WHATEVER URBANISM

UD 718: THEORIES AND METHODS OF URBAN DESIGN

WINTER 2018 | TAUBMAN COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING
STUDENTS
Xuewei Chen, MUD+MURP
Olaia Chivite Amigo, MArch
Benny Cruz, MArch
Shane Donnelly, MArch+MUD
Kunheng Han, MUD
Samuel Kirchner, MUD
Seth Kopka, MArch
Bradley Kotrba. MURP
Stephen Daniel Magray, MArch
Kelsey Ryan, MUD
Dewi Kartika Tan, MURP
Matthew Weinberg, MArch
Junxi Wu, MUD
Jiushuai Zhang, MUD

INSTRUCTORS
María Arquero de Alarcón
Associate Professor of Architecture+Urban Planning. Director, Master ofUrban Design

McLain Clutter
Associate Professor of Architecture. Associate Dean of Academic Affairs and Academic Initiatives

© The Regents of the University of Michigan. All rights reserved

A. Alfred Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning
2000 Bonisteel Boulevard Ann Arbor 48109
www.taubmancollege.umich.edu

TAUBMAN COLLEGE
architecture+urban planning
University of Michigan

WHATEVER URBANISM
UD 718: THEORIES AND METHODS OF URBAN DESIGN
CONTENTS 04 Projects
06
Collective
Timeline Map

08
New/Lean
36
Tactical
64
Empirical
92
Post-Industrial
Urbanism Urbanism Urbanism Urbanism

120
Landscape /
160
Infrastructure
198
Smart City
Ecological Urbanism Urbanism
Urbanism

226
Social
256
Informal
284
Post-Colonial
Urbanism Urbanism Urbanism

312
Typological
340
Anthropocene/
368
Visionary
Urbanism Planetary / Urbanism
Hinterlands
Urbanism
URBANISMS COLLECTIVE TIMELINE

1800 1850 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 19

Lean / New [ City Modern

Cherry Hill Village

Tactical [
Times Square
Park(ing) Day

Empirical [
The Stripscape
Duck & Cover
Emscher Park
Post-Industrial [
30th Street Station
Freshkills Park
Landscape + Ecological [ Klyde Warren Park
Zeekracht
The Plastic Sea
Infrastructure + Network [ A Plan for Tokyo
Pearl River City

Smart City [ Kashiwa-no-ha

Masdar City

Social [
Superkilen
Pedestrianization

Informal [
Vila Nova Palestina
Chicoloapan
Old Town Jakarta
Post-Colonial [
Mill Village

Typological [
Penang Tropical City
21st Century Museum

Anthropocene [
Ijburg
Pacific Aquarium
Neck of the Moon
Visionary [ La Ville Radieuse
Broadacre City
Historical Events

Design
End of French
Revolution

WW1

CIAM

WW2

TEAM X

Moon Landing
Harvard Urban

A-4 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Berlin Wall 980
1985
1990
Oil Crisis
1995

Euro
2000

September 11
2005

Cases Timeline
Global Recession
Big Data Emerges
2010

A-5
2015
2020
 Masdar City Ruhr River Region Superkilen | Pedestr
Smart City Post-Industrial Social

Ville Radieuse Ijburg

Visionary Anthropocene

COLLECTIVE MAP Mill Village The Plastic Sea Zeekracht

Post-Colonial Infrastructure / Network Landscape/Ecologi

E
EEE
E
E

E
E
E

EE

21stC. Museum of
Penang Tropical City Contemporary Art City
Typological Typological

Old Town Jakarta A Plan for Tokyo

Post-Colonial Infrastructure / Network

Pearl River City Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City

Infrastructure / Network Smart City

A-6 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

rianization Duck & Cover
Empirical

Times Square Renovation Park(ing) Day Neck of the Moon

Tactical Tactical Visionary

Freshkills 30 st. Station Redevelopment Vila Nova Palestina

ical Landscape/Ecological Post-Industrial Informal

EE E
EE
E
E
E
E

Modern | Cherry Hill Village Pacific Aquarium

New / Lean Anthropocene

Broadacre City Chicoloapan de Juarez

Visionary Informal

The Stripscape Klyde Warren Park

Empirical Landscape / Ecological

Cases World Map A-7

NEW URBANISM

A-8 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

New Urbanism is a design movement that
emerged in the early 1990’s, largely in response
to the evacuation of urban cores, associated sub-
urban sprawl, and policies incentivizing both of
these phenomena that developed in the Amer-
ican context in the latter half of the twentieth
century. New Urbanism reasserts the validity
of traditional city structures and characteristics
such as walkability, density, connectivity, mixed-
use zoning, and aesthetics to build a more sus-
tainable future. Prevalent criticisms attack the
movement’s conservatism – arguing that New
Urbanism adheres to ostensibly “traditional” ur-
ban structures, reiterates the marginalization of
un-empowered groups and identities on the ba-
sis of race, class, and gender.

Cases World Map A-9

NEW URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

New Urbanism sprouted from planners and designers breaking with the
sprawl, traffic congestion, and disconnection of traditional American suburban
development. New Urbanist theory focuses on Traditional Neighborhood
Development (TND); a strategy that champions inclusion of “a variety of
housing types, a mixture of land uses, an active center, a walkable design
and often a transit option within a compact neighborhood scale area.”1 Neo-
Traditionalists and New Urbanists were not the first people to reject single-use
zoning, integrate varieties of housing types, and make public space prominent.
Instead, they were continuing ideas first theorized by proponents such as Jane
Jacobs, Lewis Mumford, Kevin Lynch, and Dolores Hayden.2
1. National League of Cities, “Traditional
In 1979 Robert and Darryl Davis, in conjunction with architects Andres Duany Neighborhood Development,” March 7, 2017,
and Elizabeth Platers-Zyberk, began planning and designing the Florida coastal https://www.nlc.org/resource/traditional-
community of Seaside. The Neo-Traditional planning and design project was neighborhood-development.
one of the first widely publicized realizations of traditional neighborhood design
in America. Seaside is an entirely private development. This gave the developers 2. Emily Talen, “New Urbanism and the Culture
a complete tabula rasa on which to write their own zoning codes and design of Criticism,” Urban Geography 21, no. 4 (2013):
standards independent of the city’s application and site review processes. 318-341, doi: 10.2747/0272-3638.21.4.318.

As Neo-Traditionalism advanced through the 1980s it evolved into New

Urbanism by the 1990s. Throughout New Urbanism’s history, its proponents have
attempted to display its flexibility by establishing New Urbanist developments
both in pre-existing urban neighborhoods and as standalone, ground-up
communities. Their stress on walkable neighborhoods, options for public transit,
and the integration of multiple land-uses at the neighborhood level provides an
alternative to the suburban sprawl that has shaped America since the 1940s.

A-10 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure NU_01. Seaside, Florida Source: Tribou R. Seaside, Florida. Orlando, Florida: Orlando Sentinel; 2017.

New Urbanism A-11

Figure NU_02-09. Left to right from top. Seaside, Florida, Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zybrek (creators of Seaside, Kentlands, Oluwalu Town,
Hendrix) Kentalnds, Maryland, Laguna Hills, California, 1st Congress of the New Urbanism, Hendrix, Arizona, Oluwalu Town, Hawaii, Peter Calthorpe
(creator of Laguna Hills, California).

A-12 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

New Urbanism A-13
LINEAGE

New Urbanism is rooted in movements such as “City Beautiful” and “Garden

Cities”. The City Beautiful movement stressed the importance of locations such
as coastlines, harbors, rivers, and grand vistas overlooking striking natural features.
They also focused on organizing around town squares, civic malls, and public
parks, arguing that these were ideal features that had been neglected by the rapid
expansion of overcrowded global industrial cities.3 Ebenezer Howard, a court
stenographer, was not trained as a planner or designer, but instead witnessed the
ill effects that congested and polluted cities had on society. Howard’s solution was
to develop new communities that were organized around a variety of land uses
that ranged from agricultural and industrial to residential and civic spaces.

In 1909, the British sociologist, Sir Patrick Geddes, developed the Valley Section.
He was one of the first people to propose that settlement patterns should be
related to the characteristics of specific regions. This later developed into the
regional transect. The Transect organized regions based on their density, from
the least dense rural regions, to the densest urban centers. Each region within
that gradient maintains a variety of land uses and building types that compose the Figure NU_10. Charter of the New Urbanism
region’s character. The appeal of both City Beautiful and Garden City were their (1999), Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design with
simplification of the settlement types within often unorganized and illegible cities. Nature (2008), The New Transit Town (2004).

The first American suburban developments began as small exurban hamlets or

planned residential communities, often close to urban boundaries and accessible
by trolley car or a short train ride. After World War II, sprawl expanded at
unprecedented scales. The mundane mass-produced lifestyle, as well as the
resources that these developments consumed began to wear on the American 3. William Fulton, The New Urbanism: Hope or
psyche as well as its cities and towns. Planners and designers began to look for Hype for American Communities? (Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Library, 1996).
new organizations that were less taxing on the built and natural environment.
Developments like Seaside, Florida received public attention as an attractive
4. Ibid.
alternative to the traditional suburb.4 Mixed-use neighborhood and land-use
development was revived and evolved into New Urbanism, a trend that cities
and towns have continued to explore as a viable planning alternative to suburban
development.

A-14 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

CRITIQUE

New Urbanism is often criticized in both the scholarly and practical worlds.
The first major argument against New Urbanism is that it assumes that superior
design can create a good community. Communities cannot (or should not) be
designed all at once as the vision of a designer or planner, but should instead
develop over time. There are many factors that change and evolve over time that
are independent of design. A self-declared better design does not change the
other systems that affect the ways in which society interacts with itself. This is
a similar issue that the City Beautiful movement faced in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. Building well-designed public spaces didn’t fix the overcrowding,
class and racial segregation, poor conditions, and systematic issues that plagued
American cities at the time.

Another critique of the New Urbanist doctrine is related to its self-proclaimed

egalitarianism. Enclaves such as Seaside are homogeneous in nature. The careful
planning and design of its custom buildings, parks, and shaded streets have
created a commodity that is visually appealing. This appeal commands a high
price so that residents tend to be wealthy, non-minorities who have lots of leisure
time to spend in the new community’s amenity facilities. Through the self-
control of architectural and planning codes, New Urbanism is manipulating and
oppressing. Finally, many argue that developers have created a banality in which
historical imagery is painted on to create a sense of place, when in fact, it isn’t
historical at all.

New Urbanism A-15

 +

CITY MODERN
DETROIT, USA

City Modern is a Brush Park

Development Partners revitalization
project in Detroit by Bedrock Detroit
and Hamilton Anderson Associates.
This community development unites
Brush Park’s historic lineage with
integration of modern design and
urban living that emphasizes inclusive
design, walk-ability, and multi-
modal transportation. Brush Park is
situated to serve as an innovative link
between Downtown and Midtown by
establishing a sustainable, walkable
environment for a diverse community.

A-16 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure NU_11. View of the Mews, landscape park between residential houses
 CITY MODERN
Location Detroit, USA

Year(s) 2020

Status In progress

Footprint 8.4 acres

Designer Hamilton Anderson Associates (HAA), Hunter Pasteur Homes,

Christian Hurttienne Architects (CHA), Merge Architects,

Studio Dwell, and Lorcan O’Herlihy Architects (LOHA)

Additional Agents Bedrock LLC (Developer)

Key Project Components Residential (Single Family & Multi Family Residential )& Retail

Program(s) Urban Infill Building

Landscape and Architecture

Funding Streams Private

Additional Items Walkable Neighborhood

Multi-modal transportation neighborhood

A-18 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space Park
0 100 ft
25 m Water

New Urbanism A-19

TRANSECT

0 20 feet
6m

Figure NU_12-14. Renderings of City Modern in Detroit.

A-20 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

New Urbanism A-21
AGENTS

Buyers & Renters

Chase JP Morgan

FUND SOURCES

Hamilton Anderson Associates

Hunter Pasteur Homes
Christian Hurttienne Architects CITY OF DETROIT Public
Merge Architects COLLABORATORS CITY MODERN CENTER INTENDED USER
Residents
Studio Dwell BEDROCK LLC
Lorcan O’Herlihy Architects
Q-line Detroit
LEADING ORGANIZATION

ULI Urban Open Space Award

Texas Society of Architects Honor Award
Federal Highway Administration
Environmental Excellence Award

AWARDS

PROCESS 2000 2005 2008 2009 2010

CITY MODERN

A-22 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Design Concept & Development Construction began Target Completion

New Urbanism A-23

 +

CHERRY HILL
VILLAGE
CANTON, USA

Cherry Hill Village is a mixed-use

development project located at the
intersection of Cherry Hill and Ridge
Roads in Canton Township, Michigan. It
was developed based on New Urbanist
principles throughout the 1990s,
as a feature of Canton Township’s
updated master plan. Cherry Hill
Village was developed through a
collaborative effort between master
developer Baltimore Development,
LMK Architects, township officials,
and township residents. This New
Urbanist development is centered
around a 400 seat performing arts
center and community facility. It
incorporates commercial space, single-
family housing, and multi-family
condominiums and apartments.

A-26 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure NU_15. Aerial view of Cherry Hills Village in Canton, USA.
 CHERRY HILL VILLAGE
Location Canton, USA

Year(s) 1998 - present

Status In progress

Footprint 460 acres

Designer Looney Ricks Kiss Architects & Planners

Additional Agents Baltimore Development, Breault Homes, Livonia Builders

Key Project Components Mixed-Use New Urbanist Development containing

931 single-family homes, 360 townhouses/condominiums, 600 rental Apartments,

216,000 square feet of total commercial space, 26,000 square feet of civic space, a
400-seat community theater, a firehouse and elementary school.

Program(s) Residential (Single Family house & Multi Family House)

Civic space, Elementary School, and Theatre

Funding Streams Total Project Cost $400 million in private funds

A-28 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space Park
0 0.2 m
0.2 km Water

New Urbanism A-29

TRANSECT

COMMERCIAL SIDEWALK BUS DROP OFF &

RETAIL PICKUP AREA
STOP

0 20 feet
5m

Figure NU_16-19. Views of Cherry Hill Village.

A-30 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

PLATING 2 WAY ROAD SIDEWALK
MULTI FAMILY
STRIP
HOUSE

New Urbanism A-31

AGENTS

Buyers & Renters

$400 million in Private Resources

FUND SOURCES

Looney Rick Kiss (LRK) Architects The Woodall Rodgers

Biltmore Development COLLABORATORS INTENDED USER Public
Park Foundation
Breault Homes Residents
Livonia Builders The City of Dallas

LEADING ORGANIZATION

Canton Township
Board of Supervisors, Planning
Department & Planning Commission

INVOLVED INSTITUTIONS

PROCESS 1990 1995 2000

CHERRY HILL VILLAGE

Project proposed Phase One Phase O

& approved and Phase and Phase T
Two begin comp
construction

A-32 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

2005 2010 2015 2020

One Phase Three Phase Three completed. Phases Four through Phase
Two begins Adjoining 122 acres purchased Seven developed, Eight in
plete for further development. – Breault Homes and process
Approval received to increase Livonia Builders joins
residential development density project development for
remaining residential
construction and land
development

New Urbanism A-33

TACTICAL URBANISM

A-36 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

A catalog of tools to retrofit the built environ-
ment through quick, temporary, inexpensive and
easily scalable urban interventions, the term as-
pires to long-term impacts and policy reform
often operating at the neighborhood scale. De-
spite its popularity as a DIY toolset empowering
residents to revitalize long-term distressed urban
areas, Tactical Urbanism has also garnered crit-
icism as a machine of soft gentrification that is
not sufficiently inclusive and strategic.

New Urbanism A-37

TACTICAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Tactical Urbanism is an approach to the activation of neighborhoods

using short-term, low-cost, and scalable interventions. Tactical Urbanism
is used by a range of actors, including governments, businesses and
nonprofits, citizen groups, and individuals. It makes use of open and
iterative development processes, the efficient use of resources, and the
creative potential unleashed by social interaction.1

This definition, given by Andres Duany in Mike Lydon’s well-curated literature,

builds upon Merriam-Webster’s definition of tactical as “of/or relating to small-
scale actions serving a larger purpose” or “adroit in planning or maneuvering to
accomplish a purpose,” while alluding to a larger radical strategy for development
that is itself a critique of conventional practices. Although projects that are
defined as Tactical Urbanism may vary by source, interventions are always nimble
and opportunistic. In stark contrast to traditional top-down planning, they begin
from the bottom-up while still aiming to effect long-term change.

Tactical Urbanism has three consistent characteristics: short-term (and often

ephemeral) implementation, scarce resources, and citizen involvement. These 1. Quoted from Andres Duany in Mike Lydon
methods represent Tactical Urbanism’s rejection of conventional planning and Anthony Garcia, Tactical Urbanism: Short-
processes. The circumstances of the early 21st century placed significant restraints Term Action for Long-Term Change, (Washington,
on the conventional city-building process in the United States, which had become DC: Island Press/Center for Resource
inefficient. Tactical Urbanism emerged as an alternative, capable of bypassing the Economics, 2015), 2.
gridlock of outdated and bureaucratic traditional planning.

The ideological “push back” against conventional planning has led to the
conception of many Tactical Urbanism projects that are or were initially
unsanctioned. Many Tactical Urbanism projects showed clear potential as
alternative (and often preferable) city programming, which governments have
since adapted or implemented permanently. Park(ing) Day, for example, began
as an unsanctioned urban experiment, and has since been adopted as a holiday
by cities around the world. These collective successes are proof that short-term
action can, in fact, create long-term change.

A-38 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure TU_01. An example of the Better Block project in Dallas, Texas from nextcity.org.

Tactical Urbanism A-39

Figure TU_02-08. Images from Lydon and Garcia’s Tactical Urbanism.

Tactical Urbanism has many applications, and when initiated by citizens, it allows 2. Quoted in Lydon and Garcia, Tactical
“immediate reclamation, redesign, or reprogramming of public space.”2 While the Urbanism, 3.
concept of small-scale intervention for long-term change was arguably conceived
as a strategy for informal employment by everyday citizens, it has recently been
adapted for a variety of other uses and agendas. For example, developers can
implement Tactical Urbanism as a tool to test projects before making long-term
investments. Additionally, governments have made use of tactical urbanism as a
tool for public engagement during the planning process. Thus, the adoption of
Tactical Urbanism by these entities has shown the potential to redefine public
perception of top-down and bottom-up city building processes.

A-40 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Tactical Urbanism A-41
LINEAGE

While the term “Tactical Urbanism” is fairly new, its ideas, devices, and related
library of projects are not. Conceptually, “the inherent tension between the
government and the governed is as old as cities themselves.”3

Perhaps the most relevant historical context for Tactical Urbanism as it has
recently been defined was the economic recession in the United States in the first
decade of the 21st century. At this time, a vacuum of conventional commissions
for projects inspired designers and artists to pursue strategies for inventive
thinking. These designers were inspired by groups such as the Green Guerillas in
the 1970s, as well as practitioners who created DIY-esque urban projects during
earlier recessions, such as Gordon Matta-Clark. Many of the resulting projects
were more polemic than practical, and challenged conventional practice. More
often than not, they were motivated by a grassroots activism and driven by local
issues and needs.

A critical mass of these collective efforts was recognized soon afterward, and the
public perception of these activities shifted from purely unsanctioned, political,
and artistic, toward practical bottom-up activism. Rather than being deployed
by artists alone, average citizens, planners, government officials, and developers Figure TU_09. Volumes of Tactical Urbanism,
alike recognized these strategies as necessary toward effecting long-term change. several of which have been written specifically
The identification of these small-scale efforts as a larger idea led to the discovery for foreign countries.
of Tactical Urbanism as an effective learned response to the gridlock of
3. Quoted in Lydon and Garcia, Tactical
conventional but outdated planning policies and initiatives. Urbanism, 21.

A-42 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

CRITIQUE

Tactical Urbanism is considered a flexible approach towards urbanism that is less

prescribed than traditional processes of urbanization. Its more free-for-all system
of approach is energizing and fresh, but for all of its successes, it comes with
some fundamental flaws. Its major criticism can be broken down into three parts:
1. Effectiveness
2. Soft Gentrification
3. Inclusiveness

The effectiveness of Tactical Urbanism has been called into question on multiple
occasions. Typical projects do not last more than a few months, and while their
ephemeral nature is intentional, they do not often make a lasting impact or true
change of the urban environment’s identity. Although Tactical Urbanism can
become a long-term response, rarely do any projects lead to permanent changes
of the urban fabric.

At this moment, Tactical Urbanism refers to a process of implementing some

barriers or objects in middle- to upper-class environments. It is touted as a way
to improve all types of cities, but rather only slightly alters more formally well-
established cities. The strategies used only work on prospering cities, and when
applied to a lesser area, gentrification comes into play. Tactical Urbanism has yet
find a way to adapt to a variety of city types, and continues to focus on projects
without considering the wants and needs of the locals, which can lead to eventual
gentrification.

Tactical Urbanism is, as of now, only viewed through the lens of Western society.
Not only is Tactical Urbanism hard to find anywhere else in the world, but even
within the US it is mostly unknown. The places and people that engage in Tactical
Urbanism are not the same as those impacted by Tactical Urbanism. This includes
lower-class communities, older generations, and foreigners. Many times, these
projects exclude residents and the larger community. They are run by a few with
little regard for the whole; continuously locating Tactical Urbanism projects in
wealthy cities in the developed world.

Tactical Urbanism A-43

 +

TIMES SQUARE
RENOVATION
NEW YORK CITY, USA

Times Square has always been

considered a central hub of New
York City. Being at the cross-roads
of Broadway and 7th Avenue, the
area is highly active, both by car and
by pedestrian. The conflict between
pedestrian and car showed the need
for change. By closing Broadway to
cars at Times and Herald squares, they
restored the right angles of the traffic
grid. Along Seventh Avenue in Times
Square, the street was reconfigured
with a fourth driving lane. Clearer
signaling and simplified intersections
created safer crosswalks. Pedestrians
had fewer lanes to cross and wouldn’t
have to guess where the next car was
coming from. In the process of fixing
the grid for better traffic management,
removing vehicles from Broadway
created vast tracts of new pedestrian
space for the 82% of people in Times
Square who walked. Pedestrians could
safely stop, snap pictures, and take in
the city without creating gridlock.

A-44 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure TU_10. Snohetta redesign of Times Square New York.
 TIMES SQUARE RENOVATION
Location New York City, USA

Year(s) 2013 - 2016

Status In progress

Footprint 13 acres

Designer Snohetta

Additional Agents New York City DOT, Private Land Owners, NYC Mayor’s Office

Key Project Components Close down Broadway in Times Square to create more pedestrian walkways and
reduce traffic incidents

Program(s) Pedestrian Walkway

Funding Streams Public Funding

A-46 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 360 ft
180 m Water

Tactical Urbanism A-47

TRANSECT

8TH AVE

Figure TU_11-15. Photos of Times Square.

A-48 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

TIMES SQUARE

Tactical Urbanism A-49

AGENTS

Public Funds

FUND SOURCES

Design and City Officials:

Snohetla CITY OF NEW YORK INTENDED USER NYC Residents + Tourists
COLLABORATORS
New York Dot NEW YORK DEPARTMENT OF
New 42 Street Property Owners TRANSPORTATION
Mayor Bloomberg’s Office

LEADING ORGANIZATION

PROCESS 1970 1980 1985 1990 199

TIMES SQUARE RENOVATION

Initial concept of Times Square

rejuvenation

A-50 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Folding Chairs Tables and Umbrellas Stone Seating

Planters Traffic Cones Stone Pylons

95 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Project proposal for a Pilot Program Initiated: Snohetta Completion

redevelopment of the Times Green Light for Midtown selected
Square midtown area for redesign Construction
begins

Tactical Urbanism A-51

 +

PARK(ING) DAY
PHILADELPHIA, USA

In San Francisco in 2005, Park(ing)

Day was conceived as a prototype for
open-source urban design at the level
of the ordinary citizen. It has since
been adopted annually by hundreds
of cities in dozens of countries
worldwide, with notable examples such
as its well-documented celebration
in Philadelphia. It challenges the
presence and necessity of ubiquitous
metered parking spaces in urban spaces
by proposing endless alternatives
that produce and allow for creative,
political, and cultural expression.
While each installation is temporary,
and often quite simply constructed,
they often have lasting effects in their
contexts, and are collectively shifting
the perception of the urban street.

A-54 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure TU_16. In some cities, such as this one, Park(ing) Day envelops entire streets.
 PARK(ING) DAY
Location Philadelphia, USA

Year(s) 2005 - present

Status Ephemeral

Footprint Dynamic; various parking lots per city’s regulations

Designer Various

Additional Agents Local parking authority

Other government entities

Key Project Components Temporary interventions

Program(s) Parks / Recreation

Local Business

Tourism

Funding Streams Public and private

A-56 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space Park(ing) Day Locations
0 500 ft
100 m Water

Tactical Urbanism A-57

TRANSECT

REGULARLY USED PARKING SPACES PARK(ING) DAY INSTALLATION

Figure TU_17-21. Various temporary Park(ing) Day installations.

A-58 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

REGULARLY USED PARKING SPACES

Tactical Urbanism A-59

AGENTS

Architecture / Design Firms

Various Universities
Various Institutions

FUND SOURCES

Philadelphia Parking Authority

AIA Philadelphia COLLABORATORS Public
PHILADELPHIA CENTER FOR INTENDED USER
Community Design Collaborative Residents | Students | Tourists
Charter High School for ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN
Architecture & Design

LEADING ORGANIZATION

Rebar’s 2005 temporary park

Initiative in San Francisco

PRECEDENTS

PROCESS 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990 1

PARK(ING) DAY

Green Guerillas use

unsanctioned community
gardening as a tool to
reclaim urban land in New
York City

A-60 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Potted Plants Movable Chairs Traffic Cones

Artificial Turf Makeshift Bench Construction Barrier

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Art and design studio Park(ing) Day is first

Rebar converts a parking presented in Philadelphia
space in San Francisco to
a temporary park to raise
awareness of the necessity
for green space in urban
environments

Tactical Urbanism A-61

EMPIRICAL URBANISM

A-64 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Empirical Urbanism reflects a commitment to
design within the constraints and conditions of
the city as-found. A pragmatic school of thought,
Empirical Urbanists work within the political
economy of the capitalist city by “rejiggering”
the system to produce novel and less contentious
results. Empirical Urbanism could be contrasted
to visionary, utopian, or totalitarian urban design
practices that are precedent on the tabula rasa –
the complete erasure of existing contexts – or
the top-down projection of ideologically moti-
vated urban design.

Tactical Urbanism A-65

EMPIRICAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Empirical Urbanism is an analytical/observational approach to defining the

qualities of the city in order to generate new design interventions within the
city as-found. This type of urbanism emphasizes the analysis of complex
geographic, socioeconomic, morphological, and historical dimensions of
urbanism as preconditions to design intervention. Empirical Urbanism allows
one to instigate novel urban practices that work within existing city systems.1 As
explained in the After Empirical Urbanism Symposium, “through systematic analysis
and documentation, Empirical Urbanism provides a framework for revealing the
sometimes ‘hidden’ philosophical assumptions and design alibis among a diverse
group of urban theories and practices that, while often thought to represent
opposing ideologies, share an empirical approach.”2 Through this sensibility, 1. Maria Arquero de Alarcon and McLain
Empirical Urbanism promotes the study of cities through experimentation and Clutter, “Empirical Urbanism,” Theories and
Methods of Urban Design Lecture (University of
observation to acquire a holistic awareness of a complex system. It calls for
Michigan, 2018).
architects and urbanists to be aware of the complexity of cities and to analyze
the city as-found before intervening. Empirical Urbanism praises projects that
generate an understanding of the city’s context, focusing more on how we can 2. Richard Sommer, Michael Piper, Ultan
understand the city rather than change it. Byrne, Roberto Damiani, and Mauricio Quiros,
“After Empirical Urbanism Symposium,”
Empirical Urbanism is a response to the modernist top-down approach of the Cargo Collective, University of Toronto,
February 27, 2015, http://cargocollective.com/
latter half of the 20th century. As urban design emerged as a practice, and new afterempiricalurbanism/Description.
approaches towards urbanism were adopted, designers introduced empirical bases
to support their work. As Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter’s Collage City reflected
on new ways in which cities could be understood, Empirical Urbanism sought 3. Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter, Collage City
to reposition urbanist ideals behind emerging forms of statistical and visual (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983).
analysis. As a response to Modernist planning, Rowe and Koetter analyzed and
criticized different methodologies of urbanization and proposed “Collage City.”
In “Collage City” they layered examples of existing city conditions that would
speak to the utopia of modernism while keeping an ad hoc quality of cities. By
doing so, they would generate new ways to read the city from its own fragments.3
The composite city would represent a variety of different contexts, little utopias,
and laissez fare interventions in order to form new readings from these borrowed
fragments.

A-66 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure EU_01. Las Vegas Strip showing every written word seen from the road. Photo Credit: Venturi, Scott Brown & Izenour, Learning from Las Vegas.

Empirical Urbanism A-67

Figure EU_02-06. Top: Images from Learning from Vegas Book. Bottom Left: Images from Koolhaas’ Mutations, Right: Atelier Bow Wow’s Made in Tokyo.

The emergence of these analytical practices soon reverberated among the

architecture community. Practitioners like Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown,
and Steven Izenour urged new movements of learning from the existing
landscape, questioning how architects and designers may begin to look at
cities. Venturi, Scott Brown, and Izenour analyzed the city of Las Vegas as a
phenomenon of communication and compiled their series of analytical diagrams
and observational studies in Learning from Las Vegas. Throughout the book, they
attempt to move architectural practices away from acting as “authoritarian”

A-68 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

4. Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, figures delivering urban renewal and new development (a product of modernism),
and Steven Izenour, Learning from Las Vegas: and instead towards analyzing existing American urbanism as a socially desirable
The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977).
activity.4 They proceed to analyze Las Vegas’ capitalistic reality through a series of
diagrams and images, creating a taxonomy of the city’s forms, signs, and symbols.

The development of these studying practices reverberated throughout the

architectural practice and generated new awareness of the complexity of cities,
changing the focus to how to understand the city rather than change it.

Empirical Urbanism A-69

LINEAGE

Although never clearly defined, Empirical Urbanism relies on encompassing a

framework of the city through the understanding of the complex systems that
live within it. Because of the broad spectrum of this understanding, this type of
urbanism can encompass a wide range of urban theories, practices, and processes
of observation. The focus of this study addresses the contemporary moment,
from a western perspective, through the analysis of Dana Cuff and Roger
Sherman’s Fast-Forward Urbanism.

In Fast-Forward Urbanism, Cuff and Sherman call for new operations that reference
the existing urban work - the city as-found. The authors draw from different
urban approaches such as, every-day and landscape urbanism, modernism and Figure EU_07. Covers of Fast-Forward Urbanism,
and Learning from Las Vegas.
Dutch urbanization to generate a new capacity for architecture to reconfigure,
revitalize and re-imagine the American city. Cuff and Sherman understand the
American city as a complex system composing different types of urbanities that
tell an incomplete story for contemporary urbanism.5

Addressing the agency of the architect, Cuff and Sherman urge designers to
engage in a more complex role in which their interests alternate between the client 5. Dana Cuff and Roger Sherman, Fast-Forward
and the people affected by their actions. This type of intervention challenges Urbanism: Rethinking Architecture’s Engagement with
the role of designers, asking them to be ingenious in incorporating laissez faire the City (New York: Princeton Architectural
urbanization practices that provoke novel practices of design that operate within Press, 2011).
architecture’s framework. While architects can propose idealized projects that
are based on empirical understandings of the city, they should intend to rejigger 6. Ibid.
the existing urban protocols so to promote new, yet familiar, arrangements.6 In
encompassing this new method of practice Cuff and Sherman propose eight
strategies to fulfill the city’s needs: the radical increment, in vivo rather than in
vitro, identity and experience, recasting the performative, infrastructure as catalyst,
plastic ecologies, the question of contingency and negotiating discourses. Rather
than providing a toolkit for understanding the city, they provide a framework of
strategies to understand the interwoven systems of the city and redirect the city’s
spatial formations.

A-70 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 CRITIQUE

Although Empirical Urbanism focuses on a holistic approach to analyzing the city

prior to any design decisions, this same methodology of working can generate
misappropriations and misreadings. Empirical Urbanism uncovers or sheds light
on different assumptions about the city from the person conducting the analysis
- particularly if the analyzer is an external actor. This type of scenario is reflected
in the work of Rem Koolhaas’ Mutations, as discussed in Matthew Gandy’s critique
of Koolhaas’ approach to the city of Lagos, Nigeria.

Rem Koolhaas studied the city of Lagos through the Harvard Research on the
City program. In the early 2000s the project shed light on the city’s capacity
to function given a lack of resources and essential public services considered
necessary in traditional urban studies. Through a “view from above” Lagos is
described as having an “asymptotic behavior that seems to indicate a terminal
condition a steady state, suggesting that the Lagos condition might be years
ahead of other cities.”7 However, this empirical analysis of the city was criticized
by geographer Matthew Gandy as comparing it to a research laboratory, de-
historicizing and depoliticizing the city’s experience.8 The informal economy
7. Rem Koolhaas, Harvard Design School, that Koolhaas praised and envisioned as the engine for western cities exists as a
Stefano Boeri, Multiplicity, Sanford Kwinter, product of a conflicted political territory, and oppressive history that generated
Nadia Tazi, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Mutations alternative methods of living. Therefore, Empirical Urbanism’s approach can be
(Barcelona: ACTAR, 2000).
subject to biases of the analyzer - especially when making claims as an ‘outsider’.

8. Mathew Gandy, “Learning from Lagos,” New

Additionally, critiques on empirical methodologies of analysis and their relevance
Left Review (2005): 36–52. within architecture’s discourse have emerged from a frustration with attempting
to provide a convincing argument for its ability to create novel practices. For
example, Fred Koetter questions the character of Learning from Las Vegas, from
9. Fred Koetter, “On Robert Venturi, Denise its methodology to the relevance of its analysis. While he praises the approach,
Scott Brown and Steven Izenour’s Learning from
Las Vegas,” Oppositions 3 (1974): 100-101.
he also raises concerns on the role of architecture with all the information
learned and if this analysis is even relevant for the profession to generate valuable
interventions.9 Koetter’s commentary on the empirical approach begins to
question the validity of analytical practices and the role of the architect to serve
society and create meaningful environments from contentious analyses.

Empirical Urbanism A-71

 +

THE STRIPSCAPE
PHOENIX, USA

Located along Seventh Avenue, a

one-mile commercial corridor in
Phoenix, Arizona, the project utilizes
an inclusive methodology that
critiques both the totalizing view of
conventional master-planning and
the smaller tactical interventions
illustrated in contemporary urban
theories such as everyday urbanism.
It is a flexible and “emergent” urban
infrastructure that develops with the
city, establishing a new identifiable
district for each neighborhood that it
connects while accommodating the
specific existing conditions of each
site. It features amenity infrastructures
that combine shade, lighting, ground
surfaces, landscape, and signage to
transform conventional pedestrian
and automobile infrastructures into
amenities such as shaded parking,
display areas, outdoor seating, and
recreation areas.

A-72 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure EU_08. Combination of bands, vertical panels, canoes, and trees in Stripscape to create “amenity infrastructures.”
 THE STRIPSCAPE
Location Phoenix, USA

Year(s) 2000 - 2004

Status Built

Footprint 63,500 ft2

Designer Darren Petrucci / A-I-R, Inc / Arizona State University

Additional Agents 7th Avenue Merchants Association

Phoenix Public Art Department

Key Project Components Amenity Infrastructure

Shade, Lighting, Ground Surfaces, Landscape and Signage

Program(s) Street Furniture, Planting, Canopies

Funding Streams Federal Transportation Enhancement (T-21) Grant

A-74 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 100 ft
25 m Water

Empirical Urbanism A-75

TRANSECT

SINGLE FAMILY STORAGE THE STRIPSCAPE

HOUSE INTERVENTION

0 10 m

50 ft

Figure EU_09-13. Drawings and realized view of the Stripscape.

A-76 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

7TH AVENUE CAR SHOPS SINGLE FAMILY
HOUSE
0 10 m

0 50 ft

Empirical Urbanism A-77

AGENTS

Federal Transportation
Enhancement (T-21) Grant

FUND SOURCES

City of Phoenix
Department of Street & Transportation INSTITUTIONS
Phoenix Public Art Department Public
7th AVENUE MERCHANTS INTENDED USER Shop Owners, Customers |
ASSOCIATION Citizens
PRECEDENT
Arizona Department of INITIATIVE
Transportation 1968 Plan to Widen
North-South Transportation Corridor
LEADING ORGANIZATION

ASU Joint Urban Design

Darren Petrucci The Melrose Neighborhood
Program (JUDP)

COLLABORATION DESIGNER PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

PROCESS 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990

THE STRIPSCAPE

Arizona DOT make plan to widen

north-south traffic corridor on 7th Ave.

A-78 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

TAXONOMY

Canopy

Planter Planting Wall Street Light

Billboard + Billboard

+
Furniture
Chair

Water Fountain

Paint on Ground

Canopy Installation

Retail Garage Sale Scrimscape: Landscape

Appropriated Space

1995 2000 2005 2010 2020

The 7th Avenue The city received funding Project completed as

Merchants Association and appointed Darren amenity infrastructure for
(SAMA) was formed to Petrucci to develop leisure and art activities
improve neighborhood prototypes as new
environment through standard details for city
art and events infrastructure

Design Installation

Empirical Urbanism A-79

 +

DUCK & COVER

NEW YORK, USA

This set of projects explores how

a big box retailer-- Target-- may be
strategically deployed towards creating
new forms of collective lives. Three
projects were developed, targeting
different types of urban characters
that are under-supplied in each of the
suburban locations. Part billboard, part
landscape, the project uses an activated
surface simultaneously as a strategy
of advertisement and concealment,
literally and figuratively “branded”
with a surface graphic that broadcasts
Target’s identity and functions as a
formal device in which actual functions
may be embedded.

A-82 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure EU_14. Duck and Cover Rendering in the City. Image Credit: Robert Sherman Architecture + Urbanism.
 DUCK AND COVER
Location New York, USA

Year(s) 2009

Status Unbuilt

Footprint 6.33 acres

Designer Roger Sherman Architecture + Urban Design

Additional Agents 4th International Architecture Biennale Rotterdam

Director: George Brugmans

Curators: Kees Christiaanse and Tim Rieniets

Key Project Components Combining advertisement with landscape to create branding functional strategies

Using Big Box Retail to revitalize suburban environment

Program(s) Big Box Retail

Programmatic Play Landscape

Funding Streams Private

Alternative Uses Use of the branding for Geo-referencing with Google satellites

Alternative Locations Tracy, CA: Target.TOWN, Phoenix, AZ: Target.GREEN

A-84 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 150 ft
25 m Water

Empirical Urbanism A-85

TRANSECT

SUBURB TRANSIT LOGISTICS BIG BOX STORE

HOUSING DELIVERY
CORRIDOR

0 62.5 ft

12.5 m

Figure EU_15-19. Figures Presented at 2009 Rotterdam Architecture Biennial. Image Credit: Roger Sherman Architecture + Urbanism.

A-86 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 DUCK & COVER TRANSIT

PLAY & SHOP DISTRICT CORRIDOR

Empirical Urbanism A-87

AGENTS

Ministry of Culture of Rotterdam

Aksara Bookstore/Winfred Hutabarat, Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst
Gemeente Rotterdam Jakarta und Kultur
ETH Verein von Freunden der TU Berlin Kulturabteilung des Amtes der
Netherlands Architecture Institute (NAI) Deutscher Akademischer Steiermärkischen Landesregierung, Austria
VPRO Ausstauschdienst (DAAD) The Netherlands Architecture Fund
Dienst Ruimtelijke Ordening Netherlands Institute for Sound and (Belvedere)
Vision Prince Claus Fund
Rotterdamse Academie van Bouwkunst
Dutch Cultural Broadcasting Fund The Dutch Consulate in Istanbul, Lebanon,
OTHER Mondriaan Foundation Jordan and Egypte
Amsterdam Art Foundation Anadolu Kültür
INITIATORS Images for the Future Friedrich-Ebert-Foundation Istanbul
The Netherlands Institute for Planning United Nations Relief and Works Agency
Private and Housing (NIROV) for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
4th International Stichting Bevordering Van Centraal Fonds Volkshuisvesting (UNRWA)
FUND SOURCES Amsterdam AHRC (Arts and Humanities Research
Rotterdam Architecture Biennial Volkskracht Istanbul 2010: European Capital of Council, UK)
Chivos Oncdo Cultuur fonds Culture Isandra Matin

INITIATOR

Public
INTENDED USER Families | Downtown
Architect TARGET Employees | Tourists
DESIGNER
Roger Sherman CITY OF NEW YORK
Architecture+ Urbanism
EVALUATOR
The Woodall Rodgers Park
Foundation Board
LEADING ORGANIZATION

Venturi, Scott Brown,Izenour

Learning from Las Vegas

PRECEDENT INITIATIVES

PROCESS 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 198
DUCK & COVER

Window Display Signs and Shed become Target begins

for commercial primary method for Nationwide
Advertisement advertising in USA Expansion

Learning From
Las Vegas, Venturi,
Scott Brown &
Izenour
Target Discount Store is Emergence of the
Founded by John F Geisse Decorated Shed &
from the Dayton Company Duck

A-88 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

DUCK DUCK
DUCK
K
CK CK
UC
DDU DU

DUCK
DUC
K
DUCK
CK
DU

Store front Sign & Shed Decorated Shed

Duck Duck & Cover

85 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Target becomes a Duck and Cover

corporation Proposed at Rotterdam
Design Biennial by
Roger Sherman

Empirical Urbanism A-89

A-90 Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Empirical Urbanism A-91
POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM

Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Related to Post-City Urbanism, Post-Industrial
Urbanism refers to a specific collection of prac-
tices and thought that has developed to rework
formerly industrial cities in the absence of their
industrial bases. Post-Industrial Urbanism is par-
ticularly relevant to America’s Rust Belt, as well
as industrial cities throughout the western world
that declined in the context of globalization in
the latter half of the twentieth century.

Empirical Urbanism A-93

POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Post-Industrial Urbanism is a world-wide phenomenon, left-overs ubiquitously

scattered across many landscapes, both urban and ex-urban, creating shades of
their former importance as economic drivers. The sheer force that industry and
large-scale manufacturing imposed on human history, quite literally, created a new
epoch.

Industrialism began in the mid-17th century. It spread across Europe and the
United States not long after. Declination of the western industrial hegemony
began to wane in the 1960s. In many cities today, the crumbling remains of
manufacturing facilities and warehouses lay vacant and unused. As the population
in these cities continues to decline because the immigration of low-skilled workers
into city neighborhoods has stopped and the skilled workforce that could afford
to moved out into suburban areas. Many of these cities have embraced the
necessity to consolidate in size, infrastructure, and ability to maintain their assets.
In simpler terms, the shrinking cities of the world must become sustainable to
survive. Hunter Morrison suggests that the way that these, “historically industrial
1. Hunter Morrison, “Lessons Learned from a
communities address their legacy liabilities – such as brown-fields, widespread
Shrinking City: Youngstown 2010 and Beyond,”
abandonment and disinvestment, and how low educational attainment and in Julia Czerniak, Formerly Urban: Projecting Rust
economic exclusion based on race and class”1 must be addressed. The suggestion Belt Futures (New York: Princeton Architectural
that planners will always be, “merely reactive because planning has little influence Press, 2013).
on… deindustrialization, demographic change(s) and even suburbanization,”2
must also change to evolve. Many cities, like Detroit, have created streamlined
2. Ibid.
land development strategies, or Pink Zoning, which, “seek(s) to transform
Detroit’s complex land use regulations into a positive force for neighborhood
revitalization. ‘Pink’ refers to a lessening of the ‘red tape’ that can quickly 3. City of Detroit, “Pink Zoning Detroit,” City
thwart revitalization initiatives. Process inefficiencies, outdated ordinances, and of Detroit, Accessed March 26, 2018, http://
www.detroitmi.gov/Government/Departments-
rigid code interpretations can strangle the most creative place-making projects,
and-Agencies/Planning-and-Development-
resulting in urban environments that fall short of their potential.”3 Department/Pink-Zoning.

A-94 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure PIU_01. Industry City, Brooklyn, New York.

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-95

Figure PIU_02. Zollverein Coal Mine, Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

A-96 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure PIU_03. The Jam Factory, London, England.

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-97

LINEAGE

The United Kingdom is touted at the cradle of industrialization. Beginning in the

middle of the 17th century in the English Midlands region, cities like Birmingham
became centers of mass production via industry. This industry was powered by
great mill factories located along major rivers whose commanding flows provided
the energy for machines to produce their goods. Throughout the 17th century the
United Kingdom was the center for industrialization, fully embracing and shaping
their society around these novel technologies. However, the titan of industry soon
shifted across the Atlantic to the United States by the early 18th century.

In the United States, industrialization began in the Northeast, where similarly to

the United Kingdom, factories grew around major waterways. These industrial
companies drove the formation of new cities, where their entire economies and
social structures revolved around the mills they were centered around. As the
United States continued to expand west, so did it’s manufacturing might. With the
advent of coal, oil, and electrically powered machines the Midwest became the
new industrial mecca by the turn of the 20th century.

Detroit, Youngstown, Pittsburgh, and countless other cities, both domestic and
abroad, grew around their mono-culture industry, many believing that their
wealth and population growth would be limitless, that the singular source for Figure PIU_04. Covers of Drosscape and Formerly
Urban: Projecting Rust Belt Futures.
their economic prosperity would continue indefinitely. Between the 1950s and
1970s these cities golden age of industry had either begun or were already in
decline, as the singular companies that each urban center relied on downsized,
automated, and or relocated due to advancing technology, cheaper labor, and or
offers by other regions with economic incentives. As the industry, economy, and
populations left, a majority of these cities were slow to act to reorganize their
urban plans to meet the requirements of a shrinking city. The result of their
delayed reaction to their changing environment was a post-industrial condition,
characterized by high poverty rates, crime rates, contaminated grounds, and
copious amounts of abandoned and or wasted space. Today these factors still
plague numerous cities, all of whom must address these conditions in order to be
relevant in contemporary times. Many of these forthcoming urban interventions
will have to deal with re-purposing the wasted space left over by the post-
industrial landscape. They will have to use the landscape that is left behind to be
remade into the future of urban design.

A-98 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 CRITIQUE

Daniel Bell, an American Sociologist, created the argument that post-industrial

is only a shift in societal structure and not the physical landscape. His argument
being that post-industrial society is actually a shift in the structuring of the
economy and causing phenomenon, such as occupational reworking to develop.
The investigation into this condition, in terms of this chapter’s thesis, is that
planners and designers can contribute to the development of well designed re-
purposing of post-industrial space. Therefore, post-industrialism largely has social
impacts outside of realm of designers, arguing that re-educating the urban post-
industrial society to condition society to fit new models, which Bell has, doesn’t
readily create solutions to filling brown-field sites.

He does suggest that this re-education may create development of new science
and technology, and with this new technology post-industrial society can create
an intellectual commodity market. Bell goes on in greater detail about his theory,
which is beside the point. The question remains, ‘are planners and designers the
5. Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial
Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting (London:
ones that should handle the re-configuration of a free market society, such as
Heinemann, 1974), 13. capitalism which created industrialism to prevent these changes from happening?’
Unfortunately no.

What planners and designers should do is further the re-development of the post-
industrial space to allow sustainable progress to move ahead in such an urbanism.

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-99

 +

RUHR RIVER
REGION
RHINE-WESTPHALIA, GERMANY

The Emscher River is a tributary of

the Ruhr River and the Rhine River
in Northwest Germany. This region
is home to Germany’s industrial
heartland. The largest industry in the
Ruhr river valley is coal production.
Large coal mining and refining facilities
are dotted across the landscape
between Duisburg and Dortmund.
Canals have been created over the last
two hundred years to shuttle barges
from one port to the next. The canals
connect the industrial region to the
North Sea and large ports such as
Hamburg. De-industrialization began
in earnest in the 1960s and most
mines and facilities had closed by
1980s. In 1990, the region’s leaders
came together and chose to reinvent
themselves. Embracing the industrial
past, clean up pollution, incorporate
brown-field redevelopment. What they
created was a decades long roll-out
of infrastructure, park systems, and
cultural heritage centers to embrace the
region’s history.

A-100 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure PIU_05. Example of Emscher River Park in Essen, Germany.
 EMSCHER PARK NETWORK
Location Emscher River, Germany

Year(s) 1990 - present

Status In progress

Footprint 320 km2

Designer Emschergenossenschaf (water/sewer board)

Additional Agents 15 regional SUD government entities

5.1 million regional residents

Key Project Components 53 km total length, Three 3,500 gallons/sec pumping stations/treatment facilities

Millions of acres of parkland, incorporation of cultural elements

Program(s) Emschergenossenschaf 15/15 plan (Water board and regional municipalities

disconnect 15% sewer infrastructure within 15 years.

Funding Streams Public and Private ventures, totaling 4.5 billion euros

Builders Wayss & Freytag Ingenieurbau, Germany Contractor

Porr Tunnelau, Austria Contractor

A-102 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 5.25 mile
5 km Water

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-103

 TRANSECT

EMSCHER NEW SEWER INNER PARKLAND

RIVER INFRASTRUCTURE

0.5 km
0 0.25 mile

Figure PIU_06-08. Photographs of an Emscher River Park (former water treatment facility), the Gelsenkirchen Pipeline along the Emscher waterway and river.

A-104 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 EMSCHER SHIPPING
CANAL

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-105

AGENTS

European Union Investment Bank

NRW Bank
Federal Agency for Environmental Protection

FUND SOURCES

Many Municipalities The State of North Rhine

Private Companies COLLABORATORS
- Westphalia INTENDED USER The Citizens of North Rhine
Organizations German Ministry of Climate Westphalia.
of the region of Emschergenossenschaft Public | Private
North Rhine-Westphalia
INSTIGATORS

PROCESS 1985 1985 1990 1995

RUHR RIVER REGION

The regional council is set up and

begins the process of networking
53 separate governmental bodies to
create a vast regional economic and
environmental recovery

A-106 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

5 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Construction begins on the Projected completion

Gelsenkirchen Sewer System, with scheduled by 2020
over 50 km of pipeline and 3 giant
pumping stations.

Gelsenkirchen Pump

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-107

 +

30TH STREET STATION

REDEVELOPMENT
PHILADELPHIA, USA

The 30th Street Station Redevelopment

looks to reuse the vast wasted space
of the rail yards next to the historic
30th Street Station along the Schuylkill
River. The project was designed by
SOM in conjunction with the city’s
planning department, Amtrak, and
nearby neighborhoods. The project
renovates the station while adding
commercial, residential, educational,
and public use. This is achieved by the
new urban fabric being built over the
industrial space of the rail yards and
abandoned industrial lands along the
Schuylkill River. Knowledge of this
proposed project represents a new turn
in how cities are developing in the post-
industrial world. There is a shift from
seeing industrial sites as blights to the
urban fabric, locations that are meant
to be abandoned and uninhabited after
they lose value. Today, these sites are
finding renewed value in their industrial
past, capitalizing on as investments
into the new post-industrial future.

A-110 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure PIU_09. Rendering of Philadelphia, USA.
 30TH STREET STATION REDEVELOPMENT
Location Philadelphia, USA

Year(s) 2015 - 2050

Status In progress

Footprint 140 acres

Designer Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill; PennDOT, Amtrak

Additional Agents Drexel University, City of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania.

Key Project Components New Amtrak Rail Station, Multiple High-rise Commercial and Residential

Program Institutional, Transit Hubs, Parks, Commercial, Residential

Funding Streams State Capitol. Tax Incentives/Breaks, City of Philadelphia, University of

Pennsylvania, Drexel University, PennDOT, SEPTA, and Private Investors

A-112 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 800 ft
500 ft Water

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-113

TRANSECT

SEPTA RAILYARDS 30TH STREET STATION REDEVELOPMENT O

Figure PIU_10. 30th Street Station and rail yard as it is today.

A-114 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

OVER RAILYARD NORTHEAST CORRIDOR SCHUYLKILL SCHUYLKILL RIVER
EXPRESSWAY

Figure PIU_11. 30th Street Station Development rendering by SOM, depicting new buildings, parks, and roadways.

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-115

AGENTS

City of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Industrial Development Commission (PIDC)
Southeast Pennsylvania Transit Authority (SEPTA)
Federal & State Tax Incentives and Breaks
Amtrak

FUND SOURCES

University of Pennsylvania
Drexel University CITY OF PHILADELPHIA
Skidmore, Owings & Merril (SOM) STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA Public
FXFOWLE COLLABORATORS BRANDYWINE REALTY TRUST INTENDED USER Residential | Commercial
ARUP AMTRAK Institutional | Infrastructure
!melk Universities / Academia
University City District PENNDOT
West Philadelphia Neighborhood INSTIGATORS

PROCESS 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 19

30TH STREET STATION
REDEVELOPMENT
30th Street Station built

A-116 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

PennDOT, Amtrak , and City of Philadelphia

begin accessing possible development over
rail yard by 30th Street Station
Project put on freeze until
Philadelphia knows if they
win Amazon HQ2 bid

Projected projected
completion initially 2050

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-117

LANDSCAPE / ECOLOGICAL
URBANISM

A-120 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Landscape Urbanism emerged in the 1990’s in
response to the dissipation of traditional urban
cores in the context of the American city. In the
wake of political, cultural, and economic devel-
opments that left many cities spotted with ur-
ban voids and spaces of disinvestment, the dis-
ciplinary tools and intellectual traditions of the
landscape architect were uniquely suited to make
sense of newly vacuous cities by suturing their
disconnected systems through the medium of
the horizontal surface. Today this legacy persists
in design practices with interests in infrastruc-
ture, public space, and urban metabolism.
With deep ties to the project of Landscape Ur-
banism, and drawing from the methods and tech-
niques of the field of (Urban) Ecology, the term
calls for a holistic, multi-scalar and system-based
approach to the study of the urban phenomena
addressing urgent environmental concerns, nov-
el models of urban governance and finance, and
a regained cultural relevance. Central to the term
is the agency of design in better integrating the
ecological and social urban functions in the pro-
duction of sustainable ecosystems.

Post-Industrial Urbanism A-121

LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGICAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Landscape Urbanism emerged near the end of the 20th century in response
to dramatic changes in American cities, in which open space in urban areas
was re-conceived as an alternative to architecture as a medium for “articulating
a layered, non-hierarchical, flexible, and strategic urbanism.”1 This approach
viewed metropolitan areas as living arenas of change over time, and rejected
the marginalization of landscape architects as mere purveyors of bourgeois
decoration that was marginal to spatial formation. Landscape Urbanism argues
that the transformation of contemporary urban territory is far too complex to
allow for isolated disciplinary specialization and that landscape is a critical part of
the urban environment, rather than a polar opposite to architecture in a binary
system.

Landscape Urbanism is championed by theorists and designers James Corner

and Charles Waldheim. In their writing, they argue that infrastructural systems
and public landscapes could be used as ordering mechanisms in the urban field.
The acceptance of landscape as urban fabric can be used to create spaces that are
adaptable to (and that anticipate) open-endedness, indeterminacy, negotiations
and changing urban conditions. Corner believes that the actual processes of 1. Charles Waldheim, Landscape as Urbansim: A
urbanization are far more significant to the shaping of cities than the spatial General Theory (Princeton: Princeton University
forms of urbanism themselves, emphasizing the importance of design and Press, 2016).
accommodation to process rather than fixed form.2
2. James Corner, “Terra Fluxus,” in The
Similarly, Ecological Urbanism considers the urban condition with a world-view Landscape Urbanism Reader (New York: Princeton
that is fluid in scale and disciplinary focus. Design provides the synthetic key to Architectural Press, 2006).
connect ecological principles with urbanization processes in an integrated way.
In many ways, Ecological Urbanism is an evolution and critique of landscape
urbanism, arguing for a more holistic approach to the design and management of
city regions. To some extent, we can say that Ecological Urbanism is a worldwide
revolution of theory and practice of city, of changes of current urban planning,
and method and mode of urban management, and even of a new lifestyle.

Originally, the core concept of Ecological Urbanism is to treat a city as an urban

A-122 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure LEU_01-02. Left to Right: Field Conditions Diagram, Stan Allen. Concept of Ecological Urbanism.

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-123

Figure LEU_03-06. Top, Left to Right: Parc de La Villette. High Line Park. 11th Street Bridge. Yokohama International Passenger Terminal.

ecological system, and to try to create harmonious, efficient, green urban human
habitation environments from society, economy, culture, planning and other
aspects. Besides, Ecological Urbanism proposes a strengthening of the perception
towards the city, an emphasis on urban mobility, and a focus on productive
landscape. Ecological Urbanism draws from ecology to inspire an urbanism
that is more socially inclusive and sensitive to the environment, while being less
ideologically driven than its predecessor.

A-124 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure LEU_07-11. Bottom, Left to Right: 2009 GSD Ecological Urbanism Conference and exhibition.

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-125

LINEAGE

Landscape Urbanism emerged over time through the influences of multiple

precedents, designers, schools of thoughts, and socio-economic conditions. The
moment where Landscape Urbanism starts to emerge from the discipline of
landscape architecture is in the late 1800s in Frederick Law Olmsted’s Central
Park in New York City and Back Bay Fens in Boston. In the Theory of Landscape
Urbanism, Olmsted stands as the founder of the discipline. Both projects use
the combination of ecological and infrastructural systems, however landscape
urbanism in its deployment in the contemporary city strives to integrate
contrasting systems. The decentralization of infrastructure and production, the
unprecedented suburban development and the extended disinvestment in central
cities significantly contributed to the emergence of Landscape Urbanism. In the
1950s U.S. cities were rapidly extending horizontally, reducing the distinction
between city and countryside. The 1960s was a period of urban renewal policies
and projects that resulted in the progressive deindustrialization of the city and the
subsequent loss of jobs and population. The abandonment of inner cities and
the obsolescence of industry happened hand in hand with the suburbanization
of the territory that experienced the largest population increase in its history. The
economic recession in the 1980s brought a decline in building and construction, Figure LEU_12. Landscape Urbanism
and architects turned their attentions to competitions that dealt with larger post- Publications, Ecological Urbanism Publications.
industrial landscapes left behind in the metro regions. This was a peak moment
in the emergence of Landscape Urbanism, although many projects from these
competitions embodying the principles of Landscape Urbanism remained
speculative. Critical in the formative years of Landscape Urbanism approach was
the project produced by OMA for the competition for Paris’ Parc de la Villete
in 1982. Although not the winning entry, the approach to address this former
industrial site introduced key concepts like programmatic diversity, connections
and superimpositions, and maintenance regimes. As Landscape Urbanism moved
into the 21st century, it remained applicable through its principle of adapting to
the changes in urban conditions that have and will continue to affect cities, more
specifically in the integration of infrastructural systems of the industrial age and
the natural ecology. Landscape Urbanism, in its later years of progression became
the umbrella for branches of similar design methodologies, specifically Ecological
Urbanism.
A-126 Theories and Methods of Urban Design
 LINEAGE

The predecessor of Ecological Urbanism is Urban Ecology. Urban Ecology is

the scientific study of the interactions of organisms, built structures, and the
physical environment where people are concentrated.3 It started in the 1970s as
the ecological study of human-dominated landscapes. Then, several organizations,
like School of Chicago, UNESCO and US National Science Foundation, in
different periods gradually developed a diversity of approaches to urban ecology
towards easing the deteriorative relationship between human and nature. In past
decades the overconsumption of resources and the ever increasing pollution
have forever altered the fragile balance between humans and nature. Based on a
gradually deeper understanding of urban ecology, people tried to involve it into
urbanism to address complicated problems among environment, human and
city. However, the call for an Ecological Urbanism didn’t form until the end of
2008, current Dean of Harvard University Graduate School of Design, Mohsen
Mostafavi, coined the term to integrate ecology with Landscape Urbanism – using
less resources to build cities and creating new landscape environment and space
aesthetics. Then in April 2009, The Ecological Urbanism Conference was organized
by Harvard University Graduate School of Design. This conference brought
together design practitioners and theorists, economists, engineers, environmental
scientists, politicians and public health specialists, with the goal of reaching a
more robust understanding of ecological urbanism and what it might be in the
3. Jari Niemela, “Ecology and Urban Planning.,”
Biodiversity and Conservation 8 no. 1 (1999): 119-
future. A central aim of this conference, parallel exhibition, and forthcoming
131. publication, was to provoke multiple discussions on the ecologies of urbanism as
a way to addressing sustainability at urban scales. Ecological Urbanism was published
in 2010 with over forty new projects that consider the city using multiple
4. Mohsen Mostafavi and Gareth Doherty, instruments and a world-view that is fluid in scale and disciplinary focus. Design
Ecological Urbanism (Baden: Lars Müller
Publishers, 2010).
provides the synthetic key to connecting ecology with an urbanism that is not in
contradiction with its environment.4

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-127

CRITIQUE

Landscape Urbanism has been highly criticized since its inception. Its most well-
known critics have been Andres Duany and Emily Talen, who have consistently
argued against the perception of landscape supplanting architecture as a more
capable medium for shaping cities, culminating in the publication of Landscape 5. Andres Duany and Emily Talen, Landscape
Urbanism: Dissimulating the Sustainable City in 2013.5 Within the book, Talen Urbanism and its Discontents: Dissimulating
ultimately asserts that the most serious problem with Landscape Urbanism is an the Sustainable City (Gabriola: New Society
apparent ignorance of humans and the human scale in its theoretical approach. Publishers, 2013).

Another major criticism of Landscape Urbanism is an alleged pervasive

ambiguity. The writings of James Corner and Charles Waldheim convey ideas of
projects that might fit the bill, but don’t provide a clear framework for application.
On the other hand, the flexibility of program and space that landscape urbanism
calls for leads to an ambiguity of identity in practical results.

Landscape Urbanism is unique in that it was ideally suited for American cities
at a time when funding for conventional architecture projects was limited, while
the departure of large sums of people from inner cities left massive open spaces
with untapped social and ecological potential. The financial aspect of landscape
urbanism’s contextual impetus, furthered by the infrequency of the United States
government’s investments in large-scale parks and public projects, resulted in
the purely speculative nature of most landscape urbanism projects. This hints
to a lack of understanding of practical real estate logic by landscape urbanism
proponents, and a clear incompatibility between these projects and the United
States’ system of funding for large-scale architectural projects. However, it also
suggests that landscape urbanism projects may be better suited to countries
more prone to public spending. This is evidenced by the success of projects by
firms like Turenscape in China, where the government has a far greater capacity
to advance large-scale projects. The reason for this is that in China, the urban
land belongs to government, so the large-scale projects are always funded by
government. Upon on this background that political power determines public
power, it is easy for large-scale projects to come up.

A-128 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Therefore, such large-scale projects which are based on the theory of Landscape
Urbanism emphasizing city as an integral landscape system, coupled with China’s
politics, are easily achieved in China. However, such top-down projects merely
reflect the wills of designers and seldom involve public. In this point, we can
only assume that the large-scale landscape projects accomplish partial theory of
Landscape Urbanism. Whether they can satisfy the public still remains question.

As a critique and an evolution of Landscape Urbanism, to some extent,

Ecological Urbanism supplements the deficiency of Landscape Urbanism on the
theoretical level. Ecological Urbanism emphasizes the participation of human
activity in ecology both in the visible dimension and the invisible dimension.
Nevertheless, Ecological Urbanism’s contributions do not necessarily provide a
solution to landscape urbanism’s primary limitation: the gap between theory and
practice.

Ecological Urbanism which is led by designers and based on the method

of human intervention is contradictory with the essence of nature. The
contemporary emphasis on the “greening” of cities ranges from spontaneous
manifestations of “wild urban nature” to manufacture landscape that from an
6. Matthew Gandy, “From Urban Ecology integral dimension to the “recapitalization” of post-industrial sites, disused
to Ecological Urbanism: An Ambiguous waterfronts and other ostensibly “empty” spaces.6 In this process, there is
Trajectory,” Area 47 no. 2 (2015), doi: 10.1111/ still a doubt that whether the guidance of Ecological Urbanism could suit the
area.12162.
requirement of urban ecological security. Additionally, Ecological Urbanism may
provide “justification” for political intrigue. It could become a tool of political
ambition. The Ecological Urbanism projects would start with removing slum
settlements from more lucrative locations. In this case, “gentrification” would
appear and social inequity would be the potential result of Ecological Urbanism.

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-129

 +

KLYDE WARREN
PARK
DALLAS, USA

This project combines landscape and

infrastructure in order to create an
urban park, which acts as a bridge
connecting two districts in the City of
Dallas, previously divided by an eight-
lane highway. The objective behind
the development of Klyde Warren
Park was to overcome the physical and
psychological barriers that divided the
Uptown and Downtown districts of
Dallas. The integration of ecological
and infrastructural systems played a
key role and developing the space. The
park was seen as a catalyst for the city
in promoting pedestrian activity and
economic growth. To achieve such
a feat as spanning a landscaped park
across a highway required not only the
combination of multiple professional
disciplines, but the integration of
natural systems with the existing and
new infrastructure.

A-130 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure LEU_13. Aerial view of Klyde Warren park Dallas, Texas.
 KLYDE WARREN PARK
Location Dallas, USA

Year(s) 2004 - 2012

Status Built

Footprint 5.2 acres

Designer The Office of James Burnett

Additional Agents Woodall Rodgers Park Foundation

Key Project Components Creating a physical and psychological bridge between two districts in Dallas,
and simultaneously integrating ecological and infrastructural systems.

Program(s) Open recreational and flexible lawns, designated children’s playground, events
pavilions, and restaurant space.

Funding Streams Public & Private

Primary Focus The integration of multiple systems, existing, natural, and infrastructure.

Concept This urban park was initially instigated as a social and economic development
driver in the city.

Influence Klyde Warren Park embraces the medium of landscape in shaping the city.

A-132 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 150 ft
112 ft Water

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-133

TRANSECT

MUSEUM DOWNTOWN FINANCIAL

DISTRICT

0 160 feet

120 feet

Figure LEU 14-17. Aerial view of Klyde Warren Park and its urban context. Key objects that characterize the programming throughout the park.

A-134 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

KLYDE WARREN PARK` FEDERAL RESERVE BANK HIGH-END

HOUSING

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-135

AGENTS

Public Private
The City of Dallas Texas Capital Bank
State Highway Fund Real Estate Council
State Stimulus Funds Individual Donors

FUND SOURCES

INSTITUTIONS INTENDED USER Public

The Woodall Rodgers Park Families | Downtown
Foundation The Woodall Rodgers Employees | Tourists
Park Foundation
The Office of James Burnette
Jacobs Engineering Group
The City of Dallas
COLLABORATORS MAINTENANCE
Texas Department of Transportation The Woodall Rodgers Park
McCarthy Building Companies, Inc. Foundation Board
LEADING ORGANIZATION

ULI Urban Open Space Award

Texas Society of Architects Honor Award
Federal Highway Administration
Environmental Excellence Award

AWARDS

PROCESS 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990 1

KLYDE WARREN PARK

First time the concept of a deck

park built over the Woodall Roders
Freeway is considered

A-136 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Fermob Bistro Chair Fermob Bistro Table Pathway Lighting

Food Truck Street Tree

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Concept resurfaces and support for future The Real Estate Council Construction Projected completion and open to
development is established provides a $1 billion begins public
grant to fund a feasibility
study, and a total of $2
million dollars in private
donations were given
towards the development
of the park

The Woodall Rogers Park Foundation is

formed and this organization led the project
from design to completion

Before Construction After Construction

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-137

 +

FRESHKILLS PARK
NEW YORK, USA

Freshkills Park is a massive landscape

project built over a capped former
landfill site. Its design turns Staten
Island’s western coastline into a public
park. It also provides a habitat for
the area’s native wildlife and curates
manufactured ecologies of native New
York plantings. Due to its large size,
it is projected to take over 30 years to
complete. The project explores how
landscape can be used as a medium for
overlapping numerous processes and
systems, including biology, hydrology,
and human interaction. Through
the integration of these processes,
Freshkills Park produces a new type of
urban nature.

A-140 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure LEU_18. Rendering of Freshkills Park.
 FRESHKILLS PARK
Location New York, USA

Year(s) 2001 - 2036

Status In progress

Footprint 2,200 acres

Designer James Corner Field Operations

Additional Agents New York City Department of Parks and Recreation

New York City Department of City Planning

Key Project Components Native Landscape Restoration

Ecological Atonement

Sustainability

Program(s) Parks / Recreation

Park Buildings

Infrastructure

Funding Streams Public

A-142 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space Landfill
0 2000 ft
500 m Water

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-143

TRANSECT

NEW JERSEY ARTHUR KILL

Figure LEU_19-22. The observation tower, kayaking on the channel, a bicycle track, and solar collectors at the park.

A-144 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

FRESHKILLS LANDFILL HIGHWAY STATEN ISLAND NEIGHBORHOODS

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-145

AGENTS

Mayoral Capital Funds

New York State Department of State
New York State Department Funds
Recreation and Historic Preservation
Federal Highway Administrations
FUND SOURCES

James Corner Field Operations NEW YORK CITY DEPARTMENT

NY City Planning COLLABORATORS OF PARKS AND RECREATION INTENDED USER Public
Residents | Tourists
BKSK Architecture FRESHKILLS: PARK ALLIANCE
SAGE + COMBE Architects

CLIENT

2001 NYCDCP International

Design Competition

INITIATIVES

PROCESS 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 19

FRESHKILLS PARK

A salt marsh in Staten Island

is converted to a landfill

A-146 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Wind Turbine Hiking Trail Trees

Observation Tower Wetlands Native Plantings Kayak Launch

990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

The landfill is closed, and NYC James Corner Field Construction begins Projected completion
City Planning holds a design Operations is selected scheduled by 2036
competition to find a landscape as the landscape
architect to design it as a park architect; schematic
design and design
development

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-147

 +

ZEEKRACHT
THE NORTH SEA, NETHERLANDS

Zeekracht is a master-plan for the

North Sea. It maps out a massive
renewable energy infrastructure
engaging all of the surrounding
countries-- and potentially those
beyond-- in a international effort that
will be both immediately exploitable
and conducive to decades of
coordinated development.

A-150 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure LEU_23. Aerial view of Zeekracht, the North Sea.
 ZEEKRACHT
Location The North Sea, Netherlands

Year(s) 2008 - 2040

Status Commissioned study

Footprint 285,000 km2

Designer OMA

Additional Agents Client: Natuur en Milieu, Project Director: Art Zaaijer, Project Leader:

Talia Chiao, Christopher Parlato, Franziska Singer

Key Project Components The Energy Super-ring, The Protection Belt, The Reefs

The International Research Center

Program(s) Complex Living Integrated System Design around Wind Energy

New Recreation Parks, New Cultural Hubs and Service Islands

Funding Streams Public

Jobs Supply Manufacturing Jobs: 187,000

Supply Chain Jobs: 500,000

Operation&Maintenance Jobs: 7,800

A-152 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space Shipping Port Converted Oil/Gas Production Center
0 625 miles
800 km Water Wind Farm

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-153

TRANSECT

0 1/20 mile

1/20 km

Figure LEU_24-28. Photos of Zeekracht, Natuur & Milieu.

A-154 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 DUTCH TOWN

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-155

AGENTS

Dutch Ministry of
Economic Affairs

FUND SOURCES

PARTNER: Rem Koolhaas, Reinier

de Graff NATUUR & MILIEU
COLLABORATORS INTENDED USER Public
PROJECT DIRECTOR: Art Zaaijer
PROJECT LEADER: Terri Chiao, Countries around the North Sea
Christopher Parlato, Franziska Singer

CLIENT

Zeekracht - A Strategy for

Masterplanning the North Sea
OMA, 2008

PUBLICATION

PROCESS 1990 1995 2000

ZEEKRACHT

Pha

A-156 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

The Energy Super-Ring The Production Belt The Reefs The International Research Center

Adjacency to Shipping Power Ecological Energy Storage Hybrid Gas- Gas/oil

Super-Ring Stimulus Wind Energy Platform

2005 2010 2015 2020

The Current Situation Building Towards the Future Fulfilling National Needs 2025 Building towards
Int’l Cooperation
2030 Sharing Power

2040 The New

Economics of Energy

ase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6

Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-157

INFRASTRUCTURE / NETWORK
URBANISM

A-160 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Network Urbanism is a means of re-conceptu-
alizing cities within the increasingly intercon-
nected context of global capitalism. This way of
theorizing urbanism emerged in the latter half
of the twentieth century, following international
economic liberalization, the deindustrialization
of many first world nations, and the attendant
industrialization of many developing countries.
Network Urbanism problematizes the way the
economic flows of global capital, goods, and
population have created urban entities that ex-
ist outside of the juridical, aesthetic, and spatial
logics of traditional cities within sovereign states.
Drawing on the role of infrastructure as main
driver of urban transformation under the aus-
pices of globalization, the term Infrastructure
Urbanism reclaims the role of the designer in
the deployment of intelligent polyfunctional sys-
tems.
Lansdacpe / Ecological Urbanism A-161
INFRASTRUCTURE/NETWORK URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Infrastructural Urbanism explores how spatial and social forms are transformed
through infrastructural interventions. It is interested in the interplay between
social and spatial aspects of infrastructural systems within the current economic
and political context.1 It looks to understand infrastructures as more than
supplementary systems as defined over the last century in an attempt to revitalize
and jump start decaying infrastructural systems.

It needs to change; multi-use sought within infrastructural development can

accommodate changes in transportation technology, unused infrastructure
in urban settings, and establish a relationship with the built environment to
provide connectivity at the pedestrian level in locations that currently cater
only to automobiles. A transition must happen, and the approach toward new
and existing infrastructure must become part of the designed urban fabric of
cities.2
1. Pierre Bélanger, Landscape as Infrastructure: A
In many ways, infrastructure allows urban environments to exist and thrive, but it Base Primer (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017).
rarely considers how cities are planned and developed. Infrastructure acts as the
invisible, but fundamental element that organizes urban space. Infrastructures
organize and manage complex systems of flow, movement, and exchange. In 2. Ibid.
this way, urban infrastructure is often seen as something that allows the city to
function, but at times is separate from the life of the city itself. “Not only do 3. Stan Allen, Points Lines: Diagrams and Projects
they provide a network of pathways, they also work through systems of locks, for the City (New York: Princeton Architectural
gates,and valves – a series of checks that control and regulate flow.”3 Press, 2012).

A-162 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure INU_01. Louis Kahn, “Reformed Traffic Circulation Pattern, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1952.”

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-163

Figure INU_02-07. Computer City, Peter Cook, Leslie Street Split Views, Field Conditions Stan Allen, Youngstown, OH vacancy map. Love Canal.

A-164 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-165
LINEAGE

The story of people can be told through our infrastructure. In the rise and
fall of cities throughout history, the places best positioned for a thriving
future have always been those that offer systems to create the lives that we
want. And we can see that as the innovations of canals, aqueducts, railroads,
and highways did in their time, the kind of infrastructure that we build today
matters to our success. If we do it right, it will forever transform our way of
life.3

Infrastructural Urbanism developed from comparisons between the logistics and

networking of infrastructural systems and the urbanization of certain territories.
It was not until infrastructural systems began breaking down that a change
was needed. A system that was once hidden became exposed by its own decay.
With this decay an adjustment in approach to infrastructure was needed. The
evidence was clear: the toxic spills and dirty run off, like the toxic spill of Love
Canal, displayed that a change had to be made. This new approach opened the
conversation of how infrastructural systems could ingrate into urban designs.

Infrastructural Urbanism was published by architect Stan Allen, a New York architect Figure INU_08. Points + Lines: Diagrams and
and author. Allen’s writings emphasize that architecture cannot only be defined Projects for the City.
by its meaning. This means that the connection of said meaning and function
emphasize the relationship of the human condition to architecture. Infrastructure
works not so much to propose specific buildings on given sites, but instead to
construct the site itself. Infrastructure prepares the ground for future buildings
and creates conditions for future events. Its primary modes of operation
3. Ryan Gravel, Where We Want to Live: Reclaiming
include: division, allocation and construction to support future programs, the Infrastructure for a New Generation of Cities, (New
establishment of networks for movement, communication and exchange.4 York: St. Martin’s Press, 2016), xi.

4. Hannah Boyd, “Infrastructural Urbanism:

Hybridizing Our Networks,” Honors College
Capstones and Theses, May 4, 2017,
http://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/honors_
etd/12.

A-166 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

CRITIQUE

The shortcomings of Infrastructural Urbanism lie in its desire to add specificity

to the agents that define it. This is mainly a fault of the many disciplines involved
in its creation. In the workings of city making, the concept of infrastructure
embodies different meanings depending on the theoretical framework with which
it is interrogated. To landscape architects and ecologists, nature is a form of
infrastructure. To planners and engineers the definition of infrastructure might be
quite different, ranging from highways and railways, to academic institutions and
hospitals. Whatever the case, redefining the perception of infrastructure is critical
for determining the mode of intervention.

Another challenge of Infrastructural Urbanism lies in presenting the pivotal

role infrastructure has in shaping a space and promoting a quality of life to both
government entities and private developers. In the case of cities that have mono-
economies, such as those of industrial production, the infrastructure developed
caters more specifically to the particular needs of its sponsors by providing the
necessary facilities that aid in the production of goods. This is mainly a result
of the financial contributions these industries have on the economic health of a
region. Here the main challenge is the innate attitude embedded in the desire for
profitability, which tends to disregard the impact caused by such processes or the
consideration for possible futures where these megalithic industries are no longer
providing revenue streams for the region or utilizing the networks built. Yet, this
is where the potential for intervention lies. The excess of infrastructural elements
could find new life in the re-imagined uses cities could assign them. With many
cities growing and many shrinking, the demands and expectations on what
infrastructure is or should be is never constant. Infrastructural Urbanism cannot
start anew. It is hindered by the limitations of aging technologies, methods of
production, and financial dependency.

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-167

 +

THE PLASTIC SEA

EL EJIDO, SPAIN

A rocky infertile part of Spain began

to change in the 1970s. The growth in
greenhouses started in the late 1970s
as a local response to an economic
opportunity to provide vegetables
to the European marketplace. The
transformed landscape has also
transformed the economy from a land
of farmers struggling in dry rocky soil
to an economy of extremely wealthy
greenhouse owners. The outcome of
this overwhelmingly large amount of
greenhouses are a sea of plastic that can
be seen from space. The entire region
is dedicated to these greenhouses and
not much else.

A-168 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure INU_09. “L’âge De L’Homme : Comment Les Humains Transforment La Planète.”
 THE PLASTIC SEA
Location El Ejido, Spain

Year(s) 1970 - present

Status In progress

Footprint 26,000 acres

Designer Local Farmers

Additional Agents City of El Ejido, Private Land Owners

Key Project Components Landscape that is composed of Greenhouses

Program(s) Farming and Agriculture

Funding Streams Private

A-170 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 650 ft
100 m Water

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-171

TRANSECT

CITY TRANSIT CORRIDOR

CENTER

Figure INU_10-13. Images of El Ejido.

A-172 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

GREENHOUSES

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-173

AGENTS

Private Funds

FUND SOURCES

100,000 Works
Designers and City Officials:
CITY OF EL EJIDO COLLABORATORS PRIVATE LAND OWNER INTENDED USER
Immigrants
1 billion dollar Economy
PRIVATE LAND OWNERS

LEADING ORGANIZATION

Mubadala Development Company

FUND SOURCES

PROCESS 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990 1

EL EJIDO

The first development

of Greenhouses

A-174 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Crops Greenhouses

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Most of El Ejido’s landscape

is now occupied by Greenhosues

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-175

 +

A PLAN FOR
TOKYO
TOKYO, JAPAN

Tange imagined a new urban plan for

the city of Tokyo for the 1960 World
Design Conference. It manifested
itself as a 15 kilometer long series of
islands, ring roads, offices, and housing
blocks across the entirety of Tokyo
Bay. It was a direct response to the
massive inflation of Japan’s population
following the end of World War II
which caused the country’s urban areas
to sprawl out into the country-side
with alarming speed.

A-178 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure INU_14. Rendering of “A Plan for Tokyo.”
 A PLAN FOR TOKYO
Location Tokyo, Japan

Year(s) 1960

Status Unbuilt

Footprint 35 km2

Designer Kenzo Tange

Additional Agents MIT, The Metabolist Group, 1960 World Design Conference

Key Project Components Infrastructure

Program(s) Housing, Vehicular Infrastructure, Office Space, Commercial Space

Public Space, Parks

Funding Streams Japanese Committee for Housing

World Design Conference 1960

A-180 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 1.5 mile
1 km Water

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-181

TRANSECT

RESIDENTIAL ISLANDS TRANSIT OFFICE AND CIVIL

CORRIDOR
RESIDENTIAL ISLANDS TRANSIT OFFICE AND CIVIL
0 1 mile CORRIDOR
1 km

Figure INU_15-19. Model views and drawings.

A-182 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

L CORRIDOR TRANSIT RESIDENTIAL ISLANDS

CORRIDOR
CORRIDOR TRANSIT RESIDENTIAL ISLANDS
CORRIDOR

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-183

AGENTS

Public Fund
Private Fund

FUND SOURCES

INTENDED USER
Kenzo Tange General Public of Tokyo
Konho Kurokawa
STEERING COMMITTEE OF THE
COLLABORATORS
Arata Isozaki WORLD DESIGN CONFERENCE
MIT HOUSING COMMITTEE OF JAPAN RECOGNITION
The Metabolist Collective World Design Conference
1960
INITIATORS

PROCESS 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990

PLAN FOR TOKYO

Plan is completed and Tange reexamines the

showcased at the 1960 plan
World Design
Conference in Tokyo

Tange begins work on

the plan at MIT

Tokyo is heavily
bombed by
the Allied Powers

A-184 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Commercial + Office Civil Housing

0 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

First 5-Year Plan

Second 5-Year Plan

Third 5-Year Plan

Fourth 5-Year Plan

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-185

 +

PEARL RIVER CITY

ZHUJIANG RIVER, CHINA

Pearl River City is a speculative

project that accepts the realization of
the HKZMB, a 45 kilometer bridge
connecting Hong Kong, Zuhai, and
Macau. The project identifies the
harbor as a strategic location in which
to craft an economic condition, with
“entrepreneurial logic”, to serve as the
extended landscapes of production for
these regions. The proposal implies
the occupation of three sovereign
powers within one building enclave
exporting their specialization. Macau
will be a casino. Hong Kong will be
a shopping mall. China will dedicate
itself to food production and export,
as well as markets and restaurants.
The building’s footprint covers the
entire site, maximizing its volumes
with the influence of the automobile
infrastructure below and the airport
paths above.

A-188 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure INU_20. “Pearl City” Plan.
 PEARL RIVER CITY
Location Zhujiang River, China

Year(s) 2010

Status Unbuilt

Footprint 925,000 m2

Designer Jonathan Solomon

Additional Agents Katrina Stoll, Scott Lloyd, Stan Allen

Key Project Components Three dimensional sovereignty

Architecture as Infrastructure

Program(s) Macau’s Casino, Hong Kong’s shopping

Mall, China’s food production and export

Funding Streams Private

A-190 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space 0’ 2000’ 4000’
0 1 mile
1 km Water

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-191

TRANSECT

Figure INU_21-26. Maps of Zhuhai River and Renderings.

A-192 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-193
AGENTS

Jovis Publication

FUND SOURCES

INFRASTRUCTURE AS
ARCHITECTURE Jonathan D Solomon

INITIATOR ARCHITECTS

Architects Katrina Stoll

Scott Lloyd
Stan Allen

INTENDED USERS COLLABORATORS

PROCESS 1800 1850 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 198
PEARL RIVER DELTA

British and Japan Zhuha

Chinese sign 99 occupies HK becomes a
year lease of HK Special
to Britain HK turns from Economic
important trading port Zone
Macau is
to a manufacturing
recognized as
economy
Portuguese
territory Macau gambling
industry booms
The British
gain HK

Opium War
between China
and Britain

A-194 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Enclave + Space of Production

Hong Kong Zhuhai Bridge

80 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Macau inaugurates its HK tallest Construction HKZB

international airport building of the HKZB construction
constructed. begins completed
Zhuhai International
FTZ is founded 2010: HK New 2018: HKZB
Finance Center tallest building is scheduled to be open
British lease over HK expires constructed.
Sai Van bridge is 484 meters
Construction of Lotus bridge completed between International
connecting Macau and Zhuhai Macau and Zhuhai Commerce Center

Macau East Asian

Games Dome is
inaugurated

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-195

SMART CITY URBANISM

A-198 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Smart-City Urbanism refers to theory and prac-
tice around the emergence of embedded tech-
nology, remote sensing, ubiquitous computing,
and autonomous mobility within 20th and 21st
century urbanism. Critical, projective, and vi-
sionary perspectives to the emergence of these
technologies will be discussed.

Infrastructure / Network Urbanism A-199

SMART CITY URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

The Smart City is an urban imaginary combining the concept of ‘green cities’
with technological futurism and giving a name to techno-centric visions of the city
of tomorrow. At the same time, smart city is a framework for policies supporting
technological and ecological urban transitions, a political technology that is currently
spreading across Europe and fertilizing national and local political agendas.1

According to a census organized by the United Nations, by 2050, 60% of the

world’s population is expected to occupy urbanized territories. Technology is
a relatively new force used in marketing the development of these urbanized
territories for cities and elites competing in the global economy. The ease and
accessibility of emerging technologies offers cities the opportunity to promote
an image of a city with rapid public transit, green infrastructure, clean energy,
a higher quality of life for all citizens, and a transparent government. Robert
Goodspeed describes in his essay, “Smart Cities: Moving Beyond Urban
Cybernetics to Tackle Wicked Problems,” that we are currently seeing developing
cities organizing around the concepts of the “Smart City” as a primary tool
of promotion. At the same time, many existing cities in Europe are using the
concepts of Smart Urbanism to retrofit specific areas of their cities. These 1. Alberto Vanolo, “Smartmentality: The
retrofitted areas are often smaller prototypes for larger ambitions. Smart City as Disciplinary Strategy,” Urban
Studies 51, no. 5 (2014): 883-898, doi:
Goodspeed explains that although the term “Smart City” has grown into a 10.1177/0042098013494427.
leitmotiv. Corporate promoters of the concept argue that a smart city is one
that uses information technology to pursue efficient systems through real-time 2. Robert Goodspeed, “Smart Cities: Moving
monitoring and control.2 This notion is directly tied to early ideas of urban Beyond Urban Cybernetics to Tackle Wicked
cybernetics dating back to the 1970s. Alberto Vanolo argues that a contemporary Problems,” Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy
smart city retains six characteristics: a smart economy, smart mobility, smart and Society 8, no. 1 (2015): 79–92, doi: 10.1093/
governance, smart environment, smart living (related to a generalized quality of cjres/rsu013.
life evaluation), and smart people (related to a generalization regarding the level
of social, political, and economic engagement of the citizen).

A-200 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure SCU_01. Smart City Concept. Source: Four strategies to make smart cities work for citizens, Sooraj Shah, March 9, 2018.

Smart City Urbanism A-201

Figure SCU_02-07: 2017 SmartCity Education Festival. 2016 Smart City Conference. Smart City market. Industry Smart City. Smart City model.

In order to operate efficiently, the municipality must work harmoniously with the
private sector in a way unlike traditional public-private relations. The 21st Century
has brought with it a new global trend of “sustainable urban development.”
This concept adds new dimensions to urbanization which requires a quick
need to upgrade existing cities. Smart Cities are forward-looking, progressive,
and resource-efficient while providing a high quality of life. The core concept
of a smart city is a more intelligent operational approach which alters the way
governments, businesses, and people interact with each other.

A-202 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Smart City Urbanism A-203
LINEAGE

The Smart City concept emerged as the result of a series of academic and
corporate conferences and initiatives. While there is growing global interest
in smart city applications, there are also significant challenges in scaling,
implementation, and impact. Therefore, massive conferences were held to discuss
the missions, goals, and methods of Smart Cities of the future. An international
conference in San Francisco titled Smart Cities, Fast Systems, Global Works, explored
the city through information technology.3 It leveraged the word “smart” to imply
the successful experience of sustainable urban competitiveness. The conference
was followed with the publication of A Phenomenon of Scientific and Technological
Society: Smart City, Fast Systems, Global Works in 1992.4 The European Union first Figure SCU_08: Smart Urbanism: Utopian Vision
proposed the innovation of “Smart City” in its 2007 EU Smart City report. IBM or False Dawn. Smart: About Cities.
came up with the idea of “Smart Earth” in 2008, and in 2009 the European
Commission proposed specific plans for building smart cities.
3. David V. Gibson, George Kozmetsky,
The Smart City has experienced three phases. Smart City 1.0: Technology Raymond W. Smilor, The Technopolis Phenomenon:
Driven, is characterized by technology providers encouraging cities to adopt Smart Cities, Fast Systems, Global Networks
their solutions. However, they were often not required to properly understand (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,
1992).
the implication of those technological solutions, or their impacts on citizens’
quality of life (PlanIt in Portugal and Songdo in South Korea). Smart City 2.0:
Technology Enabled, City-Led, opposed technology providers in favor of city 4. Ibid.
driven models. City administrators increasingly focused on technological solutions
as enablers to improve quality of life.
5. Boyd Cohen, “The 3 Generations of Smart
Recently, a new model has been introduced. Smart City 3.0: Citizen Co-Creation, Cities,” Fast Company, August 10, 2015,
https://www.fastcompany.com/3047795/the-3-
rejects tech-driven provider approaches and city driven, technology enabled generations-of-smart-cities.
models in favor of citizen co-creation models for helping drive the next
generation of smarter cities.5 Medellin, for example, is a leading city at the top of
the annual Smart Cities rankings. It has focused on urban regeneration from the 6. Clay Nester, “From Planning to Partnerships:
bottom-up by engaging citizens from the city’s most vulnerable neighborhoods What’s Driving Smart City Initiatives
Around the World,” GreenBiz, March 6,
in transformative projects such as the “Cable Car” and “Electric Stairs” projects 2018, https://www.greenbiz.com/article/
as well as new technology-enabled schools and libraries. Medellin has recently planning-partnerships-whats-driving-smart-city-
expanded its commitment to citizen innovators by supporting the development initiatives-around-world.
of an impressive innovation district to attract and retain entrepreneurial talent.6

A-204 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

CRITIQUE

The idealized state of Smart City Urbanism depicts a utopian vision. However,
individual groups are often marginalized in the process of attempting to
practically and impartially implement such strategies. Disconnections between
sectors arise and political hierarchies are disrupted. The Smart City’s appeal
lies in its promise of higher efficiency, advanced technological savvy among
citizens, and a clean, sustainable infrastructural system. Its advertising images
are overwhelmingly filled with technological futurism while completely void of
human subjects; which is often indicative of the strategy’s ideal implementation.

Masdar City, in the United Arab Emirates, is a clear example of how new cities
can be constructed from scratch with a bias towards technologically organized
infrastructure. As urban geographer Alberto Vanolo explains, not enough research
is done on integrating smart city strategies into existing and mature global cities. A
vast majority of cities capable of integrating Smart City strategies effectively have
operated successfully long before the concept arose. Therefore, one may question
the validity of introducing a new system to a structure that is not yet broken.

Smart Cities also privilege specific spaces, areas, people, and activities. Therefore,
if a city is “smart” one could assume that not all areas are equally as smart;
ultimately resulting in what Alberto Vanolo describes as a Privatopia. On one
hand, the Smart City model has the potential to proliferate certain places, people,
and locations, but on the other, it will also likely marginalize and discriminate
against other people, places, and areas. Likewise, competing agendas will arise
between the politicians dependent on the data produced and recorded, the private
organizations operating and distributing the machinery, the technicians operating
and maintaining the machinery, and the citizens who are being recorded. It is
clear that new partnerships and alliances will form, but it is still unclear how
these relationships will be overseen so that privacy is maintained for citizens. Due
to advancements in technology and social media, the invasion of our personal
privacy has become commonplace and unnoticed. The implementation of Smart
City strategies will likely increase the invasion of our privacy. On an urban scale,
this has the potential to lead to widespread corruption, discrimination, and
marginalization within the city.

Smart City Urbanism A-205

 +

MASDAR CITY
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Masdar City is a planned city in Abu

Dhabi. The city is being built from
the ground up. It runs on renewable
energy and hosts the headquarters for
the International Renewable Energy
Agency. A large solar farm North-East
of the city center provides clean and
renewable energy for citizens. The
infrastructure for the city is removed
from the ground plane, returning
valuable space back to the people.
Transit systems, energy distribution
and sewage disposal all take place
beneath the city’s surface. Masdar city is
designed by Norman Foster Architects
and is largely funded by Abu Dhabi
municipalities.

A-206 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure SCU_09. Masdar City Rendering.
 MASDAR CITY
Location United Arab Emirates

Year(s) 2006 - present

Status In progress

Footprint 6 km2

Designer Norman Foster & Partners

Additional Agents Mubadal Development, Masdar (aka: Abu Dhabi Future Energy Co), the Abu
Dhabi Government, Masdar Institute of Technology, & the International
Renewable Energy Agency

Key Project Components Renewable energy (i.e. Solar and wind), rapid underground transit, smart
technology to promote a healthy environment and lifestyle

Program(s) Housing, Live/work, high-end retail, technology facilities, educational facilities,

tech-industries

Funding Streams Both Public and Private

A-208 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space Solar Farm
0 1.5 mile
0’ 200’ 400’

1 km Water

Smart City Urbanism A-209

TRANSECT

UNDERGROUND
INFRASTRUCTURE

SOLAR FARM AND WIND TURBINE

TECHNOLOGY PROVIDE CLEAN ENERGY
FOR THE CITY

Figure SCU_10-14. Masdar City models and renderings.

A-210 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 UNDERGROUND TRANSIT

Smart City Urbanism A-211

AGENTS

Abu Dhabi Government

FUND SOURCES

INTENDED USER Masdar Institute of Science

and Technology
Norman Foster COLLABORATORS MASDAR
Architects ABU DHABI ENERGY COMPANY
PUBLICATIONS International Renewable
Energy Agency IRENA
CLIENT

Mubadala Development Company

FUND SOURCES

PROCESS 2000 2005

MASDAR

The project is officially initiated Construction did

begin until 20

A-212 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Solar Farm
Clean Energy Greenscape
asdar Institute of
ience and
chnology Solar Farm
Clean Energy
ternational
enewable
nergy Adgency
Abu Dhabi Government
High Tech
Masdar Institute of
science and
ENA
Norman Foster COLLABORATORS
Underground
Masdar
FUNDING SOURCE
INTENDED USER technology
Architects Infrastructure
Abu Dhabi Energy Company PUBLICATORS
International
LEADING ORGANIZATION Renewable
Energy Adgency
IRENA
Mubadala Development Underground
Company
FUNDING SOURCE
Infrastructure

2010 2015 2020

not The first six buildings Loss of funding put a halt Estimated year of
008 were constructed on the project. completion 2030

Smart City Urbanism A-213

A-214 Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Smart City Urbanism A-215
 +

KASHIWA-NO-HA
SMART CITY
KASHIWA, JAPAN

The Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City

concept was built on the themes of
environmental symbiosis, health and
longevity, and the creation of new
growth industries. The objective is
to “realize an international academic
city in which cutting-edge knowledge,
industry, and culture can be developed
and bring about a next-generational
environmental city where people
coexist in harmony with a rich natural
environment and healthy, high-quality
living and working environments in
a creative setting that integrates the
campus and town through partnerships
among the government, private
industry, and academia.”

A-216 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure SCU_15. Aerial view of Kashiwa-no-ha.
 KASHIWA-NO-HA SMART CITY
Location Kashiwa, JAPAN

Year(s) 2000 - 2030

Status In progress

Footprint 2.73 km2

Designer Chiba Prefecture, University of Tokyo, Chiba University

Additional Agents Developer: Mitsui Fudosan Co. Ltd., Owner : Mitsui Fudosan Co. Ltd.,

Consultants: Hitachi Ltd., Nikken Sekkei, Glumac, City of Portland

Key Project Components Environmental-Symbiotic City, Health & Long-life City, Innovative City for New
Industry, Area Energy Management System

Program(s) Planned Community or Resort including Cinema, Cultural Use, Education,

Hotel, Medical, Housing, Office, Retail, Transportation

Funding Streams Public Capital Source

Sustainability Framework LEED ND Plan Platinum Certified

Collaboration Public-Private-Academia Partnership

Number of inhabitants 26,000 (5,000 in Phase I) residents, 10,000 (1,000 in Phase I) workers

A-218 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 ????
???? Water

Smart City Urbanism A-219

TRANSECT

CONSTRUCTION RESIDENTIAL

LAND

0 1/20 mile

1/20 km

Figure SCU_16-20. Photos of Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City, Mitsui Fudosan Co. Ltd.

A-220 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

RETAIL & OFFICE CONSTRUCTION

LAND

Smart City Urbanism A-221

AGENTS

Public Fund
PUBLIC
Kashiwa Community-Building
Public Corporation General, FUND SOURCES
Incorporated Foundation, Chiba
Prefeiture, NPO Support Center

PRIVATE INTENDED USER Public

Mitsui Fudosan, Metropolitan Residents | Students | Tourists
COLLABORATORS UDCK
Intercity Railway Company, Kashiwa
Chamber of Commerce and Industry,
Tanaka Region Hometown Council AWARD LEED ND Plan Platinum
Certification
CLIENT

ACADEMIC
University of Tokyo, Chiba University

2013 AIA Honor Award in the Regional &

Urban Design Category
Aga Khan Award for Architecture
Red Dot 2013 Product Design Award

DESIGNER

PROCESS 1990 1995 2000

KASHIWA- NO-HA
SMART CITY
Opening of the University of
Tokyo Kashiwa Campus,
Construction begins

A-222 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

TAXONOMY

2005 2010 2015 2020

Opening of LaLaport Completion of Gate Square Projected completion

Kashiwanoha (completion of Stage I) scheduled by 2030

Phase 1 Phase 2

Smart City Urbanism A-223

SOCIAL URBANISM

A-226 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

The tenets of Social Urbanism hold that the way
people and groups use the city and socialize with-
in urban space is the most important aspect of
cities, and the primary criteria for evaluating the
success of urban design projects. Often draw-
ing on theories and methods from the social sci-
ences, this broad school of thought sometimes
starkly contrasts urban design theories that place
more importance on formal or aesthetic consid-
erations. Social Urbanism emerged as a reaction
to the top-down methods of modernism – from
the tabula rasa schemes of early CIAM, to the
institutionalized urban renewal in the United
States.

Smart City Urbanism A-227

SOCIAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Social Urbanism integrates new public spaces and facilities with municipal social
programs, and the active engagement of local communities through sociological
strategies.1 The definition of Social Urbanism is loose, so as to expand its reach
into broader territories. Through technical and imaginary representation, some
laboratories are articulating social and spatial actions in response to vulnerable
populations in perilous contexts.2 The citizens that Social Urbanism strives to
engage are those who are underrepresented in current design work, particularly
in the design of public spaces. These underrepresented populations include
children, refugees, elderly people, the disabled, and other urban minority groups.
While other urbanisms may prioritize the aspirations of citizens, Social Urbanism
holds itself responsible to marginalized populations. The projects displaying
Social Urbanism are grounded in the revision or creation of policies, and most
importantly, they utilize public participation throughout the design process. The
evolution of this urbanism argues against the use of checklists and catalogs
of interchangeable elements; arguing that attempts to define a one-size-fits-
all guideline disregards the context surrounding a project. In order for Social
Urbanism projects to be successful, they must explicitly involve the social and
physical context of the city. Using the complexities and disparities of the city, 1. Camilo Calderon, “Social Urbanism -
Social Urbanism utilizes the production of new policies, programs, and processes Participatory Urban Upgrading in Medellin,
Colombia,” in Roderick J. Lawrence, Hulya
to bring together fragmented cities; strengthened through the development of Turgut, and Peter Kellett, Requalifying the Built
physical design. Environment: Challenges and Responses (Göttingen:
Hogrefe Publishing, 2012).

2. Sébastien Thiéry, “Manifeste,” PEROU,

October 1, 2012, http://www.perou-paris.org/
Manifeste.html.

A-228 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure SU_01. Jane Jacobs and others picket to save Penn Station from demolition, 1963.

Social Urbanism A-229

Figure SU_02-03. The expansion and changes of PREVI reflect the economics and cultural evolution and progress of low-income families in the neighborhoods.

LINEAGE

In the 1960s, the ideas of advocacy planning, self-building, and user participation 3. Eric Mumford, The CIAM Discourse on
emerged as part of the effort to redefine architecture’s meaning as a way to Urbanism 1928-1960 (Cambridge: MIT Press,
2002).
realize the needs of users. CIAM and “CIAM Urbanism... has been credited with
and blamed for the design of all the standardized mass housing settlements that
rejected the older pattern of corridor street.”3 This movement raised against the 4. Max Risselada, Team 10: 1953-81: In Search
legacy of CIAM and the Modern Movement emerging from within. Team 10 of a Utopia of the Present (Rotterdam: NAi
members (assembled in the 9th CIAM) defended that urbanism was the “science Publishers, 2005).
and art of building for social interrelationship.”4 Team 10 incorporated the idea
of participation and education to the table, and tried to create a democratic

A-230 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 model, which aimed to enable architectural design to make strategic decisions.
Members of Team 10 started to bring the public into the conversation, but
“without replacing the decision-powers of the project or encroaching on the
central role of the architect-urban designer.”5 They engaged the public, but never
gave them real power in decision-making.
5. Risselada, Team 10.
In the 1960s, numerous advocates emerged for cities planned for people; among
6. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of American
them was Jane Jacobs. She argues that “cities have the capability of providing
Cities (New York: Modern Library, 2011). something for everybody, only because, and only when, they are created by
everybody.”6 She also challenged modernist planning and architecture, inspiring
future theories like New Urbanism, Everyday Urbanism, and Tactical Urbanism.
Moreover, she promoted allowing citizens (planning amateurs) to be the decision-
makers in shaping urban spaces. These ideals laid the foundations for public
participation in planning practice.

Social Urbanism A-231

LINEAGE

In the 1970s, Jan Gehl and William H. Whyte started to focus on the lively,
livable, sustainable and healthy city; to reclaim the public spaces to walk, to stay,
and bicycle as much as possible. Since the 1960s, cities like Copenhagen and
Melbourne formalized a series of plans and regulations to transform the core
of the city from an overcrowded traffic environment to a peaceful yet lively
people-oriented city center. Whyte tackled strategies to create urban spaces which
encouraged a diverse social life. He identified several important elements that
address open spaces in urbanized areas, including plenty of suitable spaces with a
relationship to the street, available food, and accessibility to sun, water and trees.
New policies started to regulate these elements. For example, New York zoning
favors food kiosks and cafés defined as amenities. It specifically encourages
developers to use up to 20% of the open space of plazas for these cafes.7

As the ideologies of Social Urbanism progressed into the 1990s, they evolved
towards adjusting the political process of designing cities. The goal is to make
people visible and to encourage design experts such as architects, landscape
architects, and planners to approach future design endeavors through the
analytical study of people and human behavior. As healthy lifestyles become Figure SU_04. CIAM, The Death and Life of
trends, sustainable and welcoming public spaces must address the present needs Great American Cities, Life Between Buildings.
and desires of the city’s diverse citizens.

A particular concern for Social Urbanism in the 1990s and early 2000s was
providing equal representation to populations within cities that are normally
neglected or underrepresented. The city of Medellin, Colombia represents the
successful use of social urbanism. It went from being one of the most dangerous
cities in the world to a model of social transformation through the creation of
viable public spaces and social infrastructure which increased safety, mobility, and 7. William H. Whyte, The Social Life of Small
Urban Spaces (New York: Project for Public
community engagement. To achieve these results, policy changes were required, Spaces, 2014).
and the implementation of citizen participation methodologies were key. Social
Urbanism has evolved, from the ideas set out by Gehl and Whyte to implement
simple elements into public spaces for the creation of livable cities, into a political
process to aid the disenfranchised through participatory design methods. Today,
Social Urbanism has transformed into a process-driven approach for creating
safety and equality to replace previous internal turmoil and segregation.

A-232 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

CRITIQUE

One prominent critique of Social Urbanism is that the strategies deployed to

create public spaces are limited to urban circumstances, with citizens who are
normally represented in different scenarios. To create and encourage livable
public spaces, William H. Whyte deployed specific strategies from sitting space,
sun, wind, trees, water, food, and the relationships with the street. The strategies
Whyte studied were adopted by the government to encourage social activities
in urban spaces. However, the lack of consideration towards minorities and
other underrepresented publics limits the studies. An overarching limitation,
directly related to aspects of the work done by Whyte and Gehl, is that these
two advocates for social urbanism create methodologies which oversimplify the
complexity of the urban fabric in cities. The creation of a guideline or models
of success produces the understanding that Social Urbanism can be easily
replicated in any urban framework and the results will be consistent. However,
this is not the case. The historical processes resulting in fragmentation and citizen
disengagement in cities may have commonalities across geographies, but no city is
like any other. Therefore, solutions to a city’s ills require individuality.

Many of the projects that deploy the methodologies of Social Urbanism are in
response to a dire need for urban intervention. The issues surrounding Social
Urbanism projects include protection against violence, creating social justice,
integrating diverse publics, and promoting community engagement. The end goal
is to produce successful projects that provide attractive, safe, and inclusive public
spaces which citizens take pride in and feel a sense of ownership. What happens
if these projects are too successful? If these spaces become extremely successful
there can be a transition from a prosperous public space to a commodified
urban attraction. In an effort to enhance the quality of life for citizens living in
urban areas of conflict, gentrification might slip in. As with many areas where
successful redevelopment has occurred, people of social and economic mobility
are attracted, and inevitably the original citizens are displaced.

Social Urbanism A-233

 +

SUPERKILEN
COPENHAGEN, DENMARK

This project initial began as part of a

large urban renewal movement taking
place in Copenhagen. Superkilen was
meant to provide multi-functional
public space that would bring the
community together. It explores the use
of “extreme participation” as a method
for engaging a more diverse public in
the development process of an urban
park for the Nørrebro neighborhood
in Copenhagen, Denmark. This
neighborhood has historically been
the most economically, socially, and
culturally diverse part of Copenhagen,
and has been challenged in providing
safe public spaces for the community
as a whole. Social engagement of
the public was a large part of the
planning and design process. To
achieve a socially sustainable public
space, marginalized populations were
targeted to gain insight about what
underrepresented populations wanted
to see in community spaces.

A-234 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure SU_05. Aerial view of Superkilen in Copenhagen, Denmark.
 SUPERKILEN
Location Copenhagen, Denmark

Years 2007 - 2012

Status Built

Footprint 355,000 ft2

Designer Bjarke Ingels Group, Topotek1, and SUPERFLEX

Additional Agents The Municipality of Copenhagen and Realdania Philanthropic Association

Key Project Components Combining public participatory design processes and with the necessity to create
safe, accessible, and engaging social spaces.

Programs Community gathering space, market space, leisure and recreation lawn, and
continuous bike path.

Funding Streams Public and Private

Additional Information Superkilen is an urban park in Copenhagen’s most socially and economically
diverse neighborhood.

This project began as park of a larger urban renewal initiative to create safe and
dynamic community spaces.

This project takes advantage of “extreme participation” in the design process.

A-236 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 1 mile
1 km Water

Social Urbanism A-237

TRANSECT

MULTI-FAMILY SUP
HOUSING

0 1 mile

1 km

Figure SU_06-09. Site plan of the park. Key objects specifically curated through the use of “extreme participation” process.

A-238 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

PERKILEN BIG BOX SHOPPING & INDUSTRY

Social Urbanism A-239

AGENTS

Public Private
Municipality of Copenhagen Realdania
Neighborhood Organizations
The Danish Arts Council

FUND SOURCES

Municipality of Copenhagen
Local Governance Board INSTITUTIONS INTENDED USER Public
Youths | Elderly | Families
MUNICIPALITY OF COPENHAGEN
REALDANIA
Bjarke Ingels Group COLLABORATORS MAINTENANCE
Topotek 1 Municipality of Copenhagen
SUPERFLEX
Lemmin & Eriksson LEADING ORGANIZATION

2013 AIA Honor Award in the Regional &

Urban Design Category
Aga Khan Award for Architecture
Red Dot 2013 Product Design Award

AWARDS

PROCESS 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990

SUPERKILEN

Nørrebro Large influx of refugees

official becomes
part of Nørrebro experienced extreme
Copenhagen social unrest that eventually
erupted in violent riots

A-240 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Morrocan Fountain Japanese Cherry Blossom Thai Boxing Ring

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Competition open to professional Project completed and

teams in a call for entries from the open to public
fields of architecture, landscape
architecture,sociology, ethnology, Realization of project
art, and IT takes place

The winning teams were

selected: architect - BIG, Process of “extreme participation”
landscape architect - takes place among residents and a
Topotek1, and artist group catalog of objects to populate the
- SUPERFLEX park is curated

Social Urbanism A-241

A-242 Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Social Urbanism A-243
 +

PEDESTRIANIZATION
COPENHAGEN, DENMARK

Up until 1962, all of the streets in the

city center were filled with car traffic,
and all the squares were used as car
parks. The post-war increase in car
traffic meant rapidly deteriorating
conditions for pedestrians in the
city center. Starting from the 1960s,
Copenhagen has followed a series of
strict policies targeted at reducing the
impact of traffic on the city center
and improving conditions for uses.
In large scale, there are four chapters
of the Municipal Plan that discuss
topics that concern the quality of the
walking environment. Some of these
topics discuss direct interventions
such as street and urban space
improvements, and others are indirect,
such as housing policies that affect the
density and demographic profile of the
neighborhoods.

A-244 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure SU_10. Pedestrianized Strøget street in Copenhagen.
 PEDESTRIANIZATION
Location Copenhagen, Denmark

Year(s) 1960 - 2000

Status Built

Footprint 95,750 m2

Designer Multiple Architects, Landscape Architects, and Artists

Key Project Components Pedestrianization

Program(s) Retail, residential, commercial, and institution

Funding Streams Public

Goal Reclaim the street for people

A-246 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 1 mile
1 km Water

Social Urbanism A-247

TRANSECT

10 -
AF

BEF
0 1 mile

1 km
User Legend Pedestrian Space

Figure SU_11. View from Nyhavn after pedestrianization.

A-248 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

- 12m
FTER

FORE

Parking Mixed Traffic

Social Urbanism A-249

AGENTS

Public Fund

FUND SOURCES
Various Architects,
Landscape Architects and Artists:
Mogens Breyen
Mogens Møller
KHR Architects
Bjørn Nørgaard Public
INTENDED USER Resident | Student | Tourists
Stadsarkitektens Direktorat CITY OF COPENHAGEN
Sanne Maj Andersen COLLABORATORS
Leif Dupont Laursen CITY ENGINEER DIRECTORATE
Sven Wiig Hansen CITY ARCHITECTURAL
Torben Schønherr
Jørn Larsen
DIRECTORATE PUBLICATIONS
Public Space, Public Life
Hans J. Holm Jan Gehl, 1996
I.P. Andersen LEADING ORGANIZATION
Ginman
Harboe
Borup
Schmidt Hammer
Lassen Architects
...

1936 Green Areas of the Copenhagen Region

1947 Finger Plan

PRECEDENTS INITIATIVES

PROCESS 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990

PEDESTRIANIZATION IN
COPENHAGEN
Copenhagen’s first pedestrianized
zone opens — Strøget.

By the end of 1962: 15,800 m2 By the end of 1968: 22,860 m2 By the end of 1988: 65,150 m

A-250 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Areas of the city that most unattractive ground floor facades are located. Areas of the city that remaining through traffic routes in the city center.

Entertainment, cinemas, theaters

Hotels
Pubs and restaurants
Kiosks and shops

Areas of the city that feature lively, attractive little streets. Diverse types of city functions open around 23:00 on a summer evening.

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Copenhagen now has six times the area of car-free Copenhagen has one of the lowest rates of
space than in 1962. car ownership in Europe at 208 per 1,000 of
the population.

m2 By the end of 1996: 95,750 m2

Social Urbanism A-251

[COLLAGE
E BEFORE]
[COLLAGE
E AFTER]
INFORMAL URBANISM

A-256 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Less of an organized movement than a phenom-
ena, Informal Urbanism encompasses an attempt
to address the logics behind the rapid and organ-
ic growth of residential areas that have emerged
outside of typical legal frameworks, often with-
out the professional expertise of planners and
architects, and lacking government administered
infrastructure. Informal urban communities of-
ten emerge on land that is publicly owned and
house the most disenfranchised urban popula-
tions. Informal urban settlements often have
juridically exceptional power structures, econo-
mies, and means of development.

Social Urbanism A-257

INFORMAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

“Less of an organized movement than a phenomenon, Informal Urbanism

encompasses an attempt to address the logics behind the rapid and organic
growth of residential areas that have emerged outside of typical legal frameworks,
often without the professional expertise of planners and architects, and lacking
government administered infrastructure.”1 Informal Urbanism is the practice of
studying informality throughout the metropolitan regions of the global south.
Close examination of this type of urbanism sheds light on the ways in which
these settlements create new socio-spatial structures and how their image can
inform of a discursive approach to urban life.

To understand the qualities of informality, it is imperative to generate a definition

for what constitutes these types of settlements. Informality has become a
universal term used to describe an increasingly broad category of forms, methods,
and systems of living in urban environments throughout the world. However,
the types of occupation vary in both their formal arrangement (from squatters
alongside train tracks in Mumbai to occupations of “abandoned” buildings) and
in their geographical location (from the hills of Rio de Janeiro to the periphery of
Mexico City). Informal settlements have one commonality: they operate outside 1. Maria Arquero de Alarcon and McLain
legal frameworks of the city. Institutions like the UN-Habitat define informality Clutter, “Informal Urbanism,” Theories and
as unplanned settlements and areas where housing is not in compliance with Methods of Urban Design, University of Michigan,
2018.
current planning and building regulations.2 These conditions, which hinge on the
fact that these occupations are illegal in nature, underscore the vulnerability of
informal settlement as a method of inhabitation. While many organizations and 2. UN Habitat, “Habitat III Issue Papers: 22 -
institutions try to come up with overarching definitions, they fail to notice that Informal Settlements,” United Nations Conference
they address a seemingly disorganized process with a historical lineage that can be on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development
(New York, 2015).
traced to the beginning of urban organizations.

Prior to our understanding of contemporary informality, some cities in the past 3. Bernard Rudofsky, Architecture without
grew without regulated planning. Bernard Rudofsky questions architecture’s Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-pedigreed
ability to be identified as art from a single rendition and uses the architecture that Architecture (Albuquerque: University of New
emerged by the spontaneous and continuing activity of people to develop housing Mexico Press, 1987).
types.3 Rudofsky promotes an analytical study on the catalog of urban structures

A-258 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure IU_01. Favelas on Rio de Janeiro. Image Credit: Rio on Watch.

Informal Urbanism A-259

Figure IU_02-03. Shanty Towns in Manila Bay. Image Credit: Top, Liz Cooke. Bottom, Bernhard Lang.

that have emerged on the periphery of what we understand as architecture. For

him, this is the base for understanding structures outside of the formal realm.

In contemporary times the emergence of informality responded to the mass

migration of the work force from the rural districts to the metropolis. This
phenomenon can be correlated to industrialization and the ambition to generate
top down approaches to urbanism. In early industrial years, cities of the northern
hemisphere saw rapidly growing slums and overcrowding which lacked hygienic
qualities of the ideal city and were addressed to fit within the conditions of
modern urbanity. However, when these conditions emerged in the southern

A-260 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

4. Kim Dovey and Ross King, “Forms of hemisphere, governments did not have the capacity to match this growth in either
Informality: Morphology and Visibility of the formal housing sector or the formal market.4 Since then, the settlements
Informal Settlements,” Built Environment 37, no.
1 (2011): 11-29.
have grown to become more permanent. With such permanence, the study of
informal urbanism emerged to define a new urban sector type, and to investigate
possibilities for intervention.

Today, informal urbanization is the largest mechanism of urban land production

globally and the scale and intensity of the phenomenon challenges traditional
strategies of intervention. Instead, Informal Urbanism attempts to create an
understanding of the political and socio-spatial conditions, to advocate for
incremental improvements and to readjust their visibility and self-image.

Informal Urbanism A-261

LINEAGE

Informal districts are often a nest of complex systems that underly a need
for a better understanding of urban environments-- either typologically,
morphologically, culturally or socially. There are many authors who follow
different analytical methods to frame their studies of informality.

Many authors focus on the conceptual levels on which informality emerged in

cities. For example, authors such as Alsayyad and Vyjayanthi Rao discuss the
social and economic means under which these occupations emerged – dealing
Figure IU_04. Alsayyad and Roy Urban
with globalization and liberalization of the markets, and their effect on political Informality, and “Habitat III Issue Papers: 22 -
and social structures within the urban fabric.5 Through these approaches authors Informal Settlements”.
offer a reading of informal settlements as a phenomenon caused by isolation and
exclusion, and discuss the ways in which they are recognized or not as part of the
city in their own right.

Other authors categorize informal settlements, their performance and structure

under an umbrella of distinct typologies. The work of Kim Dovey and Ross
King frames informality through a series of geographic types. They argue that the
readings of slums can mediate the visibility of informal settlements within their 5. Vyjayanthi Rao, “Slum as Theory: The South/
surroundings.6 The image of the slum highly impacts how informal developments Asian City and Globalization,” International
are perceived politically and economically. They provoke readings on informal Journal of Urban and Regional Research 30, no. 1
districts as larger assemblages of systems that rely on sophisticated understanding (2006), doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2427.2006.00658.x.
of their context.
6. Dovey and Ross, “Forms of Informality,”
Finally, other authors such as Ananya Roy create a bridge between policy and
11-29.
practice, and informal urbanism. She problematizes institutional planning
frameworks that have produced the unplanned and “unplannable.”7 Roy addresses
that governments have lacked or generalized definitions of urban policies to 7. Ananya Roy, “Urban Informality: Toward
address the issues presented in informal occupations. The limitation of policy an Epistemology of Planning,” Journal of the
American Planning Association 71, no. 2 (2005):
models that adopted characteristics of urban renewal to deal with informality
147-158.
are not enough to tackle the rapid growth of informal settlements. These type
of outdated policies are criticized by Roy, calling for a change in planning
processes to recognize these new methods of urbanization as legitimate and offer
mechanisms for engagement.

A-262 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 CRITIQUE

Although there is a lot of intricacy in trying to understand informality, there are

practices that attempt to generate better frameworks of urbanity specific to the
needs and capacities of these communities. For example, the work of Catalytic
Communities in Rio de Janeiro advocates that cities should learn from Brazilian
favelas as models for sustainable urban development.8 Although a promising idea,
most of the approaches to address sustainability still address western frameworks,
using frameworks such as LEED. These methods of sustainability may have
proven efficient in the northern hemisphere, but they fail to categorize the
complex problems that exist on these types of settlements. Furthermore, the use
of these types of frameworks standardizes informality, adopting a blanket strategy
to address a wide range of unique and distinct systems of inhabitation.

Additionally, single overarching strategies have been present since the emergence
of informality as a method of urbanization. From the beginning, governments
and practices have disregarded the different qualities and capacities that each of
these settlements possess. Elisabete Franca explains three consecutive phases in
the attitude of politics and architecture on informality. First, in early informal
8. Catalytic Communities, “Favela as a emergence, planning and architecture practices ignored the exponential growth
Sustainable Model,” Catalytic Communities, of bottoms-up strategies of urbanization around the metropolis, focusing
Accessed March 20, 2018, http://catcomm.org/ instead on the efforts on new modernist approaches of urbanism.9 Second,
favela-modelo/.
after the phenomenon of informality grew so large that it was impossible to
ignore, practices to address informality attempted to annihilate and eradicate
9. Elisabete Franca, “São Paulo Calling,” Domus them, following urban renewal types of approaches.10 And finally, the practice
February 8, 2012, https://www.domusweb.it/ of architecture moved to understand what happens within these informal
en/news/2012/02/08/sao-paulo-calling.html. settlements, becoming attentive to what happens at these complex areas and
informing new practices from which these communities can obtain better living
10. Ibid. conditions.11 This transition of various practices attempts to generate new
frameworks to provide more sustainable practices for these communities. Once
we are able to understand informality and its capacities, we can begin to develop
11. Ibid. new anticipatory capacities to inform more sustainable practices from early stages
and incorporate these communities within the city’s operational framework.

Informal Urbanism A-263

+

VILA NOVA
PALESTINA
SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL

The project explores informal

inhabitation as a politically motivated
action to protest for the lack of
adequate housing for all in the city of
São Paulo. The failure of habitation
programs such as “Minha Casa, Minha
Vida”, inspired a social movement -
MTST - to occupy a vacant terrain and
hosted families in need of housing.
Over the years, the settlement has
hosted over 8,000 families and it is
extremely organized in 21 groups, each
sharing a central kitchen. Coordinators
of the Organization and Volunteers
take rounds to check general conditions,
protect residents, and intervene in
disputes between neighborhoods. The
occupation has a special temporal
quality in which they are responding to
a governmental inequality and exerting
pressure through protest, rather than
seeing the occupation as a solution to
the current housing problem of São
Paulo. The tents of the settlement
remain precarious and become a place
where families can move in and out as
needed.

A-264 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure IU_05. Vila Nova Palestina Occupation. Image credit Leonardo Soares.
 VILA NOVA PALESTINA
Location São Paulo, Bazil

Year(s) 2013 - present

Status In progress

Footprint 24.2 acres

Designer Movimento dos Trabalhadores Sem Teto

Additional Agents Moradores (Citizens without Housing)

Response to Government Program Minha Casa, Minha Vida

Key Project Components Study of the emergence of informal settlements as a method of protest

Bottom-up, self organized methods of urbanization through informality

Program(s) Residential squatters organized in 21 units, each with central kitchen and power

Common space and area for gathering, and event organization

Citizens fund organization

Funding Streams Partnership with other organizations

Occupants The occupation has over 8,000 registered families

Temporality Provisional character where people occupy to exert political pressure

Litigation Located in near an ecological reserve, the occupation is threaten for eviction

A-266 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 250 ft
50 m Water

Informal Urbanism A-267

TRANSECT

WEALTHY FOREST BUFFER VILA NOVA PALES

SUBURBS

0 37.5 ft

7.5 m

Figure IU_06-10. Vila Nova Palestina from the ground. Image Credit from: Mulheres Da Periferia,Vieira, Leonardo Soares, Luciana Bedeschi.

A-268 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

STINA SETTLEMENT FOREST BUFFER MAIN ENVIRONMENT

ROAD PROTECTED

AREA

Informal Urbanism A-269

AGENTS

PARTNERS OF MTST Citizen Funds

Resistência Urbana Fundraisers
Periferia Ativa
Movimento Dos Trabalhadores Sem Terra
Movimento Passe Livre FUND SOURCES
Uneafro
Circulo Palmarino
Movimento Dos Sem Teto Da Bahia
Terra Livre
Quilombo Urbano
Brigadas Populares Moradores
Pastoral Operári Low Income Citizens
Fábricas Ocupadastribunal Popular INTENDED USER
Volunteers
Observatorio Das Violências Policiais
COLLABORATORS MOVIMENTO DOS TRABALHADORES Construction Workers
Centro De Mídia Independente
Agência Carta Maior SEM TETO
Revista Caros Amigos
PUBLICATIONS Por Que Ocupamos?
Brasil De Fato
Correio Da Cidadania Uma Introducao a Luta dos
Rojo Y Negro Sem-Teto, 2015
Cgt Espanha
LEADING ORGANIZATION
Fenasps
Blog Da Raquel Rolnik
Sindicatos De Trabalhadores Do
Judiciário Federal No Estado De São Paulo
Rádio Cirandeira
Fogoneros
Fórum Popular De Saúde Do Estado De
São Paulo
Movimento Popular Por Moradia Minha Casa, Minha Vida
Rua Juventude Anticapitalista
Juntos
Prefeitura de São Paulo

GOVERNMENT PROVOCATION

PROCESS 1990 1995 2000

VILA NOVA PALESTINA

MTST Becomes a Social,

Political and Popular
Movement

A-270 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

TAXONOMY

Occupied Buildings Cortiço Loteamento

Consolidated Favela Young Favela Temporary Settlement

2005 2010 2015 2020

Minha Casa Minha Occupation of Terrain

Vida Instituted to
provide housing for
people on sub-optimal conditions

2012 2014 2016 2018

Informal Urbanism A-271

 +

CHICOLOAPAN
MEXICO CITY, MEXICO

This research explores the various

types of land development in Mexico
City’s peripheral municipalities.
With the introduction of informal
settlements and social organizations,
a few typologies of land division
and development have emerged as
municipal governments attempt to
transition their inefficient agricultural
lands into urban’ taxable land. The
study focuses on the municipality of
Chicoloapan where new urban land
is developed in two ways: by social
organizations with the primary goal
of gaining political control or through
government subsidized developments
driven by the private profits of
developers and builders. Each of
the different typologies of urban
development in Chicoloapan provide
different qualities of urban life as
well as infrastructural, residential, and
commercial distribution.

A-274 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure IU_11. Chicoloapan de Juarez. Image credit: Google Earth Pro.
 CHICOLOAPAN
Location Chicoloapan de Juarez, Mexico

Year(s) 2000 - present

Status In progress

Footprint 8.27 km2

Designer Private Developers (Casas Geo, SARE, Casas ARA, FOVISSSTE)

Additional Agents Citizens in need of housing

Municipal and Federal Government

Key Project Components Discrepancy between politics of social housing in Mexico City

Informal Settlements are more adapted to living conditions than social housing

Program(s) Social housing organization vs. Informal housing organization

Infrastructure qualities of each of these organizations

Funding Streams Public Funding for Private Developments

Citizen funds for informal settlements

Political Organization involved

Rapid Growth Development Chicoloapan has had over 50,000 social housing units built from 2000 to 2010

Informality vs. Formality Informality is more adapted to living conditions than their formal counterparts

A-276 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 750 ft
150 m Water

Informal Urbanism A-277

TRANSECT

GOVERNMENT SOCIAL HOUSING BUFFER H

0 25 ft

5m

Figure IU_12-16. Chicoloapan Elevations. Image Credit: Google Earth.

A-278 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

HISTORICAL / COMMERCIAL CENTER MAIN DISTRICT INFORMAL SETTLEMENT
ROAD

Informal Urbanism A-279

AGENTS

INFONAVIT Bancomer & Banamex

GOVERNMENT SOFOLES FOVISSTE Onavis & Banca Fideicomisos
Credits

LEADING CONTROLS ALL CREDIT FACILITATE CREDITS TO PROVIDE MORTGAGES

ORGANIZATION FOR PUBLIC SECTOR BUY SOCIAL HOUSING

URBI INTENDED USER Low Income Citizens

Private Sector TYPE OF
DEVELOPMENT
GEOVILLAS Construction Workers
Social Housing Citizens living in Informal
Development CASAS GEO
Settlements
HOMEX FUND SOURCES
SARE
INTERVENTION PER PROPERTY TYPE

DEVELOPER ORGANIZATIONS

CONTRACTS WITH

STATE
DGRT FINEZA
&
CODEUR CRESEM
PRIVATE

DISTRITO STATE OF
FEDERAL MEXICO

COMMUNAL
CORETT PROCEDE
&
FIDEURBE AURIS
EJIDOS

PROCESS 1800 1850 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 198
CHICOLOAPAN

Chicoloapan de Juarez Receives FHP FOVISS

Municipla Status Popular Institute
Mexico sets Housing for Housing Fund Housing
Workers as a Constitutional Right Social Se
Distribution
of Lands Law INFONAVI
Regulation of National Fun
Ejidos for Housing
the Workers
National Institute
For Development of Emergence of
Housing and Community Big Developer
Operations

A-280 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Formal Typology

Informal Typology

80 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

STE FONAVIR Development of National Development Plan

e of Rural Housing Ejidal Land, Over for public and affordable
g for National Fund 50,000 houses built housing
ervices
Agricultural Law: Municipality Regulation:
IT Ejidos to develop to control their own urban
nds as trading systems development
of

Earliest Development Latest Development 1 km

Informal Urbanism A-281

POST-COLONIAL URBANISM

A-284 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

The term Post-Colonial Urbanism refers to the
novel forms of urbanization that emerged with
the recession of Western colonial powers within
formerly colonized cities. Post-Colonial Urban-
isms often reflect a hybridization of the social,
cultural, and formal qualities of their former oc-
cupying power and native cultural traditions and
methods of city-making. Post-Colonial Urban-
isms are often found in the global south.

Informal Urbanism A-285

POST-COLONIAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Post-Colonial Urbanism emerged as an umbrella of counter-narratives to

contemporary Western-centric urban theories. Post-Colonial urbanists criticize
that western experiences failed to explain the mega-city situations pervasive in the
“Global South” or the “Third World.” They argue that those seemingly informal
phenomena represent a divergent modern route of city building independent
from western-centric understandings of modernism.

Post-colonial urbanism presents two main areas of reflection. First, it proposes

a definition for Modernity and Development.1 As cities are distinctive in
social, economic and political character, idiosyncrasies of every city should be
recognized as individually unique and ought to be represented as differentiated
urban developmental models. Second, it recognizes Informality.2 Post-Colonial
urbanists argue that the informal fabric is “a mode of urbanization,” or 1. Ananya Roy, “The 21st-Century Metropolis:
New Geographies of Theory,” Regional
modernity, in global southern cities. They object to the conventional depiction of
Studies 43, no. 6 (2009): 819-830, doi:
informality as “underdevelopment and backwardness.” They deny accepting the 10.1080/00343400701809665.
teleological concept of city evolution and linear narratives of development.

Post-Colonial Urbanism is more than a reflection on existing urban conditions. 2. Ananya Roy and Aihwa Ong, Worlding Cities:
It is a critical methodology which seeks to deconstruct Euro-American centrism Asian Experiments and the Art of Being Global.
and “worlding” system of knowledge. It is an ideological resistance that proposes Chichester (West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012).
a theoretically reflective counterpoint to the ideological totalization of urban age
discourse. 3. Jennifer Robinson, Ordinary Cities: Between
Modernity and Development (London: Routledge,
Jennifer Robinson developed the idea of “Ordinary Cities,”3 and Ananya Roy 2006).
advocates for “New Geographies of Theory.”4 Through reconceptualizing
traditional urban theory, post-colonial urbanism opens a new way of doing global
4. Roy, “The 21st-Century Metropolis,” 819-
metropolitan studies, introduces new opportunities for locus-based theories,
830, doi: 10.1080/00343400701809665
comparative urban studies and new approach to “worlding” narratives.

A-286 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure PCU_01. Aerial View of New Delhi.

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-287

Figure PCU_02-03. City view of Havana and Mumbai.

Figure PCU_04-11. Important academic publications.

Figure PCU_12-15. Urban landscape in global south cities (Mumbai, Dharavi, Lagos, Copperbelt ).

A-288 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-289
LINEAGE

Post-Colonial Urbanism is derived from a series of urban studies which claim the 5. Ananya Roy, “Slumdog Cities: Rethinking
unique value of the Global South’s urban conditions. There is no clear definition Subaltern Urbanism,” International Journal of
Urban and Regional Research 35, no. 2 (2011):
for Post-Colonial Urbanism. It is still developing in various sub-theories. Roy 223-38.
and Robinison developed the concept of Subaltern Urbanism5 and Comparative
urbanism.6 They ask for comparative methodologies which focus on the mutual
effects between cities and how the process could be understood. 6. Jennifer Robinson, “Cities in a World of
Cities: The Comparative Gesture,” International
Other theorists have come up with Locational Difference7 and Strategic Journal of Urban and Regional Research 35, no. 1
(2011): 1-23.
Essentialism,8 which call for an approach as “process” rather than “trait”
geographies. A third thread promotes seeing space and agency as the result of
associating humans and non-humans through the lens of assemblage thinking9 7. Mary Lawhon, Jonathan Silver, Henrik
and actor-network theory (ANT).10 Ernstson, and Joseph Pierce, “Unlearning (Un)
Located Ideas in the Provincialization of Urban
Theory,” Regional Studies 50, no. 9 (2016): 1611-
22, doi: 10.1080/00343404.2016.1162288.

8. Susan Abraham, “Strategic Essentialism in

Nationalist Discourses: Sketching a Feminist
Agenda in the Study of Religion,” Journal of
Feminist Studies in Religion 25, no. 1 (2009): 156-
61, doi: 10.2979/fsr.2009.25.1.156.

9. Ben Anderson Colin McFarlane, “Assemblage

and Geography,” Area 43, no. 2 (2011): 124-27,
doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4762.2011.01004.x.

10. Ignacio Farías and Thomas Bender, Urban

Assemblages: How Actor-Network Theory Changes
Urban Studies (New York: Routledge Press,
Antonio Gramsci Michel Foucault Ananya Roy Jennifer Robinson 2010).

A-290 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

CRITIQUE

It is obviously good to see the rise of provincial theoretical consciousness, but is

it possible for regionally produced concepts to be deployed in a global context?
Could provincialization simultaneously be “located and dislocated?”

Post-Colonial Urbanism was built mostly upon comparative study; north and
south, regional and global, etc. It seeks to reconstruct urban theory and commits
to re-narrate “worlding” knowledges. But can comparative methodologies
overcome their limitations of fragmented depiction and reach to an intact
epistemology of contemporary urban conditions?

Reflection on modernity and informality are a contemporary approach towards

looking into global south cities that draws conclusions from empirical experience.
To what extent does it have the potential to explain the future of informal
settlements, and potentially describe some of the post-colonial cities of the
Global North? How can we approach informalities situated in different contexts
to develop a more general, productive and constructive theory that could be
understood widely?

The problem with Post-Colonial Urbanism might be its unilateral observation

based on specific seemingly untold urban developmental periods and cultural
contexts. Post-Colonial urbanists intentionally try to avoid the fact that urban
space has become a global capital apparatus. No city has escaped from the neo-
liberal logic of urban accumulation. Political-economic principles are obviously
universal but driving different cities toward economic prosperity with disparity
appearances. On this point, all cities are heading towards a similar direction which
make it impossible to deconstruct the world city paradigm.

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-291

 +

OLD TOWN
JAKARTA
JAKARTA, INDONESIA

Kota Tua was the first walled settlement

of the Dutch in Jakarta in 1800. This
inner walled city contrasted with the
surrounding villages. From the 17th-
19th century, it was established as the
capital of the Dutch East Indies. Soon
after Indonesia gained independence
in 1945, this area was abandoned. In
1970, the Governor of Jakarta officially
designated the Old Town as a heritage
site. Despite the Governor’s Decree,
Old Town remained neglected. In 1980,
the business & banking district moved
to other areas in the south of Jakarta.
In 2013, the government engage with
OMA to develop an innovative way
to revitalize the Old Town with an
“engage and reveal” concept. Since
then, the area has become one of the
most prominent tourism districts in
Jakarta.

A-292 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure PCU_16. View of an abandond building in Old Town Jakarta, Indonesia.
 OLD TOWN JAKARTA
Location Jakarta, Indonesia

Year(s) 1945 - present

Status In progress

Footprint 3.7 acres

Designer OMA

Additional Agents City of Jakarta

Indonesian Ministry of Tourism

Dutch Government

Key Project Components Civic Building

Museum

Heritage & Historic Building

Program(s) Revitalization

Infill Development

Funding Streams Public

A-294 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 0.2 mile
0.2 km Water

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-295

TRANSECT

0 20 feet

5m

Figure PCU_17-19. Various perspective views of Old Town Jakarta, Indonesia.

A-296 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-297
AGENTS

Public Fund
Dutch Government Fund

FUND SOURCES

OMA (Design & Architect)

Local Architect & Engineers CITY OF JAKARTA
Southeast Asia Heritage COLLABORATORS INTENDED USER Public
Southeast Asia Tourist Association
MINISTRY OF TOURISM Residents | Touritst
ASEAN Economic Community DUTCH GOVERNMENT
Trans Jakarta

LEADING ORGANIZATION

City Planning Department

Indonesian Heritage Center

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT PARTNER

PROCESS 1602 1800 1850 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 198
1
OLD TOWN JAKARTA

Dutch East India VOC nationalised Indonesia’s

Company arrived & Independence day
colonialized Indonesia from colonialism

Old Town designated as a heritag

location & revitalization process o
“Freeze & Conceal” was starte

A-298 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Fatahilah Old Train Row of Abandoned

Museum Station Buildings

Ceramic
Museum Fatahilah Squae Batavia Cafe

1970
80 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

The Banking District at the Old Revitalization OMA’s Jakarta Old Ongoing
Town was disappeared concept shift to town rebirth project
“Engage & Reveal”

ge
of
ed

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-299

 +

MILL VILLAGE
GIRANGAON, INDIA

Girangaon is now a part of central

Mumbai. At one time this area had
almost 130 textile mills, with the
majority being cotton mills. 90% of
the population who worked at the
mills lived within a 15-minute walking
distance. All of them lived in the
overcrowded tenements (chawls).
The mills of Girangaon significantly
contributed to the prosperity and
growth of Mumbai into a major
industrial metropolis. Even after the
British left, the mills were operated
until the Great Bombay Textile Strike
of 1982 caused the majority of mills to
close. Many buildings were abandoned,
and the textile industry in Mumbai
has largely disappeared. Conservation
efforts began in 1991 to preserve the
old mills, while the rest were converted
into mixed-use by private developers.

A-302 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure PCU_20. View of the abandoned mills in Girangaon, India.
 MILL VILLAGE
Location Girangaon, India

Year(s) 1945 - present

Status In progress

Footprint N/A

Designer Various Architects

ADA

Sterling Engineering Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd. )

Additional Agents Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA)

Key Project Components Mills, Residential (Single Family & Multi Family Residential), Office & Retail

Program(s) Urban Infill Building

Revitalization

Funding Streams Private

A-304 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 0.2 mile
0.2 km Water

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-305

TRANSECT

CHAWLS MEDIUM RISE BUILDI

0 0.1 mile

0.1 km

Figure PCU_21-23. Perspective views of Girangaon, India.

A-306 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

ING MARATHON FUTUREX MEDIUM RISE BUILDING

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-307

AGENTS

Marathon Group:
Private Capital

FUND SOURCES

Mumbai Metropolitan Region INTENDED USER Corporate IT Parks

Development Authority (MMRDA) M/S MARATHON Commercial Office
ADA (Architects) COLLABORATORS REALTY PVT. LTD
Sterling Engineering MMRDA
Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd. GREEN TECH The Woodall Rodgers Park
Foundation Board
LEADING ORGANIZATION

ULI Urban Open Space Award

Texas Society of Architects Honor Award
Federal Highway Administration
Environmental Excellence Award

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT PARTNER

PROCESS 1800 1850 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 198
MILL VILLAGE

Colonial period (under India’s Independence M

British) until 1945 day from colonialism in
w

A-308 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Abandon Mills

Chawls Culture
Marathon Futurex Chawls Courtyard

80 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Mill Village still Textile industry Globalization and Marathon Futurex Marathon Ongoing
n operation until 1982 in Mumbai largely New economy Construction begin Futurex
when riot happened closed down Construction
Phase 1
Completed

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-309

TYPOLOGICAL URBANISM

A-312 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Typological Urbanism contends that the design-
er can best influence the character of the city
through its formative building-components –
through the design of institutions, housing, and
monuments, as opposed to blocks, districts, or
other scales that might define an urban design
project. The building type performs as a unit of
embedded urban culture, architectural legibility,
a reservoir of collective memory, or as a scale
of design through which the systems of the sur-
rounding city might be condensed and redirect-
ed. Recent theorists have suggested that design at
the scale of the building type is a means through
which the capitalist city might be resisted, or that
the idea of building typology as a semiotic unit
has been replaced with the building format as a
performative unit within the context of global-
ization.

Post-Colonial Urbanism A-313

TYPOLOGICAL URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Typological Urbanism claims that urban form can be influenced through

the design of its individual components. It relies on a precisely developed
understanding of the definition of the architectural type. As put forward by
Moneo, “(Type) can most simply be defined as the concept which describes a
group of objects characterized by the same formal structure.”1 In other words,
we might understand architectural type as a formal structure that is present in a
group of dissimilar objects.

An extension of this definition may think of the urban environment as a group

of dissimilar objects. Typological Urbanism makes a case for architects to reassert
themselves as players in the design of cities through controlling architectural
objects. In this way, individual objects may begin to dictate certain rationals or
formalism within the city. As Moneo describes it, “Type as a formal structure is
also intimately connected with reality – with a vast hierarchy of concerns running
from social activity to building construction.”2

This leads into Typological Urbanism’s central argument. It argues that the
architectural object can become a vessel for ideologies, political biases, economic 1. Raphael Moneo, “On Typology,” Oppositions
ideals, and other formal concepts. Through implementing these ideals into an 13 (1978): 23.
urban form, Typological Urbanism can begin to reshape not just the physical
composition of urban space, but its ideological organization as well. It argues
that the city can be reclaimed from the sprawling characteristics of modernist 2. Ibid., 24.
urbanization by using specific components, whether they be buildings,
infrastructure, or public spaces.

A-314 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure TU_01. J.N.L. Durand, Plate 21 of Précis des leçons d’architecture donnés à l’École polytechnique.

Typological Urbanism A-315

Figure TU_02-05. Top, Left to Right: 16th Century House Types. Durand’s Porch System. San Cataldo Cemetery. Rafael Moneo. Case, City as Political Form.

Typology does not refer to the programmatic use of architecture or urban space, but instead
to the deep study and understanding of the ways in which concept of “type” is manifested
not only physically, but also politically. The primary feature of Typological Urbanism is its
rather narrow focus on a singular object as a primary driver of design. Pier Vittorio Aureli
cites four projects in his piece City as Political Form: Four Archetypes of Urban Transformation,
as objects that were used to project political power structures on the urban forms that they
inhabit. He offers the concept of the “Archetype,” an urban intervention that projects
control over the urban form through it socio-political and physical characteristics. This
includes the axial street in Rome, a project that connected key strategic points of the city to
assert a culture of military control.

A-316 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure TU_06-10. Bottom, Left to Right: Case in City as Political Form. Cases in Typologcal Urbanism.

The AD issue titled Typological Urbanism and the Idea of the City, suggests that
typological urbanism projects reconsider the role of the building and urban space
not only as a piece of the urban fabric but a part of the socio-political structure
of the city. These projects situated within the city become symbols of power,
capital, and ideology. They attempt to dictate urban form at the scale of an object
through architectural forms. This could be through the marriage of a variety of
programs like the projects in the AD piece such as OMA’s Penang Tropical city, to
the linear park typology as a sort of urban band-aid for post infrastructural areas,
to the overtly political examples explored by Aureli. All of these projects work
with the architectural object, a distinct departure from the other urbanisms.

Typological Urbanism A-317

LINEAGE

The ideas behind Typological Urbanism can be traced back through architectural
theory and history in the writings of Quatremere de Quincy, a French
architectural and art theorist working in the 18th century. He argued that type
served as the primary driver for choosing architectural forms because it could
explain the connection between the logic of a design decision and its use. He goes
on to distinguish type from J.N.L Durand’s concept of the “Model.” According
to Quatremere de Quincy, “the model, understood in the sense of practical
execution, is an object that should be repeated as it is; contrariwise, the ‘type’ is
an object after which each artist can conceive works that bear no resemblance to
each other. All is precise and given when it comes to the model, while all is more
or less vague when it comes to the ‘type.’”3

In “On Typology,” Moneo offers several important distinctions between type,

model, and prototype to clarify type as a concept. Moneo made the argument
that repetition was adopted by the modernist movement and thus represented a
departure from traditional understandings of typology in architecture, “… for to Figure TU_11. Oppositions 13, Dictionnaire
them it meant immobility, a set of restrictions imposed on the creator who must, d’architecture, The Architecture of the City.
they posited, be able to act with complete freedom on the object,”4 thus creating
the concept of the prototype as driver of urban form.

Aldo Rossi, in his The Architecture of the City, also examines the role of typology 3. Quatremère de Quincy, The True, the
Fictive, and the Real: The Historical Dictionary of
in seeking to develop an understanding of the city beyond simple functionalism.
Architecture, trans. Samir Younés (London:
He defined type as “… the very idea of architecture, that which is closest to its Papadakis Publisher, 1999), 255.
essence. In spite of changes, it has always imposed itself on the ‘feelings and
reason’ as the principle of architecture and of the city.”5 He introduced the idea
of the “Urban Artifact” which refers to the building as a fragment of the city (not 4. Moneo, “On Typology,” 32.
just the physical thing), but all of its history, geography, structure and connection
to the general life of the city. The permanence of types enables artifacts to 5. Aldo Rossi, The Architecture of the City, trans.
convey historical richness and relate to collective experience and memories. Thus, Diane Ghirardo and Joan Ockman (Cambridge:
incorporating the complexity of the city’s totality gives it individuality. MIT Press, 1982), 41.

A-318 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 CRITIQUE

Typological Urbanism establishes a systematic methodology of understanding

architecture and the city through examining contrasts and comparisons among
their components. It also contributes to discussions about the relationship
between physical architecture and urban form, and the intangible social and
political factors that effect cities. However, one of the greatest challenges
surrounding Typological Urbanism is that type is still misunderstood. Methods of
typological analysis rely on previous understandings of the formal structures and
frameworks of architectural and urban objects. Therefore, typological approaches
encounter difficulty in coping with the complexity of the ever-changing context
of cities today. As recognized by Moneo, “the so called ‘typological’ research that
happens today results in the production of images, or in the reconstitution of
traditional typologies.”6 Additionally, Typological Urbanism may privilege certain
socio-political agendas. These agendas can exert too much control over the urban
form leading to potentially disastrous results. It also seems likely that Typological
Urbanism could encounter similar pitfalls as modernists due to encouraging
an over-simplification of the city. This is likely due to the fact that type can be
misconstrued as dictating form through its repeated use of the same object.
Moneo suggests this while analyzing Durand. Durand argues that architecture is
created from a series of pre-ordained pieces, suggesting that there is a recipe for
6. Moneo, “On Typology,” 38. the city. It reduces the city into a good “composition,” created by varying pieces
of architecture.7 This method of thinking may cause a homogenization in the
understanding urban conditions due to its concern with the single architectural
7. Ibid., 29. object or type.

Typological Urbanism A-319

 +

PENANG
TROPICAL CITY
PENANG, MALAYSIA

Penang Tropical City originates

from a typological distribution of
program-- a method of giving shape
to differentiated urban environments
by precisely allocating architectural and
urban types. Therefore, the proposal
is a web of relations (contrasts and
transitions), the result of a spatial
interpretation of type and program.
A distinction is made between ‘soft’
and ‘hard’ program. Soft program
represents the institutional and
necessitates public investment while
hard program is private and attractive
for profits. Soft and hard program are
then identified with two contrasting
types of urban environment. As a
result of typological distribution, soup
and islands embody contrasting urban
territories that complete each other
in function and use. Penang Tropical
City is an expression of the contrasts,
transitions and similarities latent in a
mixed program of architectural types
and urban environments.

A-320 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure TU_12. Model of Penang Tropical City by OMA.
 PENANG TROPICAL CITY
Location Penang, Malaysia

Year(s) 2004

Status Unbuilt

Footprint 1.74 km2

Designer OMA / Ole Scheeren

Additional Agents Arup, London

Ang Chee Cheong, Kuala Lumpur

Key Project Components Masterplan

Architecture Types Combination

Program(s) Housing, Office, Mall, Convention Center

Client Asia Design Forum

A-322 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space Soft Programme (Urban Facilities)
0 460 ft
100 m Water

Typological Urbanism A-323

TRANSECT

MOUNTAIN SERVICED CONVENTION RESIDENTIAL TOWERS

APARTMENTS CENTER

0 100 m
200 ft

Figure TU_13-17. Left to Right: Masterplan. Functional Distribution Diagram. Model Photos. Vision Drawing,

A-324 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

WATER GARDEN APARTMENTS SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE

TOWERS

0 100 m

0 500 ft

Typological Urbanism A-325

AGENTS

Asia Design Forum

INITIATOR

INTENDED USER Public

Creative Class, New-Comers
Ole Scheeren COLLABORATOR
Ang Chee Cheong Kuala Lumpur
OMA, ROTTERDAM
PUBLICATION Architectural Design, January/
February 2011 Profile No. 209
DESIGNER

Arup, London

PLANNER, TRAFFIC ENGINEER

PROCESS 1800 1850 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 198
PENANG TROPICAL CITY

A-326 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Hotel Semi-Detached Housing Garden Housing Water Tower Office Tower Superlink

Convention Center Circular Housing Residential Tower Park Apartments Mall Serviced Apartments

80 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

OMA proposed typical mix of

architecture to create representative
for tropical modernity

Plan

Typological Urbanism A-327

A-328 Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Typological Urbanism A-329
 +

21ST C. MUSEUM OF
CONTEMPORARY ART
KANAZAWA, JAPAN

This project, inserted into the urban

fabric of Kanzanawana, challenges the
typical museum typology. It is designed
to be viewed from the exterior without
a formal face or entrance. Rather,
the museum is transparent with the
individual galleries appearing as smaller
architectural objects. In the words of
Kazyou Sejima, the museum is meant
to be understood and interacted with
like a city park. It attempts to blend the
scale of the object (museum) and the
scale of the city.

A-330 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure TU_18. 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art in Kanazawa by SANAA.
 21ST C. MUSEUM CONTEMPORARY ART
Location Kanazawa, Japan

Year(s) 2000 - 2004

Status Built

Footprint 11,300 ft2 Museum

21,780 ft2 Site

Designer SANAA

Additional Agents City of Kanazawa, Kazyou + Associates, Miyake Design Studio

Key Project Components Urban Park, Cultural Center, Community Center

Program(s) Exhibition Spaces, Public Park, Art Collection, Cafeteria

Funding Streams Public and Private funds acquired by the city of Kanazawa

A-332 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 100’

Open Space
0 160 ft
25 m Water

Typological Urbanism A-333

 TRANSECT

COMMERCIAL OFFICES PARK 21ST. CE

0 100 m
200 ft

COMMERICAL OFFICES PARK 21ST C. MUS

Figure TU_19-23. Views of the galleries and grounds.

A-334 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

ENTURY OF CONTEMPORARY ART PARK CULTURAL
DISTRICT

SEUM OF CONTEMPORARY ART PARK CULTRUAL DISTRICT

0’ 100’ 200’ 40

Typological Urbanism A-335

AGENTS

Public Fund
Private Fundraising

INITIATOR

INTENDED USER Public

SANNA / Kazyou + Associates
CITY OF KANAZAWA URBAN Residents | Tourist | Students
Miyake Design Studio CORE DISTRICT COMMITTEE |
COLLABORATORS
Kanazawa Citizens Art Center ISHIKAWA PREFECTURE PLANNING
Museum of Fine Art, Nancy France COMMISSION | 21ST C MUSEUM OF Golden Lion Architecture
Art Basel RECOGNITION
CONTEMPORARY ART KANAZAWA Venezia Biennale 2004
STEERING COMMITEE

LEADING ORGANIZATION

PROCESS 1990 1995 2000

21ST. C. MUSEUM OF
CONTEMPORARY ART
Museum committee is SANNA is selected as
established the architectural design
with Kazyou + AssociaCon
as the architects of reco

A-336 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

2005 2010 2015 2020

Construction Completed Museum reaches

ner 10,000,000 visitors
nstruction
ates begins
ord.

Typological Urbanism A-337

ANTHROPOCENE URBANISM

A-340 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

By no means a formally established movement,
the thought and work gathered here under the
heading Anthropocene Urbanism shares an inter-
est in design at the geographic or even planetary
scale within the context of the anthropocene –
the current geologic age of profound human in-
tervention with the earth’s environment. Implicit
in the idea of the anthropocene is that all of the
earth has been urbanized. As such, the environ-
ment itself emerges as an urban design project.
Anthropocene Urbanism is related to the most
recent environmental thought that is critical of
conventional sustainability.

Typological Urbanism A-341

ANTHROPOCENE URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

We live in the Anthropocene age, a new geological epoch in which human

actions have significantly impacted the planetary ecology. Humans, in the name
of surviving and thriving, have claimed massive resources from nature. We have
concurrently entered the Urban Age. 75% of all humans will live in cities by
2050. The City is seen as the core of human culture and the center of material
and energy consuming processes. It has dominated the Earth and continues to
reinforce its influence and reach over every non-city corner.

Scholars realized that emerging urban problems like climate change, resource
shortages, and uneven development had far exceeded the city boundaries to reach
the hinterlands and underrepresented rural areas in a more globalized world.
Through the lens of geopolitical economy, state theory, and other interdisciplinary
urban studies “in which inherited scalar arrangements are being challenged and
reworked,”1 Neil Brenner calls for rescaling the urban question and “the creation
of new scales of urbanization.”2
1. Neil Brenner, “Rescaling the Urban
Anthropocene / Hinterland / Planetary Urbanism attempt to enlarge our Question,” in Neyran Turan, New Geographies
speculative scope, and seek to situate urban theory under the concern of (Cambridge: Harvard University Graduate
School of Design, 2008): 60-71.
environmental global crisis. These urbanisms claim that cities’ impacts on the
Earth, such as disturbances of the carbon cycle, ocean acidification, changes to
sediment erosion and deposition, global warming, and species’ extinctions have 2. Neil Brenner, Implosions: Explosions Towards
achieved a scale and intensity never before seen. They rethink city-dominant and a Study of Planetary Urbanization (Berlin: Jovis,
human-dominant paradigms. They believe that cities-- the central consumption 2017), 15-31.
systems-- could play an important role in altering resource transformation and
controlling global natural exploitation. 3. Ibid.

Anthropocene / Hinterland / Planetary Urbanism recast the dichotomy between

urban and rural, inflating the paradigm to the extents of the planet. Approached 4. Matthew Gandy, Urban Constellations (Berlin:
from a planetary view, urbanization is not just about city but also non-city. Neil Jovis, 2011), 11-13.

A-342 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 2000

1900

1800

1700

10,000 BC

Figure AU_01. The evolution to Anthropocene age, Image Credit: Xuewei Chen.

Anthropocene Urbanism A-343

Figure AU_02-08. Important academic publications, Image Credit: The Urban Institute in UOS.

Brenner formulates Planetary Urbanism as “urban theory without outsides.”3 He 5. Neil Brenner, “The Hinterland Urbanised?”
argues that “spaces that lie well beyond the traditional city cores and suburban Architectural Design 86, no. 4 (2016): 118-127.
peripheries have become integral parts of the worldwide urban fabric”4 and “the
spaces of the non-city have been continuously operationalized in support of city- 6. Kate D. Derickson, “Urban Geography
building processes.”5 III,” SAGE 42, no. 3 (2018):425-35, doi:
10.1177/0309132516686012.
Hinterland Urbanism concerns the complexity and connectivity within and
between cities. It promotes and responds to the “paradigm-shifting changes of
7. Mike Hodson and Simon Marvin, “Urbanism
both the Earth’s system and the Earth’s cities,”6 in which “people explore the
in the Anthropocene,” City 14, no. 3 (2010):
flows of energy, water, food, goods, as well as people.”7 Shed, catchment, grid, 298-313, doi: 10.1080/13604813.2010.482277.

A-344 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

8. Ibid. and code are used as new methodologies for investigating global and regional
networks and systematicity.

Finally, Planetary Urbanism attempts to deal with political issues and the fact
that “urban-age metanarrative has come to serve as a justification for a huge
assortment of spatial interventions.”8 City, in the process of reshaping planetary
ecology, is ensuring that economic reproduction and ecological exploitation
patterns continue following neoliberal urbanization logics. Market, consumption,
production and reproduction, temporal, and spatial flows are constantly discussed
and leveraged to identify the various economic and political connections existing
beneath the visible fabric.

Anthropocene Urbanism A-345

LINEAGE

The Holocene Epoch describes the period from the last Ice Age nearly 14,000
years ago to the present. The end of the Holocene Epoch describes the end of
natural climate cycles and the beginning of an unprecedented human induced
climate change.9 In the past 1,000 years, there has been an accelerated impact
on soil disturbance due to the increases in mining, terracing, deforestation, and
proliferation of dams required to satisfy modern society’s excessive consumption
of resources. The resulting increase in sediment discharge, known as Sediment
Flux, is responsible for altering deltas and sea levels across continents more
than the effects of the more widely discussed global warming.10 In the 1870s,
Figure AU_09. Implosions: Explosions Towards a
Italian geologist Antonio Stoppani proposed the idea of the Anthropozoic Era Study of Planetary Urbanization.
to identify an entirely new geological era characterized by the appearance of
humans. In Stoppani’s time, there were limited regulations to control human
actions and effects on the Earth. Without an approach to control future actions, 9. Juliet Prior and David Price Williams,
or the changes made to the Earth, the effects of human exploration may be “An Investigation of Climatic Change in
irreversible.11 the Holocene Epoch Using Archaeological
Charcoal from Swaziland, Southern Africa,”
The impact of human activity on the environment was first recognizable around Journal of Archaeological Science 12, no. 6 (1985):
457-475, doi: 10.1016/0305-4403(85)90005-6.
the mid-20th century. Since 1945, there has been an increase in human population
that corresponds with an alarming increase in production and consumption of
natural resources. The time of The Great Acceleration is expected to come to 10. James P. M. Syvitski and Albert Kettner,
an end soon as the aggressive consumption of resources will eventually lead to “Sediment Flux and the Anthropocene,” Royal
their complete depletion.12 Urbanism encompasses social, economic, and political Society Publishing 369, no. 1938 (2011), doi:
10.1098/rsta.2010.0329.
processes. These processes are intertwined with the rapid urban transformation,
exploration of ecologies, overuse of resources, and production of pollutants that
threaten the planetary territory. Since then, the Environmental Movement (1960s), 11. Antonio Stoppani, Corso di Geologia, vol. ii,
Montreal Protocol (1987), Paris Agreement (2015), and many other agreements cap, xxxi, section 1327 (Milan, 1873).
have been signed in response to the climate change.

Urbanists interpret anthropocene urbanism from different perspectives. Timothy 12. Will Steffen, Jacques Grinevald,
Paul Crutzen and John McNeill, “The
Luke asserts that the anthropocenic change creates a “much more unpredictable Anthropocene: Conceptual and Historical
context for the longer term development and reproduction of cities marked Perspectives,” Royal Society Publishing 369, no.
by climate change, implications for resource constraint, as well as energy, water 1938 (2011), doi: 10.1098/rsta.2010.0327.

A-346 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

13. Timothy W. Luke, “Climatologies as Social and food security issues.”13 Based on Luke’s interpretation, Hodson and Marvin
Critique: The Social Construction/Creation of propose that it is important to understand the “wider societal and material
Global Warming, Global Dimming, and Global
Cooling,” in Steve Vanderheiden, Political Theory
implications of strategic responses to the pressures of climate change, resource
and Global Climate Change (Cambridge: MIT constraint and their interrelationships with the global economic crisis.”14
Press, 2008). However, the concept of Anthropocene Urbanism is no longer limited to the
ecological perspective.
14. Hodson, “Urbanism in the Anthropocene,” Kate Driscoll Derickson believes that “Anthropocene thinking” is interrelated
298-313.
with “anticipatory governance” and that it pervades contemporary urban theory
and governance. She argues, for example, that “data-driven, networked urbanism”
15. Derickson, “Urban Geography III,” 425-35. actually produces a “selective, crafted, flawed, normative and politically-inflected”
urban form.15 Neil Brenner expands this idea to the planetary perspective.
Urbanization should not only be defined as the growth of cities, but should also
consider the non-urban realm located outside the urban area.

CRITIQUE
Some scholars argue that the concept of anthropocene has generic implications
which obscure the class and place of the urban realm. Anthropocene urbanists
promote terminology such as “Capitalocene” and “Eurocene,” intending to
rectify the simultaneously classless and placeless implications of the term
“Anthropocene.” This calls attention to the role that Western capitalism-- rather
than “all of humanity ”-- plays in this transformation.16

Other scholars are concerned by the simplification of rural experiences. If

Planetary Urbanism has reached every hinterland corner, does it mean the end
of the rural village and rural life? In contrast, maybe some cities, such as Los
Angeles, have been ruralized.
16. Sue Ruddick, “Situating the Anthropocene:
Planetary Urbanization and the Anthropological It is false to say that the entire planet has been urbanized and could be understood
Machine,” Urban Geography 36, no. 8 (2015): from one single epistemology. It is also disingenuous to place all problems under
1113-30, doi: 10.1080/02723638.2015.1071993.
the scope of urbanism. This method covers the facts of history in rural areas, and
simply approaches them from a human dominated or city dominated view.
Anthropocene Urbanism A-347
 +

IJBURG
AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS

IJburg is a residential neighborhood

under construction in the east of
Amsterdam, Netherlands. It is an
urban expansion project which
consists of seven man-made sand
islands developed in two construction
phases on IJmeer Lake. After the 20
years exodus in Amsterdam in the
late 1980s, the city experienced a huge
population growth, which required
more housing to accommodate the
people. Recognizing that physical
outward expansion was inevitable,
IJburg contributed to the progressive
urbanization from water to serve the
pressures of growth. The Amsterdam
city council decided to build the
neighborhood in 1996. Opponents
of the plan called for a referendum
as there were objections to possible
negative effects for the nature of the
IJ Lake. This referendum was held 19
March 1997. Although a majority of
voters were against the construction,
an insufficient number of votes were
cast and construction began.

A-348 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure AU_10. Aerial view of Amsterdam, Netherlands.
 IJBURG
Location Amsterdam, Netherlands

Year(s) 997 - present

Status In progress

Area 4.14 km2

Density 3,475 - 8,494 units per km2

Initiator City of Amsterdam

Designer Ar Oskam, Klaas de Boer, Frits Palmboom, Tineke Van Der Pol

Key Project Components Primarily housing

Program(s) Residential, Commercial, Office and Transportation

Funding Streams Public

Inhabitants 45,000

Jobs 12,000

A-350 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 0.5 mile
0.5 km Water

Anthropocene Urbanism A-351

TRANSECT

IJMEER RESIDENTIAL TR
BUILDING COR
LAKE

0 1 mile

1 km

Figure AU_11. Elevation of Ijburg.

A-352 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

RANSIT RESIDENTIAL IJMEER
RRIDOR BUILDING LAKE

Figure AU_12. Aerial view of Ijburg.

Anthropocene Urbanism A-353

AGENTS

Amsterdam Welfare Service

City Housing Department
Department of City Planning Dienst
Engineering Agency Ingenieursbureau Amsterdam
Environmental Services Department
Department for Infrastructure, Traffic and Transportation
Amsterdam City Land Development Co.
Municipal Administration Department
Omegam Research Institute
Project Management Bureau

INVOLVED INSTITUTIONS

Ar Oskam
Public
Klaas de Boer
COLLABORATORS INTENDED USER Residential | Commercial
Frits Palmboom CITY OF AMSTERDAM
Tineke Van Der Pol

LEADING ORGANIZATION

Pampus Plan
Johannes Hendrik “Jo” van den Broek
and Jacob Berend (Jaap) Bakema, 1965

PRECEDENT INITIATIVES

PROCESS 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990

IJBURG IN AMSTERDAM

Architects Johannes Hendrik “Jo” van den

Broek and Jacob Berend (Jaap) Bakema
designed the Pampus Plan for a town in the IJ
Lake which was to house 350,000 residents.

A-354 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

THICKENING LENGTHENING DIVIDING

Interior Variety Increasing Perimeter Aggregating the Public

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Phase I started from the The first residents The Centrumeiland island
island of Steigereiland, moved into expansion will start from 2019.
Haveneiland, and their houses on Right now, it is still at the phase
Rieteiland. Rieteiland. of investment decision taken.
The Buiteneiland, Middeneiland,
and Strandeiland expansion will
start 2022. Right now it is at the
phase of reconnaissance.

Anthropocene Urbanism A-355

 +

PACIFIC
AQUARIUM
PACIFIC OCEAN

The Pacific Aquarium portrays the

overlapping concerns of ecology and
economy in the Pacific Ocean, where
the projected 1 million square meters
of deep-sea mining in the Clarion-
Clipperton Zone could constitute the
greatest footprint of human activity
in what is considered the largest
continuous ecological unit. The
project appropriates the object of the
aquarium to take aim at the abysmal
distance between our selfish economic
worries and the great scales of the
Earth. Each aquarium constructs a
section of the world in which the
externalities of resource exploitation
and climate change are weaved into
spatial scales, temporalities, and species
beyond the human. Collectively, the
nine aquariums reclaim the production
of nature into public controversies
by connecting political ecology with
speculative design and collective
aesthetic experience.

A-358 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 5C
O
-500m
10OC
O C
10

10OC
5O C

10
O
C

5 OC
10 O
5 OC C

-1000m
O C
5
5 OC

5O
C

3C
O INTERMEDIATE WATER
C
5O

-1500m

IRON TOWER
5O
C

3
O
C

C
3O
-2000m

5 OC
FISH COLONY

4 OC
3OC

5C
O

-2500m

3C
O
5O C 4O C

5O C

CLIMATE SANCTUARY
4O C
5C
O

-3000m
5O C -20OC 20OC
40 C
O
4OC
35OC
-10OC

5OC

4OC
5
O
C

-3500m 5 OC

Figure AU_13.Vertical section of “Pacific Aquarium”, Image Credit: DESIGN EARTH. 4O

C
2 OC

2 OC

DEEP WATER
 PACIFIC AQUARIUM
Location Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ)

Year(s) 2016

Status Unbuilt

Designer Design Earth (El Hadi Jazairy + Rania Ghosn)

Collaborate Team Reid Fellenbaum, Ya Suo, Jia Weng, Shuya Xu, Saswati Das, with initial
contributions from Rixt Woudstra

Agents Oslo Architecture Triennale

Project Details: Nine 60x60 cm drawings, Nine 45x45x160 cm models

Awards: 2016 Architectural Education Award, Faculty Design Award, Association of

Collegiate Schools of Architecture 2016 Best of Design Award for Architectural
Representation, Honorable Mention, The Architect’s News

Exhibitions: Geostories: Another Architecture for the Environment, Cooper Union, 2017. Pacific
Aquarium, Oslo Architecture Triennale, After Belonging, 2016

A-360 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 [9]

[6]

[8]

[3]

[5]

[7]
[2]

[1]Classified Sediments,
[4] [2] Robot Fish Colony,
[3]Climate Sanctuaries,
[4] Below the Water Towers,
[5] Parliament of Refugees,
[6] Iron Towers,
[7] Overmining,
[1] [8] Marine Landfills,
[9] Medusa Maze.

Open Space

Water

Anthropocene Urbanism A-361

TRANSECT

Sea level

Sea bed

CLASSIFIED SEDIMENTS CLIMATE SANCTUARIES PARLIAME

ROBOT FISH COLONY BELOW THE WATER TOWERS

0 0.2 mile

0.2 km

Figure AU_14-19. Design representation of “Pacific Aquarium,” Image Credit: DESIGN EARTH.

A-362 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

ENT OF REFUGEES OVERMINING MEDUSA MAZE
IRON TOWERS MARINE LANDFILLS

Anthropocene Urbanism A-363

AGENTS

Oslo Architecture
Triennale

FUNDING SOURCE

INTENDED USER Public

Reid Fellenbaum, Ya Suo, Jia Weng, Creative Class, New-Comers
COLLABORATOR DESIGN EARTH
Shuya Xu, Saswati Das with initial
contributions from Rixt Woudstra (EL HADI JAZAIRY + RANIA GHOSN)
2016 Architectural Education
AWARDS Award
2016 Best of Design Award for
LEADING ORGANIZATION Architectural Representation

Geostories: Another Architecture for the

Environment, Cooper Union, 2017.
Pacific Aquarium, Oslo Architecture
Triennale, After Belonging, 2016

EXHIBITION

PROCESS 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990

PACIFIC AQUARIUM

Clipperton Fracture Zone

discovered by the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography in 1950

A-364 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Classified Sediments Climate Sanctuaries Parliament of Refugees Overmining Medusa Maze

Robot Fish Colony Below the Water Towers Iron Towers Marine Landfills

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Design for Oslo

Architecture Triennale

20°0'0"N

5°0'0"N

Clipperton Fracture Zone Site

155°0'0"W 135°0'0"W1 15°0'0"W

Anthropocene Urbanism A-365

VISIONARY / UTOPIAN
URBANISM

A-368 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

A wide variety of practices and theories could be
gathered under the heading Visionary Urbanism.
What unites this diversity is a commitment to
the agency of visionary urban design projects to
redirect future realities – either through staunch
critique of the dominant regime, or through the
radical projection of potential alternatives. Vi-
sionary urban projects often emerge at moments
of political and economic instability, as in the
wealth of urban speculation that emerged in Eu-
rope in the years surrounding 1968.

Anthropocene Urbanism A-369

VISIONARY/ NETWORK URBANISM

INTRODUCTION

Visionary and Utopian Urbanisms are inherently ambitious. Their proposals

are distinct, and although they share similarities, they are not entirely the same.
Visionary Urbanism is a form of urbanism that attempts to project alternative
futures beyond our current capacities, but seem relatable because they build upon
our collective imaginary; expanding what we know of the city and proposing
solutions at different scales. The value of these types of urbanism lies not
on their potential for realization, but on the commentaries embedded within
them. They are reflective of global and cultural trends, triggering discursive
conversations around topics that need to be addressed.

Partly due to the influence of architecture as a background, Visionary Urbanism

attempts to merge infrastructure with buildings. This synthesis results in mega-
structures that take on different qualities, and becomes vital to the development
of introducing a new scale to the city. A good example of this type of project
is the work by DESIGN EARTH on Neck of the Moon, where the urban
intervention extends beyond the limits of the city and onto the vastness of space.
With an understanding of the impact human activity has on space, the project
proposes creating a new moon that orbits earth collecting the accumulated debris 1. El Hadi Jazairy, “Neck of the Moon,” Yale
leftover from past excursions.1 School of Architecture, Accessed March 29,
2018, www.architecture.yale.edu/exhibitions/13-
Utopian Urbanism is similar in terms of visionary qualities but it deserves its own neck-of-the-moon.
explanation. Utopian urbanism centers its attention on the socio-political issues
that we experience within the social contract of civilization. It assumes idealistic
conditions and seeks to re-invent that same social contract through collective 2. Victoria Watson, Utopian Adventure: The
living and new spatial formations.2 Such proposals manifest in different ways, Corviale Void (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012).
from suburban living with every citizen owning their own property (as in the
case of Levittown) to Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse which proposes towers for
collective living that assumes equality.

A-370 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure VU_01. “Neck of the Moon.”

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-371

Figure VU_02-06. Images of Le Corbusier’s “La Villa Radieuse,” “Linear City,” and “Shanghai Airport.”

A-372 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-373
LINEAGE

The term utopia, meaning “no place” in ancient Greek, comes from the book
of the same name written by Sir Thomas Moore in 1516. The book describes
a settlement on five islands in the Atlantic Ocean where people live in a society
full of peace, everything is ordered, and no one is ranked above anyone else in
society. There is equal access to all lands, and there is equal pay and standards of
living across Moore’s proposed society. Utopia has come to influence the minds
and designs of architects, urban designers, and urban planners for centuries.
These design professions, and the key individuals behind them, studied the ideas
of the ideal society found in Utopia. Grand figures like Le Corbusier, Frank Figure VU_07. Frank Lloyd Wright’s, The Living
Lloyd Wright, Superstudio, Antonio Sant’Ella, and Ebenezer Howard took a keen City, and Le Corbusier’s, La Ville Radieuse.
interest in how Thomas Moore describes the separation of societal programs into
different zones. This led to numerous theoretical architectural and urban designs
and movements, each arguing that what they proposed laid the groundwork to
bring this fantastical Utopian ideal into reality.

The debates around Utopian Urbanism were at its height following both World
Wars. With the mass destruction, displacement, and social upheavals following
their conclusion, many of these aforementioned architects and theorists felt 3. Frank Lloyd Wright, The Living City (New
the need to find solutions to the problems these wars created.3 Designers York: New American Library, 1963).
looked through a visionary lens to rebuild cities, rethink housing to meet rising
population demands, envision mass infrastructure for new technologies, and
4. Le Corbusier, Appartement de Beistegui, Cité
integrate multiple systems into daily life. Proposed projects were published and Univérsitaire, Pavillon Suisse, Ville Radieuse, and
shared many common features. These include a separation of programs from one Other Buildings and Projects, 1930 (New York:
another, priority towards mass infrastructure like highways, the idea of towns in Garland Pub., 1982).
the garden, and the placement of technology over the human.4

While many proposed utopian designs were not built, the theories they proposed
influence the urban conditions we see today, from the mass superhighways found
in America and China, housing projects in Hong Kong and Marseille, and the
creation of suburbia. As time progresses, no doubt new utopian and visionary
designs and publications will emerge, questioning how we operate as designers
and influencing how forms and urbanities of the future will appear.

A-374 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 CRITIQUE

A common trope of Architecture is the notion that with a high enough resolution
of rationality and order all of society’s issues can be solved. Many of the world’s
greatest Architects have succumbed to the temptation of designing a perfect,
utopic city, all of which fail. Often these projects are attempting too much and
are unable to achieve the extreme ambitions of the project. In other examples,
such as Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse, infrastructural inserts like the pedestrian
walkway-- which are notoriously unsuccessful-- are simply rejected by society.5
Utopian Urbanism out of the 20th century often organized city spaces by linking
program / function with structure-- in which case residential areas were often
completely separate from business areas and thus connected via a network
of roadways. As a demand on design, it is far too difficult for a single plan to
anticipate the needs of millions of citizens. In fact, the main point of failure for
visionary / utopian design has been the designer’s emphasis on structures and
infrastructures as opposed to an emphasis on the population itself. Even the
projects that were developed were never able to live up to their promise.

5. Yuri Artibise, “Utopian Urbanism: The

Impossibility of Perfection,” Yuri Artibise,
November 18, 2010, http://yuriartibise.
com/utopian-urbanism-the-impossibility-of-
perfection/.

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-375

 +

NECK OF THE
MOON
COTOPAXI, ECUADOR

Neck of the moon examines global

trends in space exploration and
proposes to clean up the orbital
environment through the creation of
infrastructure serving at the planetary
scale. The proposal projects urbanism
and other forms of colonization
beyond the ones currently at practice
and onto the networks of space. The
project is a satellite planet that orbits
the Earth collecting debris at higher
altitudes with the help of robotic arms.
The compacted mass would grow
organically eventually turning into the
Earth’s second moon with its home
base in Cotopaxi, Ecuador.

A-376 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure 01. Concept
Figurerendering
VU_08. of
Concept
Neck of
drawings
the Moon
/ diagrams / perspectives for “Neck of the Moon.”
 NECK OF THE MOON
Location Cotopaxi, Ecuador

Year(s) 2015

Status Unbuilt

Footprint 1,700 miles

Designer El Hadi Jazari and Rania Ghosn

Additional Agents Jia Weng, Mingchuan Yang, Shuya Xu,

Hsin-Han Lee, Sihao Xiong

Key Project Components Planetary infrastructure

Colonization of space

Program(s) Landscapes of production, robot farms

Landing site, space station

Funding Streams Private

A-378 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 1 mile
1 km Water

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-379

TRANSECT

SPACE SPACE DEBRI ORBIT SPACE STATION

Figure VU_09-13. Concept drawings / diagrams / perspectives for “Neck of the Moon.”

A-380 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

N: MOON LAIKA SPACE DEBRI ORBIT SPACE

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-381

AGENTS

Jacques Rougerie
Competition

INITIATOR

INTENDED USER Station Operators

Global Citizens
Mingchuan Yang, Shuya Xu, Hsin-
COLLABORATOR DESIGN EARTH
Han Lee, Sihao Xiong
(EL HADI JAZAIRY + RANIA GHOSN)
Yale School of Architecture
PUBLICATION
Gallery.
Design Earth.org
ARCHITECTS MIT Keller Gallery

PROCESS 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 19

NECK OF THE MOON

Nazi 3 humans stay Initiative

Germany aboard a workshop for an
explores orbiting the Earth International
long distance Six apollo Space Center
rockets missions between
Communications
1960 and 1972
expanded
First man on to carry t.v
the moon programs

Russian LT. orbits

Earth in Kostkov 1.
Soviet launches first JFK proposes to put
artificial satellite, man on the moon
Sputnik 1

A-382 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 TAXONOMY

Space Station Robotic Arm 3D Printer

Metal Furnace Container Telescope Parts

990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

First Humans Tesla sends car

inhabit the ISS to space

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-383

 +

VILLE RADIEUSE
PARIS, FRANCE

Paris has been known for a center of

architecture innovation and egalitarian
thought for centuries. In the early
20th century few other architects
were as experimental as Le Corbusier.
In his Ville Radieuse (Radiant City),
Corbusier proposed a new city within
a city, where over one million new
inhabitants could be placed and live
in the most modern way possible.
This utopian dream is known for it’s
influence on many of today’s urban
environments and even the base of
modern planned cities, even though
it was never built. Ville Radieuse is
characterized by massive vehicular and
aeronautical infrastructure, the creation
of office towers, massive public
housing structures, park space, and the
separation of different programs into
banded zones.

A-386 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure VU_14. Model of “Ville Radieuse.”
 VILLE RADIEUSE
Location Paris, Ile de France, France

Years 1924 - 1933

Status Unbuilt

Footprint 48 km2

Designer Le Corbusier

Additional Agents Precedent inspirations include American factories, metropolises like New York,
traditional Algerian towns, and Mayan cities

Key Project Components Division of programmatic spaces into bands; city in the park; massive
infrastructure for pedestrian, automotive, and aeronautical circulation

Program Mid-rise to High-rise residential, commercial zones, institutional spaces, factories,

warehouses, super highways

A-388 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 BUISNESS CENTER

RAILROAD STATION

HOTEL + EMBASSY

HOUSING

FACTORIES

WAREHOUSES

HEAVY INDUSTRY

Open Space
0 1 km
600m Water

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-389

 TRANSECT

600 M OFFICE + RESIDENTIAL 40 M HOUSING + COMMERCIAL + INSTIT

0 1 mile
TOWERS
1 km

Figure VU_15-16. Hand rendering of a main boulevard in “Ville Radieuse.”

A-390 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

TUTIONAL WAREHOUSES FACTORIES

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-391

AGENTS

French Government
New York City Housing Authority
United States Housing Authority
Brazilian Government
Public Housing in Lima, Peru
Public Housing in Mexico City
New York Five Architects
Most Schools of Modernist Architectural Thought
Bauhaus

INVOLVED INSTITUTIONS

Public
1924 Exhibition Residential | Commercial
EVALUATOR INTENDED USER
The Radiant City Book 1933 LE CORBUSIER Institutional | Infrastructure
International Universities Universities | Academia

ARCHITECTS

Infrastructure/ Network Urbanism

New Urbanism
Post Colonial Urbanism
Smart City Urbanism

PRECEDENT INITIATIVES

PROCESS 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940

VILLE RADIEUSE

Project designed and put on Radiant City book is published

display in 1924. describing the theories,
drawings, and ides of the
project. Released in 1933

A-392 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

TAXONOMY

AND
RKL
PA

1945 1950 1955 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-393

 +

BROADACRE CITY
MIDWEST, USA

Broadacre City was an urbanization

proposal conceptualized by Frank
Lloyd Wright. Wright envisioned a
sprawled suburbia as a critique of
densified urbanism. As opposed to
maximizing the density of a particular
plot of land, Wright spreads out the
population. Each family was to be
provided with one parcel of a one-
acre (4,000 m2) plot of land from
the government creating a vehicle
and pedestrian friendly organization.
The few apartment towers that were
proposed further articulates Wright’s
ideal city as being one spread out
within a natural landscape. Broadacre
City promotes the usage of the
automobile and a cohesive group of
small communities that contain all
necessities of modern life.

A-396 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Figure VU_17. Rendering drawn by Frank Lloyd Wright.
 BROADACRE CITY
Location Midwest USA

Year(s) 1932 - 1935

Status Unbuilt

Footprint 4 mi2

Designer Frank Lloyd Wright

Additional Agents Frank Lloyd Wright & Edward Kauffman

Key Project Components 1 acre devoted per family, suburban sprawl, minimal apartment living, local
commercialism

Program(s) Private

Local / public amenities

Funding Streams Edgar Kauffman

A-398 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Open Space
0 0.75 mile
1 km Water 0’ 200’ 400’

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-399

TRANSECT

1 ACRE

Figure VU_18-22. Renderings of Frank Lloyd Wright’s “Broadacre City.” Photographs of the 12’x12’ scaled model of “Broadacre City.”

A-400 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-401
AGENTS

Edgar Kaufmann

FUNDING SOURCE

INTENDED USER
Mid-West American Families
COLLABORATOR
Student Interns at Taliesin FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Industrial Arts Expo
PUBLICATIONS
Federal Housing
LEADING ORGANIZATION Administration

“The Disappearing City”

PRECEDENT INITIATIVES

PROCESS 1920 1930 1935 1940 1945

BROADACRE CITY

Broadacre concepts first April 15, 1935 Broadacre city is

conveyed in Frank Lloyd First displayed as a 12’x12’ model further elaborated
Wright’s book: at the Industrial Arts Exposition on in Wright’s
‘The Disappearing City” in the Forum at the Rockefeller second book:
Center ‘When Democracy
Builds’

June 18, 1935

Further display at the exposition:
“New Homes for Old” in
Pittsburgh. Sponsored by the
Federal Housing Administration.

A-402 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Edgar Kaufmann
TAXONOMY
FUNDING SOURCE
Mid-West American
Student Interns COLLABORATORS INTENDED USER Families
Frank Lloyd Wright
at Taliesin PUBLICATORS Industrial Arts Expo
LEADING ORGANIZATION

Federal Housing
“The Disappearing City” Administration 1-Acre of Land per Family Minimal Apartment Towers
PRECEDENT INITIATIVES

American
st American
ies
milies
Arts
al Arts
ExpoExpo
al
ousing
Housing
nistration
ration 1-Acre
1-Acre
of Land
of Land
perper
Family
Family Minimal
Minimal
Apartment
Apartment
Towers
Towers Suburban Sprawl

1-Acre Per Family Apartment Towers Suburban Sprawl

Suburban
Suburban
Sprawl
Sprawl

1950 1955 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Broadacre city is further elaborated

on in Wright’s third book: ‘The
Living City’. Frank Lloyd Wright
died April 9, 1959 at age 91.

Visionary / Utopian Urbanism A-403

SOURCES
NEW/LEAN URBANISM
CITY MODERN
“City Modern: Brush Park.” City Modern Detroit. Accessed on March 28, 2018. http://www.citymoderndetroit.com.
Hamilton Anderson Associates. “City Modern Residential Development in Brush Park.” Digital Image. Crain’s Detroit Business, November
29, 2016. Accessed March 28, 2018. http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20161129/NEWS/161129870/city-modern-construction-
in-brush-park-likely-to-begin-next-week.
Nocerini, Shianne. “Buyers Are Snapping Up the New City Modern Development in Brush Park.” Daily Detroit, March 17, 2017. http://
www.dailydetroit.com/2017/03/17/buyers-snapping-new-city-modern-development-brush-park.
Runyan, Robin. “City Modern Takes Shape in Brush Park.” Curbed Detroit (Blog). Last modified November 15, 2017. https://detroit.curbed.
com/2017/11/13/16617898/city-modern-construction-brush-park.
Talen, Emily. “New Urbanism and the Culture of Criticism.” Urban Geography 21, no. 4 (2013): 318-341. doi: 10.2747/0272-3638.21.4.318.
“Traditional Neighborhood Development.” National League of Cities. March 7, 2017. https://www.nlc.org/resource/traditional-
neighborhood-development.

CHERRY HILL VILLAGE

“A Look Inside Cherry Hill Village of Canton.” Digital Image. Livonia Builders (Blog). May 4, 2011. https://livoniabuilders.wordpress.
com/2011/05/04/a-look-inside-cherry-hill-village-of-canton/.
“Cherry Hill Village Home.” Digital Image. The Perna Team(Blog). Accessed March 28, 2018. http://www.thepernateam.com/cherry-hill-
village-canton-michigan-homes-for-sale.php.
“CNU History.” Congress for the New Urbanism. Accessed March 28, 2018. https://www.cnu.org/movement/cnu-history.
Fulton, William. The New Urbanism: Hope or Hype for American Communities? Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 1996.
“Local Businesses.” Digital Image. Cherry Hill Village Homeowners Association (Blog). Accessed March 28, 2018. Local Businesses. http://
mychv.com/our-local-businesses/.
“Neo-Traditional Neighborhood.” Cherry Hill Village Homeowners Association (Blog). Accessed March 28, 2018. http://mychv.com/traditional-
neighborhood-development.
Talen, Emily. “New Urbanism and the Culture of Criticism.” Urban Geography 21, no. 4 (2013): 318-341. doi:10.2747/0272-3638.21.4.318.
“The Village Theatre.” Digital Image. Canton, Michigan. Accessed May 28, 2018. https://www.canton-mi.org/290/Village-Theater.

TACTICAL URBANISM
TIMES SQUARE
Bagli, Charles V. “After 30 Years, Times Square Rebirth Is Complete.” The New York Times, December 3, 2010. https://www.nytimes.
com/2010/12/04/nyregion/04square.html.
“Collection Times Square Pictures.” Digital Images. Unamon. Accessed April 04, 2018. http://unamon.com/timessquare.html.
“NYC Plaza Program.” New York City Department of Transportation. Accessed April 4, 2018. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/
pedestrians/nyc-plaza-program.shtml.
“Times Square Reconstruction.” Digital Image. Snøhetta. Accessed April 4, 2018. https://snohetta.com/project/9-times-square-
reconstruction.

A-406 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Walker, Peter. “Streetfighting Woman: Inside the Story of How Cycling Changed New York.” The Guardian, March 11, 2016. https://www.
theguardian.com/cities/2016/mar/11/cycling-fights-new-york-mean-streets-janette-sadik-khan.

PARKING DAY
Alter, Lloyd. “Park(Ing) Day at the Terry Thomas in Seattle.” Digital Image. TreeHugger. September 19, 2008. Accessed April 13, 2018.
https://www.treehugger.com/culture/parking-day-at-the-terry-thomas-in-seattle.html.
Groundswell Design Group. “Park(ing) Day Philadelphia 2011.” Digital Image. Groundswell Design Group. Accessed April 13, 2018.
http://www.groundswelldesigngroup.com/projects/parking-day.
Lydon, Mike, and Anthony Garcia. Tactical Urbanism: Short-Term Action for Long-Term Change. Washington, D.C.: Island Press/Center for
Resource Economics, 2015.
Mercier, Dominic. “1300 Block of Walnut St.” Digital Image. Hidden City Philadelphia. September 21, 2012. Accessed April 13, 2018.
https://hiddencityphila.org/2012/09/greetings-from-parking-day-2012-wish-you-were-here/.
“PARK(ing) Day.” Digital Image. Agile City. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://agile-city.com/community-project/parking-day/.
“PARK(ing) Day is September 21, 2018.” PARK(ing) Day Philadelphia. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://sites.google.com/parkingdayphila.
org/2017/.
“PARK(ing) Day Philadelphia.” Digital Image. The Philly Calendar. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://www.thephillycalendar.com/events/
park-ing-day-philadelphia.
PARK(ing) Day Philadelphia. “Parking Day.” Digital Image. Uwishunu Philadelphia. September 16, 2010. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://
www.uwishunu.com/2010/09/take-back-the-street-tomorrow-is-parking-day/.
Rebar Group. “The PARK(ing) Day Manual.” American Society of Landscape Architects. Accessed April 13, 2018. https://www.asla.org/
uploadedFiles/CMS/Events/Parking_Day_Manual_Consecutive.pdf.
Schneider, Benjamin. “How PARK(ing) Day Went Global.” CityLab. September 15, 2017. https://www.citylab.com/life/2017/09/from-
parking-to-parklet/539952/.

EMPIRICAL URBANISM
THE STRIPSCAPE
A-I-R, Inc. “Stripscape.” A-I-R Inc. Accessed April 3, 2018. https://a-i-rinc.com/portfolio-item/stripscape/.
A-I-R, Inc. “Stripscape.” Digital Image. A-I-R Inc. Accessed April 3, 2018. https://a-i-rinc.com/portfolio-item/stripscape/.
Cuff, Dana, and Roger Sherman. “Rethinking Architecture’s Engagement with the City.” Fast-Forward Urbanism: Rethinking Architecture’s
Engagement with the City. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011
Heath, Kingston. Vernacular Architecture and Regional Design. London: Architectural Press, 2009.
“Pedestrian Amenities Along 7th Avenue.” Arizona State Univers. Accessed April 3, 2018. https://www.asu.edu/planning/stripscape.html.
Petrucci, Darren. “Stripscape: Pedestrian Amenities along 7th Avenue.” Places 17, no. 2 (2005): 42-44.
Sommer, Richard, Michael Piper, Ultan Byrne, Roberto Damiani, and Mauricio Quiros. “After Empirical Urbanism Symposium.” Cargo
Collective. University of Toronto. February 27, 2015. http://cargocollective.com/afterempiricalurbanism/Description.

DUCK & COVER

CityLab. “Roger Sherman Bio.” CityLab, UCLA. Accessed April 3, 2018. https://citylab.ucla.edu/roger-sherman/.

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Roger Sherman Architecture + Urban Design. “Duck and Cover: Thinking out of the Big Box.” Architizer. Accessed April 3, 2018.
https://architizer.com/projects/duck-and-cover-thinking-out-of-the-big-box/.
Roger Sherman Architecture + Urban Design. “Thinking out of the Big Box: Duck and Cover.” Digital Image. Roger Sherman
Architecture + Urban Design. Accessed April 3, 2018. http://www.rsaud.com/html/projects.htm.
Roger Sherman Architecture + Urban Design. “Thinking out of the Big Box: Duck and Cover.” Roger Sherman Architecture + Urban
Design. Accessed April 3, 2018. http://www.rsaud.com/html/projects.htm.
“Target Through the Years.” Target Co. Accessed April 3, 2018. https://corporate.target.com/about/history/Target-through-the-years.

POST INDUSTRIAL URBANISM

EMSCHER PARK
Alberth, Patricia. “Zollverein Industrial Coal Complex.” Digital Image. UNESCO. Accessed April 15, 2018. https://whc.unesco.org/en/
documents/113899.
Emschergenosschaft. “Sewer Construction.” Digital Image. Accessed April 15, 2018. http://www.eglv.de/en/emschergenossenschaft/
emscher-conversion/emscher/.
Jones, Adrian, and Chris Matthews. “The Jam Factory.” Digital Image. World Build 365 Product Directory. November 24, 2015. https://
www.worldbuild365.com/news/1uspoedvl/building-architecture/creative-industrial-refurbishments.
Latz + Partner. “Emscher Landscape Park.” Digital Image. Beautiful Landscape. August 5, 2017. https://www.beatifullandscape.co/
emscher-landscape-park-germany/.
Morrison, Hunter. “Lessons Learned from a Shrinking City: Youngstown 2010 and Beyond.” Formerly Urban: Projecting Rust Belt Futures. New
City Books. Edited by Julia Czerniak. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2013.
Potrc, Marjetica. “Between the Waters: Emscher Community Garden”. Digital Image. Accessed April 15, 2018. https://www.potrc.org/
project2.htm.
S9 Architecture. “Industry City.” Digital Image. The Journal of the American Institute of Architects, June 13, 2016. http://www.
architectmagazine.com/project-gallery/industry-city.
Sagittarius, Stephan. “Emscher bald frei von Abwasser.” Digital Image. Ruhr Nachrichten, January 3, 2018. https://www.ruhrnachrichten.de/
Staedte/Dortmund/Emscher-bald-frei-von-Abwasser-1242554.html.
Seng, Dan. “View of the Emscher from the Roof of the Gasometer.” Digital Image. City Peak Blog. October 22, 2011. http://citypeak.
blogspot.com/2011/10/emscher-park-ruhr-valley-germany.html.

30TH STREET STATION

Amtrak, Brandywine Realty Trust, Drexel University, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, and Southeastern Pennsylvania
Transportation Authority. “30th Street Station: Growing Philly’s Future.” 30th Street Station District Plan. June 16, 2016. https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSGVk0WDXS8&feature=youtu.be.
Romero, Melissa. “Amtrak Reveals New Designs for Station Plaza at 30th Street Station.” Curbed Philadelphia. November 14, 2017.
https://philly.curbed.com/2017/11/14/16645644/30th-street-station-district-plan-station-plaza-renderings.
Sasako, Claire. “30th Street Station Renovations Postponed Because...Amazon.” Philadelphia Magazine, October 3, 2017. https://www.
phillymag.com/news/2017/10/03/30th-street-station-postponed-amazon/.
Skidmore, Owings, and Merril LLP. “30th Street Station Rendering Looking at 30th Street Side of Station.” Digital Image. Philly District
30. Accessed April 29, 2018. http://www.phillydistrict30.com/.

A-408 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

Skidmore, Owings, and Merril LLP. Philadelphia 30th Street Station District Plan. 2016. PDF. https://static1.squarespace.com/
static/539b050fe4b077b40b221f4f/t/57694caaff7c5085d0a3de31/1466518722881/District+Plan+Final+Report_June2016_8.5x11_
web.pdf.

LANDSCAPE + ECOLOGICAL URBANISM

FRESHKILLS PARK
Freshkills Park. The Freshkills Park Alliance. Accessed April 14, 2018. https://www.freshkillspark.org/.
James Corner Field Operations. “Freshkills Park.” Digital Image. Field Operations. Accessed April 14, 2018. https://www.fieldoperations.
net/project-details/project/freshkills-park.html.
James Corner Field Operations. “James Corner Field Operations’ Freshkills Park Moves Closer to Realization.” Digital Image. The Architect’s
Newspaper, August 17, 2017. https://archpaper.com/2017/08/james-corner-field-operations-freshkills-park/.
“New York City’s Largest Solar Energy Installation to be Built at Freshkills Park.” Digital Image. World Landscape Architecture, November 30,
2013. https://worldlandscapearchitect.com/new-york-citys-largest-solar-energy-installation-to-be-built-at-freshkills-park/.
The City of New York. “Freshkills Park.” NYC Parks. Accessed April 14, 2018. https://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/freshkills/.

KLYDE WARREN PARK

American Society of Landscape Architects. “Klyde Warren Park - Bridging the Gap in Downtown Dallas.” American Society of Landscape
Architects. Accessed April 12, 2018. https://www.asla.org/2017awards/327692.html.
“Klyde Warren Park.” Digital Image. The Dallas Arts District. Accessed April 11, 2018. http://www.dallasartsdistrict.org/community/
klyde-warren-park/.
“Klyde Warren Park.” Klyde Warren Park. Accessed April 11, 2018. https://www.klydewarrenpark.org/.
Mirviss, Laura. “Klyde Warren Park: Decked Out in Dallas.” Architectural Record, August 16, 2013. https://www.architecturalrecord.com/
articles/7956-klyde-warren-park.
OJB. OJB Landscape Architecture. Accessed April 11, 2018. https://www.ojb.com/.
Perez, Christine. “How Klyde Warren Park Has Changed Dallas Real Estate.” D CEO, September 2015. https://www.dmagazine.com/
publications/d-ceo/2015/september/how-klyde-warren-park-has-changed-downtown-uptown-dallas-real-estate/.
Spivak, Jeffrey. “Klyde Warren Park and the Katy Trail.” Urban Land Magazine, September 28, 2016. https://urbanland.uli.org/
development-business/klyde-warren-park-katy-trail/.
Woodall Rodgers Park Foundation. “Klyde Warren Park.” Digital Image. Build a Better Burb. Accessed April 11, 2018. http://
buildabetterburb.org/klyde-warren-park/.

INFRASTRUCTURE + NETWORK URBANISM

THE PLASTIC SEA
Burtynsky, Edward. “The Greenhouses of Almeria.” Digital Image. Amusing Planet. Accessed April 14, 2018. http://www.amusingplanet.
com/2013/08/the-greenhouses-of-almeria.html.
Grove, Ánxel. “Edward Burtynsky explora con vistas aéreas los efectos nocivos de las industrias sobre el agua.” 20 Minutos, November 21,
2013. https://www.20minutos.es/noticia/1977487/0/edward/burtynsky/agua/.

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“L’âge De L’Homme : Comment Les Humains Transforment La Planète.” National Geographic. Accessed April 4, 2018. http://www.
nationalgeographic.fr/photography/2017/03/lage-de-lhomme-comment-les-humains-transforment-la-planete.
Wockner, Gary. “Europe’s Dirty Little Secret: Moroccan Slaves and a ‘Sea of Plastic’.” EcoWatch. December 18, 2015. https://www.
ecowatch.com/europes-dirty-little-secret-moroccan-slaves-and-a-sea-of-plastic-1882131257.html.

A PLAN FOR TOKYO

ArchEyes. “A Plan for Tokyo 1960 / Kenzo Tange.” ArchEyes. January 26, 2016. http://archeyes.com/plan-tokyo-1960-kenzo-tange/.
Banham, Reyner. Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past. London: Thames and Hudson, 1976.
Koolhaas, Rem, and Hans Ulrich Obrist. Project Japan: Metabolism Talks. Edited by Kayoko Ota and James Westcott. Cologne: Taschen, 2011.
Lin, Zhongjie. Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan. New York: Routleage, 2010.
Migayrou, Frederic. Japan-ness: Architecture et urbanisme au Japon depuis 1945. Paris: Centre Pompidou-Metz, 2017.
Tange, Kenzo. “Plan for Tokyo Bay.” Arquiscopio. Accessed April 4, 2018. http://arquiscopio.com/archivo/2012/07/14/plan-para-la-
bahia-de-tokio/?lang=en.

PEARL RIVER CITY

Macau Foundation. “Macau History in Macau Encyclopedia.” Macau Foundation. Accessed April 14. 2018. https://www.fmac.org.mo/.
Nield, Robert. “Treaty Ports and Other Foreign Stations in China.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch 50 (2010): 123-39.
Solomon, Jonathan. “Abhorrent Infrastructure. Three Dimensional Sovereignty: Pearl River City.” In Infrastructure as Architecture: Designing
Composite Networks, edited by Katrina Stoll and Scott Lloyd, 112-117. Berlin: Jovis, 2010.
Wiltshire, Trea. Old Hong Kong. Vol. 1. 4th ed. Hong Kong: FormAsia Books, 2003.

SMART CITY URBANISM

MASDAR CITY
Datta, Ayona, and Abdul Shaban, ed. Mega-Urbanization in the Global South: Fast Cities and New Urban Utopias of the Postcolonial State. New York:
Routledge, 2017.
Foster + Partners. “Masdar City.” Foster + Partners. Accessed April 14, 2018. https://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/masdar-city/.
Foster + Partners. “Rendering of the Masdar City Masterplan.” Digital Image. Carboun: Middle East Sustainable Cities. February 20, 2010.
http://www.carboun.com/sustainable-design/masdar-city-masterplan/.
Hofmeister, Dr. Wilhelm, Patrick Rueppel, and Lye Liang Fook, ed. Eco-Cities: Sharing European and Asian Best Practices and Experiences.
Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer Stiftung, 2014.
“Masdar Clean Tech Fund.” Masdar Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company. Accessed April 16, 2018. https://www.webcitation.
org/5hPg89D9q?url=http://www.masdarctf.com/partners.htm
Masdar. Mubadala Investment Company. Accessed April 14, 2018. http://www.masdar.ae/.
“Masdar Neighborhood Development.” Digital Image. Masdar. Mubadala Investment Company. Accessed April 14, 2018. http://masdar.
ae/en/media/detail/strong-progress-on-construction-of-major-new-masdar-city-development.
Stanton, Christopher. “Masdar City Completion Pushed Back, but Total Cost Falls.” The National, October 10, 2010. https://www.
thenational.ae/uae/environment/masdar-city-completion-pushed-back-but-total-cost-falls-1.532529.

A-410 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

KASHIWA-NO-HA
Akiyama, Hiroyasu. “Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City: A New Vision for the Cities of Tomorrow.” FutureCity. Government of Japan. February
9, 2015. PDF. http://doc.future-city.jp/pdf/forum/2016_portland/doc_1330-1345_Mr_Hiroyasu_Akiyama_en.pdf.
Deininger, Michael, and Migiwa Yamamoto. “Japan’s Kashiwa-No-Ha Smart City.” Urban Land Magazine, July 17, 2017. https://urbanland.
uli.org/planning-design/japans-kashiwa-no-ha-smart-city/.
Deininger, Michael, and Migiwa Yamamoto. “Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City.” ULI Case Studies. Urban Land Institute. Accessed April 21,
2018. https://casestudies.uli.org/kashiwa-no-ha-smart-city/.
Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City. Mitsui Fudosan Co., Ltd. Accessed April 22, 2018. http://www.kashiwanoha-smartcity.com/en/.
Mitsui Fudosan Co., Ltd. “Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City.” Mitsui Fudosan Co., Ltd. Accessed April 25, 2018. http://www.mitsuifudosan.
co.jp/english/create/kashiwanoha/index.html.
The Energy Conservation Center Japan. “Sustainable Energy for All: Global Inter-City Cooperative Forum Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City.”
The Energy Conservation Center Japan. October 29, 2015. PDF. https://seforallateccj.org/wpdata/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/2.
Yumiko-Shimaoka-Kashiwa.pdf.
ZGF Architects. “Kashiwa-no-ha Smart City.” Accessed April 22, 2018. https://www.zgf.com/project/kashiwa-no-ha-smart-city/.

SOCIAL URBANISM
SUPERKILEN
Akšamija, Azra. “2016 On Site Review Report: Superkilen.” Archnet. Accessed March 7, 2018. PDF. https://archnet.org/system/
publications/contents/10687/original/DTP103072.pdf ?1475511766.
Denmark. “Superkilen Celebrates Diversity in Copenhagen.” Denmark: The Official Website of Denmark. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Denmark. Accessed March 3, 2018. http://denmark.dk/en/lifestyle/architecture/superkilen-celebrates-diversity-in-copenhagen.
EU Mies Award. “Superkilen.” EU Mies Award 19. Fundació Mies van der Rohe. Accessed March 6, 2018. http://miesarch.com/
work/2780.
Landscape Architecture Magazine. “Life on the Wedge.” Landscape Architecture Magazine, October 4, 2016. https://
landscapearchitecturemagazine.org/2016/10/04/life-on-the-wedge/.
Public Space. “‘Superkilen’: Copenhagen (Denmark), 2012.” Public Space. Centre de Cultura Contemporánia de Barcelona. Accessed March
6, 2018. http://www.publicspace.org/en/works/g057-superkilen.
Steiner, Barbara, ed. Superkilen: A Project by Big, Topotek 1, Superflex. Stockholm: Arvinius & Orfeus, 2014.
SUPERFLEX. “Superkilen.” Digital Image. SUPERFLEX. Accessed March 6, 2018. http://www.superflex.net/tools/superkilen/image.

PEDESTRIANIZATION
“Copenhagen Cycling Map.” Digital Image. Maplets. Zaia Design. Accessed April 4, 2018. www.mobilemaplets.com/showplace/4851.
Danish Ministry of the Environment. The Finger Plan. Translated by GlobalDenmark. Danish Business Authority, 2015. PDF. https://
danishbusinessauthority.dk/sites/default/files/fp-eng_31_13052015.pdf.
Gehl, Jan, and Lars Gemzøe. Public Spaces, Public Life. Copenhagen: Arkitektens Forlag, 2004.
Hjortshoj, Rasmus. “Public Spaces in Copenhagen.” Topos, May 13, 2016. www.toposmagazine.com/israels-plads/#Israels-Plads_2_credit-
Rasmus-Hjortshoj-631x440.
Totintern. “Copenhagen Street Style.” Trip or Treats (Blog). January 7, 2013. www.triportreats.com/2013/01/07/copenhagen-street-style/.

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INFORMAL URBANISM
VILA NOVA PALESTINA
Barretta, Zè Carlos. “Vila Nova Palestina.” Habitat. Accessed April 4, 2018. http://habitatproject.it/portfolio/vila-nova-palestina/.
Bedeschi, Luciana, and Paulo Romeiro. “Brazil’s New Land Regularization Law: A Territorial Attack on Several Fronts.” Rio on Watch.
Catalytic Communities. March 13, 2017. http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=35206.
Lopes, Debora. “Um Rolê pela Vila Nova Palestina.” Vice Media. January 15, 2014. https://www.vice.com/pt_br/article/9a93kp/um-
rolezinho-pela-vila-nova-palestina.
Movimento dos Trabalhadores Sem Teto. Accessed April 6, 2018. http://www.mtst.org/.
Mulheres da Periferia. “Occupation Vila Nova Palestina.” Digital Image. Nós Mulheres da Periferia. March 5, 2015. http://
nosmulheresdaperiferia.com.br/agenda/ocupacao-nova-palestina-recebe-primeiro-festival-unificado-da-mulher/.
Revista Vaidape. “Cidade sem-teto: Cotidiano na Vila Nova Palestina.” Youtube. February 17, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=lWcBonckJx8.
Sá, Eduardo. “Vila Nova Palestina: o maior acampamento paulista.” Forum, July 17, 2014. https://www.revistaforum.com.br/vila-nova-
palestina-o-maior-acampamento-paulista/.

CHICOLOAPAN DE JUAREZ
Berdan, Frances F., Richard E. Blanton, Elizabeth Hill Boone, Mary G. Hodge, Michael E. Smith, and Emily Umberger, ed.. Aztec Imperial
Strategies. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1996.
Gobierno de Chicoloapan. “Plan de Desarrollo Municipal Chicoloapan: 2013-2015.” Government of Chicoloapan. Accessed November
14, 2016. PDF. http://www.chicoloapan.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/PDM-Chicoloapan.pdf.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. Accessed November 12, 2016. http://www.inegi.org.mx/.
Irujo, Cárcar, and Ana Isabel. “Las Reformas Agrarias en México y los Proyectos de Desarrollo Rural en un Municipio del Estado de
Veracruz.” Nómadas 38 no. 2 (2013).
McBride, George McCutchen. The Land Systems of Mexico. New York Geographical Society research series no. 12, 1923. Reprint, New York:
Octagon Books, 1971.
Sánchez Corral, Javier. La Vivienda “Social” en México. Mexico City: JSa, 2012.
Sosa Armando, Cisneros, Huamán Elías, Kuschick Murilo, Moreno Sánchez Enrique, and Terrazs Revilla Oscar. Ciudad de México:
Problemáticas y Perspectivas. Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, 2014.

POST-COLONIAL URBANISM
OLD TOWN JAKARTA
Guide Planet. “The Exotic Remnants of Kota Tua Jakarta.” Digital Images. Guide Planet. Accessed April 8, 2018. http://guideplanet.com/
the-exotic-remnants-of-kota-tua-jakarta-part-1/.
Nurlita, Nadya. “Menelusuri Jejak Kolonialisme Di Kawasan Wisata Kota Tua, Jakarta.” Digital Images. Colours. Accessed April 8, 2018.
https://www.colours.id/jalan-jalan/menelusuri-jejak-kolonialisme-di-kawasan-wisata-kota-tua-jakarta/.
Office for Metropolitan Architecture. “Kota Tua.” OMA. Accessed April 8, 2018. http://oma.eu/projects/kota-tua.
Santana, Jaka, Nugroho Adie, and Danumurthi Mahendra. “Kota Tua (Old Town of Jakarta).” Digital Images. Broke Tourist (Blog).

A-412 Theories and Methods of Urban Design

 Accessed April 8, 2018. http://www.broketourist.net/kota-tua-old-town-of-jakarta/.
Ul Haq, Muhammad Fida. “Revitalisasi Kota Tua Tahap I, Djarot: Ini Gagasan Jokowi-Ahok.” Detik News. October 5, 2017. https://news.
detik.com/berita/d-3672340/revitalisasi-kota-tua-tahap-i-djarot-ini-gagasan-jokowi-ahok.
Valentina, Jessicha. “Jakpost Guide to Kota Tua.” The Jakarta Post, March 31, 2017. http://www.thejakartapost.com/travel/2017/03/31/
jakpost-guide-to-kota-tua.html.

MILL VILLAGE
Bendre, Vivek. “The Past and the Future: An Abandoned Mill and a High-Rise Apartment Block.” Digital Image. The Hindu. Accessed
April 14, 2018. http://www.thehindu.com/lr/2005/07/03/stories/2005070300250400.htm.
PUKAR (Partners for Urban Knowledge Action and Research). “Brief History of Girangaon.” Mythologies of Mumbai. PUKAR
(Partners for Urban Knowledge Action and Research). Accessed April 14, 2018. https://mythologiesofmumbai.wordpress.com/
about-2/girangaon/.
PUKAR (Partners for Urban Knowledge Action and Research). “Mythologies of Mumbai.” Mythologies of Mumbai. PUKAR (Partners
for Urban Knowledge Action and Research). Accessed April 14, 2018 http://mythologiesofmumbai.org/.
Sankalp India Foundation. “Girangaon- The Village of Mills.” Sankalp India Foundation. Accessed April 16, 2018. http://www.
sankalpindia.net/girangaon/girangaon-village-mills.
Thomas, Maria. “Tracing Mumbai’s Evolution from a City of Mills to a Metropolis.” Quartz India, November 23, 2017. https://
qz.com/1134734/mythologies-of-mumbai-tracing-the-citys-evolution-from-a-city-of-mills-to-a-metropolis/.
Varadarajan, Soumitri. “Chawl.” Digital Image. Project Jaliangan. Wordpress Blog. May 5, 2015. https://jaliangan.wordpress.
com/2015/05/05/chawl/.

TYPOLOGICAL URBANISM
PENANG TROPICAL CITY
Büro Ole Scheeren and OMA. “Penang Tropical City Diagrams.” Digital Image. Blogspot. Accessed April 5, 2018. http://2.bp.blogspot.
com/_Ivt2Q-FzioU/TKmvHpZCnoI/AAAAAAAAAKo/P4q2LWaHe4s/s1600/PenangTropicalCity1.jpg.
Büro Ole Scheeren and OMA. “Penang Tropical City.” Büro Ole Scheeren. Accessed April 5, 2018. http://buro-os.com/penang-tropical-
city/.
Büro Ole Scheeren and OMA. “Penang Tropical City.” OMA. Accessed April 5, 2018. http://oma.eu/projects/penang-tropical-city.
DiCarlo, Tina. “Tropical Green: Penang Tropical City.” Log 8, Summer 2006. Republished by Tina DiCarlo at http://www.tinadicarlo.com/
tropical-green-penang-tropical-city/.
Lee, Christopher C.M., and Sam Jacoby. “Typological Urbanism and the Idea of the City.” Architectural Design 81 no. 1 (2011): 14–23.
Levene, Richard C., Fernando Márquez Cecilia, and Rem Koolhaas. OMA/Rem Koolhaas: 1996/2007. Madrid: El Croquis, 2007.

21ST CENTURY MUSEUM

21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art. “Museum Concept.” Kanazawa. 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art. Accessed April
4, 2018. https://www.kanazawa21.jp/data_list.php?g=11&d=1&lng=e.
Aewen, David. “Interesting Flickr Photos Tagged Kazuyo.” Digital Image. Picssr. Accessed April 4, 2018. http://picssr.com/tags/kazuyo/
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y_seto. “21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa, Interior.” Digital Image. Flickr. June 19, 2009. https://www.flickr.com/
photos/y_seto/5499260988.

ANTHROPOCENE, PLANETARY, HINTERLAND URBANISMS

IJBURG
Architectenweb. “BIG en Barcode winnen tender Sluishuis.” Digital Image. Architectenweb. November 28, 2016. https://architectenweb.
nl/nieuws/artikel.aspx?ID=40074.
Atelier GroenBlauw. “IJburg, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.” Urban Green-Blue Grids for Sustainable and Resilient Cities. Atelier
GroenBlauw. Accessed April 5, 2018. http://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/ijburg-amsterdam-the-netherlands/.
I Amsterdam. “IJburg.” I Amsterdam. Accessed April 4, 2018. https://www.iamsterdam.com/en/about-amsterdam/amsterdam-
neighbourhoods/ijburg.
Rutgers, Vanessa. “IJburg Amsterdam.” Issuu Inc. November 5, 2015. https://issuu.com/blogwerk/docs/ijburg_a4-final.20mb.

PACIFIC AQUARIUM
Design Earth. “Pacific Aquarium.” Design Earth. Accessed April 9, 2018. http://design-earth.org/projects/pacific-aquarium/.
Design Earth. “Pacific Aquarium.” Suo-Ya Works. Accessed April 9, 2018. https://suoya.cargocollective.com/Pacific-Aquarium.
Design Earth. “Pacific Aquarium.” Vimeo. September 14, 2017. https://vimeo.com/233876603.
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