shu it is quite
distinct.

Two strokes are often run into one. A

sharp angle takes the
place of a round curve. A stroke with two curves in it becomes
a stroke with one.
There is a careful avoidance of round curves. The sun and moon
were formerly rounded in form. They became in the Li square and
rectangular. See in the lithographs at the end.
A
considerable change in form sometimes took place. Thus ^f ngi

"ought" had more anciently for its lower part the whole or half of
% to
"many." So also te ffi "to get" was formerly written with J^
pel above, and *S
yeu "hand" below.

Wang "king" 3E> and yu "jade" 3t, were first distinguished in

the Li by adding a dot to the latter.
The contracted form of shui "water," as in ftji c'hung, was not
employed in the Chwen wen. The
form was then used in writing
full

characters compounded of water and some phonetic. It appeared

first in the Li.

The contracted form of JJ tau "knife" was first used in the Li
shu, and from that time consisted of two vertical strokes on the right
of compound characters.
C'hu \R "go out" became j^ "earth" in the Li shu, in "to go ^
out and amuse oneself." Here the suggestiveness of the combination
of *|Jj;
-with fang "let loose," is lost sight of, and is only restored by a
study of the ancient modes of writing.
The Kiai shu, or modern style of writing, dates from the period
of Wang hi ch'i, viz. A.D. 321 to 379. The Chinese have continued
to write the same form of the character, and with the same materials,
since that time. Specimens of his writing preserved on stone tablets
are much sought after and admired.
The change which then took place in writing proceeded naturally
from the introduction of new materials, such as paper, pencils of fine
hair, and ink adapted to make fine strokes.
Since brushes with paint were used before this, the chief for-
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 149

mative elements, in addition to resting on the wrist (of which more

afterwards), that availed to force in the modem form of the
character were ink and paper, then recently brought from the
Roman Empire.
1

The word ^ k'iai shu, applied to the writing then introduced,

alludes to the sense rule, pattern, belonging to the word k'iai. This
is the meaning of the quotation in from the Tsin shu, "
Kh "Wang
t'si
chung of Shang ku was the first to make characters according to
the method called k'iai."
K'iai is also the name of a tree which grows at the tomb of
Confucius. 2
The strokes which make up a Chinese character will be found
inAppendix E, as given by Callery. They form eight strokes in all.
The Chinese themselves are accustomed to say that the character
^j< yung contains them all ; according to this view there are only six
strokes.

On the direction of the brush in writing, it should be noticed

that it is predominantly from left to right and from above down-
wards. Pie J goes from right to left, but then it has a downward
direction. begins below and goes upwards obliquely to the
Ti /
right. It was introduced to allow for a very natural movement of
the brush, and is in fact but a variation of pie.
To on the wrist joint in writing, and not on the thumb,
rest

is a fundamental requisite. The form of the character has not

changed since the time of Wang hi chi, and it was probably therefore
by him that the resting of the hand on the wrist in writing was

introduced. This will partly account for the superior beauty of the
character since his time.
The Grass character, or abridged running hand, originated in the
Han dynasty soon after the Li shu. Its forms are drawn rather from
the Siau chwen and the Li shu than from the K'iai shu. It continues
1
In Notes and Queries for China and Japan, I have shown that trade, opened up with
the "West in the Han dynasty, brought Greek paper and ink to the knowledge of the Chinese.
2
I saw it there in 1873. It is said to grow nowhere else. It is found, however,

through the whole region for many miles from the tomb. It has opposite leaves like those
of the Hwai shu, Acacia sophora. It has a yellow flower, smaller than that of the Hwai.
The people say there are no seeds. The leaves fall in the ninth month. It flowers in the
third. The stem throws off branches at five feet and upwards. The people say it is propa-
gated by the agency of birds, and not by that of the gardener.
150 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

to be extensively used down to the present time for correspondence,

book keeping, and the rough copy of any written compositions.

It is current among friends and equals. In any document addressed
by an inferior to a superior it is not permitted. The K'iai shu must
then be used.
The invention of printing led to the introduction of a new form
of the character called Sung t'i. Both this and the K'iai shu are
employed in printed books at present, but the Sung t'i is the more
common. The handwriting taught in schools is the K'iai shu.
 CHAPTER V.

THE Six PRINCIPLES IN THE FORMATION OF THE CHARACTERS.

THE Lu SHU AS EXHIBITED IN THE DICTIONARIES SHWO WEN, Lu SHU KU. EXAMPLES.
PICTURES OF IDEAS. PICTURES OF OBJECTS. PICTURES OF SUGGESTION. NEW
CHARACTERS MADE BY CHANGE IN POSITION OF OLD ONES. PHONETIC CHARAC-
TERS WITH RADICALS. PHONETIC CHARACTERS WITHOUT RADICALS.

IN the dictionary Shwo wen, A.D. 200, the first elaborate attempt was
made to explain the formation of the Chinese characters. Hii shu

chung, the author of that work, described about 10,000 characters

according to the nature of their symbolism as ideographic or phonetic.
He only busied himself with the illustration of the written symbols.
As to the etymology and origin of the words themselves he attempted
nothing. But the book was a great achievement, and its explanations
of the formation of words and their meanings have been imported to
a vast extent into the productions of all succeeding lexicographers.
This book was written before the Hindoo Buddhists taught the
Chinese to spell, so that the author had no method for preserving the
sounds of words as they were pronounced in his own time.
To analyse sounds and divide vowels from consonants has always
been a problem which the Chinese have failed to comprehend. Down
to the present century their best writers on the changes of sounds
have never made use of the alphabet or divided words into vowels and
consonants.
One great advantage of the Shwo wen is that it selected the best
established forms of the characters, suggested an explanation of them,
and fixed them according to a system. In the forms of the characters
as preserved on old cups and tablets, there is the most
bells, vases,
remarkable variety. This variety the author reduced to a certain
unity. There now exist in the country only a portion of those forms
152 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

that must have been familiar to this author. He lived at the closing
part of an eminently critical and learned 1
time, during which the
ancient texts were published with comments, and made the foundation
of a government system of examinations. Although we meet there-
fore with considerable diversity in the forms of characters, we may
look upon those given in the Shwo wen as the collective result of the

learning of the Han dynasty in this department.

The Han dynasty scholars, meditating on the classical phrase lu
shu "six principles of writing," and on the various modes of forma-
tion discoverable in the characters, placed pictures of ideas and

objects first. Then came a want. Pictures could not be for ever
multiplied. They might be turned round. Two might be joined to
make a third. Hence came a large accession of new signs. After-
wards the phonetic principle and that of borrowing were introduced,
and these were the most fruitful of all principles in forming new
characters. The philology of the Han period could proceed no
farther than this.
Even in the Sung dynasty, a thousand years later, the study of
the formation of the characters is represented as attaining its grand
result in a better understanding of the Yi king, the text book of the
ancient philosophy which the Chinese sages loved, and which aimed
to explain the world by means of a mystic symbolism.
"
The first mention of the lu shu "six kinds of writing is in the
classical work Cheu li, attributed to Cheu kung, B.C. 1100. The fifth
of the six accomplishments to be taught to princes is stated to be lu shu.
This explained by the Han comment to be the six modes of forming
is

characters, siang king, hwei yi, chwen chu, c'hu sh'i, kia tsie, hie sheng.
Tai tung, the author of the Lu shu ku, divides the characters into
479 classes. Among these he distributes them further according to

the six principles of formation.

He arranges them in the following order :

1. Chi sh'i, symbols of ideas, acts, numbers, and positions in space.

They are such as a stroke for one, two strokes for two, the sign _L
for "above," and T for "below."
Siang hing. Pictures of objects. The sun, the moon, vapour,
2.

mountains, fire, water, a sheep, a fish, etc., are represented by outline

pictures.
1
Han dynasty, B.C. 206 to A.D. 220.
 THE SIX PRINCIPLES OF FORMATION. 153

3. Hicei yi. Suggestion. Thus in // one man is seen following

another. This is used as a symbol for the verb " to follow," with the
sound t'sung.
Three men placed together represent chuny "many," as in the
lower part of ^ .

Two fires, one above the other, represent yen "burning," "bright."
4. Chwen chu. The characters are sometimes turned partially or
" turn new sound and modi-
completely round (chwen "), to indicate a
" indicate " "
fication of meaning (chu "). Thus J^ feu hill is

ll| shan " mountain," turned up on its end.

5. Hiai sheng. Phonetic imitation. Characters are used as sound

symbols, their original pictorial sense being for the time put out of
view. Thus, for example, "a hundred," "g pe, pak, is formed from
" " white."
the stroke one," and j^j pe, bak,
Sing J| "star" is formed in the Li shu from pp ideographic and
^ sheng phonetic. The former, a pictorial group of three stars, was
the entire character in the ancient writing. ^ chau "beckon" is

from J] tau "knife" phonetic, and as an ideograph k'eu P "mouth."

P'u
"
^
" to strike
lightly with the hand
" to
"
is formed from <JC yen

hand," the ideograph, and divine," the phonetic.

f pu, pok,
"
6. Kia tsie. Borrowing. Examples sok rope," formed from:
^
R. silk below and shok "to bind" above, is used in the sense "to

seek," merely on account of the sound agreeing. Chu "to dwell in a

place" sometimes written ^, because

is it formerly agreed in sound
with that word.
There are more examples of Kia tsie in and before the time
of Confucius than afterwards. It became customary in later times to
add radicals to the kia tsie characters, which thus became phonetically
written, and passed into the fifth class.

In Chi sh'i abstractions are drawn pictorially as well as they can

"a "
be. Chi " to point to." Sh'i matter," thing."
" likeness."
Siang hing embraces objects having a form. Siang
"
Sing form."
In Hwei yi " understand the meaning," one, two or more objects
in a picture suggest another.
In Chwen chu "turn the explanation," we have a change in the
meaning accompanying a change in the posture of the figures.
In Hiai sheng we have the borrowing of a word symbol already in
154 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

use, to be the symbol of another word like it in sound. An additional

mark helps to indicate the new word symbolized. Hie " agree."
Sheng "sound."
In Kia tsie we have borrowing without an additional mark. As
" "
in nii woman," used for thou," because both were called nu
or nok.
The six principles may be reduced to three. First, pictures of

objects. pictures suggestive of ideas, words or things,

Second,
including the first, third, and fourth principles. Third, borrowing
symbols on the ground of phonetic identity, including the fifth and
sixth principles.

EXAMPLES OF Cm SHI.

" heaven." " "

5^ Swsays from yi one," ^ ta great." Tt
says, with more probability, that it is a picture of an idea. Three
concave lines horizontal and parallel represent heaven in one old
form.
Tan "sunrise." The sun rising. Here the single stroke is
the horizon. The sunrise is named tan from its redness. Tan " red "
is
applied, other things, to the golden elixir, which was cinna-
among
" elixir of the " red
bar, called kin tan, sien tan, immortals," chu sha
sand," etc. The reference here is to red oxide of mercury. The
medical properties of mercury, and its assumption of a liquid form at
low temperature, led the ancient Chinese alchemists to believe that in
it was concealed the elixir of life.

Evening, si, zik, dik, is suggested by the half-moon just seen.

A boundary between fields is represented by two fields placed side
by side, ^; kiang, with a line between and two lines above and below.
The character [3 inclosed in four detached straight lines is called
hwa, gak, and means a stroke cut with a knife or written with a
brush. a picture of the four boundaries of a field.
It is The
"
phonetic 293 JSJ hwei, gut, return," is in Sw a single line returning
into itself.

In phonetic 30 ~% t'sai, 5, dat, we see the cutting away of useless

portions of a tree -fc, while the good parts are selected to use as
building materials or for other purposes. In choosing a symbol for
" " "
dzai ability," faculty," capacity for usefulness," it was the dzni
of a tree which suggested the required sign. This was afterwards
 EXAMPLES OF PICTURES OF OBJECTS. 155

applied to the talent of men and the power of money, which are
other modifications of the same idea. The character represents a
tree partly stripped of its branches. Li yang ping in Tt.
In "historiographer" a hand below grasps a writing imple-
s/i'i

ment, viz. 252 yu above. See the hand in Cw drawn plainly.

" "
In |^. jen edge of a knife we have a knife, and a dot pointing
to the edge, to indicate that this is the part of the knife to which
reference is made. Tt.

EXAMPLES OF PICTURES OF OBJECTS.

Rain "pjij
was anciently without the upper line, and instead of the
vertical line in the middle, there were four, but all shorter. Above
each of them and within the concave was a dot. These four dots
were rain-drops, the four lines were the direction of their descent,
and the concave was the firmament.
Water ^C shui is regarded by Sw as one of the eight divining
symbols known as the Pa kwa. It is supposed to be kan turned H
on end. This explanation was in agreement with the philosophy
of the Han dynasty, according to which the origin of writing was
found in the Pa kwa. It was believed that the physical theories
of the Yi king, Book of Changes, influenced the makers of the
characters. For us it is better to regard the old form with its three
descending lines as a picture of water flowing downwards.
p. 456 chui "to fall" fg has in the seal character a form some-

thing like that of yu "rain" and of rain-drops. It was perhaps

an imitation. But see in Chapter III.

Mu "mother" -flj:
differs from nu jfc "woman," by having the
breasts added. This is very noticeable in the Cw. I should rather
have referred this to the principle of suggestion, but Tt calls it

a picture of the object. The separate provinces of the six principles

of formation are not always well defined.

Eyebrow mei J| Picture of hair above an eye.

. Tt says that
on the ancient bells and vases this character is not found. The word
mei symbolized by some much more complex characters. Siiin tsi
is

uses H* and below it 7^ mi, for "eyebrow" in the sentence mien wu

su mi "his face without beard or eyebrow."
" son " is in
T'si ^ Lw formed with at the to jl| top represent
hair. In Kw the form is still more complex, including not only hair
156 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

at the top, but arms, legs, and the second man radical at the bottom.
See Sw.

Jf| t'siuen, 5, dzin, "fountain." Water flows from a covered

" Cw
place, pe white," which is represented in by R. cover, mien.

Hu " "
ff a teapot," or winepot," has several old forms which are
evidently pictures of the pot with its lid. But the lower part of the
"

character usually resembles closely Va 424, which had final k,

as in |j| ngo, ak,
" bad." If ak has lost an initial k, as is probable,
the character hu would furnish a still closer likeness to ya 424.
" " back." Two men are here seen back
Pe, pak, jfb north,"
to back.

Tu, ok, -j. "writing implement." Picture of a hand grasping

a knife used in cutting or drawing. Tt.

Ch'eu, nieu, 6, nok, JJ

" * a^ e hold of
things." A picture of the
hand taking hold of something. Tt.
" he." The without J^
Tin, yi, ffi original of this, ,
isa picture
of the hand grasping something. The thing grasped is the down-

stroke, and is here the symbol of authority. A ruler is called yin.

In Kw there are two hands and the symbol of authority is represented
by four strokes.
Heu "ruler" Jtf. The first two strokes are a man, the ruler,
who expresses his will by "one" P "mouth."
Din " a expressed by a character which
subject," c'hen, |5 is

pictures a person bent and prostrate before his chief.

"
C'hwen Jl[ " streams of water becomes an island when written

jH cheu, and a "calamity" when written $ tsai. The last as it

" "
stands is composed of c'hwen descending calamities and fire below.
Unaccountable disasters are supposed to come from above.
" " Two streams of
Tung -fa constant," constantly flowing."
water uniting are here pictured. Tt.
" stretch out
Shen ^ Picture of ribs in two rows
straight."
with the backbone dividing them. The three horizontal strokes
are all divided in the middle in old forms.
In the oldest forms of the characters for "right" and "left,"

tso "left" is three fingers and an arm bent downwards to the left
"
^, while yeu " right is three fingers and an arm turned down to

the right.
Pictures of animals are tripled with the sound pia-u, probably for
 EXAMPLES OF HWEI "
YI, SUGGESTION." 157

an older bok, "to run." Thus we find a picture of three horses

running called p-iau, and the same of three dogs.

The same sound, piau for bok, is applied to a triple picture of a

dog or "fire" >fc> w i tn tne character JU, "wind " on the right in the
sense wind. The use of fire is
probably an error.
Tern is the sound for the triple picture of "fire," old sound dam.
"Flame." "Shining." It is sometimes called hek, because a root

represented by that sound also means "shining." Further, it is called

yi for dik, for a like reason.

Hung, 1, kom or hum, is the sound assigned to a picture of three

carts whose rumbling is thus represented.

Lui, the sound assigned to a triple
5, dut, is arranged as in pf|.
This represents, for example, layers of stone in walls or sun-dried
bricks in earthworks round a camp. On account of resemblance in
sound, "thunder" is also thus represented.

EXAMPLES or HWEI YI, "SUGGESTION."

Characters formed by the principle Hwei yi consist of two or more

parts which by juxtaposition suggest the word intended. The sound

isnot expressed, and must be retained by the memory acting on the
principle of the association of ideas.
K'ing "to congratulate," "happiness," J| k'ing, 3, k'ang, kam, is
formed from R. heart and J| Ink "deer." Formerly the skin of a
deer was taken as a present at visits of congratulation. As often

happens in compound characters, part of one of the component charac-

ters is omitted. One of the words for "all" $ t'sien, 1, tsim, is
composed of a man above, two mouths in the middle, and two men
below. It is intended as a picture of several persons conversing

together, and accompanying each other as they walk.

Some characters formed on this principle, according to the Lu shu
tsung yau, are made phonetic in Sw, as c'h'i "shame." Swsays, "from
heart, ni ear giving the sound." Lsty says, "from heart and ear
by suggestion." When a man hears his faults mentioned, he is

ashamed. His ear grows hot and his face red as a consequence of the

shame he feels, }] c'h'i, 2, t'i, t'ip, "shame."

Sii hiai, editor of Shwo wen, sometimes errs in inferring the

principle of formation in characters to be that of suggestion.

Ho
says that in |^f R. words, ku "sayings," "sayings of old," we
have
 158 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

ku "ancient," acting the part of a suggester of the thought. It is more

"
likely that the word properly meant in the first place only words,"
"sayings." From its having the same sound with feu "ancient,"
scholars took it to mean ancient sayings in particular, and hence the

explanation.
The bow of five short feet in length being used in measuring land,
two bows side by side were anciently used as a symbol for field
boundaries, with the name kiang or kong.
Two trees side by side suggest Urn "grove" ^.
Hiun "instruct" consists of yen f|f "words" on the left, and Jl|

c'hwen "streams flowing" on the right.

Lin "avaricious"
"
is formed by ^
wen "elegant" above, and p
k'en "mouth below. Fair speeches are the cloak of covetousneas.
Wai "crooked" consists of ^ put "not" above, and cheng ]

"right" below.
T'sieu, 5, du, dut, "a captive," is represented by a man J{ in a
square inclosure [ J kico.
S'i "four" si is formed from the character /^ pat "eight,"
within a circle, which here marks the horizon. The idea is
"part-
ing" a circle, since pat is to "separate," "part."

Tsiang "workman" is composed of Jf kin "knife," "hatchet,"

within, and/<7(/ "C. "a vessel of capacity" outside on the left.

Sien "before" ^fc, from ch'i . "to go," and beneath it man, i.e.

gone before some one else.

Kicang "light" *fc. Formerly fire above *fc, and man below A>
i.e. light above man.
K'e "able," "conquer," "can," }, consists of Jf| kicn "shoulder"
contracted, and man below, i.e. what can be carried on the shoulder.
" red " " red "
Ch'i TJ^ t'ak is an older form composed of ta

"great" above, and htco "fire" below, to suggest the colour of a great
fire. Tt. This character repeated has the sound he, 4, kek, and
means "bright," "glorious."
Ch'i "to cauterize" tak. Flesh over a fire. This suggests the
sense of the verb.

Tso, dzak, "to sit," ffi- Two men are sitting vis a vis on the
ground.
C'hu, t'o, "beginning," jgj.
From clothes and scissors. The
beginning of clothing is in the action of scissors cutting cloth.
 EXAMPLES OF HWEI YI, "SUGGESTION." 159

Lo "net" Sjji.
From a net set up high and icei to indicate that

the net shuts the birds in on the four sides. Wei, meaning cross lines
on the astronomical sphere, is here taken in the sense of boundaries.
" "
Wang king ] consists of three strokes, horizontal and

parallel, with one downstroke crossing them. They indicate that the
king joins heaven, earth and man in one person.
If this is doubtful, we may refer to its use as the radical for

more satisfactory explanation. It may be

precious stones, in search of a
borrowed from the name of some shape connected with precious stones.
Pan "class" 3$E consists of a knife in the centre cutting two
precious stones.
"
Tftiai "eager consists of the character 3fc sien "before" doubled.
He who is eagersoon far in front of every one else.
is

When men, ten in number, make up a military company, it

is called zJiip ff-, the character consisting of man and ten.
Wei position," rank," fii consists of men and lip to " stand."
" "

Lau "old" ^ is formed of hair, man, and ^fc "transform." The

" man."
last, as was very common in old times, omits the radical jen J\>

The change of the hair to white is the transformation intended.

Hituig "elder brother" JijJ,.

From mouth and man. The eldest

brother is spokesman.
Sun "grandson" J. From ts'i "son," and hi to "follow in
succession."
Hau"to love," "good," jj. From woman and son. These are
the two things chiefly loved by man.
T'o "safe" ^f. a hand reaching down to help a woman
From
and put her in safety. This explanation comes from Tt. Strangely
the character does not occur in Sw. It is delightful to find, if we

may rely on it, a most chivalrous sentiment in the minds of the

inventors of Chinese writing.
Su "beard," " whisker," g|. From head and hair.

Siang "mutually," "think about," ^g. From wood and eye.

The workman when he uses wood must inspect it to know if it is
suitable in regard to length, quality, and shape. Tt.
" From
Chit, tok, to pray" jJJ. sh'i, symbol of things sacred and
celestial, k'eu "mouth," and jen "man." A human voice praying.

This example belongs to the class called H ^ Hf ^ san ts'i Incci yi,
"
suggestion with three characters."
160 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

In JE ping "weapon," "soldier," we see two hands ft hung

below, grasping a hatchet ff kin above.

-f* sh'i, Jip, dap, "ten." The downstroke indicates that counting

has arrived at ten. But this is rather classed by the native lexico-

graphers under the first principle.

~\fr
Two tens
pronounced niep, ,

imply twenty. Niep ni + jip. =

The j is dropped and the two
separate words coalesce. Three tens placed together are pronounced
sap, and imply thirty. Sap = sam -\-jip. Here m andj are dropped.
Sh'i "age," "generation," $;, is a picture of three tens. A term
of thirty years.
"
To, tap, many" Repetition is suggested by two half- moons,
^>.
the moon being by nature a symbol of change.
Yang "light," "south aspect," f^. Hill on the left. The sun,
etc., on the right is phonetic. In regard to mountains, the south
is yang. In regard to rivers, the north bank is yang. Hills, as
having a bright and dark suggest the idea of yang, one of the
side,

principles in the old Chinese dual philosophy. This character is both

phonetic and suggestive.
In yin, gim, the dark principle in the same philosophy, a hill
as casting a shadow is also used as a distinctive mark (^ Here also .

there is a phonetic element, viz.

" now." Mm
In the old form of sui, duk, " a path between two hills," the same
radical feu is thrice written, and with the cones of the one turned
towards those of the other, to suggest the sense. In the modern

writing that on the left is retained. On the right is p. 170.

In P. 267 jfc wei " danger," there is a man on the top of a cliff,
expressed by R. 27, to suggest the idea. The remaining part is a
later addition.

In p'in, 2, p'im, $ "ranks," "divisions," the three mouths

suggest the idea of division.
" The sun and moon
Bfl ming bright." placed side by side
suggest the idea.
In kau "bright" the sun seen above a tree /fc suggests
the idea.
In yau "dark" the sun j'i seen below a tree "fa suggests the

idea. But in Kw the sun is above and a sort of two-pronged fork

below.
" east." The sun seen through
T|? tung a tree suggests the idea.
 EXAMPLES OF HWEI YI, "SUGGESTION." 161

^ " louse."
tsau The hand scratching and insect suggest the
idea. The sense " early " is borrowed.
In mu, mok, " evening," the sun is seen in the midst of grass. In
Sc the lower part is grass, as is the upper. In the middle is a single
round ring with a dot at the centre. In the modern character
" sun "
^
and below it form the lower part.
"
J^ yi, tik, to change." The sun is seen above the moon, the
lower part being in the old character a picture of the latter luminary.
But see in the Chapter on Phonetics another explanation.
" The upper part is in Sw the sign for
f| si, sik, formerly."
flesh. The sun is below. The primary idea is dried flesh. It is
used for "formerly" by the principle of borrowed application. In
the interest of plainness, R. flesh was afterwards added on the left for
the sense " dry flesh."

>]?, and below it ^/, Hue, 8, hit, "feeble." The components shau
" "
"little" and li strength suggest the meaning.
Pj| ming, 5, "call of birds." The components niau "bird" and
ken "mouth."
" The
3L& ig called ping, 6, 7, bang, bam, standing together."
character lip to "stand" is doubled. A shortened form is $fc "and."
Another is ^f 452. But see other explanations in the Chapter on
Phonetics.
The next example is one of Tauist origin. It was under the
it was made. It is JJL cJien, 1, tin,
inspiration of Tauist ideas that
" true." Sw says it refers to the immortal man changing his form
and ascending to heaven. The author sees in it liwa "transform" at
the top, and eye and eight below with a stroke between them. The
character occurs first in Chwang cheu, a Tauist author. Tt finds the
ancient equivalent in chun 396 ''pure," "genuine." Our character

was made about the time of Chwang cheu probably.

" handful of
fJ ping, 2, corn," handle, hold, that which can be
" corn" and a hand
held. From hico ^ grasping it in the middle.
The character jig kik is singled out by Tai Tung as being the
only character in the Shwo wen which consists
of four ideographic

elements. Sw says it consists of man, mouth, hand, and two. The

two limiting strokes, says Sw, are heaven and earth. Tt notices that
Sw omits any explanation. He suggests that 'pj kii, kok, is phonetic in
this character.
11
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

The character T
chang "staff" of ten feet in length, if looked at
in the old forms, consists of a hand grasping a foot measure. The
stroke below to the right is the hand. The foot is one of ten inches.
Ten therefore is written. The staff was ten feet in length.

The roots of the three measures t'sun "inch," c'h'i, t'ak, "foot,"
chang, dum, "ten feet," are probably all found in verbs, chen, ts'un,
tun, "to think," Mongol "think;" dok "to measure," "think;"
sana,

Hang "to think," "to measure," and the Mongol sana "think."
In jfc kiai, "prohibit," two hands on the left grasp a kwo "short
spear" on the right.
Pft c'hui "to blow." This sense is suggested by a mouth and
k'iem "breathe."
In ^ ycu, 7, "assist," the mouth and hand are suggestive of help

by speech and act. Tt.

In 35 ming, 5, "name," the upper part si "evening," indicates
darkness |jt, which is ming, and is therefore phonetic. The lower
part "mouth" is
ideographic, indicating "name." Tt.

In fo ming "command," we see mouth and ling <fy "command,"

joined to suggest the sense.
In shu Zf "millet," the symbol for water underneath refers to
distillation, large millet having been commonly used for distilling

spirits in ancient times. The upper part is hwo " corn."

Compound characters formed in this way greatly facilitated

the early completion of the task undertaken by the inventors of

writing.
When a considerable number of characters were already made,

they were used in couples to form new ones.

The language had the words kok, kot, som, and lorn, the last two
both derived from dom, and all meaning "high." The former two
had characters. New ones were needed for the other two. ^ kok

"high," with jlj shan "mountain" above it, was invented for som,

which meantime became sung in sound. As an equivalent sung ^

"pine tree" also came into use with "mountain" above it.
Thus various characters came to be employed for the same thing,
with the same or different pronunciations. Also it often happened
that characters added new meanings to the old ones, and assumed new
pronunciations. Out of these conflicting processes of change, number-
less diversities arose.
 EXAMPLES OF CHWEN CHU AND HIAI SHENG. 163

EXAMPLES OF CHWEN CHU, CHANGE OF POSITION.

A Jen "man" is turned round and doubled to make pi Jfc "com-
pare." But see page 61.
Tt, wan "pill," "small ball," is J/\ tsck "inclined to one side,"
turned round. Tt remarks that the idea of ball proceeds from that of
turning round.
One may be allowed to doubt the sufficiency of this explanation
and of the following.
jj^j
shu "negligent" t'ut. The right-hand part of the character
is here explained as -^ "son" turned over and three downstrokes
below to represent flowing.
/ heu "ruler" by change of position becomes "gj si "an officer in

charge of an outside department."

fc yung "constant," incessantly flowing, a picture of running
water, becomes by change Jj^ p'ai "streams of water" parting in
various directions.
"
shen "
$% body is turned round to form the left part of Jjx! yin

"flourishing" with the sense "revert to."

Jff man "Pleiades" is in its lower part,
which is also man with
the meaning 5 A.M. to 7 A.M, composed of the two parts of fj men
"door," both turned the other way. Tt. This seems doubtful.

EXAMPLES OF HIAI SHENG, PHONETIC FORMATION.

7C yuen, 5, ngon, is formed, say Sw and Tt, from yi "one," and

7 nyun phonetic. Another copy of Sw makes ngun not phonetic, but

suggestive. This Tt rejects. Another author derives it from ~~. shang
above, and JL man, and thus makes the character suggestive, and
not phonetic.

>$fr
ti
"emperor," "ruler." Sw says it is formed from _L above
and the phonetic ^
shok "bind." The old sound then of both words
was tok, the vowel only being uncertain.
iff shu "book," "write."
A pencil above and che phonetic %
below. Tt.

Jff she, shok, dok, 7, "to shoot." Sw

says the left-hand symbol
shen "body" suggests that the arrow proceeds from the body (and
therefore the body must form a part of the picture) and strikes a

point at a distance tok "to strike," the right-hand part of the symbol
;

being used suggestively.

164 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

I prefer to regard tok as phonetic. The suggestive principle may

be rightly applied also as by Sw, but probably the phonetic principle
is more prominent.
Nie,nit, to "go down" is formed of R. water on the left, and EJ

above ^fc on the right. Sw says that water and earth are here ideo-
graphic, and "sun" nit phonetic.
The suggestive and phonetic principles are often combined, Jl
p'in, 5, bin, "poor." From/ew "to divide," and pel "money." Here
fen is both suggestive and phonetic. The inventors of the characters
selected that phonetic symbol which was nearest in sense.
"
hiau "
3%.
filial piety is in Kw formed of
^ Man 115, two
crosses above, phonetic, and son below. But hiau with the crosses as
its symbol means to imitate, and imitation is an essential part of filial

piety so far as the father is virtuous.

Ti, compounded of ffi yi phonetic and beneath it ta ^, is so
written in allusion to two persons playing at a game. This is ex-

pressed by two hands, for ta is here really altered from the ancient
symbol for two hands.
Twosounds belong to some phonetics. These originate in the

operation of the principle of suggestion in the peculiar application of

some phonetics. Thus ^
k'ing "musical stone" 743 is composed of
R.79 shu "implement," on the right, of certain other elements on
the left and of R. stone below. The character stone below, is an
addition, and without it the sound is now sheng "sound."
This character, having probably at first the sense "sound," was
used by the principle of suggestion to write k'ing, the name of a
musical stone. After this it became phonetic with the sound k'ing.
The combination of the principles of suggestion and likeness in
sound occurs in JU, fcng "wind," where the outside line is fam J^
"all," used because wind was then called bam, and the symbol for

reptile within was added, we are told, because, according to the old
Chinese belief, reptiles begin to move when the wind blows.

EXAMPLES OF KIA TSIE, BORROWED CHARACTERS.

?j*
kwan "a pipe" borrows from ^ kivan the meanings "care
for," "govern," control."

Lo, a common family name, is written by means of f| lo a "net."

Li, a family name, is written by means of li a
"plum."^
 EXAMPLES OF KIA TSIE, BORROWED CHARACTERS. 165

Tt explains jfj fei, put, as meaning an apron. The horizontal line

isthe line of the shoulders, from which hangs a string fastened to the
waist-band. It is applied, with R. grass, to the word fei "thick and

shady," as descriptive of vegetation. It is found as a verb in p'ei "to

wear at the side," and forms a part of tai "girdle." ^
The upper
portion of tai represents the tying of that which hangs from the
girdle.
Kican, the upper part of 5t "to pierce," "penetrate," is borrowed
to act as the symbol of kican "to be accustomed to." As the charac-
ter is here borrowed to be applied to a new sense, so kwan "to be
accustomed to" may, as a word, be derived from piercing and thorough-
ness, just as our word "thorough," coming from through, has attained

the new sense complete, perfect in action.

In the older classics J|f sh'i, 5, zhik, "time," was used for the
demonstrative ^ sh'i, 6, 7, zhik, "this."

^ sun "grandson" is used for siun "compliant" by Confucius.

Very many abstract terms, verbs, adjectives and particles were

supplied on this principle with the required written signs.
 CHAPTER VI.

HISTORY OF THE SOUNDS.

RESEARCH SHOWS THAT THE CHINESE LANGUAGE is NOT COMPOUND. SOURCES FOR THE
HISTORY. 1. PHONETIC CHARACTERS. RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. RESULTS OF
2.

THE RESEARCHES OF TWAN YU T'SAI. THE SEVENTEEN CLASSES OF OLD RHYMES.

3. TONIC DICTIONARIES. 4. OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS, JAPANESE, COREAN, COCHIN
CHINESE.

THE sources of information on the history of the sounds are very

varied. Among them the oldest the body of common roots found
is

in cognate languages. These I do not now touch, wishing to limit

myself, except in a few examples from Mongol and Japanese, to the

Chinese field.

The next source for the history of the sounds is the phonetic
characters ;
for convenience this will be called the first.

The second is the rhymes of old poetry.

The third is the use of certain characters in the classics and else-
where in senses different from those intended by the inventors of the
characters, and which now, through change in sounds, in many
instances, do not suit them.
The fourth is Buddhist transcriptions of Sanscrit words.
The fifth is the Tonic Dictionaries.
The sixth is Japanese, Corean, Mongolian, and Cochin Chinese
transcriptions.
The seventh is the dialects of Modern China.
All research tends to show that the Chinese language has a self-
consistent history. The difficulties which occur in the illustration of
it may be expected to obtain a solution as the reward of research.
The present chapter will conduct the student only over a part of

the wide field here sketched.

 PHONETIC CHARACTERS. 167

The result of this kind of inquiry is to show that there are no

compound elements in the Chinese tongue.

No abrupt introduction of a foreign language into the country, which
might have materially affected the traditions or language of the people*
can have taken place at any period since the invention of the characters.
The normal condition of a Chinese word consists in having an
initial, a final, and a vowel to join them.
There is no appearance of dissyllabic structure in roots, and
a fortiori words of three or more
syllables cannot be found there.
All Chinese words were anciently, as now, monosyllabic. Various
as are the laws of
change in their sound, none are inconsistent with
this principle.

PHONETIC CHARACTERS.

The phonetic characters, which are in number above a thousand,

help us to discover what final letters have been lost or changed for
others. Thus ^
tui, a common phonetic, has lost final t. It is
recoverable from words written with this phonetic, with R. "="
e.g.
shwot "say," and with R. heart, yuet "to rejoice." Not only is the
final restored, but the initial also can be reduced to its most ancient
form by careful comparison of facts and words. T is both initial and
final in all these three words. S/t and y both come from t.

One native author says there are 2425 characters formed by the five
modes which are not phonetic, and 21810 by the phonetic principle.
The phonetic characters are necessarily somewhat newer than the
others. Pictures of objects which had been first made formed the
basis from which characters constructed on the phonetic principle

were made at a later time.

Many characters now phonetic anciently belonged to the sixth or
borrowed class. The Han writers, who were more learned and

scholarly than those of the though less original and

Cheu period,
powerful as thinkers and system-founders, had much to do with
extending the influence of the phonetic principle in writing. They
added a radical to many words found in the classics without one. By
this addition the character was transferred from the sixth class to the

fifth, and became distinctly phonetic.

The and
philological importance of the original
special interest
phonetic characters consists in this they afford a clue to the actual
:
168 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

sounds attached to the characters at the time when they were made.
Thus i5 cham or tarn, wherever used, has final m or final p. The old
dialects of Canton, agree in this respect with the
Fukien and Kiang si

usage of the mediaeval tonic dictionaries and the rhymes of all ancient
poetry. When we find this phonetic employed with four dots helow
in item "a dot," "a comma," in J& tiem with R. roof, yen "an inn," in
$ djam, with R. j "to stand," or in tyfa t'iep "a ticket," and in any
other examples, the final is or p. m
There are no exceptions.
Here we obtain a firm standing ground in our examination of the
ancient language. The initial was t or d. The final was or p. m
This principle extends to all the words written with this phonetic,
however great their variety of meaning.
Kim "now" was written ^. From it are formed, among others,
"
IP k'im, gim, "a harp ;" & niem "to think," "to read aloud ; jf yem, 7,

niem, "result," "evidence," with R. horse on the left and heart below;
jfe nie, 8, niep, "take with, the hand," "press between the fingers,"
with R. hand on the left and heart below ham, 5, gam,
" to take
; ^
into the mouth," to "contain," "include;" jj| t'am, with R. shell
" " It is to know
below, avaricious,"
greedy." interesting that,
whatever be the age of the phonetic characters, they contain
may
in them incontestable evidence of the phonetic state of the language
at the time when they were first used.

If it be asked
why t aspirated occurs in the last example, it can
be replied that this may be an instance of association of ideas. The
upper four strokes may be a contraction for -^ Of such contraction .

many examples exist, as the reader of the Sw is constantly made

aware. But the existence of the final m in the word may have had
its own influence on the mind of the inventor as a labial letter

symbolic of greediness, in addition to that of the suggestion derived

from the whole word ham.
Final m and final p were looked on by the inventors of the

phonetic characters evidently as very nearly connected. They fre-

quently used the same phonetic for both. But possibly p may have
changed to m in cases of this kind.
In the same way a phonetic in n forms compounds also in n or in
t, its kindred mute. Thus J| tan " dawn," " the red light of sun-
rise," forms $J dan "but," "only;" tan "name of a woman," R.
" " to "
woman, and tat fear," R. heart. So fffc san, sprinkle," scatter,"
 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 169

forms san "umbrella," with R. cloth, kin, and sat, "to sprinkle,"
sow seed, with R. hand.
In the same way, again, phonetics in ng have also ng in all their

compounds. If there be a variation, it is k, or it may be m. Thus

" " if "
^ff t'sing blue," is found in t'sing you please," invite," with R.
words, and in tsing "essence," "pure," with R. rice.
As an instance of a phonetic which has final k and also ng, among
its sounds may be mentioned
}(, which is k'ek and king. Among
instances where a phonetic has both m and ng as a final letter, may
be mentioned " "
feng, bam, JK,wind," ffi bang, bam, together."
Through the letter changes that have taken place there has
all

existed a real distinction of six final consonants, reaching back to the

time of the invention of the characters. Three great groups end in
k, t, Three more terminate in ng, n, m, respectively.
p, respectively.

Many phonetics have never changed their final consonant. For

" "
example, 3fe s ^ en before," sien having naked feet," with R. foot.
"
But the n has been dropped in si wash," R. water. This word was
anciently pronounced sin, or sien, as in some dialects now, e.g. that of
" "
Sung kiang. *|J
kican officer," kican coffin," with R. wood, kwan
"a R. bamboo. Final n has been indeed subject to very
pipe," with
slight variation. During the last twelve hundred years, k, t, and p
have all been dropped, and m has changed to n.
But ifwe take our stand on the basis of the mediaeval dictionaries,
we can look back on a tract of time amounting probably to 2500

years, during which the major part of the phonetics kept their finals
as they were at the beginning of that time.
RHYMES or OLD POETRY.
The second source of information on letter changes is in the

rhymes of the ancient classical poetry.

The rhymes of the old poetry in the Shi king, or Book of Odes,
constitute a valuable source of information as to the state of pro-
nunciation and the extent to which final consonants had been dropped
and modified at the time it was made.
remains of the literary genius of the ancient Chinese
These fine

were composed at the time when Hebrew poetry was in its most
principle of antithesis is common
The to both
flourishing state.
styles. Rhyme, however, is peculiar to the Chinese. The nature
of Hebrew grammar and the peculiar Hebrew structure of words
170 .
THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

prevented the artifice of rhyme from becoming an admired quality in

poetry. In Chinese poetry, on the other hand, the natural order

of words and the monosyllabic simplicity of the roots, rendered rhyme
from the first a pleasing and appropriate element in poetry.
A Hebrew-like expansion of antithesis as a poetic ornament has in
later times taken place in Chinese literature, as exemplified in the
tui lien, or paired sentences, so common in ancestral halls, temples,
and private houses. Sir John Davis has stated in his last publication
on Chinese poetry that Dr. Morrison suggested to him the propriety
of comparing Chinese and Hebrew poetry in regard to this principle,
and that he followed the suggestion.
The old classical poems consist of upwards of three hundred
popular songs, the productions of many authors, who inhabited
several of the kingdoms into which China was then divided. They
differ inone important respect from modern Chinese poetry, they
were not written by rule, but according to nature's impulses. The
poet of to-day keeps in his hand a volume of rhymes arranged in
agreement with an obsolete pronunciation. He does not write spon-
taneously. Words that rhyme in modern Chinese often cannot
rhyme according to the recognized standards. The old poem had no
not being composed for the eye of the literary examiner,
stiffness,
but to become a genuine popular song.
Two
poems, one from the Odes, and another from a writer of the
Tang dynasty, will be found in Appendix D, with the ancient and
modern pronunciation of the characters. It will be there seen that
old poetry gives by its rhymes satisfactory information on final

letters, whether vowels or consonants.

A modern Chinese author, Twan yii t'sai, has made the ancient

pronunciation the subject of special researches. He is one of those

numerous critical authors who have conferred honour on the present
dynasty, and many of whose works are found in the splendid col-
"
lection Hwang t'sing king kiai, Explanations of the Classics of the
Imperial Tsing Dynasty."
The books from which Twan yu t'sai has collected rhyming words
are and mainly, the Odes, B.C. 1300 to B.C. 800. The next in
first,
" Book of
importance is the Yi king, Changes," the most of which
is in rhyme, B.C. 1100 to B.C. 500. The others are Shang shu, "Book
of History;" Mencius; Li sau, the poem of the celebrated K'ii yuen ;
 RHYMES IN OLD POETRY. 171

Ta tai li, Li ki, Ti li, Er ya, Ch'un t'sieu tso chwen (the " Spring
and Autumn Annals," with comment by Tso), and Kwo yu.
The results of Twan yii t'sai's labours are seen in the discovery
of new classical sounds for many words. Thus kiai, chie, " prohibi-
tion," is recorded in Kh as kit in the Odes. Tyt shows that it

was kak. His labours are very important for the history of the
change from final m to ng. He shows that not a few words now
ending in ng were in the time of the Odes pronounced with m.
He has made it clear that in the time of the Odes the second tone,
or shang sheng, did not exist when the final was ng, n, or m. The
second tone class grew up when the finals k, t, p, were thrown off.
When an alphabetic element was lost, a tonic element attached
itself to the word to indemnify it for the loss, and help to make
the sound sufiiciently distinct for the purposes of language. The
rise of c'hu sheng, the third of the four tones, he refers to A.D. 200. At
that time many characters began to leave the other tone classes and
to form a new tone class. Before the Han era, he says, and during
the part of that dynasty, the remains of rhyming compositions
first

contain no evidence of the existence of c'hii sheng in the language.

Liang wu ti, an Emperor of the Liang dynasty, who became

a Buddhist monk, asked on one occasion of his courtiers, "What are
the four tones ? Cheu she replied :
^C ~? !& If ^en ^ sheng che,
" Heaven's son is holy and wise."
No light shone on the minds of Cheu she, Shen yo and other
scholars of that age as to any difference in classical pronunciation
as compared with that which prevailed in their own time. Many
scholars have devoted their attention since to ancient sounds. To
none of them did it occur that by making use of
alphabetic signs
better and surer progress could be made in these inquiries than could
ever be the case without them.
The results for the history of sounds at which Tyt has arrived are
the following :

I. Words that was the sound belonging to this class, were

in ai, if

well separated into the three tones p'ing, shang and/M, or 1, 2, 4. Yet
a good number of words were in transition, and were slowly dropping
final k. The loss of this final letter would transfer them from the
fourth tone class either to the first or to the second. Among such
words which were at the time pronounced with k or without it were
 172 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

2j lai "come," ts'i

^
"son," J$ chie "prohibition," Ijjjj twi "to carry,"
fg, si "to sacrifice," fu "rich," belonging to 534, and having the same

phonetic as J^fu, pok, "happiness."

II. The second division consists of words in ok or in o. Our
author appears to be wrong in arranging them all under the p'ing
sheng. We
must preserve the final k in all words where that letter
remained firm till the time of the Kwang yiin. Such words are lak

"joy," fj gak "music," tsiak "official rank," "wine cup," yak "medi-
cine." Where these and words like them in the possession of a firmly
fixed final k in Kwy, occur in classical poetry, it is right to modify
the statements of our author, who places them in the p'ing sheng and
destroys unwarrantably their final k. His second division must be
separated into a 1st and 4th class. The principle to be followed is

wherever a word undoubtedly ending in k, t, or p, occurs in rhymes,

the words in the rhyme must all be regarded as having k, t, or p. It
is on the ground of this law that we restore k in words such as ^, ^,
|3, 0g, mau, kiau, man, chaii, "hair," "instruct," "appearance,"
"shine upon." They all rhyme with words in k.
III. The third division consists of words in u or ok. They are
classed in the three groups known as p'ing, shang,ju. Here, again,
the principle must be recognized that k existing as a final in a word

holding a place in a string of rhyming words indicates the existence

of k in all words which rhyme with it.
Applying this rule we restore
k to H chut, to 5 and to $jf.

IV. In the 4th division Tyt finds only p'ing sheng and shany sheng.
The vowel is u. Among the words occur heu "after," chu "lord,"
k'eu "mouth." From other sources we know that most words in
division IV. have lost final k. The place they hold in Tyt's arrange-
ment shows that in the time of the composition of the poems they had
lost this final letter.

V. The vowel seems to be o. The author places ^ kia, ko,

"house," J=^ t'sie "and further," ^ ago, ak, "bad," in the p'ing sheng.
Tyt must be wrong when he makes f, ?, ^, $(, $, jfc, all
rhyme together in the section of the Siau ya called T'sai wei. In fact
the first two words rhyme as tsak, mak, and the remainder as ko, ko,
kio, ko. The first two words stand third in the first two lines. The
last four stand fourth and last in the last four lines. It is a very

arbitrary proceeding to make two penultimate words rhyme with four

 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 173

ultimate words. Tyt has followed Chu hi, who wrongly makes all the
six words rhyme in u, without admitting in any instance a final conso-
nant. The absence of final k in Kiang si dialects of our own time,
which retain final m and p, may account for this error of Chu hi, or
his guide in old sounds, Wu t'sai lau. These dialects are spoken not
far from Chu hi's native place, in the southern part of the province of
An hwei.
The incorrectness of the Sung authors on the subject of ancient
sounds is seen in instances like the following. The character nit,
^
"woman," Chu directs to be called $ ju. This is an inversion of the
actual state of things. He did not know that a sound like ju comes
from an older niu, for ni in Chinese changes toj.

Tyt in the Siait ya, Lu yuch s'i

chang, again follows Chu hi in

making if| hit, phonetic 951, instead of hok, rhyme with #0 Ju,
which should rather be read nok.
Tyt was himself a native of Tan t'u, near Nanking. The k final

of the tonic dictionaries there entirely unknown.

is He had conse-
quently no clue in his native pronunciation by which he might have
been led to detect the law by which final k has been lost.
VI. The sixth division consists of words ending in ng, all in
p'ing sheng. The medial vowel I suppose to be i or a kitng " bow," ;

" "
p'eng a friend," heng constant," here occur.
Two words in m, viz. yim " sound," t'sim " coat of mail," p. 328,
here rhyme with ying "answer," kung "bow," Peng "to tie," It ing
"to rise," in the one case, and t'etig "to tie," kung "bow," tseng
" " " " hinder." All of
many," ying answer," cheng punish," cheng
these words must then have had final in.

VII. Words ending in am and ftp. There is here no shang sheng.

The want of shang sheng in VI. and VII. shows the slow progress to
completion made by that tone class.
At the time of the composition of the Odes, feng "wind," was
commonly called bam, thus affording us an epoch in the development
of final ng out of final m. Among the phonetics in VII. are sini

"heart," Urn yim "sound," nam "south," kim "now,"

"forest,"
z/iim "exceedingly," cham "to divine," kim " embroidery," gip "to
" to " "
reach," hap combine," shap wet," dzip gather together."
VIII. "Words in am and ap. Probably this division was dis-

tinguished from VII. by an inserted i or w. But the exact sound

174 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

isnow perhaps beyond our reach to know. Among the phonetics in

VIII. are kietn "inspect," kam "sweet," kam "dare," ngem " severe,"
yem "eaves," yep "leaf," kctp "coat of mail," giep "occupation,"
" " to "
property," tsiep go quickly past," shop to pass over."
IX. "Words in ong, all in p'ing sheng. Among them are tioig
" " " " "
east," dong together," kung work," chung end," djutig reptile,"
"insect," tsung "root," chung "middle," dung "move," kung "just."
Here again Tyt wrongly follows Wu t'sai lau, or at least Chu hi, in

assigning the sound yung to [^ Both should rather have given the
.

sound torn to fy which rhymes with it. The passage is in SKi, in 8

,

of the chapter on the Seventh Month, near the end of the Kwo feng.
Yim " to drink" is found in Ta ya, in the chapter Sheng min ch'i sh'i,
Kung lieu, 4, and is made by
Tyt, though doubtfully, to take final
" "
ng, because it rhymes with
"
tsung
"
^
foundation," original source."
"
Tsung with djung reptile," kung palace," kung body," are found
rhyming with Urn " to down come" to arrive." This is in
upon,"
the Yun Milky Way, a division of the Ta ya. Now tsung
han, or

being found rhyming twice over with a word in final m, the case
becomes very strong. We may then, in the absence of a better
solution, regard kung "palace," djung, c'hung, "reptile," kung "body,"
as all then heard with m for ng. This agrees with the law of change,
which on other grounds we know to exist, viz. that of m to ng,

through some hundreds of common words.

If we examine Tyt's tables of Yi king and other rhymes, the
argument just stated acquires new strength.
BOOK. NAME OF kwa. WORDS IN m. WORDS iir ng.
Yi Tun. gim "bird." k'iung "to exhaust."
Pi. " middle."
chung
" end."
chung
(
Siang hia, ) shim "deep." chung "middle."
Chwen " face."
( heng. ) yung
" violent."
hiung
kung "merit."
Ken. sim "heart." "
kung body."
" correct."
cheng
" to seal."
Li sau T'ien wen. djim "to sink." feng
Pukii. c'ham " to slander." t'sung
" follow."

All these words in ng should be supposed to have ended in m in

the time of the authors of the poems.

 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 175

X. Words in ong, all in p'ing sheng. They include such as ku-ang

" " " " " to
broad," fang square," ping weapon," soldier," king (gang)

go," yang "the bright side of nature," Hang "cool," sluing "high,"
" brother." One word
hiung having final m is found in the Sh'i
mixed with this large mass of words in
ng. It is /" cham, with
R. eye.
"
The word cham look up to," in the double sentence, " To
this gracious prince the people look up admiringly," stands last

of eight words, and the rhyming words which follow are siang " chief

minister," tsang "to hide in the mind," k'u-ang "mad." They

rhyme in succession each at the end of eight words. The ode is in
the Tang ch'i sJii
portion of the Ta yd, and the eighth of sixteen
is

sections, in all of which the eighth word keeps to the one rhyme.
We are obliged therefore to change the ng of the three rhyming
words into m.
In the Li sau of Kii yuen, B.C. 314, the following rhymes
occur, , JH,
j>-, J|, nwng, ngem, hong, djting.
Are we to
treat these words in the same way? The poem is six or seven
centuries later than the Ta ya. It appears to me that we are

compelled to do so, for this example is

supported by those in VI. as
above given.
XI. Words in eng, all in p'ing sheng. They include such as sheng

"living," tsing "a well," c'heng "to accomplish," ting "to fix," cheng
"correct," sing "surname."
With this division are very significantly mixed up several words
ending in n. They indicate either that a part of the present collection
of words in ng came from an earlier n or that some words in n tempo-

rarily changed it for ng. The intruding words in n are jen "man,"
yuen "beginning," t'ien "heaven," yuen "abyss," sin "believe," min
"people," shen "body," hicn "wise," pin "guest," chen "true." They
occur in the Yi king and in Li sau.
Beside these, a single word in m, > kirn "gold," "metal," also

creeps into the rhymes. It rhymes with c'heng "city," in the Kwo yii
(Cheu yii), and accords with the law in VI. and IX.
With regard to the intrusion of words in n among words in ng, let
the following facts be considered. In Kwy ming "command" and
some other words commonly ending in ng are also found with n.
Such words may have sprung from min, etc. But the peculiar sounds
of these words in the Yi king and Li sau seem to be limited at most
176 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

to the Cheu 1
and Ch'u 1 kingdoms. If they had been national, they
would have crept into the Shi.
It is more probable that the above-mentioned ten words temporarily

changed n to ng in some parts of the country, than that sheng

final

"living," c'heng "to complete," king "form," cheng "correct," cheng

"chaste," p'ing "even," keng "to plough," ming "name," Fsing
"clear," ying "pillar," should have changed n to ng subsequently to
the third century before Christ. In the absence of direct proof as to
whether the final was n or ng, it is only safe to say, however, that the
words rhyming together were attracted into a single group which
ended either in n or ng.
XII. XIII. XIV. Words in The final of XII. seems
. to have
been in. XIII. tin. XIY. an. Assuming these three classes to have
been thus distinguished, words such as t'ien "heaven," t'ien "field,"
Men "wise," nien "year," were heard t'in, din, kin or gin, nin. Perhaps
in was rather en (e as in our there).

Ling "command," ming "destiny," were then called lin, min, as

they are found afterwards in Kwy. They both occur frequently in
the Odes rhyming with words in n.
When kang "hill," kung "body," Mng "shape," etc., also occur
rhyming with words in n, this may be attributed to local and peculiar
causes. In the western part of China at present it is usual to confound
n and ng as finals.
" basket
King twig," p'ing "even," sheng "living," cheng "cor-
rect," are pointed out by Tyt in the Odes, Shu or Yi king, as also

rhyming with words in n.

Words such as $ sun "grandson," c'hun "spring," yun, "cloud,"

yin "diligent," p'in "poor," were heard as sun, t'un, yun or gun, yun,
bun. With them are classed Men "misfortune," wen "hear," teen
"ask," lun "wheel," men "door," pen "run," shun "obedient."
In class XIII. ping "ice," tung "east," and ping "bright,"
"glorious," are mixed with words in n indicating that there was an
approach anciently of final
ng to n, or of n to ng.
present in At
western China ng approaches n. In the old middle dialect and in that
of Fu cheu n approaches ng.
In class XIY., where shan "mountain, "/an "to turn over," siuen

1
The Yi king being composed by Wen wang and Cheu kung, its dialect would be that of
Cheu. K'ii yuen was a native of Ch'u.
 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 177

"announce," yen "swallow," etc., occur, we find two words in ng

rhyming with them. They are 3L, fj, kung, hing.

In looking over Tyt's tables of rhyming words, the fact that shang
sheng and c'hu sheng words often occur among the p'ing sheng rhymes,
is most instructive. Thus fan "to turn over," "rebel," is known to
have rhymed with an "rest." Consequently the entrance of fan into
the tone class called shang sheng is subsequent to the time of the
establishment of the Cheu dynasty, B.C. 1100. Such facts as this led
the way to the conclusion of Tyt that the second tone class was not of

greater antiquity than the Shang and Cheu dynasties, as afterwards

the third class forced its way in during the Han and Wei period.
In class XY. we
return to words with vowel endings, and to the
distinction of p'ing sheng and shang sheng. "We also encounter words
ending in t.
The words mp ing sheng are such as wei "fear," yi "clothes," hwai
(

"
"cherish," kwei return," pei "pitiful," fei to "fly," ki "hungry," sh'i

"instructor," wei "small."

The words in shang sheng are such as li
"ceremony," si "die," ti

"brother," ni "mud," tsui "sin," shut "water."

The rhyming of ch'i "arrive at," with li
"ceremony," in the Siau
ya shows that in the time of the classical poetry the final t of ch'i was
already gone. The rhyming of Jf ti "bottom," with $; yi "to follow,"
and with other p'ing sheng words, shows that ti, like some other
words, has moved from p'ing sheng to shang sheng since B.C. 1000. Ki
"several," has also thus changed.
A kind has taken place with yi
transposition of the reverse
"clothes," \J& ni "mud," and some other words. They were then in
shang sheng, and are now in p'ing sheng.

Many words now placed under c'hu sheng are in XV found marked
ju sheng. A final t has since fallen from all of them. Among them are :

ff pai "worship," fp| c'hi, Hf icei, f|j wei, ^pi, Jti pi, #h wai, jjfr siti, |
pai "fall," %
ta, -^ sh'i "age," ft nei, ffi tai, f$ tsui, ffi mei, si,

^ haL

Among these words occur ta "great," nei "within," sh'i "thirty

years." From other sources we discover that p was the primitive

final of these words. In the Odes, however, the final found in these
words is t. It is a transitional value, like the final t of the Hakka
dialect, at present extending itself beyond its original sphere of opera-
12
178 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

tion to words properly ending in p and k. P became t before being

dropped for ever.

XVI. Words in i, iJc. About thirty-two words in p'ing sheng here

occur, and about forty in ju sheng. Among the former are such
as chi "branch," ch'i "know," yi "easy," s'i "that." Among the
latter are
" " " "
ti
emperor," sik tin," yik increase," dik enemy."
The loss of k in the p'ing sheng words of XVI. is quite clear in
instances such as yi "easy," t'i "to carry in the hands," because

they have final k in some passages as here shown.

XVII. Words in a, all in p'ing sheng; and sixty-five in number.
Among them are "other," ho "what," ho "river," p'i "skin,"
t'a

wei " to do," yi " ought," ma " hemp," tso, 2, " left," to
"
many," she
"snake," kia "add," ko "to sing," c'h'i "a lake," sh'i
"give," mo
"
grind," k'o, 2, "can."
The following sheng words occur here in p'ing sheng
ch'u ti :

" " " " "

earth," lu way," pa finish," kwo pass," hica renovate,"
" " break."
change," p'o
Tyt wrongly regards the rhyme as ending in a in the case
of two ju sheng words in XVII. They are and || nok. He ^
should rather have said that the rhyme was in ak, and formed a
subdivision for ju sheng words. There is no evidence that k was lost

in these words so long ago.

TONIC DICTIONARIES.
Tonic dictionaries furnish very abundant and trustworthy evidence
on the history of the sounds.
These books began to appear about A.D. 350, when Kwo p'u and
Li teng made the first successful essays in this branch of study.
Their object was to register existing sounds. No thought of secular

change in sounds occurred to the scholars of this period. They

laboured under the light of Hindoo analysis of sounds, seeking only
to systematize the pronunciation of words as they were at the time,

and knowing nothing of any difference between ancient and modern.

Kwo p'u belonged to Ho tung, the old name of Shan tung, and such
part of Ch'i 1'i as lay to the East of the Yellow River in its ancient
course. The language in all that region at present is entirely
according to the modern Mandarin type.
A
little earlier than the time of Kwo p'u appeared a work on
 TONIC DICTIONARIES. 179

Er ya, explaining the sounds and meaning of words. The author

was Sun shu yen. He lived at the end of the Han dynasty, or about
A.D. 200, and was the first to introduce the use of the word fan and

the syllabic spelling to which it refers. Tt. He lived not long after
the compilation of theShwo wen, and we may therefore regard the
pronunciation as known to us by dictionaries and other works from

nearly the time of the author of the Shwo wen. We know from
these books how the language was spoken seventeen hundred years

ago or nearly so.

The preservation of old sounds in the tonic dictionaries is

often of great value, especially when dialects give no information.

Information on this subject occurs in the next chapter and in

Appendix C.
I give only one instance here. The union of the substantive verb
and the demonstrative in one word, sh'i, zJtik, dik, renders the old
form of that word, here written dik,very important to know and
verify. It means " it is so." As a demonstrative it means " this."
As an " As
adjective it signifies right." copula in a predicative
sentence it acts as the connecting link between subject and predicate.
In the Yau tien it is written sh'i "time," "hour." Here a phonetic
which has final k is used, and it is in the oldest part of the Shu
king that this is done. If the sound in that passage can be shown to
be dik, the gain to classical knowledge will be great.
This can be done, for the dictionary Kwy registers ^ sh'i as zhik.

A thousand years ago such a sound was commonly attached to it.

This is confirmed by the rhymes of the Sh'i, where, according

to Tyt, J{| has the value dik, as proved by its rhyming with bik ^
"a chief."

A fact like this helps us greatly in our inquiries. For this word
isa phonetic in extensive use, and we may obtain, by means of
this

new knowledge of its old final letter, the exact form, or nearly so,
of the old roots ranged under it, which meant to examine, spoon,

key, cut, shoes, embankment, sharp point, silk woven from twisted
threads, explore, run, inscription, title. These are all written with
the phonetic 593.
To these we may add as also determined, the old sound of all
" hour."
words written with 3f the phonetic of sh'i
They embrace
the following meanings : To plant, insert in the ground,
a perch for
180 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

fowls to roost on, trust to, poetry, gatekeeper, attend upon, island,

hemorroids, to take, hold in the hand, stop, temple of ancestors,

alone, specially, store up grain, wait for.

OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS.
The Japanese first learned Chinese A.D. 286, when Atogi, son
of theKing of Corea, went to Japan as ambassador. He recommended
the Japanese to send for "Wang jen, or as they pronounce it Wani,
to come to them and teach them Chinese. He taught them the
(Wu) Gro (yin) on ^ ^, or the language as then spoken in the
modern Nanking and Sucheu, A.D. 222 to 280. It is this pro-

nunciation that the Japanese still follow chiefly in their language.

The pronunciation then which the Japanese know as the Go on
belongs to the same period as Kwo p'u and the introduction of the
syllabic spelling into China.
The value of the Go on transcription very great in a philological
is

point of view, because it is the favourite pronunciation in the Buddhist

books. This has led to its being very full and self-consistent on
account of the perpetual use made of it by priests in reciting liturgical
books. The extension of the Buddhist religion in Japan was a
principal instrument in advancing the knowledge of Chinese in that
country, and on account of this the pronunciation of the kingdom Wu
at the time mentioned is that which is best known to the Japanese.

The other two pronunciations are later. The Kan on, introduced
about A.D. 600, is said to be used specially by Confucianists. The
To on is a sort of metropolitan pronunciation, probably representing
the language as spoken in the Tang dynasty at the Chinese capital.
In A.D. 605 five Japanese students spent a year at that city, the
modern Si-an-fu, and the Arabian Kumdan. 1 This was in the Sui
dynasty, three hundred and nineteen years later than the time of the
introduction of the Go on. During this long interval the Buddhist
propaganda was active in Japan. The greater part of the Chinese
words that have passed into the Japanese language may be character-

ized as pronounced with the Go on.

1
Kumdan, mentioned as the capital of China by Arabian travellers, is King c'heng

Tnf 4ijB
.
Ng was beyond the power of Arabian vocal organs, and is expressed in the first
word by final m, and in the second by final.
Kiang dang was the true sound, or nearly so,
that they had to express with Arabic letters.
 OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS. 181

The sounds were written at first without alphabetic signs

by the
help of the Chinese characters used as phonetic symbols. The oldest
Japanese books "f IS and ~$ 3|j ^ were written with Chinese ^
characters before the invention of the Japanese alphabet. The former
dates from A.D. 711. The latter from about The Kata-
A.D. 760.

kana, or Japanese alphabet, was invented by Kibidaishi, who died

A.D. 776. Thus it appears that both the Go on and Kan on were

taught traditionally for centuries before they became fixed by the

adoption of an alphabet.
The Hirakana was introduced by Kobodaishi, who died A.D. 835.
Both these inventors of alphabets appear to have been Buddhists.
Dai shi is a common title of the Chinese Buddhists who write books.

Japanese education owed very much Buddhism, as is clear fromto

this and many other facts.

The To on being comparatively modern, and at least several
centuries more recent than the Go on, is less important for us than
the other two.
A comparison of the Go on and Kan on resultif in the following
l
conclusions :

***
The sound intended by the Japanese wu was at first ng. After-
wards the sound ng became attached to the symbol ^ n, and the
letter wu passed from a nasal into a vowel.

It was during the period between A.D. 280 and 605 that a medial
*was introduced in China in pronouncing such words as J5[ kit,
J^ k'ieu, formerly gu, k'n. The difference between the Go on and
Kan on shows this. During the same period e was in China
introduced as a medial letter in several words, and, as a final,
e changed to a in words such as "f, which in Go on is ge and in
Kan on ga.
The Japanese chi was at first ti and di, and afterwards changed to
chi, zhi. This was between A.D. 280 and 605. This change did not
take place in the Chinese language, but in the Japanese. Thus ~J*
has never changed in Chinese to ching, yet it is sounded by the

Japanese chi ya wu. The syllable changed its value therefore soon
after A.D. 280. The natural
syllabary of the Japanese language
was
subject to changes before the invention of the alphabet in use among
1
These new facts and conclusions in regard to the Japanese transcriptions were arrived at
by me during a visit to Japan in 1873.
 182 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

that people, and the history of their syllables can be traced by pecu-
found in the native transcriptions of Chinese sounds.
liarities

The old sound of T chang is by Go on dji ya wu, but this is to be

read di yang by the preceding laws. Further, medial a was lost in
words such as $) between A.D. 286 and 605. It was formerly called
pi yang, and became pi yeng. This was a Chinese change.
In changing the name of the city of Yeddo, when it became the
residence of the emperor recently, the sounds To kio and To kei were
and are both used. The first is the Go on. and the. second Kan on.
"
The words are in Chinese /^ ^
eastern capital."
The Corean transcription of Chinese sounds must, like the
Japanese, have been made -much later than the date of the intro-
duction of the Chinese* language and literature.
The relations of China with Corea go back as far as to B.C. 1100,
when a Chinese prince was made feudal lord of that peninsula. It
was from Corea that Japan received the knowledge of Chinese
civilization A.D; 280. At that time the Coreans would have a system
of education baseton the Chinese, and would transmit orally the
sounds of the characters. The spread of Buddhism led to the in-
vention of the Corean alphabet, which is a syllabary founded on the
Sanscrit characters. This is clear from their form and the order
of their arrangement.
The Corean and Japanese transcriptions support one another in
bearing testimony to the changes that have taken place in Chinese
sounds.
In the recent attempt made in Japan to strengthen the claims
of the Shinto religion to the respect of the people, it was stated

among other things that that ancient religion possessed an alphabet

which deserved to be better known and more used than it has been.
This so-called relic of old Shintoism
proved to be no other than the
Corean alphabet.
The Cochin Chinese transcription is important on account of its
age. The country was conquered about 2000 years ago and reduced
into the form of a province. The Chinese sounds are likely to take a
form at least as ancient as those of Japan.
"We have the traditionary sound of the Chinese characters in the
Dictionary of Morrone, and there are here signs of great antiquity.
Thus initial t and t' occur in many words which are now heard in
 OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS. 183

China s, ch and c'h.

with, The laws of letter change require us to
suppose that the slipping of letters which has here happened is from

t to s and ch, and not from s or ch to t. Ch'eit "enemy" is t'u. Shoiy

"holy" is Vang. Shen "spirit" is than. Stun "seek" is tim. Sin
"believe" is tin. Sing "nature" is ting. Sheng "sound" is tieng.

In all such cases the Cochin Chinese sound is an index to what the
Chinese sound was at the date of the transcription. The people of
South China must then at that time have pronounced a very large
number of words suclPks sit\i "heart," t'sien "money," c'hicen "boat,"
c'h it "place," with initial t or t'.

Isolated examples come to view in different parts of China

supporting this conclusion. At Shanghai, money is called dien. At
Amoy and Tie chiu the word ch'i
"straight" is tek and tit, and this is

an instance out of many tens of words where t occurs .for the Mandarin
ch. This transcription is also useful in the proof of the derivation of
the modern Chinese / from p. Thus Confucius is called IP on p'u tu.
Here final ng disappears from K'ung and fit ts'i becomes, p'u tu.

The remaining sources for the history of thWsounds are the

modern dialects, various native authors on old sounds, and the
Buddhist transcriptions of Sanscrit words. They are treated of in
other parts of this work and in the appendices.
 CHAPTER VII.

ON LETTER CHANGES.

EXAMPLE OF LETTER CHANGE IN EUROPEAN LANGUAGES, K TO CH. CHINESE LETTER

CHANGES. 1. SURD AND SONANT FROM SIMPLE MUTES. 2. FORMATION OF ASPI-
RATED MUTES. 3. CHANGES IN THE THROAT LETTERS. 4. CHANGES IN THE
PALATAL REGION. 5. CHANGES IN TOOTH LETTERS. 6. CHANGES IN LIP LETTERS.
7. CHANGES IN THE VOWELS.

DURING the las^two thousand years we Europe a specially

see in

prominent development of k into ch, or, speaking more generally, the

removal to the palate of the surd and sonant that formerly belonged
to the throat. Caisar has become Cesar. Calor has become shaleur.

Feapyos has become George. Largus is now lardj. Just as d slipped

into /, so g slipped into dj orj and k into ch, sh or s. But this change
can be traced to a much earlier time. It is found also in the Sclavonic
and Sanscrit vocabularies, and has origin therefore in the period of
its

the formation of the Indo-European system, whenever that was. No

traces of it are found in the more easterly Asiatic families. When
conducting inquiries among their vocabularies, it
may be noticed that
the hissing letters s, sh, j, and ch, all originate in the tooth series. It
was an ancient characteristic in human speech for the voice to slide
from the teeth to the palate. It is a modern characteristic for it to
slide from the throat to the palate. In modern Chinese ki and ku
have become chi and chu, but this is by the operation of a new
principle, entirely unknown to the ancient language. There is no
ground in the history of the Chinese language for our tracing the
origin of this change from k to ch, when standing before certain
vowels (', u), to a period farther back than three or four centuries.
In the dictionaries of the Yuen dynasty there is no trace of it. In
the corresponding European change, on the other hand, we cannot
 LETTER CHANGES. 185

place the date ofits introduction later than the time when the Hindoo

race had not separated from its western kindred.

The most important letter changes now to be described are, first,
the division of surd and sonant flowing from the simple mutes;
second, the formation of aspirated mutes ; third, changes in the throat
letters fourth, in the palatal region
; fifth in the tooth ;
region ;

sixth, in the lip region ; seventh, in the vowels.

1. SONANT AND SURD.

This change may be observed still in the relation of the Old

Middle Dialect to the northern and western Mandarin. Accumulated
proof has been given in the last chapter that the initials b, d, g, j, s,
once belonged to the general language. They still exist in the Old
Middle Dialect as spoken over a triangle of thickly populated land, of
which the base reaches from the mouth of the Yang ts'i kiang along
the sea-coast to the south boundary of Che kiang, and of which the

apex is in Kiang si.

Along the sides of the triangle lies a belt of land

fifty miles wide more or less, where the dialect is irregular and un-
fixed. Beyond it is a new system. Within it is the region of the

old sonant initials. This triangle was once co-extensive with the
nation. Slowly it has diminished to its present limits, comprising

perhaps sixty millions of people.

In the following tables the sonants of the old language are shown
breaking up into aspirates and surds in four different dialects now ex-

isting. which words belong has

It will be seen that the tone class to
"
something to do with their modern sound. Thus gio " a bridge
becomes predominantly k'iau in modern dialects, because it is in the

Hia p'ing tone class. But gio "a sedan chair," being in the Hia c'hii

tone class, becomes predominantly kiau in the modern dialects.

Table of tenues, mediae, and aspirates in the modern Chinese dialects.

Fifth tone, Hia p'ing.

OLD
CHINESE.
186 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Sixth, seventh, and eighth tones, Hia shang, Hia c'hii, Hia ju.

OLD
CHINESE
 LETTER CHANGES. 187

given phonetic. Thus ^ kan "a pole" 20, is also han and k'an in the

dictionary Kwang yun. So kiai "all" 570 takes as initials the lower
h and k' in the same work. These transitions of sound are the
equivalent of the transitions which Grimm's law is concerned with,
but they take place within the area of one language, and as to their
time they are anterior to the date of the dictionary in which they
occur, and of the origin of the syllabic spelling.
In Mongol, while the same word humun "man," for example,
3.

occurs in the dictionary only under one initial, it is found in the

dialects to be hicmi, and gmm. The Sunid people prefer g.
k'wu-n,
The western Mongols The eastern Mongols have a fancy for
like k
c
.

h. This is a law occurring under the same conditions as in China.

We cannot learn the changes of Mongol sounds from old dictionaries
as we can the Chinese. But
so far as the existing dialects afford us

information, they reveal the existence of a law similar to that which

exists in Chinese. In either of these languages it will be found that
within an area of a few hundred miles initial g in one dialect will be
exchanged for an aspirated initial k in another, and (in Mongolian)
for h in a third.

Phonetics in Chinese, originally, as we may suppose, having one

initial, show a tendency to break up into parcels distinguished by a

difference in the initials.

Thus ehung 122 "middle," "to strike the middle," "faithful,"
occurs as Jung "insect," "reptile," "empty," and as c'hung "sad,"
"
empty." These initials are changed from t, d, t . The correspond-
l

ing Mongol word for "middle" is domda, in which da is suffix and m

is the old final, which has in Chinese become ng.
In Mongol the derivatives are all such as have the initial occurring
in one form only. Thus when d is the initial of the root, itwill be

also that of the derivatives. In Chinese, where our means of exam-

ination are much more extended, we may suppose reasonably that
chicang "to pack full," and c'hung "full," are the same word modified.
T'ung "to penetrate" is the same as t'sung "penetrating in ability

and perception."
The natural intonations attached to Chinese words help to separate
words which were once alike. Chung "middle" has the first intona-
tion. With the active sense "to strike in the middle," it has the

departing tone or third.

188 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Kiuc or kit, "this," "that," "he," is probably the same with k'i

$, also called gi, c'hi, j'i, and anciently pronounced, as is most

likely, git.
A difference in the initial of two words did not prevent the same
phonetic from being used for both. A difference in the phonetic of
two words cannot, if we study the letter changes, conceal their
original kinship when their meaning and sound point to the fact.

2. ASPIRATED MUTES.

Whether the aspirated k, t, and p belonged to the earliest form of

Chinese cannot be determined. In the lower tone classes (V. to
VIII.) they spring from the sonant g, d, b. What was their history
in the upper tone classes is beyond our research. T'en "heaven,"
k'un "dog," were aspirated as long ago as we can trace their sound.
This class of letters has attained a very distinct development in
the Tartar languages and in Tibetan, as also in Sanscrit, and may
therefore be expected to be a primitive feature in Chinese.
Definite information on this point it is vain to expect from the

phonetics. Thus %} 338 kit, 4, kok, "valley," is k'io, c'hiue, 4, k'ok,

when used with R. city gj{. Phonetics have been employed as

symbols of words without reference to whether those words were

aspirated or not.
Here is another example. P. 86 c'heu, t'ok, name of the hour 1 to
3 A.M., is
Kwy, and sieu, sok, in p. 730.
also nieu, nok, in The three
initials have all
sprung from a common source t, t', or d. We cannot
now tell which was the oldest.
The compilers of Kang hi notice under R. heart, p. leaf, that ^
the dictionaries Kwy, Tsy, both give Vip and dip as the sounds, but
that Chy gives only tip. The two former pronunciations are more
likely to be right, they add, and the phonetic might warrant this
being expected. That is to say, the aspirated and sonant initials
occur commonly in the same words or phonetics, and the surd is

cften more recent than either.

Recently the aspirated letters have been entering into the

" to bear
language with increased frequency. J| ch'an children,"
" is shan in and also c'han in the same works.
produce," Kwy, Tsy,
so
" that which," is used in spelling words with its old initial sh.
Jjjf

All the sonant initials capable of taking the aspirated surd form
 LETTER CHANGES. 189

in the Hia p'ing tone class have done so. All words in that class
commencing with k, t, p, ch, ts, are aspirated.

3. THROAT LETTERS.

Recently initial g has changed in tone classes V. to VIII. to k

and The same may have taken
k'.
place anciently with phonetics
which we now only know as having k ( , and as being in the tone
A-,

classes I. to IV. There has been an extensive change from k and g

to h. Every initial h becomes k on being transferred to Japanese, as
if h were commonly pronounced k at the time that the Japanese
transcription was made. But it may have been because the Japanese
at that time had no h. The Japanese h has been developed recently
from f and p. There are proofs stronger than this from the example
of Japanese transcribers. The Hindoo transcribers when writing
Ganges in Chinese used *jg heng "constant." This character was
therefore formerly called Gang. Two centuries later, when the
traveller Hiuen Tsang made new translations from Sanscrit, he
avoided this character for Ganges and used another, now called k'iny,
but then evidently called Gang. conclude that P. 506 changedWe
g to h about A.D. 500.
That this was not a solitary instance, may be shown by reference
to the Amoy dialect, in which several words have initial k which in other

dialects have h Jiien

" district is there kicain
:
e.g. city," ; hing
"
walk," is kia"9. The Amoy people in reading these words change
k to h. This habit is in exact accordance with the direction of

change, which is h. The vulgar initial

not from h to k, but from k to
is more archaic than the The ancient sound lingers in
cultivated.

the vernacular of a border province when it has been changed for

many centuries everywhere else.

H in Chinese rests on k or g as its basis. Yet at present it is

rapidly passing to the tooth region, for in northern and western

Mandarin hi is now identical with si, and hii with sii. If is therefore

gradually leaving the guttural region and attaching itself to the

dental region. This is an example of how k and g, by first changing
to h, may become an extremely modern one.
s, and it is

There has been a similar change from k'i and k'ii to c'/ii and c'hu,

as also from ki and kit to chi and chu. It is in the same dialects with

the preceding, and is a phenomenon equally recent.

190 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

The change of k to / will now be considered. This change is

specially prominent in the occurrence of k and I in the same phonetics,

a phenomenon which is very frequent. In kien "to choose," the
sense is the same whether the initial is k or I, for lien is also "to
choose." It is hard to believe then that / has not come out of k
somehow. In what way the transition took place it is very difficult
to determine. In German and English we have gleich, the same as
like. Here
has been inserted, as I suppose, and g has then been
/

pushed away and lost. But it is contrary to the genius of the

Chinese phonology to insert I after an initial mute. Such a physio-

logical fact may occur at any time, but where is the dialect which
will prove its occurrence by furnishing examples of it ? I again ask

may not k have changed to ni, or ng have changed again to / ? But

there is a third hypothesis. "When y is inserted after g or k in the

Shanghai dialect, g and k are heard like d and t. Gio "sedan chair,"
nearly = did. =
Ki6 " a religion," nearly U6. New-comers write gio
"bridge" jaw. Natives correct their pronunciation, and try to bring
them back to g. Still they prefer j as more near to what they hear.
This is evidence of a tendency from the guttural to the dental region.
Thus J^ kwan, kan, "to be accustomed to," p. 781, is Men, gan, in
p. 832. Here i or y is inserted. In an earlier stage of the language

h was preceded by g. On the y coming in, the g would be changed

to dj or d, and this d might become altered to I, as was common long

ago. Of the three hypotheses this seems the best. In confirmation

" to become accustomed
of it let it be noticed that in lien to," and
" to found to be inserted in both
lien choose," the y is cases.

The number of words in k and /, or their equivalents, whose

Kiem " "
meaning is like, is by no means small. pick up," Hem gather
" " to be "
up ;" kam to like," lam greedy ;" kiem 688 covet," t'am
" " wild in "
covet," hwang, tang, behaviour 946, 995, kam, lam,
;

both mean "to see;" fg| yo, gak, "music," lak "joyful." Re-
" forest " forms
member too that the phonetic element lim part
" restrain."
of kirn " to prohibit," Further, kim and Hang both mean
"cold." Compare also 749 ngeu "to scoop out," c'hu "a pivot," so
named, as would seem, from the scooped hollow in which it rests.
it

The change, however it occurred, took place so long ago that it

has run its

course, no vestiges in modern dialects sufficient to
and left

furnish complete explanation of the manner in which it came about.

 LETTER CHANGES. 191

Final letters in their changes do not follow the same laws as

initials. But it should be mentioned that when final k changes, it
changes to t, and when final t was changing in the time of the T'ang

dynasty, it took the form r.

A presumptive proof of the transition from k to I is furnished by

the fact that phonetics which end in m have mixed initials, which
if

are in some words guttural k, h, y, and in other words dental t, ch,

s, I, the final letter is m throughout. Similarly if the final is n with

mixed initials, guttural and dental, the final is n throughout. Cf. 467.

According to the preferable hypothesis, as now given, k changed

to t and g to d. Afterwards t became s or ch in some cases, and d
became ch or /. The
reality of this change can scarcely be viewed as
doubtful when the facts as now stated are carefully considered. Such
difficulties as occur may be referred to the caprices of writers, which in
each age of the history of Chinese writing have had no small in-
fluence in modifying it. A
direct transition from k to / is unlikely.

D is the natural predecessor of / in Chinese phonology. D, again,

comes more naturally from g than from k. Lastly, g in Chinese

phonology proceeds easily from k.

While on this subject, let it be remembered that h, j, f, occur as
initials in the same phonetic. This is a singular phenomenon hard
of explanation. We find in p. 756 han,jan, fan.
The occurrence of h and ni as initial to J| 756, R. fire, meaning
to "dry by fire," "dry," is perhaps a key to part of the mystery.
This character was called han and nicn. JTwe know changes to ng,
and ng, ni, are sometimes confounded. Thus nieu "cow" is gu in
Fukien and ngeu in Ningpo. Further, n changes to /. If n can be
shown also to change to t, the riddle will be solved. I also here
mention that in Eastern Kiang si the aspirated t becomes h. This is

a change the other way. But it

probably arises only from dental
indistinctness limited to one locality.
The word ni "thou," "you," nowa small oblique
er (r'i), has in it

cross four times repeated |$f 937, and this sign has the value gak in
several phonetics. The prevalent initial of 937 is dental, e.g. ni, n, s.
Here there seems to be a change from g to ni or .

The sound spelt by Mr. Wade hs is quite modern, and has not
found its
way yet into native dictionaries. It is formed from h and
from s, and is a temporary coalescing of these sounds. The sound is
192 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

undecided and appears to be on its way to sh. Hs only occurs before

the vowels i In correspondence with it is the coalescence of
and M.

ts and k before the vowels i and u. There is here the same want of
decision in the sound and the same difficulty in knowing how to spell
it. It is usually spelt chi, chu.
Initial w and y are often derived from g and k.
W
and y are inserted after consonants to lengthen the sound, and
sometimes they increase in power and push off the initial letters.
Thus under the phonetic yuen ffi 383, sometimes written without the
cap to it, we have now in Mandarin no sounds but yuen and wan.
Compare also p. 704 J^ wen "warm."
Yuen, R. heart, "feel aggrieved," "a small perforated hole for

thread," "hate," "feel surprised." R. bird, "Mandarin goose."

K. bamboo, "a canister." R. grass, "flourishing."

Wan, R. knife, "cut out in concave shape." R. wood, "cup."

R. flesh, "wrist." R. bean, "peas."
The reasons for believing that k or g has been lost are the follow-

ing. "To hate" is hen. "Goose" is otherwise called ngen or gen.

"To cut out in concave shape" written with the P. y^ 61, which
is also

has ng as its old initial. Several round objects, such as balls, cups,

plates, canisters, and baskets, seem to be written indifferently with

p. 383, 386 ^
kwan, 46 )t Jiwan, 61 yuen or wan.
Since there is no trace in p. 383, P. 704, of the lost initial, it is

probable that when these characters were made, it had already dis-
appeared in the words written with these phonetics. At that time
certain equivalents still retaining the g, k, or h, were written with
other phonetics, such as 386 and 61, which retain k or g in dialects or t

in Mandarin.
The first step of change was the insertion of w. Then the initial

g became ng. Lastly ng was dropped. Ng often became ni before it

was dropped.
The initials g, ng, and h are apt to become lost before wan.
Wan "a is spelt in the dictionaries with g and h as
pill," its

initials. In actual pronunciation that letter is not heard.

The phonetics wan 46 " pill," " small ball," %" 61 yuen
" " " " " "
origin," covet," love," finish," round," stupid ;
wan 294
"finish,""small shield," "strike," "laugh," "bright," "tube,"
"small round cake of flour," "white," "thigh bone," "a name of
 LETTER CHANGES. 193

residences and offices," have under various radicals many words spelt
in the dictionaries with ng, g, h, and k. Thus under the radical
" to " " five."
heart, p. 61, ican love," covet," is spelt with WK, ngu,
Under the same phonetic in many words in the modern pronunciation
the same sounds h, k, are retained. Thus yuen " to wish," at Amoy is

gican. Ng is a favourite consonant at Fu cheu and in Che kiang. At

Shanghai, a little further north, ni occurs often for ng. little A
north of Shanghai y takes the place of ni.
In the tonic dictionaries of the T'ang dynasty ng is the initial.
But how do we know that ng came from g ? In reply, let it be
" a "a
said that kiucn circle," and yuen circle," are analogous and

ultimately identical. The root is found most distinctly in the surd

series, but its proper point of departure is gon in the sonant series.
The root in this form gave out branches, viz. kon, ngon, k'on, all
" round."
meaning according to the analogy of changes now
This is

taking place, by which g becomes k and k', when passing from the
old middle dialect into Mandarin.
In hu " to assent," f hok, kok, we have a phonetic which in b
"
noon," is ngu in old Chinese and mi in Mandarin. Here the vowel
u acts as an inserted w would do. It pushes off the initial ng. But
the initial h in hu shows that the primitive initial was not ng, but
rather g, from which sprang k and h in one direction and ng in
another direction. In regard to ng and ni, when there is a disagree-
ment in the initial between dialects, the reason is found in a transi-
tion from ng to ni. Thus ngu or gu, the old word for " cow," becomes
"
nieu in Mandarin. Ngi son" is ni in the dictionaries, and becomes
ni and ng in the Shanghai dialect.

The dictionary Kwy sometimes gives the same phonetic with both
initials. P. 365 nie "obstruction," is nit and ngit. The priority
of ng over ni may be known in some words by the Mongol, e.g.
" On the other hand, the
hubegun son," has a guttural initial.
" ni for
"
c'hihe is reducible to tik. Perhaps ear,"
Mongol ear,"
would have therefore originally a dental initial. But the Amoy hi
"
in hi kang ear," would then be another root, which is not likely.
Mandarin words in r and j appear in Kwy with ni, or with ngi.
These come usually from d, but occasionally also from g.
Ng from g. That ng comes from g appears from the occurrence
" the
of both in the same phonetic. Thus ^ yau, 5, ngok, Emperor
13
194 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Yau," has as a phonetic usually the value kian or Man. But h and k
come from and Yau being in the lower series of tone classes, should
g,
also come from g, to complete the natural connexion of the sounds.
So 472a Jg- yo "mountain," is in the dictionaries ngali. But this
is no other than the root used in the name of the Emperor Yau.
It is with kau, 1, kok, "high," and several other
also identical

words with like meaning, and sprung from the same root, which
"
may be called gok. So also yen, 5, ngem, 1035, a precipitous and
abrupt cliff," is the same with 815 hiem.
That the direction of change has been from g to ng, and not from
ng may be supported by the fact that in the language at present
to g,
"
ng is a new initial in many words, e.g. in ngan or an, rest," we %
have a word which, when Roman visitors went to China in the reign
of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, was selected to spell the first syllable
of that monarch's name. Hence ng was not an initial of the word in
the latter half of the second century of our era.

Many examples occur of k and ng meeting as initials in the same

"
phonetic; e.g. $fc kicei demon," with R. ln.i[\,feu, is ngicei "lofty."
Final k has been extensively dropped in consequence of a law by
which all the final surds, and p, have disappeared.
k, t,

When the mediaeval dictionaries give two sounds to characters of

which one is in the fourth tone class (ju) and the other in the third

(c'hu), this means that the dropping of was taking place

k, t, or p final
at the time. In A.D. 500, for example, tak "to weave" was pronounced
tik (Ky) and ti, the former in the ju tone class and the latter in
the c'hu.
T'i "to end," "destroy," "wait," is in Kwy, Tsy, Yh, pronounced
t'i in c'hu sheng. But in Tsy, Yh, Chy, it is also pronounced Viet

"loosen," "relaxed." Final t then was being lost during the period
A.D. 600 to 1200.

^ 799, composed of R. spear, kico,and yin "sound," "adhesive

earth," is in Kwy chik (tik) and in Tsy chik, sh'i 3, and ctii 3. Here
we see the k losing its ground in the time of Tsy, while in the earlier

period of Kwy it was strongly rooted in the language. During the

same time ch (ti) became sh or ch'.
Final k sometimes changed to t before being lost altogether.
Thus in Kwy tsio "a bird," 626, is tsak and chit. The final t is

here a transitional sound destined shortly to disappear. In p. 974

 LETTER CHANGES. 195

tsie "moderation," "joint," we have final t well established, and in

575 tsi "immediately," final k and t are in Kwy much mixed.
Final k is found by Tyt in the Odes as the final of this phonetic, and
is the one final of both. In hiue "blood" 281, hit and hik both
occur in Kwy. Probably where k occurs, as with R. water, " canal,"
R. blood, is used ideographically in the sense of reticulated.
At present in Amoy and Tie chiu ~ft lik "strength," is also called
lat, a modern instance of an ancient law.
In some phonetics commencing in m, where k does not occur as a
final in the dictionaries or dialects, it may be shown by the meanings

to have formerly existed. Thus $fc mi " rice," jg{|

"
deceive,"
"bewilder," has k, 627 mik has the sense "dark;" (2),
because (1),
546 meu, mok, has that of "stupid," "dark," " dim vision ;" (3), 788
mok means " cover with the hands," " stupid," " a veil," " evening."
So also ^ mau, " hair" with yu "feathers," has the sound mok in
the dictionaries, and interchanges with 546. In the case of 597 p|
"
mau, the final k is found in Kwy alone and with R. boat, and kia a
coat of mail." In 589 g miau " young grain," a picture of a field
with grass growing above, the k is likely to have existed by the

meaning miau, to draw a copy of pictures or characters, which prob-

" make black
ably means originally strokes," and is the same word
as me "ink," mei " coal," both of which have final k. Also miau has
the sense " seek," which isfound in phonetic 773a mek.
The phonetic ^y "
jo, nok, if," is found in Kwy twice with the

sound with RR. sun, heart.

nit, viz. This helps to show that the
course of change was from k to t.
In the case of phonetics beginning with ki, tsi, si,j, examples are
"
more numerous than with others. Thus Jpf sie, 4, sit, fragment," is

The phonetic "

so spelt in Kwy. >Jt siait, sok, small," would lead the
incautious to believe that t could not be the final ;
but wrongly so, for

Sw has /\ pa instead of siau. The latter of these came into use be-
cause its sense suited the meaning of sie.

In the Tie chiu dialect we find I? met, pronounced ngiak, as also

with RR. wood and rice in place of son. In the same dialect || niet is

ngiak. Probably here k is old, and on this the dictionaries give us

some light. The meanings also render final k the more probable
ancient owner of the position of final letter in these words. Thus
" to
ngai stumble," was ngak. The stump of a tree left after cutting
196 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

down the trunk was written with wood underneath instead of son, and
is called in Kh nget and ngak. The last is in a poem of Su tung p'o,
A.D. 1000.

The chronology of letter changes of this sort may be determined

in the following manner. When in the classical period we find a
"
word for thou," written in the by Jok, and in the Shu by
Yi li ]

R. water, p. Ju, the respective phonetics of these words being in

more than one particular closely related, we conclude that in the
Cheu dynasty, at the time when the Yi li was written, the final k
of this word for " thou" was not yet lost. Else why should the
writer use for it a character which kept its k down to the T'ang
dynastj^ ?
The finals ng and n are confused at present in western and
southern Mandarin, and partially in the Old Middle Dialect. At
Nanking, e.g. Ian and lang are sounded alike.

Tai tung was a native of S'i chwen. He says in explaining the

Fan t'sie or syllabic spelling, that
'ffi shang
"merchant" is spelled by
joining jj^ sh'i "a model," and ^pT kan "a pole." Being himself a
speaker of western Mandarin as it existed 700 years ago, he did not
notice that an and ang are not one sound.
Final ng has been lost from a few words. "J"
ta "to beat," with
R. hand, is called tang in Shanghai. The dialect there has preserved

the old sound. Such examples are rare.

4. PALATAL LETTERS.

Among the palatal letters is j. It comes from ni and is modern

Chinese. At Sucheu and the cities lying west of it towards Nanking
there some words both a reading and a colloquial sound. Among
is to

the words having/ in the reading sound are Jen "man," Jen "patience,"

je "hot." In the colloquial dialect these words are sounded with ni.
In transcriptions from Sanscrit, such words represent Sanscrit

syllables beginning with ni. This change has taken place within the
last thousand years.

Among the 36 initials j ranks as the last. It is r before the

vowel z, as in r'i 2 "ear," r'i 5 "and," "son," r'i 3 "two." That is to

say, the old ni has become separated into two initials j and r in the

modern language.
 LETTER CHANGES. 197

Ch comes regularly from t in Chinese and neighbouring languages.

Thus cfii "to know" is U in Amoy. Since ch was found by the
Hindoo authors of the already existing in the
syllabic spelling
language, but not so widely spread as now, this is a change that took
place within a time reaching back to at least the beginning of the
Christian era. Thus then the Chinese ch has a dental origin. The
tongue has slipped back from the upper teeth to the palate.
Since the whole of the words commencing with t did not together
make this change, but only a part of them, there was some law of
limitation. That law was probably based on the nature of the
following vowel. At present when k becomes ch, it is necessary that
the vowels i or follow. The same necessity may have existed when
ii

some of the words beginning with t took ch instead of it, while others
" to take "a
kept t unaltered. In Amoy cho fire," is tio, and c'heng

city," is sia"ff. If, however, it was necessary that i should follow t in

order that t
might become ch, it was not a necessity ruling in all
words, for t'in "heaven" still kept its t unaltered. Yet this word
may very well have been t
l
en and so escaped change.

The old initial d became ch in the same way. Yet there was a
difference. D
changed to dj, and afterwards, when the sonants
first

all became j was altered to ch or c'h. Thus ch'wen "boat,"

surds,
once dun, assumed the form Jon in the Sucheu dialect and the region
west of that city. The next step, as shown in the case of the Nanking
dialect, will be to change j to c'h.

C'h aspirated occurs in words which belong to the fifth tone class,
or hia p'ing. Ch occurs in words belonging to the three tone classes
known as hia p'ing, hia c'hii, hia jit.

There are words beginning with ni which do not in Mandarin

change that initial for/. These are such as niang "woman," "wife,"
1
"mother," "lady," nii "woman," "daughter."
Kwo pu tells us that in his time, A.D. 350, wives of brothers in
Kwan si (Shan si) addressed one another as dok Uk. The characters
here are J^[J J[. The orthography cheu li, now expresses the sound
of the words that he had in view. In spelling the sound of cheu by
the syllabic method, he used JjH ^ dok. Hence d was the initial and
k the final in his time.

1
These words are placed by Kh under the ch series and not under /. Kh's reason is

that they never become j or r.

 198 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

5. TOOTH LETTERS.

The old t, t', s, ts, sh, t's, n, in the case of many words remain
as they were. The old d, z, zh, have become , t', ts and t's, sh and
ch or c'h. Many words having formerly t and t
e
have taken ch or c'h

instead.

In Chinese, as in other languages, s has quite commonly sprung

from t. Thus in Cochin Chinese and dialects further south, sit
"heart" is tim. When Cochin China was made a province in the
Han dynasty, if the initial t was common in China, its appearance in
the Cochin Chinese vocabulary is accounted for. That it was so is to

be shown by examples which throw light on the law of sibilization.

In the south Fu kien and eastern Canton dialects we have the
same phenomenon. This is not by change from ch to t, which is

unprecedented, but by change from t to ch in Mandarin and in those

parts of China where ch exists. In Tie chiu, chung "middle" is tong,

c'ha "tea" is te, chui "to follow" is tui, ch'i "straight" is tit for dik.

The title of the Emperor of the Hiung nu, corresponding to the

Chinese " Son of heaven," is given in Panku's History of the Han

Dynasty. The Turkish word for "son" is there said to be 5 \fe
ko do. probably the same as ugli, the word now used. The
This is

Turks of the time would say for " son of heaven," T'ingri gndu or
ugudu. Since that time d has changed to / in Turkish. Panku's
word ko do is now read ku t'u by the speaker of Mandarin.
In regard to the epoch when t became s and ch, we may conclude
that it was in the case of very many words a little after the Han
dynasty. The Cochin Chinese transcription was made in that
dynasty. Later by a few centuries we have the early tonic dic-
tionaries, which contain a very large number of examples of words
in t and d now pronounced with s or ch. The change was spread
over several centuries, and appears to have been completed in the

T'ang dynasty a thousand years ago. must except the province We

of Fu kien, where the change here referred to is not yet concluded.
D has in many words changed to sh, through the medium of dj.
There is no room for doubt that this change has taken place ex-

tensively. According to the spelling of sh'i with R. metal in the

" a
^
dictionaries, we have the sounds ti in Kwy and Tsy, sharp edge,"
di in Tsy, "an instrument for pricking blood," dji in Tsy, "key."
 LETTER CHANGES. 199

In the introduction of ,;'

we see the first step, taken in the Sung
dynasty, of the sibilating process in this word. The next stepwas
the change of dj to sh.
thus produced long kept its position at the beginning of
DJ
is shown by the
several words, as
Mongol transcriptions in the Yuen
dynasty, when Baschpa's alphabet was used to write Chinese sounds.
Here dj frequently occurs.
The character for S'i c'hwen ^ shu, is given as dok in Kp
A.D. 350. In Ty, Tsy, it is zhok and in Mandarin shu. It is a worm
that preys on the sunflower, and resembles a silkworm in form, but
likes different leaves.

The change of d to / has taken place extensively, but not in recent

times. At Shanghai clii li " closely attached," is called dze di. This
is an unquestionable instance of the change from d to /.

Examples are not only rare in dialects, but in phonetics. Yet

among the phonetics there are some instances of sh and / meeting
as branches of one family or phonetic tree. Thus $jjfc shu, shok,
"
number," has a phonetic which also occurs as leu 789. These are
to be explained as follows d became both sh and L In this instance
:

the double change took place subsequently to the invention of the

character. Duk was the sound when the character was invented.
The character was applied to the senses "tower," "several times,"
"silk thread," "to engrave," etc., which all became leu or lu.
Afterwards shok " number," needing a character, this one was with
p'u, one of the hand radicals, employed for the purpose, either as a
suitable ideograph having the sense "several times," or phonetically
by change of d to sh.
In most cases there is no likelihood that d changed to / and sh
after the invention of the characters. Numerous words occur in pairs
having the same sense and differing in their initials only. Such are
| shwang "two," ffi Hang "two." The inventors of writing chose
different characters to write these words because they were already
separated.
The following examples will help to show that words whose
initials are s, sh, ts, or ch, very often agree in meaning with words
whose initial is /.

Shwang "clear," "fresh," t'sing "clear," Jiang "bright," Hang

" " clear."
clear," lang
200 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

" " " "

Shwang cool," shwang frost," sang clear," Hang cool," leng

"cold," ling "ice."

Siang "think," Hang "calculate," "measure," "conjecture."
Siang "chest," "basket," lung "cage," ling "prison."
" " "
Sung high," lung high," tsung high."
Sheng "sound," t'ing "hear," ling "hear," ling "command."
" " " interest of
Si, sik, addition," gain," It, lik, money."
Tsung "all together," chung "all," lung "bring together," "the
"
whole," t'ung the whole."
See Appendix B for the Chinese characters and more examples.
L, s, sh, having become parted from the original d and t, are
usually found in separate phonetics. That it should not be so always
is evidence that the
change of d or t into those letters, continued to a
small extent beyond the time of the invention of writing. Thus
" to " "
sheng produce," raw," living," is found as a phonetic
element in 835 lung "flourishing." It is possible, however, that
164 is here ideographic, as leu 789 may be in shu "number."
The y as an initial often occurs for t or d. The loss of an
letter

initial t, d or s from many words now

beginning with y may be con-
cluded from the sound given in old dictionaries. In the Fang yen
the author says, speaking of Jjj yung, that it is also called sung by ^
change in pronunciation. The dialects at that time contained pecu-
liarities which guided lexicographers to such opinions as this.
It may also be shown by Kw forms of characters. Thus ^ T'ang,
the name of the dynasty of Yau, was written in with Kw ^ as

phonetic. This character is now yang, but it was anciently (long.

See under 592 and 767, where the character is phonetic to % s/tang,
which always has sh, t, or is as its initial. With R. water the
same phonetic always has initial t, as in fang "hot water."
^yang "sheep" has dz as its initial in several words where it is
used as a phonetic. This fact points to a primeval initial tL
The latent connexion of many words is brought into clear view by
recognizing this law of change. Thus $j yo, yak, "to bind," is ^
shu, shok, "to bind," both coming from dak. Yo, yak, "to jump," is

t'iau, having the same meaning.

t'ak, Yin, yim, "fornication," is

c'hen, dim, "to sink," "be immersed." -f^ yin, yim, "sound," is the
same as Jjj| "hear," and sheng "sound," because ng comes from
t'ing
m and t
f
, sh, and y all come from the same original t.
 LETTER CHANGES. 201

{Jj yen, duk, "from," is the same word as g ts'i, dik, "from,"
because y and dz both proceed from d, and final k has been lostfrom
each of them.
The dropping of final t is parallel to that of the finals k and p.
Many words have two sounds in the dictionaries, one with the
final letter which it originally possessed, and one without it. Thus
shu, "to relate," "record," "tell," isread by the dictionary compilers
zhut in Kwy, Tsy, Yh, and zhiti is required by the rhyme in a poem
called in Kh, Tsau ch'i tsieufu.
So shu "a plan" is in Ty, Tsy, Yh, zhut, but it is also (in Tsy) zui.

The rule is that words may drop finals or change them for others,
but they do not take new finals where there were none before.
Final t changed to /, r in north China before it was dropped.
In Mongol the Chinese final t becomes /, as in bal "honey,"
Ch. mit\ tololaga "lacquer," "varnish," Cb. t'sit', t'ologai "head,"
" " " " ex-
Ch. t'eu, Put t'ailaho
; explain," open," Ch. t'ot unloose,"
" to
plain;" t'olai "hare," Ch. t'u, t'ot; Variho sow," Ch. sat
"sprinkle;" haireho "return," Jap. kayeri, kayeshi, Ch. hicei, 5, gut.

In Corean vocabularies of Chinese words, final t regularly is

represented by r. This seems to indicate that in north China at the

time when the Corean transcription was made, r was common as
a substitute for the old final t.

The Indian name for Frank is The Chinese name

Feringa.
of the Roman Empire became in the T'ang dynasty Put Urn j$ ffi .

But these characters were at that time in western China probably

heard as For-ling. This would account for their being selected in

preference to others.
The interchange of n and t
may be illustrated from the sounds
" scatter."
assigned to some phonetics, e.g. H_ tan, dat, tat, fjfc san, sat,
That the direction of change was from t to n appears from cognate
languages. Thus in Mongol t'ariho " to sow," agrees with the
Chinese sat. But in Chinese we find both sat and san "to
scatter." The form in t then is the older. This change was very
ancient,and nothing remains of it in the modern language except in
the phonetics. It was taking place therefore about the time of the
invention of the characters. Of this we have the traces. But as its

area is limited to a few phonetics, the wider field of change must have
been before the time of this invention. Thus fy fen " divide," and
202 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

"
$lj pie, bit, divide," are not connected in written symbols, but are

certainly connected in their roots. The change then by which the root
bit or bat became bin, pien, fen, was anterior to the period of T'sang kie.
Final n changes to ng occasionally. This change occurs ex-

tensively in Nanking, Su cheu, Hang cheu and Fu cheu. Here it is

a dialectic peculiarity attached to words which are classed together in

large groups. In Peking and Tien tsin the sound tsin is heard chine/.

The examples of this change, however, are few.

In the dictionary Kwang yiin many words now chiefly read with
final ng have also final n. Thus P. 182 ling "command," is there
sometimes lien. In the has only final n.
classical poetry this phonetic

See examples in Tyt. In the same ancient poems fo ming " com-
mand," which is probably the same word, occurs six times with final
n. See Tyt.
The word jen " to know," is pronounced both nin and ning in the
dictionary Kwang yiin.

6. LABIAL LETTERS.

The labial letters should come

because they are learned the
first,

earliest by children. But the usage of Sanscrit grammar has led to

the placing of k in the post of honour.
The Chinese / is derived from p and b. Of this there are many
proofs. The word for
I select a few. is now called Fo. Buddha -jS|j

In the south Fukien dialect Buddha is called Put. The Japanese,

who derived the religion of Buddha from China, call him Budzu or
Fo to ge. But dzu represents the old syllable du. Supposing that
the ancient Chinese called this personage Bud, the Fukien people
would naturally change b to p and d to t, for this is in accordance
with the genius of their dialect. The history of this word enables
us to determine that the change from b to / took place about a
thousand years ago, or five hundred years later than the introduction
of Buddhism into China.
The reason why Buddhism is known in China as the religion

of Fo, is that the sound of the character used to represent Buddha

has changed from but to/o.
The change from initial p to initial m found in some phonetics.
is

Among words written with Jj^ p'ai, 269, we find, with R. flesh, mak
"
vein."
 LETTER CHANGES. 203

The change from initial m to w is common, and may be well

observed in the phonetic wen "literature;" also meaning lines in

palmistry, rings in trees, veins in marble. In the sense to endeavour,

put forth effort, encourage one's self or others, also to pity, min is the
sound. The lexicon Ty in spelling min, uses icu " military," proving
that when that dictionary was made the ordinary sound of icu
"military" was nm.
Initial m
apt to become b in some dialects, as in that of south
is

Fukien. This is also observable in Chinese roots which have strayed

into the Mongol vocabulary. Thus bal "honey" is the Chinese mit,
behe
" ink " is the Chinese melt.

I now proceed speak of the change from final p to k.

to

Did this change occur anciently in Chinese? find traces We

among the finals. We
find dak "to give" in J|2j lai, 7, dak, but dap

occurs in ^ sh'i, I, tap, "to give." We

may suspect that the first of
these came from the second. If this be correct, may we not surmise
that "hasty" is derived from
fjjt
kik kip, having the same sense? ^
To hold in the hand is both tip (now ch'i) and tik or dik (now chi
4 and chi 5). So with tik and tip "to shine." To shine is found both
under P. 762 ip from an older dip, under p. 128 lip "to stand," where
it has in Tsy the sounds yik and yip (see Phon. 762, 590), and
under p. 799 having a distinct k final.

As a final letter t for p occurs in several phonetics, as $J nei, nap,

nat, -ffr sh'i, siep, siet, ^ ch'i, tep, tiet.

That final t came in the place of p may be seen in certain words

beginning with s. As in 3|| 542 ye "leaf," we find under R. water

sie "to scatter," "disperse," "remove," "leak." This is given in Ty,

Tsy, siet. But the phonetic has properly final p in tie "platter," ye

"leaf," tie "butterfly." The initial became in some words s from an

older t. The consequence was that p changed to t through some
curious effect of the sibilant initial.

p5j )iap P. 121 changes to nat with R. woman, mouth, grass, insect,

etc., Kwy.
In Kwy the phonetics -ftf: 152, ^ ?42, 542, all unquestionably

belonging to the p final class, have sit with RR. water, sun, woman
respectively. In the Tie chiu vocabulary siet "to bind" is written

with R. silk, and p. sh'i, ship, "generation," and with P. ye, yep, "to

drag." The same character is sit in Kwy, Tsy, Yh.

204 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

The change from p to t probably took place in a few words in

these two phonetics a few centuries before the time of the dictionaries.

Only words with initial s, and a few with initial n, 121, and with ch,
742, made the change. Others kept p firmly.
j^J
nei "within" was formerly nap. With R. c'hai it is nat.

When the old root began and ended with p, we find final p

changed tot in
Amoy, but preserved in the Tie chiu dialect. Pap
"law" is hwat in Amoy and hwap in Tie chiu; in Mandarin it is fa.
This change, if it took place in a considerable number of phonetics,
as we know that it has done in some instances, must be attributed to
the unconscious action of the organs of speech. The labial letters at
first were overcharged with work. They were gradually relieved by
a transfer of their functions in part to the dentals and gutturals.
The change from p to m seems to have existed later than the
corresponding changes from ng to k and t to n. have it exempli- We
fied in recent times in the sound of nien "twenty." This in the

dictionary spelling is niap. In the Old Middle Dialect at present it

is nian, as shown in the occasional mistake made in the sense of the

phrase nian king "to recite Buddhist prayers." This is in comic

stories confounded with nian kin "twenty pounds weight." and N
ng are not distinguished in the dialects where this mistake can be
made. Here then there seems change from p to m.
to be a

Final m has changed extensively to ng. This change of final may

be conveniently observed in words where both m and ng are found
"
with the same sense. is a pit," and hieni or gim
For example, k'eng
is to
" sink into a "
K'am is also a pit." On the principle that
pit."
labial letters changed into tooth and throat letters more frequently

and regularly in ancient times than now, we decide that m was the
primary form. Whenever words with ng final have equivalents with
m final in some phonetics, it may be concluded that the change
of finals has taken place since the invention of the characters.
In fimbria, Fr. frange, ~Eng. fringe, we find m changing to nj and
ndj, with the insertion of r after the initial.

That this change is traceable in some phonetics may be shown in

The "
this way. fifty-fifth radical ^r kung raise the hands," has
the value gam in the phonetic ^. yen, ngam, " to cover."
It is probable therefore that when this phonetic was invented,
m was its final, and lung " to play," kitng " to present gifts with
 LETTER CHANGES. 205

joined hands," were then pronounced with final in place of final ng.m
"
In Sw yen is said to be formed from ho, gap, combine," and the two
hands kung. In Kw
we find hiuc, git, "hole," instead of ho, with
R. sun in the middle, and kung at the bottom. The phonetic element
then is in the lower part which has always belonged to the character.
Phonetic 46 fan "all," 5, bam, appears in Kwy with R. grass, as
"
p'ung, 5, bong, luxuriant vegetation." Under the radical water,

Kwy gives the meaningand two sounds bung and bam.

"float,"
With Urn "forest" above, the sense is the noise of wind blowing
o
upon trees, and the sound bung.
The old value of ^
jen is nim. It is met with in Hfc cheng, in the
middle part of the character at the bottom. But chcng means " proof,"
"
evidence." The Mongol temdeg also means " proof," and ch comes
from t. The Mongol here helps then to show that the direction
of change is from m to ng, and not from ng to m.
We find kim and king, two sounds to one phonetic, ^ kirn "now."
With R. spear, man, on the left, it means " to pity." This is king in
Kwy, Tsy, Yh. This must be explained as a recent instance of an
ancient law. In most of the roots in m, which have changed m to ng,
it was before the invention of the characters that the change from m

to ng took place. In these few instances and some others it is later.

This change may be traced in many words where the phonetics

made use of constitute no key. Thus |^ with R. mountain k'am
neans the hollowness of valleys. The Tauist philosopher Chwang cheu,
wishing to praise the hermit's life, said, Hien die fu yu ta shan k'am

ngam ch'i Ida, "He who is wise hides under the hollow crags of a great
mountain." K'am means "hollow." But k'ung is also "hollow."
K'im is "to respect." But king has the same sense. The change
from m to ng accounts for facts of this kind.

The time when final m changed to ng may be judged of in the

following manner. The word for sails occurs in m phonetics and in

ng phonetics. In one of the former, p. 45 fan "all," it is called both
fan and p'eng. In p. 348 it has final ng only and is called p'eng.
We conclude that when the first of these phonetics was written, bam
was the sound. Afterwards, when the other was made, the pronun-
ciation in ng had become prevalent. Since both pronunciations
existed contemporaneously, both characters were retained.

C'liang for the adjective "long" has now in China the final ng.
206 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Fy says that dim was used in the sense "long" in what is now Shen
si and Si chwen, that is, the north-west corner of China. In the time
of that writer then, B.C. 53 to A.D. 18, final m was still lingering in
this adjective over no small part of the Chinese area.
We know that final m only disappeared entirely in north China
from an immense mass of words which retained it after the
Mongol
conquest, as shown by inscriptions in the Baschpa writing.
The change of m final to ng final is one of great importance for
clearing up much of the obscurity of Chinese etymology.
In modern China the final ng appears in the place of final n and
m in the whole region occupied by the Old Middle Dialect, extending
from the mouth of the Yang tsi kiang to the city of Fu cheu in

Fukien province.
The law of change now referred to is much more ancient. One of
its examples is in the word feng "wind" which in the age of the
Book of Odes three thousand years ago was called bam.
In the northern provinces of China in recent times m has been in
all words replaced by n. The tendency to change from m to ng
belongs then to a very ancient period. It has long since finished its
career and given place to new laws.
The period occupied by this change, terminating in some words
about three thousand years ago as the ward, feng "wind" teaches us,
reaches back to a much earlier epoch. In the phonetic characters we
do not find more than a very few examples of m and ng used as finals
interchangeably in characters having the same phonetics. Hence we
conclude that the change of m to ng was made and nearly completed
before the invention of the phonetic characters. That such a change
took place anterior to that epochis not open to doubt if we consider

that many have

roots alike in sense two phonetics or two series of
phonetics, one in m and one in ng. Thus k'iem is "humble," kim is
"to hang down the head," kiang is "to descend," and hiang "to bow
"
down to." T'sam is to "place together," and t'ung, dung, is together."
T'iem and ch'ang are both "to lick," but ch'ang has the special sense
"to taste." T'iem and tseng both mean "to add." Nim { "to under-
take a duty," "oflice," is probably the same as fg ncng "to be able,"

"capable." Jf& hien or gam "all," ^

kung "all." Nam "south,"
yang "facing southward." Lam "bright," lang "bright."
Yet there are not wanting examples of ng for m in recent times.
 LETTER CHANGES. 207

Tsy spells the character R. grass, p.

gim "harp," ging. Ty gives gim.
M then changed ng in this word during the period between the
to

Tang and Sung dynasties. At present it is pronounced n in northern

Mandarin, ng not being able on account of diminution in force to
continue its acquisitions.

Let a be given to the following evidence from

fair consideration

Mongolian of the change of final m

to ng in Chinese roots. The
Mongolian language, like the Chinese and Tibetan, has the three
root finals ng, n, m. Of these ng is the rarest, the guttural ending
being less developed than the dental and labial in that language.

Among words which in Chinese end in ng, the Mongol equivalents

end in m or ng, but mostly in m.

Hien, or gam, hung, "all together," M. hamt'o "together."

" " "
King end," M. hem end," object."
" "
K'ung empty," M. hemel empty."
K'am " cut," M. hemjihu "cut."
"
K'icn, or k'im, deficient," "short in quantity," M. homsa "few."

K'ing "light in weight," M. himda "cheap," hunggen "light in

weight."
Hwang "wrong," "irregular," M. gem "harm."
Hung "stupid," "ignorant," M. monghag "stupid."
Shwang "fresh," M. tenggcrehu "be refreshed."
Ch'eng "weigh," "estimate," M. t'engchehu "weigh," "equalize."
Cheng "proof," "evidence," M. tengsel" proof," t'emdeg "evidence,"
" mark."

Cheng "to dispute," M. temechehu "to dispute."

" " "
T'ung throughout," through," M. Pong through."
Tsung "traces of feet," M. t'om "track in a wild," jam "road."
The Mongol j comes from d.
" " " in the M. tomiraho
" set
Cheng correct," straight," middle,"

right."
T'sing
" M. Vomoron " clear."
clear,"

Ch'ang "always," M. dang "always."

T'sttng, cJntng, "again," M. dam "again."
" to " M.
Tang carry," tarn carry on one shoulder with a yoke,"
damjigor "a shoulder-yoke," damnaho "carry a load with such
a yoke."
" " "
T*ing, dslng, still," quiet," M. semeger still."
208 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

Chung "middle," M. domda "in the middle."

" "
8hen tsen, djim, " what ? " " how ?
t M. yambar " how ? " " what ?
Sing "the nature of anything," sim "heart," M. jang "nature
of man."

Cheng "to blame," M..jima "blame."

T'sing "blue," M. ch'enggis.
" M. " to "
Ch'eng to weigh," ch'englehu weigh," ch'englcyur weigh-
ing machine."
"a M. "a
Ting, ding, fly," simagol fly."

Chung, t'ung, tsung, "all," M. c'hum.

" " " "
T'sang hide," t'sang granary," M. sang treasure," treasure
house."
Sing "ape," M. samja "ape."
Tsing "sap," "essence," "vital power," M. sima "sap," "power."
When a Chinese implement such as a shoulder-yoke appears in
the Mongol vocabulary, a suffix is usually added. Thus in the word
damjigor, the last two syllables correspond to legur in ch'englegur,
" " The Tartar languages have a
weighing machine," steelyard."
set ofsuch suffixes ready to append, in the same way that the Romans
added us to the Hebrew Adam and Abraham. In such words ng
indicates that they have been adopted from Chinese during the
modern juxtaposition of the races, that is, since the Hiung nu dis-
appeared and with them the Turkish language from the region north
of the Great Wall.
The root in the Tartar languages is the first syllable, and it is

with that syllable that we have to do in the preceding list. Final m

is much more frequent than ng, and the words in which it occurs are

the more primitive in their appearance. The conclusion to be drawn

is that long ago, in some age anterior to the empire of the Hiung nu,

the letter m occurred both in Chinese and Mongol at the end of a

very large number of words, where now in Chinese ng is usually

found.
Remark, 1. Out of twenty-two Mongol roots here collected, ending

in m, five occur in Chinese with final m, and nineteen with final ng.
2. Out of ten words ending in ng in both languages, hunggen

"light in weight" has also a Mongol form in m, viz. himda. Further

ch'englehu, ch'cnglegin; as referring to the weighing of articles, would

easily become transferred from Chinese to Mongol in recent times

 LETTER CHANGES. 209

in the course of buying and selling. Thus final ng is here ac-

counted for.

In Mongolian there is a recent tendency to introduce ng. Thus

3.

sonos-ho "to hear" is now heard songsaho. There is no such tendency

at present to any new production of m.

The general conclusion to be drawn is that ng is a final of new

4.

growth, that it has made much less progress in Mongol than in

Chinese, and that it has made its appearance chiefly since the separa-
tion of the vocabularies.
5. The roots were well
developed and the words were representatives
of well-defined ideas before the separation of the Chinese and Mongol

languages from the common stock from which they both sprang.
The Japanese vocabulary has in it the same sort of evidence as
6.

theMongol to the identity of roots when compared with the Chinese,

and gives clear proof in the same way of the change from m to ng.
I refer here to the indigenous part of the Japanese vocabulary, e.g.
samashi "wake from sleep," Ch. sing; same "become cool," Ch. t'sing,

leng. Examples are extremely numerous.

The only change of labials that now remains to be considered is

that from m to n.

Tsam 813, and tsan 1028, both mean a Chinese hair-pin, one of
those thick pins, seven inches long, which Chinese women put
through their hair. Tsam and tsan both mean "to pierce," "to take
with the hand," "to congregate." When the final letter changed to
tig, a small portion of the words that lost m took n instead of ng.

The above is an instance of an old change from m to n. In the

modern language m has universally become n over the whole area
occupied by the Mandarin tongue.

7. CHANGES IN THE VOWELS.

The researches of Chinese scholars have shown, as exemplified in

the Chapter on the
History of the Sounds, that the rhymes of the Shi

king may be divided into seventeen classes.

This division embraces both vowels and consonants. The old

vowels are less capable of detection than the consonants. Yowels

readily slide. Minute changes in their character readily occur. We

can therefore to arrive at conclusions of a general nature.
only hope
The letter a in father belongs now to c'ha "tea," ta "great." In
14
210 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.

the Odes belonged to most of those characters which are at present

it

pronounced with o, as p'o "break," ico "I," to "many." "With the

testimony of Twan yii t'sai, who places such words in his XYIIth
class, agrees the evidence of the Cochin Chinese, Japanese, and
Corean transcriptions.
Some modern words in i, as ^f yi "ought," ki "fowl," were nga,
ka, Coch. Ch. ga "fowl."
Some words now in a were also anciently a, so that the old a was
made up of words now pronounced with o, i, a.
Medial ya occurred in many words where now i is found, as in
king "metropolis," formerly kiang. This we learn from foreign

transcriptions.
The letter e is now
Peking heard nearly like o, in she "to
in

forgive," and such words. In southern Mandarin it is more like

itself and Morrison's spelling with ay represents it well for English

learners. The i of ti "brother" was formerly e. This we learn from

the Mongol degu, and the Fukien te "brother."
Words in Tyt's class XV. may all have had the vowel e in the

days of antiquity. Among them wei "to

fear," kicei "return," pel

"pitiful," etc., have nearly kept their old sound till the
present time.
For though we write ei, the sound may be stated to be that which we
mean by e in the French bonte.

"Where we now have medial ie there was formerly only e, as in

Pien "heaven," which the Japanese and Corean transcriptions show
was a thousand years ago Pen.
The vowel i occurs in ancient Chinese in some words still possess-

ing it, Many words now pronounced with in Sir

as yi "easy." 'i,

Thomas Wade's spelling i/t, had formerly i. Such are cKi "branch,"
chi "know." Not a few words now ending in f, as ti "emperor,"
had formerly ik for their final.

Since anciently tsi "son" and lai "come" rhymed together, we

may expect lai, which retains its sound in Fukien, to have been per-
manent since the time of the Odes.
The letter o has gone through great vicissitudes. Many words
now sounded with au were formerly pronounced with o or ok.
Such are mau "hair," kiau "instruct." Kia "house" was ko. So
also was ku "cause." What is now called tung "east," was formerly
tong, and probably at a still earlier time, torn.
 LETTER CHANGES. 211

Many words now pronounced with medial #, as c'hang "long,"

" to be
wang lost," were formerly heard with medial o, as dom, mom.
The vowels u and u have both been in extensive use in China.
Many words now ending in au, eu, and ieu, were formerly pronounced
with the vowel u only. Thus kieu "to investigate," and tsau "to
make," were ku and dzu, with a final k still clinging to them which
has been long since lost. In Fukien at present, yen " to have,"
is still u or u-u, as we write it commonly. Many words now heard
with medial a had formerly u. Such are yang " sheep," yiung.
Here we cannot clearly distinguish between o and u. The modern
medial a may have come from an ancient medial o or u or both.
 ENGLISH INDEX.

Agriculture, 46. Deer, 37.

Amoy, 3, 189, 193, 195. Demon, 37.
Animals, 46. Dog, 24.
Antoninus, Eoman emperor, 194. Door, 18, 34.
Arrow, 27. Dragon, 39.
Aspirate, k to h, 189.
Aspirated initials, 188.
Association of ideas, 42. Ear, 29, Mongol for, 193.
Earth, 12, 35, 43, in sheng "produce," 25.
Evening, 13, 30.
Eye, 27.
Bamboo, 28, 46.
Baschpa, 199, 206.
Birds, 37, fly, 183, tails, 35. Face, 35.
Black, hiuen, 25, he, 38. Father, 88.
Blood, 31, 195. Feathers, 29.
Boat, 31. Field, 26.
Body, 33. Final k in long tone phonetics, 57, 60, 78, 79
Bones, 36. 178; sh'i "is," 97. Final t, wei, 63, 168,
Broken bones, tai, 21. 177. Final p, 56, 61. Final ng, 169.
Borrowed characters, 145, 153. Final n, 168. Final m, 81, for ng, 141,
Boundary, 5, 6, 12, ken, 31. m and ^?, 168.
Branch, 43. Fire, 23.
Breath, k'i, 22, 45. Fish, 37.
Brush, 29, 142, 145. Flesh, 29.
Buddha, 202. Fold of anything, 140.
Foot, 33.
Frame, t'siang, 24.

Gallery, 50, 149.

Cheu kung, 142, 152. Go on transcription, 180, 181.
Chinese characters, time of invention, 1, 2. Grain, hwo, 27, 38, 66, rice, 28, wheat, 37.
Chi shi, symbols of ideas, 152, 153, 154. Grass, 31, Grass character, 149.
Chuhi, 173, 174. Great, ta, dap, 55, 177.
Chwang cheu, 205. Guttural, see Throat.
Chwen, form of writing, 146, 147, Ta
3, old
chwen, 146, Siau chwen, 147.
Chwen chu, characters turned round, 153, Hair, than, 17, man, 195, er, 29,pau, 36.
examples of 163. Hand, 9, 18, 41, 54. Grasp, 8, 10, 26, 35.
Clothes, 31, 38, cloth, 15. Two hands offering, 10, 16, 72. Giving
Cochin Chinese transcription, 182, 198. a blow, 19. Sweeping, 17, 109. Scratch-
Colour, 31, red, 32, blue, 35, yellow, 38. ing, 87.
Compare,^', 22. Head, hie, 35, sJieu, 36.
Compound characters, 162. Hear, t'ing, 140.
Corean transcription, 182. Hiai sheng, phonetic imitation, 153, ex-
Cover, covering, 6, 9, 13, of a house, 16, to amples of, 163.
cover, 31. Hiuen tsang, the traveller, 186, 189.
Cow, 24, 193. Hole, 27.
Cucumber, 25. Horn, 32.
11 INDEX.

Horse, 36. Net, 28.

Hwang 71.ti, 1, Nobility, five ranks, 62.
Hweiyi, 153, 167.
Hii shu chung, 151. Odes, 169; old sounds in, 170, 174, 175.
Old, 29.
Old middle dialect, 185, 204, 206.
Ideas, symbols of, 152.
Ideographs, pictures of objects, 41, 142.
Extensive use of the mouth and hand, 41. Palatal letters, 196. Ni to/, 196. Tto ch,
Analogy between
the formation of charac- d to ch, 197.
ters and the origin of words, 42. Outline Paper sent to China from Europe, 143 ;

pictures, 43. Four in one character, 161. Chinese earliest manufacture, 143 ;
Greek
Initials. 2' to ch, 183. Ptof, 183. Sonant paper, 149.
to surd, 185. Pencil, 143, 144.
Ink, 143, origin of Chinese, 143. Phonetics, 2, 50, 51. phonetics have
Why
Inscriptions, 146. two or more sounds, 51. Phonetics a key
Insect, c'huny, 31, 174. to the ancient sounds, 61, 167. List of
163. Two
phonetics, 52. Hiai sheng, 153,
sounds to one phonetic, 164.
Jade, 25. Pictures of objects, 144, 152, 155.
Japanese, 180, 209. Pig, 32.
Japanese transcription, 180, 210. Poetry, rhymes of old, 169.
28.
Pottery, wa, 25, ming, 26, feu,
Prostration, c'hen, 30.
Kan on, 180, 181.
K'ang hi's dictionary, 17.
Kiatsie, borrowed characters, 153, examples, Eadicals, 1, 41 Divided into 10 classes, 41.
;

164. Reptile, 31, 32, Z%,feng, 36.

Kiai shu, writing of this name, 148. Rhymes of old poetry, 169.
Knife, tau, as a graving and perhaps writing Rice, 195.
implement, 143, 144. Round, lut, 136.
Ku wen, ancient writing, 145, 200. Running hand, hing, 145 ; t'sau, 149.
Ku yen wu, a student of old sounds, 18.
Kwo p'u 178, 197.
Say, 20.
Seal characters, see Chwen.
Leather, 26, 35. See, 32.
Leg, tsu, 12, 20, jeu, 27. Two legs, 13, 26. Self, ki, 14, 30, 66.
Letter changes. M to ng, 174. Sonant to Shapes, 43.
ts'i,

surd, 185. Aspirated mutes, 188. Throat Sheep, 28, yang, dom, 69, 200.
letters, 189. Palatal letters, 196. Tooth Shell money, 32.
letters, 198. JTto ch, 184. Shi, Odes, 169, 170.
Li si, his agency in changing the mode of Shwo wen, 151, 161.
writing, 147. Siang hing, pictures of objects, 152, 153,
Li shu, old writing of this name, 147. 154.
Li yang ping, 155. Sick, 26.
Lieu wen, old writing of this name, 145, 146. Silk, balls, 9, 15, 16, 28 ; industry,
48.
Lu shu, six principles of writing, 152. Six principles of formation in characters, 151 .
Skin, 26.
Small, 195.
Man, picture of, 4, 5
; muscles, 7 on a cliff, ; Son, 193.
73 ;
human
body, 44. Sounds, history of, sources of information on
Measures, 26; li, 34; At, 8; teu, 19; t'sun, old sounds, 166.
10, 13, 162; e'A'i, 162; chang, 55. Sow, 201.
Meng kwa, 142. Spear, kwo, 18; shu, 21 mcu, 27. ;

Metals, 47. Species and genus, 44, 45.

Mongolian, 58, 59, 187, 207. Spirits, 27, 45.
Moon, 13, 20. Splinter, pien, 24.
Mortar, 30. Spoon, 8, 22.
Mother, 21. Square, 8, 20.
Mouth, 11; to open, 6; radical k'ien, 20; Stand, 27.
H. kam "sweet," 25. Final k, 57. Stone, 27 ;
Stone Drums, 146.
62.
Stop, 20, tik,
t'se 68.
Strips or slips, kan, 15 p'ien, 24
; ;

Name, tribe, 22, 61 ming, 73. 43 of Gallery, 50; two

;
Strokes, 3, 4, 19, ;

Negative, not, wang, 20, wu, 21,/et, 35. pairs of strokes crossing, 24.
 INDEX. Ill

Style, as a writing implement, 143. Twan yii t'sai, author of researches in the
Sii Mai, 157. old pronunciation, 170. Results of his
Suggestion, Hwei yi, 153, 157. labours on the Odes, 171, 210. Labours
Sun, 20. on Yi King, 174. On Li sau, 174, 175.
Sung t'i, shape of the characters adopted for Native place and dialect, 137.
wood engraving, 150.
Syllabary, 52. Use, 25.
Syllabic spelling, 179, 196, 197. Utensils, 48.

Verbs, 48, 49.

Tai tung, Chinese philologist, 196. Vessels, 32, 37.
Tauist words, 161.
This, same as substantive verb, 179. "Wade, Sir Thomas, 191, 210.
Throat letters, Kto I, 190. G and k to w Walk, 16, 17, 21, 31, 33, 34.
and y, 192. Ny, 192, 193. Final k, 194, "Wang hi chi, founder of the modern writing,
195,196. Final k to t, 88. 149.
Tiger, 31. "Wang jen, 180.
To, eKi, 30, tai, 35. "Water, 14, shut, 23, 43.
Tone classes, 171, 172, 177. Shang sheng "Weave, 194.
dates from B.C. 1100, 177. Ch'ii sheng White, 26, 67.
dates from B.C. 200, 177. Tables of Wind,/w^, 36, 164, 206.
tenues, etc, 185. Wood, 20, 43.
Tongue, 30. Words, 32, 35.
Tonic Dictionaries, 178. Wreath, ying, 133.
Tooth, 24, 39, 59. Writing invented, 142. Buddhist account of
Tooth letters, 198. Tto
198. 2) to *A, 198.
*, the invention of Sanscrit, Semitic and
Dj\ 199. D to1, 199. D
to * and /, 199. Chinese writing, 144. Different modes of
Examples of this double change, 200. Chinese writing, 145. Resting on the
T, d, to y, 200. Final t, 201. wrist, 149. Six kinds of writing, 152.
Tower, kau, 36.
T'sangkie, 1, 71. Yang hiung, 1 6.
Tsii sung, 2. Yi king, 162, 155.
Turkish, 198.

THE END.

STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, HEKTKjRD.

 WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

A GRAMMAR OF THE SHANGHAI DIALECT. SECOND EDITION.

A GRAMMAR OF THE CHINESE COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE COM-

MONLY CALLED MANDARIN. SECOND EDITION.

RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE CHINESE.

PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN THE CHINESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE.

THIRD EDITION.

A VOCABULARY OF THE SHANGHAI DIALECT.

CHINA'S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY.

 TTE N <DI X

EXAMPLES

ANCIENT FORMS OF A SELECT NUMBER

CHARACTERS
BAN-ZAI-SAU 9 7>
 APPENDIX A.

KWANG, KONG ^^ %,. rAr *tf-

~rp ^\" Light above man ^S ji'^ [^ w -]

[Sw.j Fire above

> -
v% A hare sitting. An
T'n "^^ ^*<^ xfrk
TOV' animal with large
-^S i\
Hare /w ( >^ ^^ earSi a short taili

the upper lip wanting, the front feet short, and with

hair on the soles.

ol n i ^ 1*^1 ro... i S*. re

^^^ ^__
Rhinoceros

[Kw.j The rhinoceros horn Was used by the

ancient Chinese as a drinking cup. They
knew the animal well.

ls "" |T " c ' ci

ft\
just II wanting a clue

to the connection between the sign for silk here used

and the present meanings of the character. But it is

better to regard it as a picture of che bent arm. Sec

P. 170.
 APPENDIX A.

PING

weapon [Lw.]

soldier

[Sw.] Two hands below grasp the weapon or

weapons, usually a hatchet kin.

Stone drums. With R bamboo -fc^ it means

K'l, GIT,
a winnowing implement or dust pan --H-
He, that
of basket work used in sweeping. The

lower part represents the hands holding it. The

upper part is the Ki.

Kw forms of this

implement wi-

thout the radical. 'I

[Kw.] Additional forms of the Ki

or ancient
winnowing implement
which is shaped lihe a sleeve, is

made of basket work and is used in throwing corn into the air

after threshing, as a rude winnower. It is

probably the original

character afterwards used for the pronoun.

KlEN, KIM
[Up.] [Kmp] JK'Jf*
hand

Together holding

two stalks of corn (the upright strokes).

GH'E, T'AK
[Kw.]
Book, >
[Kw.l [Sw.
With
register
K bamboo above. A bundle of written tablets tied together.

The curve is that of the bamboo slips on which the characters

were cut or painted. T"ak is to tie.

 APPENDIX A.

KEU, KOK [Sw.] Two rafts of timber, or two sets of

Join
loin together))
togeth roof beams . are here represented as

"junction astened together.

[Kw.j The idea of returning is

HWEI, GUT
represented by a line going
Return back into itself.

YEU,
A walled
for birds [Lw.] [Lw.J
park
and beasts

[Sw.] After the time of the Lieu wen, a

phonetic yen * have, was inserted ins-

tead of the four trees and two partition

walls of the old form.

[Lw.] Here tun

Tl, DAP

Earth
1 [Lw.
j^ an earthen

dyke is
sugges-

tive of earth.

Here the
YUEN f^ [Lw.]
use of kwei is
ffi [Lw.]
low wall VQ/^i
ideographic (cir-

cularity) and not phonetic.

GH'ENG , DING Lw The

- hon etic u is in

fr m ting phonetic< In Kw -

cit wall
with R spear in reference to the

military use of a wall. The Kw from wu * noon is not

easily explained.
 APPENDIX A.

f T'ANG, DOM,
[Kw.] [Kw.]
Family hall

/k
[Lw.] Here is an example of increased

ornament in the caligraphy of B. C.

800.

Sw -l Derived
CHOI, TOT
l
t
Same as H
.
g: by Sw from
p?i t""^ r~T
To heap up ** p* a picture of a

hill.
Perhaps this may be the explanation of the old form

K'IN, GIN. [Sw.] From -fr" earth, 71 man

-f-I-;
to plaster and
(the plasterer) "pf brown.
diligent The yellowish brown earth of North

China has much lime in

it and is used commonly [Kw.] [Kw.

JjT
for cement.

YAU
The ancient
<
[Hyp.] [Sw.] High
emperor Ngok
high

[Kw.] Earth heaped up and bench suggest

height

TU, TOK ^ ^jj^ [Lw.] Heaped

Stockade
i|| $" t
Lw- ^
^IgV
earth was thought

be better re Pre -
wi th 5 stakes to

sented by ,CT, feu hill than by ~r' t'u earth, but

the moderns have thonght differently.

 APPENDIX A.

[Lw.] Three deer are here seen

CH'EN, DIN
running and raising two clouds
Dust
of dust.

HIA, gat Monument in

^^
Great *&
temple [K w .]
China of Confucius ^^.

[Kw.] From si
evening and
WAI, GAT
pu to divine. To divine in
out side fk the evening is outside of the

common way of doing things. Sw.

Su, SOK
To work [Kw.] From man and
before it
>
is M is here phonetic.
flesh which

light

[Kw.] From man and ping the third in

the denary cycle.

[Sw.] This dictionary derives the cha-

racter from night zik and wor-

king kik a picture of holding

-j-4

4rfe
in the hand, the last is otherwise written J Jft and

Yl, TIT
[So.] [Tshp.]
|
one

K'AU, K'OK
Panting for ~S [SW.]

breath
8 APPENDIX A.

TING, TAM
nail,
man, r*
strike Used Shangbell.

for the sound

of bells

Shang tripod of O [LA ,.] Same

/i

Ts'i, T'SIT Stone

Seven
-b ESC.]
classics

[Kw.]

CHANG, DOM
Staff, strike, lean
Staff,
upon.
lean upon

SAN, [Kw.] Used as a

SHAM, TAM phonetic for

shirt, and pine
three >
tree.

SHANG, DUM
Up,
[Khk.]
above,
ascend

[Hyp.] Same as teng, sheng

< Ascend. >
 APPKXDIX A.

HIA, GE(T)
Down, -r- "5" -y Khk
below, .

go -
-

donw

IV, POT

<
Not

Shang

rKw -J Used
MlEX, MIX - as a phonetic for flour. A wall

15
f f r
P rotection against arrows.
a picture of
JJ-
-
^^^ j
It is said to be

n thc act of hein ,,

drawn to one side.

C'HEU, T'OK
tO dl^W Ollt fil [Sc.]
^
^^ [Hkn.J
^-
[Hkm]
is said
It

to

1 tO 3 A. M. be a

picture of a hand being pulled.

T'SIE, T'AK
" and ^ "

**^
n fHkn -i A
*"
further

[Kw.]
3.

Stone classics. The

P'EI, P'UT phonetic

Great
PC.]
is
x
^]\ pot * not.

P.AN-ZAI-SAU
lO APPENDIX A.

NlEU, NGUK
(( Cow

K'IUEN, K'ON

Dog

[Sw.] In allusion to its gre-

YANG, DONG
garious character it
helps
Sheep to form k'iiin, gun,

flock.

Hu, KOK

.Tiger.

[Kw.] Representation of the streaks

on a tiger.

SHIK [Kw.] Of these two forms,

,

T).
that on the right is the real
Pig
Ku wen. That on the left

is modified to suit modern writing.

MA,
[K"' )
Horse,,

[Lw.] The head, hair, legs and tail are

represented.
 APPENDIX A. 11

[Lw.] This form shews thet the old sound was

KlA
kak, and that in ancient times bullocks were
v
Equipage much used in drawing persons of high station.

(
1-2 AITKXDrX A.

X, TUN Tun the upper portion, is here both phone-

Spring tic and ideographic.

[Kw.] Three burst buds. Tu'n or c'hun is a

bud, spring, and to burst. The form y^

c'he, te't is the 45th radical and is found also

in radical
JT f grass, t'sau,
t'ok. The more antique form
of c'hun is.

SIXG, TING
[Kw.] [Kw.] [Sw.]
Star

oo [Kw.] [Kw.] [Lw.j

SHI, D.JIK [Lw.] Sw derives it from

0TC sun and || . correct

YUE, NGET
;
[Kw .] [Sw.]
moon

[Kw.] Shang bell.

Bells and Shang tripod

vases.
 APPENDIX A.

SHI, ZHIK

time, (Sw<] From and

hour

. from "C., and

Mu, MOK
Wood, [Sw.]

tree

WEI, MIT
not vet 1

Examples characters of the Shang dynasty

of

taken from the copper basin of the

San family.

NAN, NAM

i to, that, in order that. south.

$ Clll, TIT Yii DIK

to, arrive at. to, to be at.

Si, SIR 7|C Mr, MOK

ascend. .west., * tree.
wood,

hand
TVJ SANG " -^ Iulberr y- From gra ss / I
abovc and 2**- * '

or XjU ycu right hand, boiow.

14 APPENDIX A.

-j NEI, NIP JV^C 5&<:

TENG ascend. With two hands
I^J <r within. i=i -*^~ beneath as in Lw.

r/ of a
YAI,

hill.
NGAT

Same
cliff

as
tlT
/=p
brow

yai.
*Vn^ viz YUEN, GON
f^VvV\ ' '^ source

P Tu, TOK, chief city. The left hand part is the

fj sameas lu, Jjj

lu and ^ cAu all which charac-
ters were used convertibly in the Ku wen. The whole in-

scription is in 19 columns, of 19 characters each. The basin

is
eight inches and a half high, and six feet four inches is

circumference. It is preserved at Yang cheu in the province

of Kiang su. Some doubt its genuineness.

Examples of Lieu wen from the Stone drums

B C. 800

The writing on these drums consists of ten poems

inscribed on ten drum shaped stones to commemorate a

hunting expedition of Gheu Siuen wang, emperor at that

time.

T'UNG
JL In Lw for ^C KUNG .oppose.
/A
/V
/(JV | 4)
T ,
togethcr .
 ~
VI'FKXDIX \. | t

Wo, NGO, here used as a surname.

CHI, TIK

sign of
princ e
genitive.

K'IEU, r,r
* ,
KONG Ts,, TIK
ask
bow. ,
thi,. .
.
beg.

K'l, GI
a certain . he, ,

official c
come. ,
building that.

TS1 '

!p
hour.

, SHIM

WO, XGAK KU) KQK

'net..
 APPENDIX B.

List of characters to shew that words with the initials s, SH, CH, and TS

on the one side and L on the other agreeing in their meaning come
from the same roots in an older stage of the Chinese language when
the initials 'were D or T.

CLEAR, p[ shwang, >Jg liang, ^ff ts'ing, lang, q]

v>>
tsung, 'JE5J smg, awake.

COLD, >P^[ shwang, /JEj{

li an g> VpJ ts'ing, v3J ling, ice,

//
v p leng, cold, ^\ shwang, frost.

|i| T -'
'-
IT^dU
HIGH, ^p sung,
17'*^.

|^ lung, ^ ts'ung, |>^ ling, tomb,

high.

"jkH! i-1- Tfrr

THINK, ^^ siang, g^ liang, f^j shang, consult.

>^vv r/ct .
-W* i

CHEST, VASLET ^g siang, ptj ling, prison, ^^ lung, cage,

tfj--

jgj t'ung, dong, cylinder of bamboo.

J*/tj Tt".J-* Tf Tt

SOUND, ^^ sheng, ggj t'ing, hear, *\j) ling, hear,

-^ ling, command.

ADD, interest of money, 7* sik, TrlJ li, gain, interest,

-j=j: te, tik, get.

 APPENDIX I!. 17

GIVE, j'|y si, sik, PJ^ t's'i, sik, lai, luk.

^jj

ROPE, ^T so, sok, jf:^ lok,

thread. -

*T*
BIND, ^ shu, shok.
F-?f-z / h* 1

Iffi liau, lok, ;pjg eo, sok.

-rJ_^ T^r
OLD, =^i shen, old age, ^^ lau, okl.

J.IH1 ^Spll
TEAR, KEND, J^ s'i, ^J li<

MV* v>i' t

ALL, altogether, together, j^j ts'img , collected, f.;j^, tsmig,

[j-fj t'ung, clong, together, same,

J^| lung, bring together.

side side
SIDE, |^>g piang, buildings, /^p lang,
rooms,
cloisters. >

FLOURISHING, ^j sheng, pig lung.

HONEST, lp c'hong, p^ Hang.

LEAK, j|| sie, sik, <( drain out, )|g leu, luk, leak,

BLUE, p3 ts'ing, blue, jjif ts'ang , azure,

JFg^ Ian, lam. JV^ from m.

FOLLOW in succession, f |f sii, zok, )^ shu, zhok, belonging to,

A/f lo, lok, connected.

PAIR, TWO, ljj shwang, j^J Hang.

BAN-ZAI-SAU " 75 I
14
 APPENDIX B. 18

These coincidences are too numerous to be fortuitous.

They are explained by supposing s and I to be separately

derived from d or t The dental root has given out two prin-
.

cipal branches, one by sibilization, consisting of s, sh, ts,

eh, the other by lingualization consisting of 1. This branch-

ing out of letters took place before the invention of the

characters. The inventors shew no consciousness of it in

their choice of written signs. A few of the examples have

d or t as their initials. These are instances still extant of

the primitive dental.

 APPENDIX C.

HOW TO USE KANGUI.

In looking out a word the student must first notice to

which radical it
belongs.
If this is not manifest look for it in the list of words
called Kien tsi How to search for characters. > Time will

be saved by doing this in doubtful cases.

Neither in Kanghi nor in Morrison are the words clas-

sed except as to the number of strokes, and the radical they

belong to.

In consulting the dictionary the number of being

known strokes you can only look patiently from beginning

to end of that section which contains the number.

In Medhurst's dictionary time is saved by an alphabe-

tical arrangement under the strokes.

The word being found, it will be seen that Kanghi's

first information is on ancient forms of the characters. He

usually gives one or more as examples of the Kuwen.

These represent the Chinese written character as it was
20 APPENDIX C.

previous to B.C. 800, when the Ta Chwen or Lieu wen was

introduced.

The examples of Ku wen in common editions of that

work, are cut to suit the graving tool. They are not in fact

the true Ku wen, hut a Sung t'i or printer's shape of the

Ku wen. When compared with the old shapes on hells and

vases and on the old monuments, the want of likeness is

due to this cause.

It was Hii shu chung who, in the Shwo wen commen-

ced the practice of giving a specimen of the Ku wen. His

object was to place before his readers the facts as to the

oldest extant form of the characters, so that they may

judge for themselves as to the correctness, of his etymo-

logies.

The next point on which K'anghi gives information is

the sound of words. The old tonic dictionaries give to the

characters their contemporary, recognized sounds.

In the dictionaries of the Sung and Ming dynasty it,

became a habit to quote' some one of the spellings from the

old tonic dictionaries without saying which. This was

unscholaiiy and unsatisfactory because of the variety of

Chinese dialects and the regular process of change in the

sounds of the language.

K'anghis Dictionary has the merit <>('

commencing a
better system. This was caused by the researhces of Ku yen
wu of Kwun shan near Sucheu. He reprinted the Kwang
yun and arrived at more, e.onvrt views than any scholar
 APPENDIX C. *vl

had done before about the history of the changes of sounds in

the language. Under this new light the Peking commission

that compiled K'anghi's dictionary wisely resolved to change

the method of representing the spelling of old sounds. They

quote three or four authorities in an order determined hy
their age . Of these Kwang yiin and T'ang yiin are the most
valuable as representing the sounds in the oldest registered

form.

To become skilled in 'the reading of the sounds the

rhyming tables in the introduction to K'anghi must be stu-

died.

The letters A', I; ,

<j, n<j are distinct. So are t, I', d n
y

and p, p', b, m. S is distinct from z and s/i from z/i. There

is a strong and weak aspirate. W arid Fare pitched both

high and low. The letters f and ch had better be referred

back by the foreign student at once to the p and t series

from which they come.

Of the two sets of rhyming tables in the introduction

to K'anghi choose the older. The number of initials is here

lower. The sounds also are older.

The thirty six initials, found in K'anghi and several

older dictionaries, and based on the Sanscrit alphabet.

V5$ ' 31.1?

k n Throat -

Teeth.
>> APPENDIX G.

ch c h
Jff dj

# v,
b r, m Labial aspirates.

t's dz Dental sibilants.

fcflc*
^ Palatal sibilants.
(
ts )
^p c 'h <jj

Throat aspirates.
Vowel initials.

pj j Tongue and palate.

The throat aspirates are one pitched high, a strong

aspirate, and one pitched low, a weak aspirate. They are

separated in actual pronunciation in the old middle dialect

by about half an octave.

The vowel initials include , i, o, u, with w and y.

They are upper and lower and are separated also by about
half an octave.

Surds and aspirated surds are in the old middle dialect

pronounced in a high tone and sonants in a low tone. Ng,

n, ni, m are in the low tone as also l,j.

Thus eighteen initials belong to the upper pitch of
pronunciation and eighteen to the lower.
The palatals chl, che, dying, niatiy are derived from
the dentals twan, t'wan, ding, ni, by a process of change

which had just commenced when the Hindoo Buddhists

 APPENDIX ('., V;i

arranged, for Chinese use, the syllabic alphabet here given.

The /"series fei, fu, vung, vi had also recently begun
to appear when this alphabet was made. The reason that

we find two f columns is that the first is derived from ;;

and the second from p' aspirate Dialects known to the au-

thors of the alphabet contained both the old letters and the

new. Consequently two /"columns appear. The difference

is not in the quality of /",
but in the quality of the p from
which it sprang.
So with the two r columns. The former is from an
older m.
The ten sibilants are tsing, tsing, dzung, sin, zie,

chau, c'hwen, djong, shen, zhan.

These are in fact all expansions of the dental series,

but they appeared sufficiently distinct 1200 years ago to

demand a separate place.

The reason why ch occurs here a second time is that

in dialects known to the alphabet makers some words in

ch were in close connexion with t and others with ts*. It is

not necessary to suppose that there was more thau one ch

in any one dialect at one time.

* In
Peking tea is called c'Jia at present. In Tientsin it is called

ts'a. makers were now buisy at their work in Pe-

If the old alphabet

king, they would place cha on this account in the second ch column
from a belief that it is in its nature allied to ts. In Sucheu to the
present time words in the first ch column are pronunced with a very
soft ch, while words in the secund ch column are pronounced with ts.
'24 APPENDIX C.

The six remaining initials are hiau, hia, yiiig, ////,

lai, jl or strong h, weak h, high pitch vowel, low pitch

vowel, I andj.
All the vowels come under the two y columns. The di-

vision into two columns refers to high and low pitch. /? is

classed withj.

The two h columns really belong- to the guttural series,,

the I column to the dental and thej column to the ni divi-

sion of the dentals. The makers of the alphabet did not

however see their way to the recognition of this.

The first set of tables of rhymes represents imperfectly

the mandarin sounds. In the second set of tables of rhymes

there are 26 leaves.

I. In the first leaf !j\ ka, even tone njf ka, rising tone

gf ka, departing tone ^ kak, entering tone, form the first

group of four. They are intended to be pronounced accor-

ding to the old spelling. Then follow kia, kia, Ida, kiat;
kie ooo kiet, o o o kiet.

II. In the second leaf ^ kwa J^ kwa jjjl kwa :?]*

kwak are followed by JJ^ kwa Jjk kwa i)j[ kwa pi)

kwat, ooo itp.

There are two groups called kwa because in some
dialects words in the former of these two groups omit w,
while those in the latter never omit w, at least in the

dialects hold in view by the compilers of the tables.

^T A

III. In the third leaf )f keng, keng, kek are followed

by king, king, king, kik, and this last group is repeated, but
 APJ'KXDIX C.

with different characters. The reason of (his ivpcfitini] is

similar to that given for the second leaf.

IV. In the fourth leaf (pf kung, etc., kok, kiung, etc.,

kiok, are found.

V. In the fifth leaf J keng, etc., kek, king, etc.,

kik, are found.

These are distinguished from those in III from a d<><in-

felt hy the compilers to keep those words separate whirl i

were separate in the tonic dictionaries of

early timi's.
VI. In the sixth loaf |j^ kwak, kiung, etc.
kung, etc.,
VII.
r\
/& kung, etc., kok ^
1 1'

kiung, etc., kiok,

tsung, etc., tsok.

VIII. |5j pei TO poi 4b Pe^ lH ki, etc., kit, mei,

mek, tsi,tsek,etc.
IX. fjfl kwei, etc, kiuet, k'iut, etc.
X. g^ kai, etc., kat, kiai, etc., kiat, ki, etc., kit.

Here again the reason why the syllable ki occurs as in

VIII is that in the older tables certain words now having the
same sound wore separated. An attempt is made to keep
them apart in these modern lists, but it is not warranted by

existing dialects, so far as known.

XI. ij/l kwei, etc., kwat, kwai, etc., kiuet, kwei, etc/,

kiuet.

XII. J3[ ku, etc., kuk, jj- kii, kink, JL t'sia, etc.,

tsok.

XIII. ~f kan, etc., $| kat, JJK kien, etc., ^ kiet.

XIV. kwan, etc., kwat, kiuen, etc., kiuet.

it..
BAN-ZAI-SAU I
 APPENDIX C.

XV. L kam, etc., ]t kap $% kiern, etc., J/<J kiap.

XVI. ~p kan, S^ kiem, etc., JpTJ kiep.

XVII. JH ken, ^ kirn, etc., ^ kip, ^ shim, etei

XVIII. Jj| ken, etc., J kit, rfl kin, U kit.

XIX. J^l kwun, etc., ^* kut, ig kiiin, etc.,^kiiiet.

XX. JI kiang, jt kiak.

XXI. ||^ kang, kak, ^ kiang, ^ kiak.

^
-. * r
^_t^. yH>tfc

XXII. 7TQ kwang, ^|* kwak, shwang, etc., >hok

n.
XXIII. j^ kau, etc., ^ kak, ^ kiau, etc., U kiak.

XXIV. |^J keu, etc., kak, j[J kieu, etc., fflf kiak.

The extreme left column in each page contains the cha-

racters which mark the corresponding sections in the tonic

dictionaries.

These rhyming tables attempt to reconcile the old and

new pronunciations. They are therefore more useful to the

native than to the foreigner. The sounds they attempt to

express are midway betwen the pronunciation of the T'ang

dynasty and that of the present day.

The characters selected for insertion in these tables are

frequently made use of in the syllabic spelling of the dictio-

naries quoted by K'anghi.

After determining the sound, Kaiighi givf-s flip mean-

ings of the word, with f.xamplcs of \\< nso, d^sir-al and

modern.
 APPENDIX ('.. V<

The tones are four, viz. ^f-, r. ? i&> ,A ? P'ing,

shang, c'hii, ju.

The rule for the tone is that each word takes that of the

second word used in spelling it. Thus Hx is

spelled bai.
The words used in spelling it are fig ba -$
/f/{ >'.'.

mai. Ba mai =
bai. Bai is in the tone called c'hii sheng because mai is so.

Meanings and examples of use are then given. Often

the etymology proposed in the Shwo wen is cited.

In mentioning meanings the preference is

given to
those of the Shwo won and Er ya on account of their being

the oldest dictionaries. Then follow Kwang ya, Yii p'ien and
others.

In citing examples from books the classics appear first.

Then follow Gheu and Plan authors and those of later times.

When the regular history of a word is

complete, irre-

gular pronunciations and peculiar usages are treated in a

postscript to the article.

Examples of Syllabic spelling.

-f" tsi son j|f jjj| T'ang yiin {2|J M ^7 *' H

t'sie. To bo pronounced tsi.
'
bv the method of ifan
**
t'sie. in

the ascending tone, : , being in that tone ; j|| J| Tsi

yiin j|ij \\\ tsu si to be called tsi. In the same tone

-j-~ kie ,
alone Jif |^ Kwang yun %
kii lict. To be pronounced kit Tr. \\^\ Cheng yiin "^f jpj

ku set. To be pronounced ket, and in the entering tone or ju

sheng. Both these words are in the upper or surd series.

_ * - j* fnf 1

jjj*i
j._j j. y ^ri*
q^ tsi a character g^ gg T'ang yiin.
 AlTiLMHX G. 28

dzi clii. To be pronounced dzi, taking the sonant initial

of the first and the tone and final of the second. The initial

and final are both determined by the tonic dictionaries, but

the tables of initials and finals in Kaughi's dictionary will

serve to indicate them.

. t__^

Thus 27^ dzit is found on the 1 1 th leaf of the second

table with initial dz and final it.

^dzun. J|f |M 111 I? ^.According to the Tang

collection of rhymes to be called by the syllabic method
dzun. It occurs on the 20th leaf of the 2nd table of rhymes

under initial dz and final un.

^
;--f-*

pei. By the spelling in Ty ^

^ _|. rt~T'
bu M J; mei it is to

be pronounced bei. By the spelling in Kwy, Tsy, Yh it is

.
i
bei. Kh adds in a note that ^ has two different spellings

in Kwy, ff| Hj bei fjjj \fy hot, and four in Tsy, ~/J 7^:

pei $^ Rf bei fjf ]fy hot |f ^/ pot. Kh decides the

standard sound to be the first of the Kwy spellings. In this

he is of course wrong because final t has been dropped.

^ Meng, family name of Mencius, the elder, the

beginning. By Ty, Tsy, Yh, Ghy it is meng and is the same

in sound and tone as meng dream. Also Tp: j|[P mang
ii" "/
i^L ilz mang.
Jgi yin. In Ty ~\; g. yin. In the 2nd set of tables

it is under the lower y and is therefore in the r n

p'ing tone.

U t'sim, sleep. Spelled by Kwy, Tsy, Yh, Ghy

t'sim. It is on the I8th leaf of the second set of tables
 APPENDIX U. 29

under initial t's and final im. In the first set of tables it

occurs under initial ts and final /// .

jfjj hu the second character in the name of coral

shan hu.
.
f
In Ty ^ fe hu ngu, that is hu.

y% wei y
mi tail is to he read mi hy the con-
current testimony of four tonic dictionaries. Three old

forms of the character are given. It is formed of )r Shi

corpse and ^ Man hair. Sw. says it is
composed
of hair turned up at the end of a corpse.

g
j k

liai injure is to be called hai with the

weak aspirate. Since the w eak

r

aspirate flows out of g, it is

to be read gal , It is in the c'hii sheng. The Shwo wen

explains it to injure and analyses it as formed from ^~*
mien house and fj k'eu mouth, for,, he adds,
words come ont of houses. The four strokes in the middle

are, says Sw, phonetic. From this we learn that the oldest

form of the sound was gat.

p su, to be read, shut. Sw gives as the meaning to

finish catching birds, and as an explanation of the char-

acter above and below the head, kang, of the silk net,

are seen the pole and handle. Two pages of examples and

meanings follow.
fP tsang bury. In Ty, Tsy, Ghy JNJ ^ tse lang,
to be called tsang. Also in Tsy Jf* ^ dze lang to be

called dzang. Both these pronunciations are in the ^ t. ^dbr

J**

c'liii
sheng as will be found by referring to the 20th table

for lang. Another sound is in Ghy % J|P tsang in the

30 APPENDIX G.

jaj p'ingsheng. This last is based on the authority cited

in Kh of the commentary on the Han shu.

At the end of each article when the principal examples

have been all given Kh adds the word tseng which means

addenda. Here are appended old forms, varieties, and new

characters. The old forms are useful because a reference is

made to the new radical under which, by the changes of

modern writing, they are to be found. To be able to read the

Ghwen wen is very important both for philological res:arch

and because several valuable works have been printed in

it
during the present century.
The tonic dictionaries cited in Kanghi spread over
about 825 years. The following are their names and approx-

imate dates :

Yii p'ien 3 ^ Liang AD 550.

Kwang yiin, T'ang yiin J| f f| j|f ffj Tang 650.

Tsi yiin j| ff| Sung 1000.

Wuyintsiyiin ; it H |M Kin 1150.

Yiinhwei ff| ^ Yuen 1-350.

Hung wu cheng yiin Jit ^ IE IM Ming 1375.

In the earlier among these dictionaries the compilers

wrote as they spoke and the spelling can be relied upon.

From the Sung dynasty onward the old system of pron-

unciation was shaken and the compilers of the dictionaries

 APPENDIX C. 31

had no firm footing. They were often without a clue in

doubtful cases. They did not like to leave the authority of

the dictionaries that preceded and they dared not follow

their own pronunciation. The sounds as they pronounced

them themselves deviated too far from early models.

Hence, from the Tsi yiin and onwards there are several,

points, e, g, in regard to the final letters k, t, p, on which

we caunot feel satisfied that the compilers knew what they
were about.
Each dictionary spells words according to its own
system of initials and finals. In Kanghi the tables prefixed

cannot be supposed to indicate correctly the initials and

finals for all the pronunciations cited from the preceding
seven works. But generally the second set of tables will

serve the purpose in a certain rough rnauner.

This is specially true of the Tsi yiin, JH Q^. In the

time of this dictionary the final p and t were not disting-

uished and were one or both of them lost. Thus under R. foot

@ is spelled dap which is identified with dat. If final/? and t

had been in existence in the dialect spoken by the compilers

there would not be this identification. Ta great is phon-
etic here.
 APPENDIX D.

TWO POEMS.

From the following poems some conclusions may be

derived on the history of Chinese sounds.

The existence of rhyme as a poetical ornament in the

oldest Chinese literature was occasioned by the nature of

the language. In any national literature the poet would he

almost certain to seize on this ornament and adopt it, if

the words of the language were suitably constructed. The

suffixes attached to words in Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit pre-
vented the introduction of rhyme into those languages. It is

suited to Chinese because the roots have no suffixes, and

because they are mono syllabic.

The poems that follow, having, been written by those

who spoke as they wrote, can be depended on for what thoy
contain of information on the state of the language at the

time of their composition, and also for negative conclusions

founded on what they do not contain. This cannot be said of
 APPENDIX D.

modern poetry which is made by those whose rhymes,

unless they are southern men, widely differ from what they
are in their native mode of speech.

The word ]% feny rhymes in these poems with

words in m. We find in Kwaiig y tin that 1200 years ago
m was the final of several words in which this character

forms a phonetic element. It was therefore then called

ham. It occurs in the following poem in the Ta ya or third

great division of the Odes. Like the other poems of that col-

lection it was written under tiie Clieu emperors, and in the

time of Li wang B.C. 850. The affairs of state were then in

disorder and a poet uttered his grief in the following

manner :

m
 APPENDIX D.

Literal translation.

Like that (man) against wind.

Also greatly (suffix) pants.

People have ready mind

Obliged (to) say (we) cannot come (to anything effective)

Good is sowing, reaping.

Strength people for food

Sowing, reaping, alone valuable.

(To work) for food alone good.

Paraph rast ic rendering .

Against that hostile northern gale

The panting traveller's strength must fail.

Willingly would the people bring

Good words of wisdom to their king.

But, ah !
, they are compelled to say

The time to act is far away.

Doubtless 'tis better for me now

To seek the fields and delve and plough,

Eschew state service, and instead

Toil with the people for their bread.

Surely the nation's truest gain

Is found in fields of yellow grain.

I will no longer vainly grieve

But sow and reap that they may live.

 APPENDIX D. 35

Editions of the Sang dynasty insert in the text of each

ode or after the sections notes respecting the old sounds.

Since the pronunciation was in the time of those editors

very much broken up they conld see but indistinctly what

was the actual state of things so many centuries before.
When in the ode here translated they say hau good was
pronounced heu, chia house, grain ku, and yeu
have yl, we must not place very much reliance on tin MM.

They did not appreciate correctly the state of the langiui ;

when the syllabic spelling was invented, and were not able

to perceive the nature of the letter changes which had

taken place. We must take a wider recension of author-

ities and dialects than they were able to do. Much more
successful and intelligent investigators have followed Jthem

during the Ming and Tsing dynasties down to the present

time.

Lei it be noticed that in the ode translated the follow-

ing rhymes occur :

bam ai sik po
tarn tai zhik ho

From these four pairs of rhymes may be drawn the

following conclusions :

1. In B. G. 850 final m was fixed in the language.

2. Some words which have since acquired a final mj

then had m .

3 . Final k was then in the language and words which

36 APPENDIX D.

have since gone into different rhymes as se, /// were then

so pronounced that they rhymed well together.

4. Many words ending in vowels as the fourth pair ho,

po, have till the present time kept one rhyme while their

vowel has changed from o to au, by the insertion of a .

5. Three tones existed B. G. 850 and they are here

exemplified, llie first pair of words are in the ping shetig,

the second and third in \\IQJU sheng, and the fourth in the

shang shetig. Rhyming words keep the same tone through

each stanza.

6. The existing dialects which agree in final letters

most closely with the old classical pronunciation are those

of Canton, Swa tow, Tiechiu, Amoy and some in Kiang si.

The locality of old classical pronunciation as used in this

poem, was the hanks of the Yellow River to the south and
west of the great bend at the T'ung kwan.
The intermediate poetry enables us to acquire a know-

ledge of the process of change through which the language

was passing.
The final settlement of the rhymes was made in the

T'ang dynasty from 1000 to 1200 years ago. The system of

public examinations was then elaborated into almost its

modern completeness. At that time the final m was still in

the language. In the rhyming dictionaries its existence is

,-ihvays recognized.
The following poern of Su of the Tang dynasty will

illustrate this point.

 APPENDIX D. 37

?o m
45
'
-
38 APPENDIX D.

f Paraphrastic rendering .

To a lonely country home

Seeking holiday I come,

Cherishing while none intrude

Thonghts in love with solitude,

Mountain scenery fronts my door

And the Feng flows on before.

In its waters deep I see

Images of house and tree.

Downward bending each bamboo

Still looks fresh the winter through.

Bound my darkened cottage home

Long ere nightfall all is gloom.

Far from men in this retreat

Freed from busy cares I sit

Listening to the birds that sing

Hymns of welcome to the spring.

In restoring the sounds of the characters in the case

of poetry of the T'ang dynasty we have the help of the

Kwang yiin and other dictionaries. By the use of these

works we can approximate to the true old sound.

 APPENDIX D. 39

to these authorities the

By referring following conclu-
sions can be established.

1 . The sonant initials appear in the above poem as b

in bit, d in ding, g in gim, z in zik, dz in dza. We find

also the low pitched weak aspirate, symbolized by h as in
hsiu leisurely, and /iu, a door.

2. The modern j was then n as in nin man. The

modern initial w was then often ng as in ngwa outside,
or m as in mi, not yet. The modern c/i was often t as

in tek bamboo. The modern /"was often p.

3. The modern o, e, u, ie, an, iue were formerly a,
i or a, o, i, o, I and these are particular cases of a regular

process of change by which all the vowels have advanced

or retreated from one position to another in the graduated

scale of vowel pronunciation during the thousand years

that have elapsed since this poem was written.

4 . The finals m, k, t, p were in the T'ang dynasty, as

in the Gheu dynasty twelve or fourteen centuries earlier,

characteristic of th prevailing pronunciation. Thus in the
;>

translated poem the words sim heart, Urn grove

gim winged animals are there found to

yim dark,

together, just as they do in the poetry of the

clas-
rhyme
sics, whether in the Odes, the Book of Changes, or the Book

of Historv.
 APPENDIX E.

FANG YEN, AN ANCIENT WORK ON DIALECTS.

The auther of this work was Yang hiung B. C. 53

to A.D. 18. Kwop'umade annotations on it about A.D. 300.
113 ""^ \
'
*.-
It is cited in Kanghi as f^j -Jp /j pj Yang tsi fang

yen.
It assigns geographical boundaries to the use of particular
words. Thus ^ pen a drinking vessel of earthen ware
is a term used in the region west of the T'ung kwan for

yang employed elsewhere. Tung kwan here referred to is

the pass at the point where the three provinces Honan,

Shensi, Shansi, meet near the bend of the Yellow River.

The area of the Chinese language as defined by the

use of words given in this book embraced Shensi, Shansi,

Chili and Corea on the north, with Kiang su, Chekiang,

Kwei lin, Hunan, Si' c'hwen, on the south, with the inter-

vening regions.
\ The dialects were Ch'u 38, T'si ^, T'sin ^. Tsin
 APPENDIX E.

^f Yang J, Nan
,
C'hu M 7E or the southern C'hu, i. e.

Hu nan, Tung Tsi J^[ ^f , T'sing ^ ,

Stt ^, Kiang Hwai
vl Jit the region of the Kiang and Hwai rivers. The Wu
dialect ^, embracing Sucheu and Nanking. Liang i^
Yi *, in Sichwen, named by the emperor Han wu ti

B.C. 100 on account of its narrow passes, yik narrow.

Lu ,
in Shantung, Kwei lin fd: W the modern Kwang
si, Wu hu,, the five lakes ^L \ L C'hen P^, Sung -fc y

^, W ei ^f
T
Wei ]$, Ghau ,
Yen J^, Cheng f|P and
some others.
The regions known in the Han dynasty as p| jjjjx Nan
yuei.e. Canton and Cochin China, with Liang ^ in Si'

ch'wen, are spoken of as yielding the elephant and rhinoce-

ros, which probably means the tusks and teeth brought by

commerce.
Resemblances between the words in use in modern
dialects and those contained in the Shwo wen are rare to

find. The intervening time has been long enough to sweep

away, at all events, the most of the provincialisms of that

day,, and to spread over the whole country a more modern

type of the language.

Fang yen was secured by its

The preservation of the

authorship when that became known. Yang hiung was a

great scholar. The comment of Kwo p'u on the book fixed

its
reputation, as a genuine production of Yang hiung and
give it that important place in the national literature which
it has ever since filled.

BAN-ZAI-SAU ' 2 - 7s I iS
42 APPENDIX E.

In the Han shu, says, the Si' k'u, the name of this book

is not found, nor in any author of that dynasty. In the Tsin

shu the comment of Kwo p'u is mentioned in the Life of

that author. It is alluded to previously in the Feng su t'ung,

a work of the end of the Han period, which states that it

was the custom for the emperors of the Gheu and T'sin

dynasties to send envoys in carriages to inquire for the

words used in various regions. On returning these messen-

gers presented reports to the emperor which were preserved

in the house of archives, and afterwards scattered and lost.

A native of Shu named Yen kiiin p'ing collected more than

a thousand words used in dialects. Lin lii and Weng ju t'sai
made use of a method they called Keng kai chi fa general
list. This was highly thought of by Yang hiung and he
worked upon it for 27 years. During this time he diligently

inquired of persons in repute from every part of the coun-

try, military and civil. His book contained 9000 words.

The same author in his comment on the Han shu cites the

Fang yen as the work of Yang hiung.

The eighteenth century critics proceeding in their
account defend the book against charges of want of genuine-

ness brought by Sung dynasty authors, on the ground of

the improper use of characters.

They then add that the Sh wo wen borrows frequently

o Hiung and vet the words used are not found
from Yang *>
in

the Fang yen. At the same time many expressions occur in

the Shwo wen which are also found in the Fang yen. This
 APPENDIX E. 43

is as if at the time \vheri the Shwo wen was composed the

Fang yen was not known by that name, nor was the hook
now known as the Fang yen attributed at that time to

Yang Hiung. This accounts for the fact thet the great

critics Ma, Chang, etc., of that age make no allusion to it.

In the second century and near its end Ying shau, as

stated above, brought the book into open day by the refe-

rences he made to it. Sun yen and Tu yii refer to it soon

after, and Kwo p'u wrote comments upon it in the third

century. From this time forward it was known in literature

as Yang Hiung fang yen.

We now find instead of 9000 characters more than
12000 and thirteen chapters instead of fifteen. Kwo p'u
mentions fifteen as the number. The Sui and T'ang histories

make it thirteen.

There is a letter extant fram Yang hiung to Lieu yin in

which he states that he is collecting words, that the work is

most laborious, but if his friend will allow him time he will

ultimately complete it. This shews that Yang hiung had

this work in hand, that Lieu yin wished to borrow it, and
that it was not finished. It was consequently not entered in

the book list of the Han shu, nor inserted as a separate

chapter in that work.

The book fell into private hands and underwent va-
rious changes. It was suspected by some and altered by

others, especially in regard to the divisions into chapters.

But, say the critics, careful reseach did not permit

44 APPENDIX E.

them to doubt the genuineness of the work, and the name

of the author is therefore retained in the imperial edition.

They have followed the text preserved in the great collection

of the fifteenth century called Yung lo ta tien in restoring

to order and correctness the common editions of the work.

Kwo p'u the commentator wrote a preface which is still

preserved. After quoting the same old account above given

of the labours of the commissioners for collecting provincial

words in the third and preceding centuries before the

Christian era he says that he himself from his youth
loved studies in dialects and that this collection of archa-

isms and provincialisms had to him a pleasant flavour.

He therefore devoted time to its explication, correction,

and expansion, that those who came after might have addi-
tions made to their knowledge and intelligence. This pre-

face comes from are author who lived from A.D. 276 to 324

and was a native of Ho tung the modern Shantung.

The Fang yen was much used by the early lexicogra-

phers. In the Shwo wen, Kwang yiin, Kwang ya and Yu

p'ien its words are frequently found and in the second and
last its name mentioned.
Kwo p'u in his notes quotes the dictionaries Kwang
ya and Shwo wen. In the list of phonetics classified accor-

ding to finals will be found the sounds by Kp's spelling.

He was the first after the Kwang ya to use the syllabic

spelling.
 APPENDIX F.

BUDDHIST SACRED BOOKS.

A distinct source of information on the old pronun-

ciation of Chinese is found in the Buddhist sacred books.
The translations into Chinese of the Buddhist sacred

books originally composed in Sanscrit constitute a valua-

ble testimony to the contemporary sounds attached to the

Chinese characters. They were mostly made before that

great change in the language which has reduced the num-

ber of syllables capable of being pronounced by the Chi-

nese from upwards of seven hundred to a few more

than 400.

It was the habit of the Hindoo and Chinese transla-

tors of these books to transfer proper names, and also

some Sanscrit terms of great doctrinal importance, but for

which there were no satisfactory equivalents in Chinese.

Among such words are the following :

46 APPENDIX F.

j.
rJJL bo sat, p'u sa, Bodhisattwa.

%& Pi ba l a niun, p'o lo men Brahman.

barn, fan, Brahma.

?H Pi! 1$ -Mw mo ^ ""' da But. Nan

$ff P^F

wu Ngo mi t'o Fo. Namo Amida Buddha.

fH Ni wan, Nirvana.
j=a
g A bi dam, Ngo pi tan Abidharma.
mzb ^m bo di, San mian

san pu t'i, Samyaksambodhi.

In order to shew how the sounds of the Chinese

characters employed have changed since the Sanscrit

words were transcribed the old and new sounds are here

placed side by side with the corresponding Sanscrit

equivalents. Thus in the Chinese for Brahma now called

Fan we find in the Kwy and other old dictionaries bam,

and this is supported by the usage of the Hindoo transla-

ters. The proof is here quite valid. One branch of it
sup-

ports other branches. It is

clearly impossible that the Chi-
nese character f j|j fo can have been called Fo, at the

time when it was selected to represent Buddha*.

*
In Julien's work on the transcription of Sanscrit words in Chinese, the

modern mandarin sounds are tacitly assumed to be unchangeable and

unquestionable. The book is most valuable except on this point.
 APPENDIX F. 4 /

The character mio belongs to phonetic 949 a which

has the old sound mok. Probably then this character was
chosen because at the time final k was still pronounced at

the end of it.

 APPENDIX G

NOTES ON SOME SELECT CHARACTERS AND PARTS OF'

CHARACTERS.

1 . Shu 3ft shak bind occurs as the upper part of

sok f rope, and of ffjf /i, emperor. The lower
part of both the characters is descriptive of the material,
silk and cloth, employed in the manufacture of the objects

represented. The character for emperor was originally

used for a band or girdle, as may be deduced from the
character itself and the existence of the root sok bind

tai, tak, a band.

The same element in the form and in the sense occurs

in ^ p'ang, side. One of the meanings of the root pang

is to bind.

2. Sheu ^ shok 3C y eu duk i

(( hand ~jj cheu,
tok arm yjv c'hau, t'ok, claw ~fe yen aright hand
/r, tso left hand are all pictures of the hand or arm.
 APPENDIX G, 49

The hand as grasping or striking or turning over

occurs in ^ yen have j p'u, p'ok strike ^ chi, ti(t)

branch J^ fan to turn over. Two strokes crossing

each other represent a hand in all these cases and in 3c
shu, weapon.
Three strokes drawn horizontally with one down stroke

crossing them on the right represent a hand in ping ^

^
-f ^.y* ^ ,^
hold == sui broom c//ew, sweep -5- s/zz,

thing 5f| /zz^ pedal of a loom s/zw ,,

write

^ &ze/z together.
1 1
.

They may be assumed to be the hand in /^ keng

k'ang, in Jjfi yung, in T yin to lead ,
and in

kiiin, leader.

Thus in yung 720 we find the meaning bell IJj}, and

workman fjj, to both of which the action of the hand is

appropriate.
The forms j\ kung, and the upper part of
chun, spring ^ feng, offer with both hands ^
in a
tseu, present a memorial shung pound
mortar, always represent two hands.
, The old form of fu father probably consists
si of a hand and something with which blows are
inflicted. Fu is also a hatchet. The reason why
fu father was written with this character would be

identity in sound.
3. Chen \jji true consisting of hwa renovate, mu
eye, and kin hatchet, as before described, indicates
Il
B.VN-ZAl-SAU " 7 '
.>
,")() APPENDIX G.

that the inventors of characters were, when this one was

made, under the influence of Tauist doctrine, which

teaches that a true man is one who has become reno-

vated by meditation on stillness and purity.

The upper two strokes occur in \% hwa renovate,
jfls ._t__t .

_^ hwo goods 4 hwa flower. Flowers in their

metamorphoses indicate that they possess the power of

self renovation.

The effect of systems of thought on the formation of

characters may be seen in J kwei, the last of the cycle

of ten. Kwei means return to, come to an end. The Ku

wen form is found in the Tsan hwang monument :

8 o
4
Here Kwei is said to be a picture of water flowing to a

centre from the four quarters of the horizon. It was in

this way that the first inventors chose to indicate the place

of the last in a cycle of symbols. So thought the Shwo wen.

Another critic appears on the scene and overthrows this
explanation by suggesting that it is
simply two pieces of
wood crossing each other, and is no other than an ancient
implement used in levelling. This was called kwei and was
used by builders in reducing land to a level. The root is
 APPENDIX (i. 51

either connected with, K'wei to "

guess at, estimate, or
kjpei *
carpenter's square.
The Li shu adopted the form ^ where we easily
detect 4fc F'~i north and 7^ shi arrow. The north be-

longs to winter and kwei is applied to both. Both earth

and water then become smooth and flat, and can be easily
measured.
The preceding four characters in the Chwen wen are
takjn from a monument at Tsan hwang a small town

belonging to the department of Cheng ting fu in the metro-

politan province. It was found A.D. io53 upon the T'an

mountain close by, by an officer of the district, and was

removed to the office of the magistrate within the city for

safety. It belongs to the period, it is supposed, of the roth

century B.C. for it is mentioned in the account of the ex-

ploits of Mu wang of that time that he visited Tsan hwang

and offered sacrifices on the mountain of that name. Of
that sacrifice the inscription on this stone is believed to be

a record. The name fan means altar.

4. Pei J| is in page 80 written puft). Perhaps the
fact that in Kw it is used in ^ mau, mok instead of the

right hand part of that character, indicates that it was

anciently puk. For p changes to m. In Lw -~f pokwas
used as the right hand phonetic . It was anciently used for HJf

pai beat down. (This favours final /)

and jj( fu
carry on the back. (This favours final k.)
5 .
Very few of the ideographic signs are without pho-
52 APPENDIX G.

netic use. Thus the covers * ) yen have the force

.

dang, dom, meaning house as in the phonetics f*

,%t^ x
5 1 3 ^T 786. These sounds became modified by loss and

change mtoying as in 874 /(, yung as in 876 pf|, Urn as

in 878 Jj, Hem as in 875 Jf|.

Yet it is safer to view these as only ideographic. Thus

Urn granary Jf| lim curtain Jjj| take the covering

symbol because they have the idea of closing or covering.

Let it also be noted that the first of these covers is

found in \g. 879 tan where the old final is n. For some

phonetics are also ideographic. The same character may

be phonetic without being ideographic. Or it
may be
ideographic without being phonetic or it
may be both at

the same time.

6. ^ Tsang, bury. Si ^ " tne dead placed

between grass above and grass below. Sw. In the Kw
instead of the dead we find Q pe white doubled.
White being the colour of mourning, it is evident that the
inventors of the Chwen shu and Li shu have imitated the

primary thought of the first makers of the Ku wen.

 APPENDIX H.

THE STROKES OF CHINESE WRITING.

The strokes used in modern Chinese writing have been

arranged by Gallery in the following manner :

GHU KWAN

HWA KlUE

KEU Ti

FIE 9 X NA

Yi

Note that the proper name of 9 is rather Fu or Put,

and that 1 is also called tien or tim.

54 APPENDIX H.

Gallery gives the following varieties of these nine

ori-

ginal strokes :

-7

1 1 1 '!

These varieties of the strokes are here given as inter-

esting to the caligraphist rather than as important for Chi-

nese archaeology. They came into existence in conse-

quence of the qualities of the fine hair pencil used in wri-

ting the Kiai shu. The same is true of the nine primary

strokes.
 APPENDIX I.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

Bv. Bells and vases.

Civ. Ghwen wen. The seal character.

Hkm. Han Idem. Mirrors of the Han dynasty.

Hkn. Han kien. Tablet of the Han family.

Hyp. Hwa yii pei. Monument of the Hwa mountain.

Khk. Ku hiau king. Old copy of the book of Filial
piety.

Kmp. ^ ^0J Kung miau pei. Monument in the

temple of Confucius.
Kyp. \ 7^. ^P K'ungyiipei. Monument of Kung
yii.

K\v. Ku wen. Old forms of characters anterior to

the Lieu wen.

Ltp. Ling t'ai pei Inscription on the Ling terrace of

Wen wang.
Lw. Lieu wen. The character as modified B. G. 800

by a scholar named Lieu. The Ta chwen or great seal cha-

racter.
56 APPENDIX I.

Sc. Siau chwen. The small seal character.

Sw. Shwo wen. The dictionary of Hii shu chung.

Tshp. T'si heu pei. Monument of the Hen (noble of

second class) of the T'si kingdom.

 APPENDIX J.

RADICALS OF SHWO-WEN.

I
58 APPENDIX J.

Jt I-FH
it

Jit

III

Lfcl
ua
Wtf

U U

0Un e
IE

y
 APPENDIX J. 59

13

i
fi,
f
$JI*.

m
t * fl*
_.
f * If *

f A (R*
DO APPENDIX J.

IV
TT

6 B

I-

XX
XX T
 APPENDIX J. lii

fi

"*

BAN-ZA1-SAO J. 76
 APPENDIX J.

J5L

7T

7T

M
o
XI b)
*
XX

jjjTint

-it,
 APPENDIX J. 63

_ *

ft S
w t^t.

AA
^zn^ HI

e VI
64 APPENDIX .1.

m oo
ft*

I 4 VII

f* .

T OP
*

!f
*

Ok 66 BB
HAN-ZAI-SAU
66 APPENDIX .T.

r i

VIII

f
 APPENDIX J. 67

IX

n <*
68 APPENDIX J.

fe
*

FP

ill

in
rf
 APPENDIX J. 69

3- E

BAN-ZAt-SAU i. "fi ISO

70 APPENDIX .1.

tt
XI
ft*- IT

I **
*
^s
Jlft

(
I

(t
 APPENDIX J. 71

'
fr
\ I

mi

f n *

XII
 APPENDIX .1.

ft

XIII

s
 APPENDIX J. 73

IZ.

pcj
y
_.

XIV

f 4

BAN-ZAl-SAU 5. 76
APPENDIX J.

-7.
*

ft*
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

Cha 3 47

Chai
76 ALPHABETICAL INDEX
TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 7
78
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 79

1
80 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

Hujjft
82 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

~C 89 a, R. 84
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 83

669 B 349 b, R. 134

809 ^ 469

Kiun 98, R. 76 H 594 a

261 rfi R. 50

1 350 a Kin /p 99, R. 69

M, 366, R. 14 -4 110

M 407 478, R. 167

^t W ]
757

532 808 a

547 ^ 892

608 ||" 909

688 Kingfj 310

725 >R 397

946 5 713
fL

Jg 961

3j 1004 774 a

Kieu JL 10 863

16 920

44 Kio 317

346, R. 148

R. 179 581 a

325 J lf,R. 6
84
TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 85
86 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

811
257, R. 127

t 793 Liang 300

881 431

985 Lie 229

1037 a Lien 746

Leu 761 875

789 1008

Li R. 19 Lieu 298
yj 6,

673
jjf 128, R. 117

ppj R. 193

246 Lin IJJC 432

344 I 805

369, R. 166 878

462 182

rfc 423

^ 724 1040

736 Liuen W& 1024

f| 926 Lo 3 877

IS 970 M 1031

fi 993 Lu ^ 422

H 1026

Liau j 6 a 722, R. 198

 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS.
87

m
88 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

Mie j^
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS.
89

No P 333. See P'ai 269

188 Pan 181

50, R. 38

Nung H 925
Pang ^|J 339
Ngai 491

? 900 Pau 1G8

211
^578
Ngaiigfff 107 983

741

908 179, R. 10G

66 230

Ngo ^ 345 77 182 b

446 ift 473

603 Pel ^ R. 105

IS 819 138

M 994 367, R. 154

Pa A 13, R. !> 389

137 652

^869 149

Si 986 528

1036 197],

RAN-ZAI-SAU 4-
90 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

Peng J$ 460 m 812a

S^ 817 Pie y R 4

Peu $f 389 ^!) 371

Pi J 1 c Pien ~K 57

t H,R.21 91

IE 70 a R. 165

7E R. 103 185

ft 108, R. 81 666

132 I 573

170, R. 107 933

253 a M 1030

Pin ffn 262

^354
Pi S 498
*

878

498 a, R. 209 932

685 ,,. 1001

791 Ping ^ 129

871 /" R. 16

... 898 200

Piau ^ R. 190 133

$ 418 146
J~C 7Pi9
xPC '**/(, 368
f&i Qfi7
u JD ' 452
TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. (
J
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 93

Sung 7f
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

ii: 152
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 95

Ill 1^.

a 945
96 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

i 90b
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 97

Tsang
98 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

Tsiau ^
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 99

Tsung ^ 381
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

n
 TO THE RADICALS AND
PHONETICS. ilil

57 189
102 ALPHABETICAL INDEX

JIJ 670 a
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 103

647 I 327

U 703 606 a

Yiin 64 613

94 1-720
Yung 131 S 876

167 a, R. 101

/WVSXAAA/
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1. BALLADS AND POEMS FROM MANUSCRIPTS. Vol. I. Part I. On the
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Populi Vox Dei, A.D. 1547-8; The Ruyn" of a Ream'; The Image of
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by F. J. FUKNIVALL, M.A. Svo.

2. BALLADS FROM MANUSCRIPTS. Vol. II. Part I. The Poorfe Mans
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(1.) The firste, the fall and complaynte of Anthonie Babington, whoe, with
others, weare executed for highe treason in the feildes nere lyncolns Inne,
in the yeare of owr lorde 1586. (2.) The seconde contaynes
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the towre of london on ash-wensdaye mornynge, Anno 1601. (3.) The
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1869. First Series.
VIU. The Miller's, Reeve's, Cook's, and Gamelyn's Tales : Ellesmere MS.
IX. Hcnjjwrt
X. Cambridge
XI. Corpus
XII. Petworth
XIII. Lansdowne
These are separate issues of the 6-Text Chaucer's Canterbury Talcs, Part II.

1869. Second Series.

4. ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION, with especial reference to Shakspere and
Chaucer. By ALEXANDER J. ELLIS, F.R.S. Part II.
1870. First Series.
XIV. CANTERBURY TALES. Part II. The Miller's, Reeve's, and Cook's
Tales, with an Appendix of the Spurious Tale of Gamelyn, in Six
parallel Texts.
1870. Second Series.
5. ON EARLY ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION, with especial reference to Shak-
spere and Chaucer. By A. J. ELLIS, F.R.S., F.S.A. Part III. Illustrations
on the Pronunciation of xivth and xvith Centuries. Chaucer, Gower, "NVycliffe,
Spenser, Shakespere, Salesbury, Barcley, Hart, Bullokar, Gill. Pronouncing
Vocabulary.
1871. First Series.
XV. The Man of Law's, Shipman's, and Prioress's Tales, with Chaucer's own
Tale of Sir Thopas, in 6 parallel Texts from the MSS. above named,
and 10 coloured drawings of Tellers of Tales, after the originals in the
Ellesmere MS.
XVI. The Man of Law's Tale, &c., &c. : Ellesmere MS.
XVII. ,, ,, Cambridge ,,
XVIII. ,, ,, ,, Corpus
XIX. The Shipman's, Prioress's, and Man of Law's Tales, from the Petworth MS.
XX. The Man of Law's Tales, from the Lansdowne MS. (each with woodcuts
of fourteen drawings of Tellers of Tales in the Ellesmere MS.)
XXI. A Parallel-Text edition of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I.: 'The
Dethe of Blaunche the Duchesse,' from Thynne's ed. of 1532, the
Fairfax MS. 16, and Tanner MS. 34b' ; 'the compleynt to Pite,' 'the
Parlament of Foules,' and 'the Compleynt of Mars,' each from six MSS.
XXII. Supplementary Parallel-Texts of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I., con-
taining The Parlament of Foules,' from three MSS.
'

XXIII. Odd Texts of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I containing 1. two MS. ,
'
fragments of The Parlament of Foules
'
2. the two differing versions
;
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. 13

Chaucer Society's Publications continued.

The Prologue Legende of Good Women,' arranged so as to
'
of to the
show their differences 3. an Appendix of Poems attributed to Chaucer,
;

I. 'The Balade of Pitee by Chauciers;' n. 'The Cronycle made by

Chaucer,' both from MSS. written by Shirley, Chaucer's contemporary.
XXIV. A One-Text Print of Chaucer's Minor Poems, being the best Text from
the Parallel-Text Edition, Part I., containing: 1. The Dethe of
Blaunche the Duchesse; 2. The Compleynt to Pite 3. The Parlament
;

of Foules; 4. The Compleynt of Mars; 5. The ABC,

with its
original from De Guileville's Pel'rinage de la Vie humaine (edited
from the best Paris MSS. by M. Paul Meyer).
1871. Second Series,
6. TRIAL FOKE-WOKDS to Parallel-Text edition of Chaucer's Minor
my
Poems for the Chaucer Society (with a try to set Chaucer's Works in their right
order of Time). By FREDK. J. FURNIVALL. Parti. (This Part brings out,
for the first time, Chaucer's long early but hopeless love.)

1872. First Series.

XXV. Chaucer's Tale of Melibe, the Monk's, Nun's Priest's, Doctor's, Par-
doner's, Wife of Bath's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, in 6 parallel
Texts from the MSS. above named, and with the remaining 13 coloured
drawings of Tellers of Tales, after the originals in the Ellesmere MS.
XXVI. The Wife's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, from the Ellesmere MS., with
9 woodcuts of Tale-Tellers. (Part IV.)
XXVII. The Wife's, Friar's, Summoner's, Monk's, and Nun's Priest's Tales,
from the Hengwrt MS., with 23 woodcuts of the Tellers of the Tales.
(Part III.)
XXVIII. The Wife's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, from the Cambridge MS.,
with 9 woodcuts of Tale -Tellers. (Part IV.)
XXIX. A Treatise on the Astrolabe; otherwise called Bred and Mylk for
Children, addressed to his Son Lowys by Geoffrey Chaucer. Edited
by the Kev. WALTER W. SKEAT, M.A.
1872. Second Series.
7. ORIGINALS AND ANALOGUES of some of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.
Part 1. 1. The
original of the Man of Law's Tale of Constance, from the
French Chronicle of Nicholas Trivet, Arundel MS. 56, ab. 1340 A.D., collated
with the later copy, ab. 1400, in the National Library at Stockholm copied and
;

edited with a trnslation, by Mr. EDMUND BROCK. 2. The Tale of "Merelaus

the Emperor," from the Early-English version of the Gtsta Romanorum in Harl.
MS. 7333; and 3 Part of Matthew Paris's Vita Offa Primi, both stories,
illustrating incidents in the Man of Law's Tale. 4. Two French Fabliaux like
the Reeve's Tale. 5. Two Latin Stories like the Friar's Tale.

1873. First Series.

XXX. The Six-Text Canterbury Tales, Part V., containing the Clerk's and
Merchant's Tales.

1873. Second Series.

8. Albertauo of Brescia's Liber Consilii et Consolationis, A.D. 1246
(the Latin source of the French original of Chaucer's Mclibe), edited from the
MSS. bv Dr. THOR SUNDBY.
1874. First Series.
XXXI. The Six-Text, Part VI., containing the Squire's and Franklin's Tales.
XXXII. to XXXVI. Large Parts of the separate issues of the Six MSS.
1874. Second Series.
Words and
"Works, Part II. 3. John of
9. Essays on Chaucer, his :

Hoveden's Fractica Chilindri, edited from the MS. with a translation, by Mr.
14 Linguistic Publications of Trubner <f Co.,

Chaucer Society's Publications continued.

E. BROCK. 4. Chaucer's use of the final -e, by JOSEPH PAYNE, Esq. 5. Mrs.
E. Barrett-Browning on Chaucer being those parts of her review of the Book
:

of the Poets, 1842, which relate to him ; here reprinted by leave of Mr. Robert
Browning. 6. Professor Bernhard Ten-Brink's critical edition of Chaucer's
Compleynte to Pite.
1875. First Series.
XXXVIL, The Six-Text, Part VII., the Second Nun's, Canon's- Yeoman's, and
Manciple's Tales, with the Blank- Parson Link.
XXXVIII. to XLIII. Large Parts of the separate issues of the Six MSS. bringing
all up to the Parson's Tale.
XLIV. A detailed Comparison of the Troylns and Cryseyde with Boccaccio's
Filostrato, with a Translation of all Passages used by Chaucer, and
an Abstract of the Parts not used, by W. MICHAEL KOSSETTI, Esq.,
and with a print of the Troylus from the Harleian MS. 3943. Part I.
XLV., XLVI. Ryme-Index to the Ellesmere MS. of the Canterbury Tales,
by HENRY CROMIE, Esq., M.A. Both in Koyal 4to for the Six-Text,
and in 8vo. for the separate Ellesmere MS.
1875. Second Series.
10. Originals and Analogues of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Part II.
6. Alphonsus of Lincoln, a Story like the Prioress's Tale. 7. How Reynard

caught Chanticleer, the source of the Nun's -Priest's Tale. 8. Two Italian
Stories, and a Latin one, like the Pardoner's Tale. 9. The Tale of the Priest's
'
Bladder, a story like the Summoner's Talc, being Li dis de le Vescie a Prestre,'
par Jakes de Basiw. 10. Petrarch's Latin Tale of Griseldis (with Boccaccio's
Story from which it was re-told), the original of the Clerk's Tale. II. Five
Versions of a Pear-tree Story like that in the Merchant's Tale. 12. Four
Versions of The Life of Saint Cecilia, the original of the Second Nun's Tale.
11. Early English Pronunciation, with especial reference to Shak-
spere and Chaucer. By ALEXANDER J. ELLIS, Esq., F.R.S. Part IV.
12. Life Records of Chaucer. Part I., The Kobberies of Chaucer by
Richard Brerelay and others at Westminster, and at Hatcham, Surrey, on
Tuesday, Sept. 6, 1390, with some account of the Hobbers, from the Enrol-
ments in the Public Record Office. By WALFOKD D. SELBY, Esq., of the
Public Record Office.
13. THYNNE'S ANIMADVERSIONS (1599) ON SPEGHT'S Chaucer's Workes,
re-edited from the unique MS., by FKEDK. J. FURNIVALL, with fresh Lives of
William and Francis Thynne, and the only known fragment of The Pilgrim's
Tale.
Childers. A PALI-ENGLISH DICTIONARY:, with Sanskrit Equivalents,
and with numerous Quotations, Extracts, and References. Compiled by ROBERT
C^SAR CHILDERS, late of the Ceylon Civil Service. Imperial Hvo. Double
Columns. Part I. pp. 1-276. 24*. Part II., pp. 346. Complete in 1 Vol.,
pp. xxii. and 622, cloth. 1875. 3 3s.
The first Pali Dictionary ever published.
Childers. A PALI GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. By ROBERT C. CHILDERS.
In \ vol. 8vo. cloth. [In preparation.
Childers. NOTES ON THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. No. 1. On the
Formation of the Plural of Neuter Nouns. By It. C. CHILDERS. Demy 8vo.
sd., pp. 16. 1873. Is.

China Review; OR, NOTES AND QUERIES ON THE FAR EAST. Pub-
lished bi-monthly. Edited by N. B. DENNYS. 4to. Subscription, \ 10s.
per volume.
Chintamon. A COMMENTARY ON THE TEXT OE THE BHAGAVAD-GITA ;

or, the Discourse between Krishna and Arjuna of Divine Matters. A Sanscrit
Philosophical Poem. With a few Introductory Papers. By HURRYCHUND
CHINTAMON, Political Agent to H. H. the Guicowar Mulhar Rao Maharajah
of Baroda. Post 8vo. cloth, pp. 118. 6s.
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.G. 15

Christaller. A DICTIONARY, ENGLISH, TSHI, (ASANTE), AKRA ;

Tshi
(Chwee), comprising as dialects Akan (Asante, Ake'm, Akuape'm, etc.) and
Pante"; Akra (Accra), connected with Adangme Gold Coast, West Africa.
;

Enyiresi, Twi ne Nkran Ehlisi, Otsui ke Ga

I

-
nsem asekyere nhoma. - wiemoi - asisitSomu- wolo.
By the Rev. J. G. CHRISTAILER, Rev. C. W. LOCHER, Rev. J. ZIMMERMANN.
Itimo. 7s. 6<f.

Christaller. A GRAMMAR OF THE ASANTE AND FANTE LANGUAGE, called

Tshi (Chwee, Twi) based on the
:
Akuapem Dialect, with reference to the
other (Akan and Fante) Dialects. By Rev. J. G. CHRISTALLEK. 8vo. pp.
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:

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Coleridge. A GLOSSARIAL INDEX to the Printed English Literature of

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Conway. THE SACRED ANTHOLOGY. A

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Cunningham. THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA. I. The Buddhist

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;

Groups of Topes around Bhilsa. By Brev.-Majcr Alexander Cunningham,

xxxvi. 370,
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16 Linguistic Publications of Triibner $ Co.,

Cunningham. ABCH^OLOGICAL SURVEY OP INDIA. Four Reports,

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Dalton. DESCRIPTIVE ETHNOLOGY OF BENGAL. By EDWARD TCTTE

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D'Alwis. PALI TRANSLATIONS. Part First. By JAMES D'ALWIS,

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D'Alwis. A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF SANSKRIT, PALI, AND SINHALESE

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Delepierre. ESSAI HISTORIQUE EC BIBLIOGRAPHIQUE SITR LES REBUS.

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Dennys. A HANDBOOK OF THE CA.NTON VERNACULAR OF THE CHINESE

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Dinkard (The). The Original Pehlwi Text, the same transliterated

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Dohne. A ZULU-KAFIR DICTIONARY, etymologically explained, with

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Douglas. CHINESE-ENGLISH DICTIONARY OF THE VERNACULAR OR SPOKEN

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Dowson. A HINDUSTANI EXERCISE BOOK. Containing a Series of
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Early English Text Society's Publications. Subscription, one guinea

per annum.
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2. ARTHUR (about 1440 A.D.). Edited by F. J. FUBNIVALL, Esq.,
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3. ANE COMPENDIOUS AND BREUE TRACTATE CONCERNYNG YE OFFICE
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18 Linguistic Publications of Trubner <f Co.,

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56. THE GEST HYSTORIALE OF THE DESTRUCTION OF TROY, translated
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;
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 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.G. 27
ALPHABETICAL IXDEX.
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Chinese. Hieratic. OldSlavonic(orCyrillic). Tibetan.
Coptic. Hieroglyphics. Palmyrenian. Turkish.
Croato-Glagolitic. Hebrew. Persian. M'allachian.
Cufic. Hebrew (Archaic).
Persian Cuneiform. Wendish (or Serbian).
Cyrillic (or Old Slavonic). Hebrew (Rabbinical). Phoenician. Zend.

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