REVIEW OF LITERATURE

“The review of literature is considered an important aspect of research work that it

helps to understand specific problem and draw hypothesis.

Keeping in this view, literature collected with the problem in hand has been reviewed
books, journal dissertation, and research project/ survey.”

2.1: HISTORY OF ICE CREAM.

2.1.1: HERBAL ICE CREAM.

2.1.2: DEFINITION OF ICE CREAM.

2.1.3: PFA STANDARD OF FROZEN DESSERT.

2.1.4: FSSAI STANDARD OF ICE CREAM.

2.1.5: NUTRITIVE VALUE OF ICE CREAM.

2.1.6: PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF ICE CREAM.

2.1.7: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF CREAM.

2.2: SKIM MILK POWDER.

2.3: EFFECT OF CANE SUGAR ON ICE CREAM CHARACTERISTIC.

2.4: EFFECT OF STABILIZER ON ICE CREAM PROPERTIES.

2.5: EFFECT OF EMULSIFIER ON ICE CREAM PROPERTIES.

2.6: STATUS OF MILK PRODUCT PREPARE BY HERBS.

2.6.1: ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF MILK PRODUCT PREPARE BY

HERBS.

2.6.2: EFFECT OF HERBS ON MILK PRODUCT SHELF LIFE.

2.7: QUALITY OF MEDICINAL HERBS.

2.7.1: ASPARAGUS

Review of Literature 5
 2.7.1.1: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ASPARAGUS

2.7.1.2: ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF

ASPARAGUS.

2.7.2: GREEN ASPARAGUS.

2.7.2.1: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GREEN ASPARAGUS

2.7.2.2: ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF

GREEN ASPARAGUS.

2.7.3: SALEP ORCHID

2.7.3.1: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SALEP ORCHID.

2.7.3.2: ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF

SALEP ORCHID.

2.7.4: POMEGRANATE

2.7.4.1: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF POMEGRANATE.

2.7.4.2: ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF

POMEGRANATE.

2.8: PASTEURIZATION OF ICE CREAM MIXES.

2.9: HOMOGENIZATION OF ICE CREAM MIXES.

2.10: AGEING PROCESS FOR ICE CREAM.

2.11: FREEZING TEMPRETURE FOR ICE CREAM.

2.12: OVER RUN IN ICE CREAM.

2.14: CHEMICAL EVALUATION OF FROZEN DESSERT.

2.15: ANTIOXIDANT ANALYSIS OF MILK PRODUCT.

2.16: SENSORY EVALUATION OF FROZEN DESSERT.

2.17: RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF FROZEN PRODUCT

Review of Literature 6
 2.18: SHELF LIFE STUDIES AND MICROBIAL QUALITY OF FROZEN
DESSERT.

2.19: PACKAGING OF ICE CREAM.

2.20: EFFECT OF STORAGE TIME AND TEMPERATURE ON ICE CREAM

PROPERTIES.

2.1: HISTORY OF ICE CREAM.

This investigation was carried out to find the functional properties quantitative of
herbs powder included ice cream. These herbs where used in making and enhancement of
medicinal value in ice cream.

Shannon (1980) reported that ice cream, when eaten frequently between meals, is a
potential dental hazard. A significant accomplishment in dental prevention would be the
decreased use of ice cream as a between meal snack and its increased use, if so desired, as a
meal time dessert. It is the frequent exposure of children to sticky, high-sugar material
between meals that is primarily responsible for the deplorable state of dental health in the
United States.

Berry et al. (1985) reported that both male and female undergraduates ate more ice
cream when eating occurred in groups of three or four than when they ate alone. These
subjects also ate more ice cream when offered three different flavors than when offered only
one flavor of their own choosing. For women, both variety and eating in a group combined to
enhance eating more than either variable did alone. For men, variety or eating in a group
caused about the same enhancement of consumption but the combination of the two variables
did not lead to further increases in intake. This latter result probably reflects a ceiling effect,
but it could represent a true gender difference.

Erland (1991) concluded that this is a shortened version of a history of ice cream
compiled to mark the 25th anniversary of A/L Iskrem, Norway. In ancient Greece and Rome
the rich were partial to frozen desserts. They disappeared, and then reappeared in the middle
ages in Italy, from where they spread across Europe. Ice cream was probably introduced to
the French court of Henry II by Catherine de Medici around 1550. The first of many ice
cream parlours opened in Paris, France, in 1651, and a household recipe was published in the

Review of Literature 7
UK in 1796 and a New York (USA) advertisement even earlier. Italian ice cream carts finally
reached Nordic countries. Development into an industry was slow. Varchaug Dairy was the
first in Norway to introduce technology, in 1927. The first Norwegian ice cream factory,
Diplomis Oslo, started up in 1930. Dry ice became available in 1934. The Diplomis’ brand-
name was adopted by the Norwegian Dairy Ice Cream Association, formed in 1951.

Tadashi and Hartel (1996) reported that ice cream manufacturing control of ice
crystal growth through proper formulation and storage temperature is important for stability
during storage. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of sweetener
(sucrose, 20 dextrose equivalent corn syrup, 42 dextrose equivalent corn syrup, and 42 high
fructose corn syrup), with and without stabilizer, on ice recrystallization in ice cream at three
storage temperatures. The relationship between thermal and physical properties and ice
recrystallization rate was also studied.

Wilson et al., (1997) stated that a survey of unopened ice cream, ice cream in use, and
ice-cream-scoop water (n = 91) was conducted to determine the effect of scoop water hygiene
on the microbiological quality of ice cream. An aerobic plate count around 10 6 c.f.u. ml-1
was the modal value for scoop waters. Unopened ice creams generally had counts around
10(3) -10(4) c.f.u. ml-1 and this increased by one order of magnitude when in use. Many scoop
waters had low coliform counts, but almost half contained > 100 c.f.u. ml-1. Eschesicha coli
were isolated in 18% of ice creams in use, and in 10% of unopened ice creams.
Staphylococcus aureus was not detected in any sample. Statistical analysis showed strong
associations between indicator organisms and increased counts in ice cream in use. EC
guidelines for indicator organisms in ice cream were exceeded by up to 56% of samples.

Douglas (1997) reported that, Ice cream is a complex food colloid that consists of air
bubbles, fat globules, ice crystals and an unfrozen serum phase. Ice crystals and air bubbles
are usually in the range of 20–50 μm. The air bubbles are usually partially coated with fat
globules and the fat globules are coated with a protein/emulsifier layer. The serum phase
consists of the sugars and high molecular weight polysaccharides in a freeze-concentrated
solution. Various steps in the manufacturing process, including pasteurization,
homogenization, ageing, freezing, and hardening, contribute to the development of this
structure. Proteins and emulsifiers compete for interfacial space during the homogenization of
the fat and the creation of the mix emulsion. Following homogenization, the emulsion is
further affected by changes occurring during the ageing step, viz., crystallization of the fat

Review of Literature 8
and rearrangement of the fat globule membrane to the lowest free energy state. This emulsion
then undergoes both whipping and ice crystal formation during the dynamic freezing process,
which contributes to the development of the four main structural components of the frozen
product: discontinuous foam, a network of partially fat surrounding the air bubbles, ice
crystals, and a continuous, freeze-concentrated, unfrozen aqueous solution.

Whelan et al. (2000) investigated the development of a low glycemic index ice cream
with as close as possible physicochemical properties and sensory quality compared with a
sucrose-sweetened ice cream. Three relatively new novel commercial sweeteners, tagatose,
erythritol and trehalose were studied, along with maltitol and polydextrose. Once the freezing
curves were matched, other physicochemical properties also were found to match. Sweetness
and sweet taste could then be adjusted for sensory optimisation with a combination of these
sugars and supplementation with sucralose to boost the sweetness as necessary.

Muhammet (2006) reported that effect of hazelnut flour (1.5, 3 and 4.5%) and
hazelnut kernel skin (1, 2 and 3%) on the physical, chemical and sensory properties of vanilla
ice cream were examined. All samples were analyzed for pH, titratable acidity, total solids,
nitrogen, fat, ash, overrun, viscosity, meltdown, Hunter L-, a- and b-values, flavour, body and
texture, and appearance. The samples with hazelnut flour exhibited higher pH, nitrogen, ash,
viscosity, and L-, flavour, body and texture, and appearance values than the samples with
kernel skin. Samples with hazelnut flour and skin can be added to the ice cream mix to
produce a non-fat ice cream at 3% and 1% levels in combination with maltodextrin,
respectively.

Sharma and Hissaria (2007) suggested that our love affair with ice cream is
centuries old. The ancient Greeks, Romans and Jews were known to chill wines and juices.
This practice evolved into fruit ices and, eventually, frozen milk and cream mixtures. In the
first century, Emperor Nero reportedly sent messengers to the mountains to collect snow so
that his kitchen staff could make mixtures flavored with fruit and honey. Twelve centuries
later, Marco Polo introduced Europe to a frozen milk dessert similar to the modern sherbet
that he had enjoyed in the Far East. The Italians were especially fond of the frozen
confection, which, by the sixteenth century, was being called ice cream. In 1533 mg the
young Italian princess, Catherine de Medici went to France as the bride of the future King
Henry II. She was having recipes for frozen desserts included in her gifts.

Review of Literature 9
 Ayyavoo and Ramasamy (2013) reported that demand for natural source of such
compounds is increasing day by day because of awareness of positive health benefit out of
natural compounds. Ice cream is fat rich product enjoyed by all age groups. The demand for
ice cream production is increasing 12 to 15 per cent every year in India. The growing concern
with health and the higher incidence of overweight, metabolic syndrome and diabetes have
resulted in an increase in interest for foods with lipid and sugar reduction. However, the
development of new food products turns out to be increasingly challenging, as it has to fulfill
the consumer's expectancy for products that are simultaneously relish and healthy. The
present investigation was undertaken to study the physico-chemical and microbial properties
of herbal (Aloe Vera) ice cream with natural colour beetroot for strawberry flavour.

Safa et al., (2014) In the present study, persimmon puree was incorporated into the
ice cream mix at different concentrations (8, 16, 24, 32, and 40%) and some physicochemical
(dry matter, ash, protein, pH, sugar, fat, mineral, color, and viscosity), textural (hardness,
stickiness, and work of penetration), bioactive (antiradical activity and total phenolic
content), and sensory properties of samples were investigated. The technique for order
preference by similarity to ideal solution approach was used for the determination of
optimum persimmon puree concentration based on the sensory and bioactive characteristics
of final products. Increase in persimmon puree resulted in a decrease in the dry matter, ash,
fat, protein contents, and viscosity of ice cream mix. Glucose, fructose, sucrose, and lactose
were determined to be major sugar in the ice cream samples including persimmon and
increase in persimmon puree concentration increased the fructose and glucose content.

2.1.1: HERBAL ICE CREAM.

Samahy and Youssef (2009) In this study red cactus pear (Opuntia ficus–indica) pulp
was tested for some technological and chemical characteristics. The pulp was concentrated up
to 30°Brix then added at four levels (0, 5, 10 and 15%) to basic ice cream mix. The basic mix
contained 0.5% gelatin, 8% fat and 10.5% milk solids non–fat (MSNF), and 16% sucrose.
Some of rheological parameters of both mixes and resultant ice cream samples, in addition to
some technological characteristics of resultant ice cream samples were measured. The
rheological properties of all ice cream mixes before and after aging showed that the flow
behavior of mixes is non–Newtonian besides being pseudoplastic behavior. While specific
gravity and weight per gallon of resultant ice cream samples increased by increasing of added
pulp, overrun decreased. Sensory evaluation of resultant ice cream samples showed that

Review of Literature 10
sample with 5% cactus was very desirable and very close to control sample. This work shows
the possibility of producing a new product of ice cream using cactus pear pulp as a good fruit
substitute.

Ismet et al., (2010) studied the effects of the incorporation of some herbal teas at
different concentrations into the ice cream mix on the population of Listeria monocytogenes
were studied using Taguchi method. The ice cream mix samples flavored with herbal teas
were prepared using green tea and sage at different concentrations. Afterward, fresh culture
of L. monocytogenes was inoculated into the samples and the L. monocytogenes was counted
at different storage periods. Taguchi method was used for experimental design and analysis.
In addition, some physicochemical properties of samples were examined. Results suggested
that there was some effect, although little, on the population of L. monocytogenes when
herbal tea was incorporated into the ice cream mix. Additionally, the use of herbal tea caused
a decrease in the pH values of the samples and significant changes in the color values.

Manoharan et al., (2012) reported that Aloe vera is having number of medicinal
properties viz anti-septic, anti-microbial, anti-viral, antidiabetic and anti-carcinogenic etc.
Aloe vera one of the major constitute in the ayurvedic / Chinese medicine. In India,
increasing diabetic incidence, alarms the production of a dairy products for diabetic patients
with natural ingredients. An investigation is carried out to find the acceptable level of Aloe
vera pulp inclusion in the ice cream. Ice cream prepared by this method is subjected to
sensory properties of herbal ice cream.

Safa and Ahmad (2012) reported that rheological characteristics and

physicochemical properties of ice cream mix flavored with black tea or some herbal teas and
sensory profile of flavored ice cream was investigated. In this respect, black tea and three
different herbal tea samples (sage, chamomile, and linden) were used to produce a new ice
cream formulation. Some physicochemical properties and sensory characteristics of samples
were determined. Total phenolic content of ice cream samples increased with the use of tea or
herbal teas and it was in the range of 123.37–415.20 mg kg−1. Incorporation of black tea and
herbal tea except chamomile decreased the sensory scores of ice cream compared to control
sample. The apparent viscosities of samples were measured as a function of shear rate and
consistency coefficient and flow behavior index were calculated by using power law model.
All ice cream mix samples showed non-Newtonian pseudo plastic behavior. The apparent
viscosities of ice cream mixes treated with no tea at the shear rate of 50 s−1 were 1.13, 0.91,

Review of Literature 11
and 0.76 Pa s at 10, 20, and 30 °C, respectively. The activation energy for the viscosity
change of the samples ranged between 10.87–20.25 J mol −1 at 50 s−1.

Osman et al. (2012) determined the effect of ellagic acid (EA), gallic acid (GA),
grape seed extract (GSE),pomegranate peel extract (PPE), and peppermint essential oil (PEO)
supplementation on sensorial and antioxidative properties of ice cream. Additionally, survival
of Lactobacillus casei Shirota in ice cream and its interaction with the supplements were also
investigated. All the supplements increased total phenolic content of ice creams significantly
(P < 0.05). DPPH radical scavenging activities of ice creams supplemented with EA, GA,
PPE, or GSE were higher than that of control group. Moreover, PPE made the best
contribution to phenolic content and antiradical activity of ice cream. L. casei Shirota was
highly adapted to ice cream media and survived with high numbers (7.21 log cfu/ml) during
the storage period for 60 days. Supplementation of ice creams provided lower decrease in
bacterial number, and the best bacterial behaviors were observed in the ice creams
supplemented with GA or PPE. All ice cream samples tested in this study had generally
acceptable sensorial scores. In conclusion, EA, GA, PPE, GSE, and PEO could be used to
enhance the phenolic content of ice cream and to gain antioxidant property, and there was a
good interaction between L. casei and these phenolic compounds. Additionally, PPE
supplementation provided the best result for all concerns.

Banjare et al. (2014) reported that Aloe vera has become a subject of interest because
of its beneficial effects on human health. The present review envisages the therapeutic
properties of A. vera based on literature available on various uses. Reviewed data revealed
that this novel herb has anti inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-
diabetic, immune boosting and hypoglycaemic properties. This promotes human health
without any side effects. Daily supplementation with this is effective against various disorder
and diseases like stroke, heart attacks, leukaemia, anaemia, hypertension, AIDS, radiation
burns, digestive disorders etc. Due to the medicinal properties of Aloe vera, it has been used
as a novel functional foods production of gel containing health drinks/beverages and
pharmaceuticals among them Aloe gel/juice are most popular products. Today Aloe gel is
being used in hundreds of skin lotions, sun blocks and cosmetics. Researches also indicate its
anti-inflammatory properties due to its polysaccharides content in leaves. The five unique
properties of aloe is deep penetration antiseptic, stimulates cell growth and new tissues,

Review of Literature 12
clearing effects on nervous system, dietary fibre, normalization of metabolic path way. It is
being extensively preferred as a natural product with medicinal and therapeutic properties.

Çam et al. (2014) in this study, we investigated the effects of microencapsulation

conditions on product quality of pomegranate peel phenolics. The results indicate an
optimum air inlet temperature of 160 °C and 1/1 (w/w) or 1/3 (w/w) for
phenolics/maltodextrin ratio. No differences were observed amongst the maltodextrins used
for coatings. There were also no statistically significant differences in phenolic content of
microcapsules for the storage periods of 90 days at 4 °C (p > 0.05). They also evaluated the
resultant microencapsulated phenolics for enrichment of the functional properties of regular
ice cream used as model food in their studies. Addition of pomegranate peel phenolics at 0.5
and 1.0% (w/w) showed significant improvement of the antioxidant and α-glucosidase
inhibitory activities of the enriched ice creams compared with control sample. Antioxidant
activity as EC50 and α-glucosidase inhibitory as IC50 of 1.0% phenolic enriched ice creams
were 133.3 and 22.9 μg/ml, respectively. More than 75% of the panellists accepted the
phenolic enriched ice creams in sensory evaluation, which lends supports to such products for
commercial introduction to the general public with the potential as functional foods.

2.1.2: DEFINITION OF ICE CREAM.

Sukumar (1980) “ Ice cream may be defined as frozen dairy product made by
suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk product together with sugar and
flavour with or without stabilizer or colour and with the incorporation of air during of
freezing process”

2.1.3: PFA STANDARDS OF FROZEN DESSERT.

PFA (2004) reported that ice cream means the product obtained by freezing a
pasteurized mix prepared from milk and / or other products derived from milk with the
addition of natural sweetening agents i.e. sugar, dextrose, fructose, liquid glucose, dried
liquid glucose, maltdextrin, high maltose syrup, honey, fruit and fruit products, eggs and egg
products, such as Cake, or Cookies as separate layer and / or coating. It may be frozen hard to
a soft consistency. It shall be free from artificial sweetener. It shall have pleasant taste and
smell free from off flavour acidity. It may contain food additives permitted in Appendix C. It
shall conform to the microbiological requirements prescribed in Appendix D. It shall conform
to the following requirements.

Review of Literature 13
 Ice Cream, Kulfi and Chocolate Ice Cream mean the frozen product obtained
from cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof or from cream, and/or other milk
products, with or without the addition of cane sugar, dextrose, liquid glucose and dried liquid
glucose maltodextrin, eggs, fruits, fruit juice, preserved fruits, nuts, chocolate, edible flavours
and permitted food colours. It may contain permitted stabilizer and emulsifiers not exceeding
0.5 per cent by weight. The mixture shall be suitably heated before freezing. The product
shall contain not less than 10.0 per cent milk fat, 3.5 per cent protein and 36.0 per cent total
solids. Starch may be added to a maximum extent of 5.0 per cent under a declaration on a
label as specified in sub-rule. The standards for ice cream shall also apply to softy ice-cream.
In case of ice-cream, where the chocolate or like covering portion forms a separate layer,
only the ice cream portion shall conform to the standards of ice-cream (PFA,2004).

2.1.4: TABLE OF FOOD SAFETY STANDARDS AUTHORITY OF INDIA

STANDARD, ICE CREAM:

Requirements Full fat Medium fat Low fat

Ice Cream Ice Cream Ice Cream
(1) Total solids Not less than 36.0 Not less than 30.0 Not less than 26.0
percent percent percent
(2) Wt / Vol (gm Not less than 525 Not less than 475 Not less than 475
per liter)
(3) Milk Fat Not less than 10.0 Not less than 5.0 Note less than 2.5
percent percent percent
(4) Milk Protein Not less than 3.5 Not less than 3.5 Not less than 3.0
(Nx6.38) percent percent percent
Source: FSSAI (2011)
Note:- in case where chocolate, cake or similar food coating, base or layer forms a separate
part of the product only the ice cream portion shall conform to the requirements given above.

Review of Literature 14
2.1.5: TABLE FOR NUTRITIVE VALUE OF ICE CREAM PER (66 GM.).
Compound Ice % Ice % Ice % Orange %
Cream Daily Cream, Daily Cream, Daily Sherbet, Dail
, Value 10% Value 16% Value 2% Fat y
4% Fat Val
Fat ue
Total calories 123.4 133.6 174.7 135.8
(Kcal)
Calories 34.1 64 106.6 17.3
from
fat (Kcal)
Total fat (g) 3.8 6 7.1 11 11.8 18 1.9 3
Saturated fat 2.4 12 4.4 22 7.4 37 1.2 6
(g)
Cholesterol 12.2 4 29.5 10 43.8 15 7.1 2
(mg)
Sodium (mg) 70.2 3 57.6 2 54.1 2 44.4 2
Carbohydrate 19.5 6 15.7 5 16 5 29.5 10
(g)
Iron (mg) 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2
Sugars (g) 18.4 14.8 15.1 27.8
Protein (g) 3.5 7 2.4 5 2.1 4 1.1 2
Vitamin A 143.4 2 259.3 6 448.4 8 93.1 4
(IU)
Vitamin C 0.5 0 0.4 0 0.3 0 1.9 0
(mg)
Calcium 118.3 10 87.2 8 75.6 8 52 6
(mg)
Note- % Daily value is based on 2000 calorie diet. (Kilara, 2007)

Review of Literature 15
2.1.6: PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF ICE CREAM.

Abd et al. (1997) suggested that, vanilla ice creams (10% fat) were prepared with or
without emulsifier and by substituting anhydrous milk fat, a low melting milk fat fraction,
and a very high melting milk fat fraction for cream. Viscosity of the ice cream mixes was
affected by the source of milk fat and the addition of emulsifier. Ice cream mixes that were
made with a very high melting milk fat fraction had the highest solidified fat, and mixes
made with a low melting milk fat fraction had the lowest solidified fat. Rates of solidification
were faster in the presence of emulsifier. The amount of adsorbed protein at the surface of fat
globules in ice cream mixes in the presence of emulsifier was higher than when no emulsifier
was used. The use of the very high melting milk fat fraction led to decreased adsorption of
protein. More fat was agglomerated in ice cream made with emulsifier than in ice cream
without emulsifier. Hardness of the ice creams made with different milk fat sources were not
significantly different. Ice cream made with emulsifier was significantly harder than ice
cream made without emulsifier. Meltdown of the samples made with the very high melting
fraction was slower than meltdown of ice creams made with other milk fat sources. The
results suggested that frozen dessert could be made using low melting and very high melting
milk fat fractions in place of cream and that the ice cream made with the very high melting
fraction was especially practical for use in warm climates.

Ohmes et al. (1998) concluded that the purpose of this research was to determine the
relative effects of milk fat, nonfat milk solids, or each of three whey protein type fat replacers
on the flavor and texture attributes of vanillin-flavored ice cream. Descriptive sensory
analyses disclosed that ice creams containing 4.8% of any of the fat replacers in place of milk
fat had no demonstrable effect on vanillin flavor but increased the intensities of whey flavor,
syrup flavor, and cooked milk flavor. Compared with each substitute, milk fat significantly
reduced the syrup, whey, and cooked milk flavors and increased the fresh milk and cream
flavors of the ice cream. Results emphasized the importance of fat as a flavor modifier and
the importance of certain fat replacers as aids in improving texture.

Claudia et al. (2003) prepared the model of heat transfer phenomena which take
place during ice cream freezing, predictive correlations of the ice cream thermo physical
properties as a function of temperature were needed, principally the specific enthalpy and the

Review of Literature 16
thermal conductivity. Due to the fact that these thermal properties are required for various
freezing conditions and ice cream formulations. Physical models based on large experimental
determinations were developed and validated. For a given ice cream formulation, the thermal
conductivity was dependent on its density i.e. on the amount of air fraction in the sample and
on the temperature whereas the enthalpy is only affected by temperature. The main objective
of this study was to develop physical models that predict the thermal properties of a standard
overrun ice cream based on its composition and on the intrinsic thermal properties of each
major pure component. In addition, to validate these models, the thermal properties of the ice
cream were measured experimentally–the enthalpy by thermal conductivity and by the
transient hot-wires probe method – and the effects of different factors were observed: ice
content; temperature and air fraction in the temperature range between −40 and 10 °C.
Generally, the predicted thermo –physical properties values were in close agreement with
those obtained experimentally.

2.1.6.1: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF CREAM.

Kitchen (1974) isolated membrane material from skim milk and cream using the
samples of whole milk and purification techniques. The membranes from these two sources
were characterised and compared by lipid, carbohydrate, enzymatic and electrophoretic
analyses. The skim milk membranes contained higher levels of cholesterol, phospholipid and
carbohydrate per mg of protein than the cream membranes. In general, the specific activities
of the enzymes tested were also higher in the skim milk membranes, nucleotide
pyrophosphatase, γ-glutamyltranspeptidase and sulphydryl oxidase being particularly active
in these membranes. The major protein of the skim milk material had a molecular weight of
approx. 85, 000 and constituted 32% of the total protein. This particular protein band was
almost absent in the cream membranes (only 3% of the total protein) where the major protein
had a molecular weight of approx. 70, 000 and constituted 34% of the total protein.
Glycoprotein bands were also located in both membrane preparations but the position of
these bands did not correspond with the areas which were stained with the protein staining
reagent Coomassie blue. The major glycoprotein in both skim milk and cream membranes
had an apparent molecular weight of 1, 15, 000. The biochemical and compositional
differences between these membranes in milk provide further evidence for the skim milk
membranes being more closely related to secretory cell plasma membrane than to the cream
membranes. The data also lend support to the hypothesis of Keenan et al. ((1970) that the

Review of Literature 17
cream membrane undergoes morphological and structural changes while evolving from the
plasma membrane of the secretory cell.

Drewnowski and Greenwood (1983) Sixteen normal-weight subjects rated the

perceived intensity of sweetness, fatness, and creaminess of 20 different mixtures of milk,
cream, and sugar, and assigned an overall pleasantness (hedonic) rating to each sample.
Intensity estimates increased as power functions of ingredient concentration and no
significant mixture suppression effect was observed. In contrast, hedonic responses strongly
depended on the relative proportions of sucrose and fat in the samples tested. Hedonic
preference ratings first rose and then declined with increasing sucrose concentration, but
continued to rise with increasing dairy fat content. The addition of sucrose greatly enhanced
hedonic ratings for high-fat stimuli. Changes in hedonic responsiveness were monitored using
a mathematical modeling technique known as the Response Surface Method, which allows
computerized simulation of the hedonic response surface as a function of perceived
ingredient levels. Overnight fasting did not affect the perception or hedonics for sweet or
“fatty” tastes. The observed preference for sweetened high-fat foods may have implications
for the development of dietary-induced obesity in man.

Christelle et al. (2000) the thermal and structural properties of unstable varieties of
triacylglycerols (TGs) crystallizing in milk fat globules of cream are examined in the range
−8– +50°C using a new instrument allowing simultaneously time-resolved synchrotron X-ray
diffraction at both wide and small angles as a function of temperature (XRDT) and high
sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Small angle X-ray diffraction shows that
the unstable α form first formed by cream quenching to −8°C corresponds in fact to two
different lamellar phases corresponding to 2L (47 Å) and 3L (70.4 Å) arrangements of TGs.
The bilayered structure is very unstable since it disappears during the course of a 20-min
isothermal conditioning at −8°C. On fast heating, the crystalline evolution of cream TGs
demonstrates the monotropic character of their polymorphism. The structural and thermal
behaviors of cream which are compared to that of its anhydrous milk fat isolated from the
cream (C. Lopez et al., J. Dairy Sci., submitted) show that the crystallization occurring in
emulsion droplets is similar to bulk. However, the comparison of XRD peak widths indicates
that the TG crystallization is more disordered in emulsion. This disorder is attributed to the
constraints due to the interface curvature in emulsion droplets.

Review of Literature 18
2.2: SKIM MILK POWDER

Jouppila et al. (1997) the effects of water content, storage time, and glass transition
(physical state) on lactose crystallization and the resultant crystal forms in skim milk powder
were investigated. Samples of freeze-dried skim milk containing amorphous lactose were
stored at various relative humidity’s at room temperature (24°C). Crystallization was
observed from time-dependent loss of sorbed water during storage and from increasing
intensities and peak areas of X-ray diffraction patterns. Lactose was found to crystallize
largely as an anhydrous mixture of α and β-lactose in a molar ratio of 5:3. At high relative
humidity’s, traces of other crystal forms were also found. The rate of crystallization, up to a
maximum extent, which depended on crystallization conditions, increased as the relative
humidity during storage increased. The rate of crystallization could be successfully modeled
using the Avrami equation when relative humidity was ≥66.2%. The relationship between the
extent of crystallization and relative humidity was parabolic; the maximum crystallization
occurred at a relative humidity of 70%. The corresponding water content and temperature
difference between storage temperature and glass transition temperature were predicted to be
17% (wt/ wt) and 61°C, respectively. Glass transition seems to control lactose crystallization
in skim milk powder, and the data obtained can be used in predicting lactose crystallization in
milk products containing lactose.

Pelan et al. (1997) the effects of milk proteins and small molecular surfactants on oil
droplet surface coverage and emulsion stability were studied in model emulsions, and the
results were related to the microstructure and physical properties of ice creams. Emulsions
became increasingly more stable during partial coalescence at increased surface coverage as
the protein concentration was increased. Model emulsions of 20% (wt/wt) 50:50 palm kernel
oil and coconut oil, stabilized by skim milk powder emulsions, were more stable than sodium
caseinate or whey protein emulsions, respectively. In ice cream premixes containing 12%
butter oil and 13% skimmed milk powder, the water-soluble surfactant Tween 60 was much
more effective in displacing protein from the interface than were oil-soluble surfactants, such
as monoglycerides. Tween 60 destabilized the emulsions more than did unsaturated
monoglyceride. Although saturated monoglyceride also displaced protein from the oil droplet
interface, these emulsions were relatively stable at high surfactant concentrations under the
shear conditions used in this study. The melting resistance of ice creams containing 12%

Review of Literature 19
butter oil was related not only to the amount of extractable fat, but also to the air cell stability,
both of which were dependent on the type of surfactant. A better understanding of the
functionality of surfactants in ice cream enables optimal ingredient selection, which should
improve product properties.

Hennigs et al. (2001) The drying of sugar-rich foodstuffs is often complicated by

depositions on the walls of spray dryers, due to the stickiness of the products. This material
property has been found to depend on both product temperature and moisture content and
undergoes a rapid change from non-sticky behaviour to sticky behaviour with only a small
change in these parameters. In this investigation, this so-called sticky point is measured for
skim milk powder by measuring the cohesive force between stirred particles in a heated flask.
The line separating the sticky and the non-sticky regions is given as a function of bulk
temperature and moisture content. For the temperature range from 25 to 95°C investigated
here, the line shows good agreement with the predicted glass transition temperature for
lactose, shifted up by 23.3 K. This information can then be used in CFD simulations carried
out to model the build-up of wall depositions inside spray drying chambers. As a first order
approximation to estimate the behaviour of a particle impacting on a wall, sticky particles can
be assumed to adhere to the wall, whereas non-sticky particles can be considered to bounce
off it.

2.3: CANE SUGAR EFFECT ON ICE CREAM CHARACTERISTIC.

Guinard et al. (1996) University students (73 men and 73 women) tasted and rated
on a nine-point hedonic scale the texture and mouth feel, flavor (taste and odor), and overall
degree of liking for nine samples of vanilla ice cream varying in sugar (8.94 to 18.81%,
wt/wt) and fat (8.73 to 19.30%, wt/wt) contents. Sugar consisted of 6% corn syrup solids [36
DE (dextrose equivalent)]; the balance was sucrose. Hedonic ratings differed significantly
among samples, and the best-liked sample for texture and mouth feel, flavor, and overall
degree of liking contained 13.54% sugar and 14.99% fat. Men and women differed
significantly in their liking of the flavor of the samples; men rated the flavor of the ice creams
higher than did women. There was no gender difference for degree of liking of texture and
mouth feel or for overall degree of liking. Response surface methodology was used to relate
hedonic ratings to sugar and fat percentages in the ice cream. Dome-shaped response surfaces
were obtained for all three degree of liking parameters, and optimal sugar and fat,
respectively, were 13.16% and 14.02% for degree of liking of texture and mouth feel, 14.07%

Review of Literature 20
and 15.35% for degree of liking of flavor, and 14.30% and 14.77% for overall degree of
liking. The response surfaces indicated that the level of sugar had a greater effect on all
hedonic measures than did fat.

Guven and Karaca (2002) In this study, the physical properties of samples of ice
cream produced from yogurt with varying levels of sugar (18, 20 or 22%) and fruit
(strawberry) concentration (15, 20 or 25%) were investigated. The results of the physical
analysis indicate that as the amount of sugar and fruit increases, there is an increase in the
first dripping time period, viscosity values and the overrun. However, complete melting times
decreased in parallel with the increase in sugar content and fruit concentration. It was
observed that an increase in the amount of sugar in vanilla frozen yogurt softened the
structure. In strawberry ice-cream-type frozen yogurt, the structure hardened in parallel with
the increase in fruit concentration. In addition, the results show that frozen yogurts with high
sugar (V3) and fruit (St3) concentrations are the type most preferred by the panellists. The
results of the sensory analysis suggest that frozen yogurt can be an alternative to other dairy
products such as yogurt and ice cream.

Guinard et al. (2006) Vanilla ice cream with 8, 13 or 18% sucrose and 10, 14 or 18%
butterfat was evaluated by descriptive analysis (DA) with 15 judges, instrumental texture
measurements (ITM), and hedonic rating with 146 consumers. Increased sugar caused higher
vanilla, almond, buttery, custard/eggy, sweetness, fatty, creamy, doughy and mouthcoating
characteristics, and lower coolness, ice crystals, melt rate (ITM) and hardness (ITM).
Increased fat caused higher buttery, custard/eggy and sweet flavor, fatty, creamy, doughy and
mouthcoating texture, and lower color, ice crystals and melting rate (DA). Acceptability was
positively related to the vanilla, creamy, fatty and milky characters, and negatively related to
color, ice crystals and ITM hardness.

2.4: EFFECT OF STABILIZER ON ICE CREAM PROPERTIES.

Livney and Hartel (1997) Suggested that recrystallization in ice creams that were
made with various combinations of four sweeteners [20 DE (dextrose equivalent) corn syrup
solids, 42 DE corn syrup solids, sucrose, and high fructose corn syrup], and four stabilizers
(gelatin, locust bean gum, xanthan gum, and carrageenan) was investigated. Ice creams were
stored at three different temperatures (–5.2, –9.5, and –15°C). For a given stabilizer, both
storage temperature and sweetener type influenced recrystallization rate. For a given

Review of Literature 21
temperature, rates were lowest for ice creams made with 20 DE corn syrup solids and the
highest for ice creams made with high fructose corn syrup at all storage temperatures. The
effects of stabilizers on ice recrystallization rate were more pronounced in combinations of
either lower temperature (–15°C) and lower freezing point temperature when high fructose
corn syrup or sucrose was used or higher temperature (–5.2°C) and higher freezing point
temperature when 20 DE corn syrup solids was used. Overall, carrageenan and locust bean
gum were most effective in retarding ice crystal growth, but not in all cases. Xanthan gum
and gelatin retarded ice recrystallization only at –15°C and when combined with sucrose or
high fructose corn syrup.

Sutton and Jean (1998) Addition of locust bean gum (LBG) or guar gum to ice
cream mixes gave products with smaller ice crystals after heat shock than control samples
without either stabilizer. LBG was more effective at inhibiting recrystallization than guar.
Increasing stabilizer concentration resulted in greater inhibition. With LBG we found some
evidence for an optimum concentration above which no further inhibition occurred. We
found no evidence for phase volume effects.

Flores and Goff (1999) Reported that storage under low constant temperature (–
30°C) had no effect on the overall ice crystal size of stabilized or unstabilized ice cream
samples; storage at a higher temperature (–16°C) showed clear evidence, based on sample
micro structure, of recrystallization, probably through Ostwald ripening and accretion.
Temperature cycles (–15 ± 5°C) of samples after hardening (–30°C) had an even greater
effect than did storage at a high constant temperature (–16°C). Also, increase of the number
or time length of cycles had greater impact than did an increase in amplitude. After extended
thermal fluctuation, smaller crystals disappeared. The predominant recrystallization
mechanism at this stage would have most likely involved partial melting and refreezing of ice
crystals. With this mechanism, stabilizers exerted a measurable effect of retarding or
preventing crystal growth.

Guven et al. (2003) This study was aimed primarily at determining the suitability of
locust bean gum and various stabilizers in the production of Kahramanmaraş-type ice creams,
the physical, chemical and sensory properties of the ice creams produced, and the stabilizer
combination that could produce the best quality ice cream. With a total amount of stabilizer
of 1.0%, ice creams of four different combinations containing locust bean gum,
carboxymethyl cellulose, guar gum and sodium alginate were produced and their properties

Review of Literature 22
during a 6-month storage period compared with the control sample produced using only salep
extract (Orchis orchida). The ice cream produced using only the salep extract had
significantly higher (P < 0.05) levels of titratable acidity, lower pH and viscosity values, and
were harder and less resistant to melting compared to those produced with the stabilizer
combinations. The stabilizer mixtures containing locust bean gum yielded better results than
those with the salep extract. An analysis of the effect of storage time on the properties of the
ice creams indicated that, of the physical properties examined, only the decrease in the
penetrometer values was significant (P < 0.05). Apart from the difference observed in the
third month during the storage of the ice creams produced with the salep extract, the
differences during the storage time were not found to be significant (P > 0.05).

2.5: EFFECT OF EMULSIFIER ON ICE CREAM PROPERTIES.

Goff and Jordan (1989) Suggested that several emulsifiers have been examined in ice
cream processing to determine their relative emulsion destabilizing power. The hydrophilic
lipophilic balance value of the emulsifier did not account for all of the differences in
destabilization; however, destabilizing power corresponded with the resulting interfacial
tension between the serum and lipid phases of the mix. Fat destabilization results from the
combination of ice crystallization and shear forces during ice cream manufacture. Neither
shear nor ice crystallization alone were sufficient to cause the magnitude of destabilization
encountered in a typical barrel freezer. It has also been shown that polyoxyethylene sorbitan
monooleate, the most powerful destabilizing agent, reduced the amount of protein adsorbed
to the fat globule surface. Thus, it is suggested that, based on their ability to lower the
interfacial tension, emulsifiers control the adsorption of protein to the fat globule surface. The
fat globules thus become more susceptible to coalescence induced by the shear forces of
agitation and ice crystallization during ice cream manufacture.

Beer et al. (1997) Reported that four emulsifiers at three levels each were evaluated
in low fat ice creams (2% fat). Emulsifiers were a polysorbate 80 blend with monoglycerides
and diglycerides, 40% α-monoglyceride, 70% α-monoglyceride, and lecithin. The lowest
flavor scores were obtained for samples containing lecithin. Emulsifiers increased the
consistency of viscosity of low fat ice cream mix and reduced whipping times and ice crystal
sizes. Sensory scores for coarse and icy were related to ice crystal size. Emulsifiers also
provided increased stability to heat shock. Higher levels of emulsifiers increased whipping

Review of Literature 23
ability, but only polysorbate 80 blend and 70% α-monoglyceride increased whipping ability
above that of the control. All emulsifiers improved the body and texture of low fat ice cream.

Baer et al. (1999) The study on nonfat ice cream was made with a mix composition
of 12% milk SNF, 12% sucrose, 5% corn syrup solids, 3.5% maltodextrin, and 0.25%
stabilizer blend. Two emulsifiers at three levels each and one gum at three levels were
evaluated in nonfat ice creams. Emulsifiers were 52% α-monoglyceride and 72% α-
monoglyceride, and the gum was hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose. A portion of the mix was
retained as the control, which contained no emulsifier or additional food gum, and was
evaluated in addition to the nine treatments. Mean fat content of the mix was 0.14%, and total
solids content was 34.16%. Results indicated differences between treatments in whip ability
and stability to heat shock; however, there were no differences in meltdown. There was about
a 10-μm increase in mean ice crystal size for treatments when compared after 1 and 12 wk of
storage. Addition of either emulsifier to nonfat ice cream reduced the mean ice crystal size
when compared with the control or gum, which is a major factor in improvement of the
texture of nonfat ice cream. The sensory panel preferred the nonfat ice cream with 0.25%
added monoglyceride and diglyceride with 72% α-monoglyceride content stabilizer over the
control with respect to coarseness and iciness, coldness intensity, and overall body and
texture scores.

2.6: STATUS OF MILK PRODUCT PREPARE BY HERBS.

Aroyeun (2004) Cashew apple was used as a nutritional additive in the production of
yogurt. The yogurt so produced (CAY‐A) had a higher vitamin C content of 53.70g/100ml
than both samples B and C with values 14.1/100ml and 19.2g/100ml of vitamin C
respectively. The cashew apple fortified yogurt was evaluated for physicochemical
parameters like pH, refractive index, dpecific gravity, titratable acidity, ash, moisture, protein
and fat and the values 4.10 (pH), 20° Brix soluble solid content, specific gravity 1.023,
titratable acidity (0.78g/100ml lactic acid), 0.84 per cent ash, 77.0 per cent moisture, 3.22 per
cent protein and 3.2 per cent fat were obtained. The three yogurts produced were presented to
ten regular tasters of yogurt for sensory evaluations using Fan Milk yogurt as the reference
sample C. Assessors were asked to identify the odd sample. This method was used to
determine if ingredient substitution or some other change in the manufacturing process could
result in a detectable difference in products. The result obtained indicated that the yogurt into

Review of Literature 24
which cashew apple had been added compared favorably with the reference sample in all the
attributes evaluated and there was no significant difference at p ≤ 0.05.

Bandyopadhyay et al. (2007) Indian herbs such as turmeric (Curcuma longa L.),
coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), curry leaf (Murraya koenigii L.), spinach (Spinacia
oleracea) and aonla (Emblica officinalis) are good sources of antioxidants. These herbs, as a
paste, were incorporated separately at the 10% level into sandesh (a heat-desiccated product
of coagulated milk protein mass or chhana, which is analogous to cottage cheese). Their total
antioxidative status was assessed in vitro using Randox's method. The antioxidative levels of
the various herbs were compared with the synthetic antioxidants TBHQ and BHA: BHT (1:1)
at 100 and 200 mg/kg levels. The antioxidative effect of herbal sandesh decreased in the
order turmeric > curry leaf > aonla > spinach > coriander leaf. Total antioxidative statuses of
herbal sandesh were lower than samples with TBHQ but similar to those with 200 mg/kg
BHA: BHT (1:1). The proximate composition of herbal sandesh was comparable with control
sandesh. Incorporation of herbs at the level used did not significantly affect the overall
acceptability of sandesh. Considering all the findings, it can be concluded that herbal sandesh
is a more value-added health food than the control sandesh.

Won and Hyeok (2008) An herbal extract mixture and yogurt added to the herbal
extract mixture were tested for their protective and therapeutic effects on ethanol-induced
liver injury. The herbal extract mixture, yogurt and commercial drugs were used for treatment
for two weeks prior to administering a single oral dose of ethanol (3 g/kg body weight). The
herbal extract mixture and yogurt added to the herbal extract mixture were found to provide
protection against ethanol-induced toxicity comparable to the commercial drug treatment,
according to the serum and his to pathological analysis. It was also shown that co-treatment
with herbal extract mixture and yogurt against a triple oral dose of ethanol (2 g/kg body
weight, over one week) provided protection against ethanol toxicity. After the initial set of
experiments, the herbal extract mixture and yogurt treatments were extended for three more
weeks. When compared to the positive control, further treatment with both the herbal extract
and yogurt significantly reduced liver injury and resulted in a lower grade of lipid deposition.

Banani et al. (2008) Different types of herbal yogurts were developed by mixing
standardized milk with pretreated herbs, namely tulsi leaf (Ocimum sanctum), pudina leaf
(Mentha arvensis) and coriander leaf (Coriandrum sativum), with leaves separately and a
1:1(v/v) mixture of the strains of lactic starter cultures—Lactobacillus acidophilus (NCIM

Review of Literature 25
2903) and Lactobacillus plantarum (NCIM 2083)—followed by incubation at 40°C for 6h.
The β-galactosidase enzymatic activity of the abovementioned herbal yogurts was determined
and interestingly noted to exhibit higher enzymatic activity compared with the control yogurt
(without any herbs). Among all herbal yogurts, tulsi yogurt had the maximum β-galactosidase
activity.

2.6.1: ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF MILK PRODUCT PREPARE BY HERBS.

Antonia et al. (2004) The antioxidant properties of frozen dessert prepared by seven
spices (anise, cinnamon, ginger, licorice, mint, nutmeg, and vanilla) were compared with
those of the common food antioxidants butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) (E-320), butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) (E-321), and propyl gallate (E-310). The influence of irradiation
process on antioxidant activity was also evaluated. Mint and cinnamon exhibited a higher
percentage of inhibition of oxidation than the other spices analyzed and the food antioxidants,
as tested by the lipid peroxidation assay (LOO•). Nutmeg, anise, and licorice showed the
strongest protection in the deoxyribose assay (OH•). Vanilla exhibited the highest antioxidant
activity in the peroxidase-based assay (H2O2). Nutmeg, propyl gallate, ginger, and licorice
improved the stability of oils (sunflower, corn, and olive) and fats (butter and margarine)
against oxidation (110 °C Rancimat). Cinnamon was a better superoxide radical scavenger
than the other analyzed spices and additives. When the Trolox equivalent antioxidant
capacity (TEAC) assay was used to provide a ranking order of antioxidant activity, the result
in decreasing order of antioxidant capacity was cinnamon ≅ propyl gallate > mint > anise >
BHA > licorice ≅ vanilla > ginger > nutmeg > BHT. Irradiated samples did not show
significant differences (p < 0.05) in the antioxidant activity with respect to the non-irradiated
samples (1, 3, 5, and 10 kGy) in the assays used.

Gulcan et al. (2007) Satureja (Labiatae) species are a well-known aromatic plant
which is used to produce essential oil and aromatic water in the mountain regions of the
Mediterranean part of Turkey. In our study, it was aimed to determine antioxidant activities
of Satureja cilicica essential oil in butter and in vitro. Antioxidant activities of the oils at
different concentrations were evaluated using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging and phosphomolybdenum methods. Also the essential oil with 0.5%, 1.0%
and 2.0% were added in butter as antioxidants and were assayed during 60 days storage of
butter at +4 and +20 °C. For this reason, it was analyzed peroxide value, pH, titratable acidity
and total lactic acid bacteria as a criterion to assess the antioxidant activity of essential oil at

Review of Literature 26
20th, 40th and 60th days of storage. Antiradical activity was found as
IC50 = 32.02 ± 0.58 μg/ml and in vitro antioxidant capacity was 101.16 ± 3.32 μg/ml by
phosphomolybdenum methods. On the other hand, the essential oil of S. cilicica exhibited a
strong antioxidant activity in butter. Antioxidant activities of oils were higher when the
essential oil concentration was increased. In addition to that peroxide value pH, titratable
acidity and number of viable lactic acid bacteria were compared to the control. In addition,
titratable acidity and total number of lactic acid bacteria of samples stored at +20 °C were
determined higher than the other storage temperature during the storage time. According to
our results, essential oil of S. cilicica could be used as both natural antioxidant and aroma
agent in butter.

Mahuya el al. (2007) The antioxidant activities of beet (Beta vulgaris), mint (Mentha
spicata L.) and ginger (Zingiber officinale L.) alone or in combination were assessed after
their fortification in sandesh (a heat desiccated product of coagulated milk protein mass)
using Randox's total antioxidant level determining chemicals and ultimately it was compared
with the synthetic antioxidants like TBHQ, BHA and BHT. Addition of beet or mint alone in
sandesh showed lower antioxidant level than the addition of ginger alone. However,
combination of beet with ginger showed highest antioxidant level among the natural sources
and value was almost equal to TBHQ (200 mg kg−1). Besides, the suitable stage and form of
addition of these herbs in sandesh were also investigated using the Randox's antioxidant level
evaluating chemical. Among the four forms of herbs such as paste, tray-dried powder, freeze-
dried powder and solvent extracted form, addition of solvent extracted form in sandesh
showed highest antioxidant level than any other form. Similarly, addition of all these herbs at
final stage of sandesh preparation showed highest antioxidant level than their addition at the
initial stage of sandesh preparation. Comparative evaluations of the proximate composition of
herbal sandesh with the control sandesh showed that herbal sandesh were more or less similar
with control sandesh except in fat and moisture content. But according to sensory
characteristics, sandesh containing beet, ginger or combination of beet with ginger or mint
was more acceptable to panelist than control sandesh. Results of the study indicate that herbal
sandesh is more value added health food than control sandesh.

2.6.2: EFFECT ON MILK PRODUCT SHELF LIFE OF HERBS.

Belewu et al. (2005) The effect of biological extracts on the storage qualities of West
African soft cheese was evaluated in a completely randomized design model within a 15-day

Review of Literature 27
period. The control and the treated cheeses were stored under ambient temperature and
assessed for the pH, titrable acidity, moisture content and crude protein. The pH and titrable
acidity rose (P<0.05) with ginger extract preservant. The crude protein and moisture content
were increased (P<0.05) by preservation. The ginger extract was found to be the most
effective method of reducing microbial load, followed closely by the garlic extract. The
ginger extract treatment extended the shelf life of cheese for 15 days. Treatment of West
African soft cheese with ginger extract may not markedly alter the nutritional quality but
appeared promising as it has a preservative property.

Otaibi and Demerdash (2008) Three essential oils, namely thyme, marjoram and
sage, were added to concentrated yoghurt (labneh) at concentrations of 0.2, 0.5 and 1.0 parts
per million (ppm). Subsequently, the chemical, microbiological and organoleptic properties
of freshly prepared labneh and of the labneh stored at 5°C ± 1 for up to 21 days were
determined. Addition of essential oils affected the pH, soluble nitrogen-to-total nitrogen, total
volatile fatty acid and acetaldehyde values of the prepared labneh. On the other hand, total
solids and fat-to-dry matter values were only slightly affected. Total viable counts, as well as
counts of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus in the
treated labneh increased and reached a maximum after 7 days of storage where after it
decreased until the end of the storage period. Yeasts and moulds, coliform bacteria and spore-
forming bacteria were not detected in the treated labneh. Of the different treated labneh,
labneh containing 0.2 ppm thyme, marjoram or sage oils were organoleptically the most
acceptable, and it had a good body and texture that was similar to that of the untreated
control. From the results of this study, it can be concluded that 0.2 ppm of thyme, marjoram
or sage can be used in order to increase the shelf life of labneh for up to 21days.

Engin et al. (2009) This study was conducted to determine some properties of set and
stirred type yoghurts containing 0.5% and 1% garlic (Allium sativum L.) during storage
period of 28 days at 4±1 °C. Some microbiological, physical, chemical, and sensory
properties of yoghurts were determined in days 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 of the storage period.
Coliform bacteria were not detected in all samples during the storage period (<1 log cfu/g)
and yeast and mould were only detected in the control group (without garlic), except the first
day. Sensory analysis indicated that set type yoghurts were more favoured than stirred type
yoghurts. Yoghurt samples containing 1% garlic were more favoured than samples with 0.5%
in both set type and stirred type. In addition, this study showed that garlic addition had no

Review of Literature 28
effect on acidity, fat, protein, and acetaldehyde levels of the yoghurts (P > 0.05) and sensory
scores of yoghurts decreased during the storage period. It was also shown that the control
group could be safely consumed up to day 7 of storage while garlic groups could be safely
consumed up to day 28.

Shan et al. (2011) This study investigated the antibacterial efficiency of five spice
and herb extracts (cinnamon stick, oregano, clove, pomegranate peel, and grape seed) against
Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella enterica in cheese at room
temperature (∼23°C). The lipid oxidation (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances) of cheese
was periodically tested by oxidative analyses. The results showed that all five plant extracts
were effective against three food borne pathogens in cheese. Treatments with these extracts
increased the stability of cheese against lipid oxidation. Clove showed the highest
antibacterial and antioxidant activity. The reduction of food borne pathogen numbers and the
inhibition of lipid oxidation in cheese indicated that the extracts of these plants (especially
clove) have potential as natural food preservatives.

2.7: QUALITY OF MEDICINAL HERBS.

Schwab et al. (1975) the microbiological quality of 10 spices or herbs was

determined by a national survey at the retail level. Aerobic plate count values for the 10
products ranged from less than 100 to 3.1 X 10(8) per g; mean values of the individual spices
or herbs ranged from 1,400 to 820,000 per g. Coliform counts ranged from less than 3 to 1.1
X 10(6) per g; however, mean values were less than 20 per g for all products. Escherichia coli
counts ranged from less than 3 to 2,300 per g. Except for celery seed, which had a mean
value of 7 per g, all mean values were less than 3 per g. Yeast and mold counts were made for
5 of the 10 products. Mean values were generally low; the highest mean (290 per g) was
obtained for cinnamon.

Li (2000) Reported that Traditional Chinese medicine has been used by Chinese
people from ancient times. Although animal and mineral materials have been used, the
primary source of remedies is botanical. Of the more than 12 000 items used by traditional
healers, about 500 are in common use.

Bohm et al. (2002) the quality of dried herbs mainly depends on three parameters:
colour, aroma, and absence of off-flavour defects. The quality evaluation of dried products
should always be related to the properties of the original fresh product. Especially convective

Review of Literature 29
hot-air drying (HAD) causes heat damage of the plant tissue and therefore affects the quality
of the final product. The present study involves the investigation of vacuum-microwave
drying (VMD) as a processing method for drying herbs. Colour, aroma, and off-flavour of
vacuum-microwave dried parsley was evaluated and compared with corresponding properties
of hot-air dried parsley (at 75 °C). VMD-parsley was greener in colour, exhibited a higher
content of essential oils and less hay-like off-flavour defects than those prepared by HAD. In
detail, colour measurement revealed that VMD-samples had higher green hues directly after
drying than those prepared by HAD. As can be seen, the rate of chlorophyll degradation
increases with an increase of water content in the final product. Investigation of the impact of
drying methods on the flavour quality showed, that VMD preserved over 90 % of the
essential oils during processing compared with only 30 % by HAD. Furthermore VMD-
samples were rated better than HAD-samples by a sensory panel for parsley-like, green-
grassy and hay/straw-like odour impressions as well as the general impression related to fresh
parsley.

Chan (2003) World Health Organisation survey indicated that about 70–80% of the
world populations rely on non-conventional medicine mainly of herbal sources in their
primary healthcare. In recent years, we have witnessed the increasing growth in popularity of
over-the-counter (OTC) health foods, nutraceuticals, and medicinal products from plants or
other natural sources in developed countries. This indirectly indicates that the public is not
satisfied with their orthodox medical (OM) treatment. Such increase in popularity has also
brought concerns and fears over the professionalism of practitioners, and quality, efficacy and
safety of their treatment methods and products from herbal and natural sources available in
the market. Over the past decade several news-catching episodes in developed communities
indicated adverse effects, sometimes life threatening, allegedly arisen consequential to taking
of OTC herbal products or traditional medicines from various ethnic groups.

Başgel and Erdemoglu (2006) Fourteen mineral and trace elements (Al, Ba, Ca, Cd,
Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr and Zn) were determined in the herbs and their infusions
consumed for medical purposes in Turkey such as chamomile (Matricaria chammomile L.),
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), linden (Tilia vulgaris), nettle (Urtica dioical), rosehip (Fr.Rosa
caninae), sage (Salvia officinalis) and senna tea (Cassia anqustifolia). Microwave digestion
procedure was applied under optimized conditions for dissolution of medicinal herbs.
Element concentrations in the medicinal herbs and their infusions were determined by FAAS

Review of Literature 30
and ICP-AES. The accuracy and precision were verified against a GBW 07605 Poplar leaves
and Tea certified reference material. The mineral and trace element content of medicinal
herbs and their infusions showed a wide variability. However, distribution of the elements in
the infusions is not high and it is nil especially for Cd, Co, Cr and Pb.

2.7.1: ASPARAGUS (Asparagus Racemosus Willd).

Goyal et al. (2003) Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari) is recommended in Ayurvedic

texts for prevention and treatment of gastric ulcers, dyspepsia and as a galactogogue. A.
racemosus has also been used successfully by some Ayurvedic practitioners for nervous
disorders, inflammation, liver diseases and certain infectious diseases. However, no scientific
proof justifying aforementioned uses of root extract of A. racemosus is available so far.
Recently few reports are available demonstrating beneficial effects of alcoholic and water
extracts of the root of A. racemosus in some clinical conditions and experimentally induced
diseases, e.g. galactogogue effect, antihepatotoxic and immunomodulatory activities. The
present article includes the detailed exploration of pharmacological properties of the root
extract of A. racemosus reported so far.

Venkatesan et al. (2005) the results point out the possible anti-diarrhoeal effect of the
plant extracts and substantiate the use of this herbal remedy as a non-specific treatment for
diarrhoea in folk medicine. Asparagus racemosus Wild root has been used traditionally in
Ayurveda for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. However, the claims of Ayurveda
need to be validated by a suitable experimental model. Therefore, the present study was
undertaken to evaluate the effect of ethanol and aqueous extracts of Asparagus racemosus for
its antidiarrhoeal potential against several experimental models of diarrhoea in Albino Wistar
rats. The antidiarrhoeal activity of ethanol and aqueous extracts of Asparagus racemosus root
was evaluated using castor oil-induced diarrhoea model in rats. Further, we evaluated the
effect of ethanol and aqueous extracts on gastrointestinal tract motility after charcoal meal
administration and PGE2 induced intestinal fluid accumulation (enteropooling). Loperamide
was used as positive control. The plant extracts showed significant (P < 0.05) inhibitor
activity against castor oil induced diarrhoea and PGE2 induced enteropooling in rats when
tested at 200 mg/kg. Both extracts also showed significant (P < 0.001) reduction in
gastrointestinal motility in charcoal meal test in rats.

Review of Literature 31
 Goel et al. (2006) Asparagus racemosus (AR) is a herb used as a rasayana in
Ayurveda and is considered both general and female reproductive tonic. Methanolic extract
of A. racemosus roots (ARM; 100 mg/kg/day for 60 days) showed teratological disorders in
terms of increased resorption of fetuses, gross malformations e.g. swelling in legs and
intrauterine growth retardation with a small placental size in Charles Foster rats. Pups born to
mother exposed to ARM for full duration of gestation showed evidence of higher rate of
resorption and therefore smaller litter size. The live pup showed significant decrease in body
weight and length and delay of various developmental parameters when compared to
respective control groups. AR therefore, should be used in pregnancy cautiously as its
exposure during that period may cause damage to the offspring.

Alventosa et al. (2008) Reported that Asparagus by-products, which represent around
50% of the processed vegetable, are a potential source of dietary fiber. The way that these by-
products are treated affects the composition and functional properties of fiber-rich powders.
Factors such as treatment intensity, solvent, and drying system were studied. Only the more
soluble components (soluble sugars, uronic acids and proteins) showed significant
differences. All the fibre-rich powders had high concentrations of TDF (62–77%). The IF/SF
proportion decreased with the severity of treatment, in this way increasing the physiological
quality of the fiber. Functional properties, namely water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding
capacity (OHC), solubility (SOL), and glucose dialysis retardation index (GDRI), varied
according to the preparation procedure. WHC and GDRI were higher in intensely extracted
fibers; due to the effect of thermal processing. WHC showed values (11–20 ml water/g
powder) similar to those described for other agricultural by-products, but OHC and GDRI
were much higher (5–8 ml oil/g powder and 25–45%, respectively). These properties make
fiber-rich powders from asparagus by-products a valuable source of dietary fiber to be
included in the formulation of fiber-enriched foods.

2.7.1.1: TABLE FOR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ASPARAGUS

Compound Concentration
Crude protein (%) 22.00
Crude fat (%) 3.20
Carbohydrates (%) 3.20
Ash (%) 4.89
Vitamin C and traces of vitamin A (%) 0.04

Review of Literature 32
 Percent vitamin B (%) 0.36
Calorific value (kcal/100g) 384.27
Arinathan, et al. (2009)
2.7.1.2: ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF ASPARAGUS.

Srvanandra and Ramanduag (1995) The relative stereochemistry of a new cage-

type alkaloid, asparagamine A 1, isolated from the roots of Asparagus racemosus Willd.
(Liliaceae), has been elucidated by spectroscopic, chemical and single-crystal X-ray analyses.
This novel polycyclic pyrrolizidine derivative is both the first alkaloid to be isolated from this
genus and also the first pyrrolizidine derivative with carbon substituents at C-5 and C-8. The
compound showed anti-oxytocin activity in vitro in a dose of 10–5–10–6 mg cm–3.

Kemat et al. (2000) the possible antioxidant effects of crude extract and a purified
aqueous fraction of Asparagus racemosus against membrane damage induced by the free
radicals generated during γ-radiation were examined in rat liver mitochondria. γ-Radiation, in
the dose range of 75–900 Gy, induced lipid peroxidation as assessed by the formation of
thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH). Using an
effective dose of 450 Gy, antioxidant effects of A.racemosus extract were studied against
oxidative damage in terms of protection against lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation,
depletion of protein thiols and the levels of the antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase.
An active fraction consisting of polysaccharides (termed as P3) was effective even at a low
concentration of 10 μg/ml. Both the crude extract as well as the P3 fraction significantly
inhibited lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation. The antioxidant effect of P3 fraction was
more pronounced against lipid peroxidation, as assessed by TBARS formation, while that of
the crude extract was more effective in inhibiting protein oxidation. Both the crude extract
and P3 fraction also partly protects against radiation-induced loss of protein thiols and
inactivation of superoxide dismutase. The inhibitory effects of these active principles, at the
concentration of 10 μg/ml, are comparable to that of the established antioxidants glutathione
and ascorbic acid. Hence our results indicate that extracts from A. racemosus have potent
antioxidant properties in vitro in mitochondrial membranes of rat liver.

Mandal et al. (2000) Different concentrations (50, 100, 150 µg/ml) of the methanol
extract of the roots of Asparagus racemosus Willd. showed considerable in vitro antibacterial
efficacy against Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella sonnei, Shigella flexneri,
Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus

Review of Literature 33
subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. The effects produced by the methanol extract were
compared with chloramphenicol.

Wiboonpun et al. (2004) Roots of Asparagus racemosus were found to possess

antioxidant property. DPPH autography-directed separation resulted in the identification of a
new antioxidant compound named racemofuran (3) along with two known compounds
asparagamine A (1) and racemosol (2). The structure of 3 was fully characterized by
spectroscopic data (UV, MS, H NMR, C NMR, and 2D NMR). Racemofuran revealed
antioxidant property against DPPH with IC50 value of 130 µM.

Bhatnagar et al. (2005) Comparative study of the antiulcer and antisecretory activity
of Asparagus racemosus Willd (Shatawari) and Withania somnifera Dunal (Ashwagandha)
root extract with a standard drug, ranitidine, in various models of gastric ulcer in rats is
presented. Ulcer was induced by the indomethacin (NSAID) and swim (restraint) stress
treatment. Results demonstrated that A. racemosus as well as W. somnifera methanolic
extract (100 mg/kg BW/day p.o.) given orally for 15 days significantly reduced the ulcer
index, volume of gastric secretion, free acidity, and total acidity. A significant increase in the
total carbohydrate and total carbohydrate/protein ratio was also observed. Study also
indicated an increase in antioxidant defense, that is, enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase,
and ascorbic acid, increased significantly, whereas a significant decrease in lipid peroxidation
was observed. A. racemosus was more effective in reducing gastric ulcer in indomethacin-
treated gastric ulcerative rats, whereas W. somnifera was effective in stress-induced gastric
ulcer. Results obtained for both herbal drugs were comparable to those of the standard drug
ranitidine.

Uma et al. (2009) the in vitro anticandidal activity of Asparagus racemosus roots and
tubers extract was investigated against Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida
krusei, Candida guillermondii, Candida parapsilosis and Candida stellatoida, which are
isolated from vaginal thrush patients. The extract of Asparagus racemosus showed high
degree of activity against all the Candida strains. The inhibitory effect of the extract against
all the Candida tested was found comparable with that of standard antibiotics used.

Visavadiya and Narasimhacharya (2011) The present study demonstrates that

addition of Asparagus racemosus root powder at 5 g and 10 g level as feed supplement
reduces the plasma and hepatic lipid (cholesterol) levels and also decreases lipid

Review of Literature 34
peroxidation. Feed supplementation with 5 g and 10 g Asparagus racemosus resulted in a
significant decline in plasma and hepatic lipid profiles. The feed supplementation increased
the HMG-CoA reductase activity and bile acid production in both groups (5 and 10 gm
supplemented groups) with concomitant increase in faecal bile acid and faecal cholesterol
excretion. The activities of catalase, SOD and ascorbic acid content increased significantly in
both the experimental groups (5 and 10 gm supplemented groups). On the other hand, the
concentration of malondialdehyde in these groups (5 and 10 gm supplemented groups)
decreased significantly, indicating decreased lipid peroxidation.

Chawla et al. (2011) Asparagus racemosus W. (Liliaceae) known as ‘Shatavari’. The

major active constituents of Asparagus racemosus are steroidal saponins (Shatavarins I-IV).
Isoflavones, Asparagamine, Racemosol, Polysaccharides, mucilage, vitamins A, B1 , B2 , C,
E, Mg, P, Ca, Fe, and folic acid present in roots. Other primary chemical constituents of
Asparagus are essential oils, asparagine, arginine, tyrosine, flavonoids (kaempferol,
quercetin, and rutin), resin, and tannin. It is a well nown Ayurvedic rasayana which prevent
ageing, increase longevity, impart immunity, improve mental function, vigor and add vitality
to the body. It is also used in nervous disorders, dyspepsia, tumors, inflammation, neuropathy
and hepatopathy.

2.7.2. GREEN ASPARAGUS. (Asparagus adscendens Roxb)

Tandon and Shukla (1995) Suggested that Asparagus adscendens Roxb. extracts
contain a large number of very important steroids, triterpenoids, glycosides, saponins,
essential oil and phytoecdysteroids that are analogues of invertebrate steroid hormones.

Kapoor ( 2001) Reported that Asparagus adscendens Roxb. is a member of the genus
Asparagus belonging to the family Liliaceae. This Liliaceous plant is commonly known as
“Dholi Musali”. All parts such as stem, cladodes, seeds and rhizomes of this species are very
important in Indian and Unani traditional medicinal remedies for treatment of
spermatorrhoea, chronic leucorrhoea, Diarrhea, dysentery, general debility, senile pruritus,
asthma and fatigue. The rhizome powder is given as a nutritive tonic with milk in case of
seminal weakness and impotence.

2.7.2.1: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GREEN ASPARAGUS

Review of Literature 35
 Praneta (2013) Asparagus adscendens contains carbohydrates (35-45%), fiber (25-
35%), alkaloids (15-25%), saponins (2-20%), and proteins (5-10%). It is a rich source of over
25 alkaloids, vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, steroids, saponins, potassium, phenol, resins,
mucilage, and polysaccharides and also contains high quantity of simple sugars, mainly
sucrose, glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose and xylose.

2.7.2.2. HEALTH BENEFITS AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF GREEN

ASPARAGUS.

Trivedi and Upadhyay (1993) Reported that Asparagus adscendens Roxb. has also
been identified as one of the drugs to control the symptoms of AIDS.

Jain et al. (2004) The information on ethnosexicological herbs is based on the

exhaustive interview with local medicine-men and -women, birth attendants and other
knowledgeable persons who prescribe their own herbal preparation to check birth control,
including abortion at initial stages, preventing conception or by making either member of the
couple sterile and to cure various sexual diseases like leucorrhoea, gonorrhoea, menorrhagia,
to regularize menses and syphilis in both the sexes. During ethnobotanical survey, 53 plants
belonging to 33 families have been reported from the study area, which are used to cure
sexual diseases, and for family planning. A list of plant species along with their local name,
habit, flowering and fruiting period, plant part/s used and the mode of administration to cure
the sexual diseases are given.

Singh et al. (2011) Have evaluated the cancer chemopreventive efficacy of the roots
of Asparagus adscendens, which have been used in the Indian traditional medicine system for
a long time for the treatment of various ailments. For the first time, the effect of its different
doses in a test diet was examined on 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced skin and
benzo(a)pyrene-induced forestomach papillomagenesis in mice. The effect of these test diets
was also examined on drug-metabolizing phase I and phase II enzymes, antioxidant enzymes,
reduced glutathione content, and peroxidative damage in mice. Results exhibited a significant
reduction in the skin and the forestomach tumor incidence with respect to all the three (2, 4,
and 6%, w/w) doses as compared with control. Among all the doses tested, 4% of test diet
was most effective in protecting the animals against papillomagenesis. Further, the roots of A.
adscendens inhibited phase I, and activated phase II system and antioxidant enzymes in the
liver especially with 4% of test diet. The content of reduced glutathione was also significantly

Review of Literature 36
elevated whereas the peroxidative damage along with lactate dehydrogenase activity were
reduced with all the three doses of the test diet. Together, these results suggest the cancer
chemopreventive potential of A. adscendens, which could be mediated through drug-
metabolizing phase I and phase II enzymes as well as free radical scavenging antioxidant
enzymes.

Praneta (2013) Safed musli is used for the production of hormone which is very
imperative called testosterone it is also used for the effective execution of adrenal gland
which is very important for sexual arousal. It also used to improve other functions like
circulation of blood treating fatigue to enhance strength and energy. it is good for all round
development of health safed musli is called as Divine Medicine for its medicinal qualities.
Sexual weakness has come of age; many men undergoing this process now cannot tell much
about themselves. The absence of confidence associated with low sexual performance is a
quiet killer. Low sperm count, inability to fertilize a woman and shortcomings of erection
imprints in a man a picture that speaks for itself. Safed musli contains carbohydrates, fiber,
alkaloids, saponins and proteins which makes it a natural medicine for improving immune
system, blood flow to all parts of the body, essential amino acid supplementation, curing
fatigue stamina and vigor. The tuber roots of the plant of safed musli are used to make a tonic
to treat all types of weakness and male impotency since ancient times.

2.7.3: SALEP ORCHID (Dactylorhiza Hatagirea)

Ming et al. (2003) the main objective of this paper is to review recent advances in
plant drug research and developments in orchid study, in an attempt to provide useful
references for plant drug studies. Plants have been used as medicine for millennia. Out of
estimated 250 000 to 350 000 plant species identified so far, about 35 000 are used
worldwide for medicinal purposes. It has been confirmed by WHO that herbal medicines
serve the health needs of about 80 percent of the world's population; especially for millions of
people in the vast rural areas of developing countries. Meanwhile, consumers in developed
countries are becoming disillusioned with modern healthcare and are seeking alternatives.
The recent resurgence of plant remedies results from several factors: 1) the effectiveness of
plant medicines; 2) the side effect of most modern drugs; and 3) the development of science
and technology. It has been estimated that in the mid-1990s over 200 companies and research
organizations worldwide are screening plant and animal compounds for medicinal properties.
Actually, several important drugs used in modern medicine have come from medicinal plant

Review of Literature 37
studies, eg, taxol/paclitaxel, vinblastine, vincristine, topotecan, irinotecan, etoposide,
teniposide, etc. As for drugs derived from orchids, some novel discoveries, both in
phytochemical and pharmacological properties, were reported by some universities.
However, studies on plants are very limited. Only about a third of the million or so species of
higher plants have been identified and named by scientists. Of those named, only a tiny
fraction has been studied. Nowadays the linking of the indigenous knowledge of medicinal
plants to modern research activities provides a new approach, which makes the rate of
discovery of drugs much more effective than with random collection.

Thakur et al. (2008) Reported that Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo. Fam.
Orchidaceae, is popularly known as hath panja or salam panja in Ayurvedic system of
medicine in India. The plant is renowned for its aphrodisiac and immune stimulatory
activities. In the present investigation the aqueous extract of the roots of D. hatagirea was
evaluated for its effectiveness against streptozotocin and alloxan induced oxidative stress and
associated sexual dysfunction. The results of this study clearly indicated that the herb has an
ameliorative action against diabetes induced dysfunction in sexual behavior. Also, the drug
may be acting via the antioxidant mechanism, apart from having effectiveness in steroid
genesis and improvement of anabolism. Seminal fructose count and sperm levels were also
evaluated and in case of diabetic animals the in vivo sperm count was significantly lowered,
this reduction was restored up to normal level in case of animals treated with aqueous extract
of D. hatagirea. Seminal fructose level was also significantly higher in case of animals
treated with extract as compared to hyperglycemic controls. The result therefore provides
evidence for the purported folkloric acclaim for the herb as a cure for sexual dysfunction and
signifies its Ayurvedic Rasayana properties.

Dinesh and Sushma (2012) Exposure to pesticides can represent a potential risk to
humans. Agricultural workers are at risk of chronic toxicity. Hence, the evaluation of
pesticide residues in their blood gives an indication about the extent of exposure and help in
assessing adverse health effects. The aim of our study was to develop analytical method for
the simultaneous determination of some residues of pesticides using gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This method involves a liquid-liquid extraction procedure.
Pesticide residues were separated and detected using GC-MS, and acquisition was performed
in the sellected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. For most of the pesticides, average recoveries
ranged between 65 and 101% at three different fortification levels. The linearity of the

Review of Literature 38
method was satisfactory in the range of 5 to 50 ng/ml, with a correlation coefficient between
0.998 and 0.999, depending on the analyte. The estimated limit of detection and limit of
quantification ranged from 2 to 5 ng/ml and from 5 to 10 ng/ml, respectively. The method
precision and accuracy were found to be satisfactory at three concentration levels. The
variation coefficients of intra-day and inter-day precision ranged from 0.4 to 14% and from
2.5 to 15%, respectively for most studied pesticides.

2.7.3.1: TABLE FOR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SALEP ORCHID.

Component Concentration

Moisture content (%) 13.26

Glucomannan (%) 19.37

Starch (%) 6.85

Fat (%) 2.40

Protein (%) 7.35

Ash (%) 2.80

Source:- (Farhoos and Riazi 2007)

2.7.3.2: ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY AND BENEFITS OF SALEP ORCHID.

Giri et al. (2008) The Central Himalayan region has been rich in biological wealth
and would become an uplift resource of socio-economic status of the Himalayan people.
Presence of a varied number of medicinal plants indicates its significance. Due to various
levels of disturbances, destruction of number of economically important plants in these alpine
meadows is continued like declining of Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo, in its natural
population. Out of six study sites, only two sites showed its presence, which indicates its
declining health from natural population.

Singh and Duggal (2009) Orchids are largest and most diverse group among
angiosperms. They are cultivated for beautiful flowers. They are widely known their
economic importance but less for medicinal value. Some plants like dendrobium
crumenative, eulophiacampestris, orchislatifolia, vandaroxburghii and vandatessellata have
been documented for their medicinal value. Phytochemically some orchids have been

Review of Literature 39
reported to contain alkaloids, triterpenoids, flavonoids and stilbenoids. Ashtavarga (group of
eight medicinal plants) is vital part of Ayurvedic formulations like Chyvanprasha and four
plants viz, Riddhi, Vriddhi, Jivaka and Rishbhaka have been discussed as possible members
of family Orchidaceae. Recently there has been tremendous progress in medicinal plants
research; however orchids have not been exploited fully for their medicinal application. The
article reviews medicinally important orchids along with recent pharmacological
investigations.

Hossain (2011) Orchids have been used as a source of medicine for millennia to treat
different diseases and ailments including tuberculosis, paralysis, stomach disorders, chest
pain, arthritis, syphilis, jaundice, cholera, acidity, eczema, tumour, piles, boils,
inflammations, menstrual disorder, spermatorrhea, leucoderma, diahorrhea, muscular pain,
blood dysentery, hepatitis, dyspepsia, bone fractures, rheumatism, asthma, malaria, earache,
sexually transmitted diseases, wounds and sores. Besides, many orchidaceous preparations
are used as emetic, purgative, aphrodisiac, vermifuge, bronchodilator, sex stimulator,
contraceptive, cooling agent and remedies in scorpion sting and snake bite. Some of the
preparations are supposed to have miraculous curative properties but rare scientific
demonstration available which is a primary requirement for clinical implementations.
Incredible diversity, high alkaloids and glycosides content, research on orchids is full of
potential. Meanwhile, some novel compounds and drugs, both in phytochemical and
pharmacological point of view have been reported from orchids. Linking of the indigenous
knowledge to the modern research activities will help to discover new drugs much more
effective than contemporary synthetic medicines. The present study reviews the traditional
therapeutic uses of orchids with its recent advances in pharmacological investigations that
would be a useful reference for plant drug researches, especially in orchids.

Faraji et al. (2013) Salep tubers have been used in traditional medicine as a drug for
improving sexual function and vigor. We did not find sufficient scientific evidence to support
it. The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of Salep tuber extract on the
structure of testis and sexual hormones in adult male mice.

Pant (2013) Orchids are nature's most extravagant group of flowering plants
distributed throughout the world from tropics to high alpine. They exhibit incredible range of
diversity in size, shape and color of their flowers. Though orchids are grown primarily as
ornamentals, many are used as herbal medicines, food, and other have cultural value by

Review of Literature 40
different cultures and tribes in different parts of the world. Orchids have been used in many
parts of the world in traditional healing system as well as in the treatment of a number of
diseases since the ancient time. Though Orchidaceae is regarded as a largest family of plant
kingdom, few studies have been done regarding their medicinal properties. Linking of the
indigenous knowledge of medicinal orchids to modern research activities provides a new
reliable approach, for the discovery of novel drugs much more effectively than with random
collection. Many of these orchids face the extreme danger of extinction due to over-
exploitation and habitat loss. Plant tissue culture could be one of the most suitable alternative
tools to minimize the pressure on natural population of medicinal orchids and their
sustainable utilization.

2.7.4: POMEGRANATE (Punica granatum Linn)

Lansky et al. (2000) a symbol of fecundity and divine femininity emerges, whose
fruit rinds, bark and roots are used worldwide as taenicides, owing to alkaloids, and treatment
of diarrhea and oral and genital lesions, owing to tannins and astringency. The seeds contain
oil which contains not only the steroidal estrogen, estrone, in the highest concentration found
in any botanical species, but also a full range of non-steroidal phytoestrogens including the
comesten, coumestrol, and the isoflavones, genistein and daidzein. Both the juice and the oil
contain numerous and diverse bioflavonoid, which have been shown to be both potently
antioxidant and inhibitory of one or both of the enzymes cyclooxygenase (catalyzing
arachidonic acid to prostaglandins) and lipoxygenase (catalyzing arachidonic acid to
leukotrienes). Extracts of the rinds have been shown to be bactericidal, antiviral and
antitumor. A 1998 medical monograph recommends the use of pomegranates in the treatment
of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) owing to their antioxidant properties and
botanical uniqueness. The potential toxicity of pomegranate is also considered.

Heber et al. (2007) Reported that the consumption of pomegranate juice (PJ), a rich
source of antioxidant polyphenols, has grown tremendously due to its reported health
benefits. Pomegranate extracts, which incorporate the major antioxidants found in
pomegranates, namely, ellagitannins, have been developed as botanical dietary supplements
to provide an alternative convenient form for consuming the bioactive polyphenols found in
PJ. Despite the commercial availability of pomegranate extract dietary supplements, there
have been no studies evaluating their safety in human subjects. There was evidence of
antioxidant activity through a significant reduction in TBARS linked with cardiovascular

Review of Literature 41
disease risk. There were no serious adverse events in any subject studied at either site. These
studies demonstrate the safety of a pomegranate ellagitannin-enriched polyphenol dietary
supplement in humans and provide evidence of antioxidant activity in humans.

2.7.4.1: TABLE FOR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF POMEGRANATE.

Component (%) Gross Chemical Component (%)

Pomegranate peel powder Pomegranate seed powder
Moisture 13.70 5.82
Protein 3.10 13.66
Fat 1.73 29.60
Ash 3.30 1.49
Fiber 11.22 39.36
Carbohydrate 80.50 13.12
Total phenolic 27.92 0.25
Rowayshed, et al., (2013)

2.7.4.2: ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF

POMEGRANATE.

Schubert and Lansky (1999) the antioxidant and eicosanoid enzyme inhibition
properties of pomegranate (Punica granatum) fermented juice and seed oil flavonoids were
studied. The pomegranate fermented juice (pfj) and cold pressed seed oil (pcpso) showed
strong antioxidant activity close to that of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and green tea
(Thea sinensis), and significantly greater than that of red wine (Vitis vitifera). Flavonoids
extracted from pcpso showed 31–44% inhibition of sheep cyclooxygenase and 69–81%
inhibition of soybean lipoxygenase. Flavonoids extracted from pfj showed 21–30% inhibition
of soybean lipoxygenase though no significant inhibition of sheep cyclooxygenase. The
pcpso was analyzed for its polyphenol content and fatty acid composition. Total polyphenols
in pcpso showed a concentration by weight of approximately 0.015%. Pcpso fatty acid
composition showed punicic acid (65.3%) along with palmitic acid (4.8%), stearic acid
(2.3%), oleic acid (6.3%), linoleic acid (6.6%) and three unidentified peaks from which two
(14.2%) are probably isomers of punicic acid.

Chidambara and Jayaprakasha (2002) Pomegranate (Punica granatum) peel

extracts have been shown to possess significant antioxidant activity in various in vitro

Review of Literature 42
models. Dried pomegranate peels were powdered and extracted with methanol for 4 h. The
dried methanolic extract was fed to albino rats of the Wistar strain, followed by carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4), and the levels of various enzymes, such as catalase, peroxidase, and
superoxide dismutase (SOD), and lipid peroxidation were studied. Treatment of rats with a
single dose of CCl4 at 2.0 g/kg of body weight decreases the levels of catalase, SOD, and
peroxidase by 81, 49, and 89% respectively, whereas the lipid peroxidation value increased
nearly 3-fold. Pretreatment of the rats with a methanolic extract of pomegranate peel at 50
mg/kg (in terms of catechin equivalents) followed by CCl4 treatment causes preservation of
catalase, peroxidase, and SOD to values comparable with control values, wheres lipid
peroxidation was brought back by 54% as compared to control. Histopathological studies of
the liver were also carried out to determine the hepatoprotection effect exhibited by the
pomegranate peel extract against the toxic effects of CCl 4. Histopathological studies of the
liver of different groups also support the protective effects exhibited by the MeOH extract of
pomegranate peel by restoring the normal hepatic architecture.

Jayaprakasha et al. (2003) Grape seeds were powdered and the fatty material was
extracted in a Soxhlet extractor with petroleum ether (60–80 °C) for 6 h. The defatted powder
was extracted with acetone: water: acetic acid (90:9.5:0.5) and methanol: water: acetic acid
(90:9.5:0.5) for 8 h each separately. The extracts were concentrated under vacuum to obtain
crude extracts, which were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography with UV
detection at 280 nm. Monomeric procyanidin was found to be the major compound being at
48 and 40% in acetone: water: acetic acid (90:9.5:0.5) and methanol: water: acetic acid
(90:9.5:0.5) extracts, respectively. These extracts were tested for antibacterial activity by
pour plate method against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. It was found that,
Gram-positive bacteria were completely inhibited at 850–1000 ppm, while Gram-negative
bacteria were inhibited at 1250–1500 ppm concentration. Radical-scavenging activity of
grape seed extracts of acetone: water: acetic acid (90:9.5:0.5) and methanol: water: acetic
acid (90:9.5:0.5) were compared with BHA at 25 and 50 ppm concentrations by HPLC
method using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). The antioxidant capacities of grape
seed extracts were determined by the formation of phosphomolybdenum complex method. It
was found that acetone: water: acetic acid (90:9.5:0.5) extract was better radical scavenger
than methanol: water: acetic acid (90:9.5:0.5) extract.

Review of Literature 43
 Wenjuan and Zhongli (2010) to develop value-added antioxidants from the peel and
seeds of pomegranate marc, a by-product after pomegranate juice processing, the effects of
drying before extraction and processing parameters on the extraction kinetics and product
properties were systematically studied using water as an environmental friendly solvent for
the extraction. The results showed that the drying process did not significantly affect the
yield, content, and activity of antioxidants from either the peel or seeds. The antioxidants
extracted from the peel had higher yield and content than those from the seeds. The yield and
content of antioxidants increased with reduced particle size and increased water/sample ratio
and temperature, but antioxidant activity was low when extraction temperature was high. By
considering the antioxidant activity and operation cost, the recommended extraction
conditions were peel particle size of 0.2 mm, water/peel ratio of 50/1 (w/w), temperature of
25 °C, and extraction time of 2 min, which gave the high antioxidant yield (11.5%) and
content (22.9%), and DPPH scavenging activity of 6.2 g/g. Kinetic models were successfully
developed for describing the extraction processes with different processing parameters.

2.8: PASTEURIZATION OF ICE CREAM MIXES.

Goff et al. (1994) To calculate the holding times of ice cream mixes in the tubes of
HTST pasteurizers, accurate viscosity data are needed for the temperatures and the shear rates
of interest. Apparent viscosity was determined for ice cream mixes at 80°C using shear rate
sweeps in a Carri-Med rheometer. Mixes varied in fat percentage, milk SNF, sweetener
content, type of polysaccharide (guar, locust bean gum, carboxymethyl cellulose, xanthan),
polysaccharide concentration, and blended proprietary stabilizer type and concentration. The
effect of dissolution time was also studied. Data were fitted to the power law model, and the
best estimate of flow behavior index was .7 for all mixes except those with xanthan gum, in
which case the estimate was .5. The consistency coefficient is reported for all combinations
described and provides useful data for equipment design and regulatory needs. The effect of
the consistency coefficient on Reynolds number in holding tubes is also discussed.

Icier and Sebnem (2006) Ohmic heating is an alternative heating method for Maras-
type ice cream mix, which is a traditional ice cream in Turkey. Fast and uniform heating is
necessary for the pre-heating of ice cream mixes. Maras-type ice cream, produced in
continuous system, was investigated in this study. The results obtained were compared with
those of standard ice cream. The ice cream mix used for this study was supplied before the
pasteurization step. A voltage gradient of 10–60 V/cm was used to heat the ice cream mixes

Review of Literature 44
ohmically from 4°C to 80°C. Temperature dependent electrical conductivity relations were
obtained for different ohmic heating rates. Electrical conductivity of the standard type ice
cream mix was lower than that of the Maras’s type ice cream mix. Fat content and
temperature had an effect on the electrical conductivity values. The rheological properties of
the ice cream mixes were also measured at 4, 25, 40, 60, 70, and 80°C by a Brookfield
viscometer. Experimental data were evaluated according to power the law model—
rheological constants (K, n) of Maras type ice cream mix were found to be greater than the
standard type ice cream mix and increased with temperature.

2.9: HOMOGENIZATION OF ICE CREAM MIXES.

Schmidt and Smith (1988) Nine different batches of ice creams that contained no
emulsifier and that had been processed at various homogenization pressures were compared
with a reference ice cream batch that was processed by commercial techniques (an emulsifier
added and homogenized double-stage at 140.74 and 35.18 kg/cm2 (2000 and 500 psi), first
and second stage, respectively). The samples were compared for seven sensory attributes:
chewiness, greasy mouth coating, iciness, vanilla flavor intensity, loss of shape, wheying off,
and curdling. Data showed differences in loss of shape and vanilla flavor intensity in some of
the samples when compared with the reference sample. Vanilla flavor intensity was more
pronounced in experimental samples, which indicated that the emulsifier in the reference mix
in some way suppressed vanilla flavor intensity.

Schmidt and Smith (1989) This study was done to determine how various
homogenization conditions affect the physical properties of a 10% milk fat vanilla ice cream.
The homogenization pressures studied were double stage 281-35; 141-35, 70-35; 35-35
kg/cm2 (4000-500, 2000-500, 1000-500, and 500-500 psi) and single stage 281; 141; 70 and
35 kg/cm2 (4000, 2000, 1000, and 500 psi). An unhomogenized sample was also included.
Experimental samples made without an emulsifier were compared to a reference sample,
homogenized at 141-35 kg/cm2 (2000-500 psi) containing an emulsifier system. Factors
measured included gloss, overrun, stiffness, fat destabilization, and mix viscosity. All
experimental samples were determined to be the same as the reference sample for overrun
and stiffness. Differences were found for gloss with 281-35 and 281 kg/cm2 (4000-500 and
4000 psi) samples rated as glossier than the reference sample. Differences were found for fat
destabilization, the 281-35 and 281 kg/cm2 (4000-500 and 400 psi) samples showing less fat
destabilization and the unhomogenized sample more fat destabilization than the reference

Review of Literature 45
sample. For mix viscosity, the 281-35 kg/cm2 (4000-500 psi) sample was less viscous than
the reference sample.

Innocente et al. (2009) the effect of different homogenization pressures (15/3 MPa
and 97/3 MPa) on fat globule size and distribution as well as on structure-property
relationships of ice cream mixes was investigated. Dynamic light scattering, steady shear, and
dynamic rheological analyses were performed on mixes with different fat contents (5 and
8%) and different aging times (4 and 20 h). The homogenization of ice cream mixes
determined a change from bimodal to monomodal particle size distributions and a reduction
in the mean particle diameter. Mean fat globule diameters were reduced at higher pressure,
but the homogenization effect on size reduction was less marked with the highest fat content.
The rheological behavior of mixes was influenced by both the dispersed and the continuous
phases. Higher fat contents caused greater viscosity and dynamic moduli. The lower
homogenization pressure (15/3 MPa) mainly affected the dispersed phase and resulted in a
more pronounced viscosity reduction in the higher fat content mixes. High-pressure
homogenization (97/3 MPa) greatly enhanced the viscoelastic properties and the apparent
viscosity. Rheological results indicated that unhomogenized and 15/3 MPa homogenized
mixes behaved as weak gels. The 97/3 MPa treatment led to stronger gels, perhaps as the
overall result of a network rearrangement or interpenetrating network formation, and the fat
globules were found to behave as interactive fillers. High-pressure homogenization
determined the apparent viscosity of 5% fat to be comparable to that of 8% fat
unhomogenized mix.

2.10: AGEING PROCESS FOR ICE CREAM.

Bolliger and Goff (2000) Ice cream mix was produced with a range of emulsifiers
and different temperature of ageing. Ice cream mix properties were measured and correlated
to ice cream properties. Protein load (mg m−2) in ice cream mix correlated with major
characteristic analyses describing the fat structure in ice cream (fat agglomerate size, fat
agglomeration index, solvent extractable fat). Thus, the measurement of protein load in the
mix can be used to predict ice cream fat stability and related structure with constant
processing conditions. As emulsification increased, more fat could be seen at the air interface
by scanning electron microscopy. High correlation coefficients were also obtained with fat
structure analyses and the quantitative determination of fat in the dripped portion taken from

Review of Literature 46
a melting test of ice cream. Hence, fat analysis from the dripped melt fraction is suggested as
a method to characterize the fat-related structure in ice cream.

Nagar and Clowes (2002) Research was conducted to examine the effect of ageing
on the rheological and textural characteristics of yog-ice cream desserts in relation to their
sensory attributes. Addition of inulin to yog-ice cream was shown to increase viscosity of the
yogurt-ice cream mix and increase hardness of the resulting yog-ice cream. Meltdown
characteristics of the yog-ice creams demonstrated a clear relationship between increased
oligosaccharide levels and improved melting properties.

Mahmut and Ahmed (2007) The aim of this article was to investigate the effect of
ageing on the rheological parameters of ice cream mix. We prepared the model mix in
accordance with the traditional Kahramanmaras-type ice-cream manufacturing method. The
apparent viscosity (ηa) of the samples was measured as a function of shear rate, and the
Power Law model was used to determine flow behavior (n) and consistency indices (K). The
ηa of sample was significantly affected from ageing time as it increased up to 24 hours then
decreased. The values of n and K of the samples ranged in 0.336 to 0.359 and 3719.72 –
4328.73 mPa.sn, respectively. After 24 hours of ageing, K and ηa of the mix reached the
highest, while the n reached the lowest values. These results suggested that 24 hours of
waiting would be a proper ageing time for the ice cream mix. It could be recommended that
ice cream mix may be aged at 0°C for about 24 hours before proceeding to the freezing step
of ice cream manufacturing.

2.11: FREZING TEMPRETURE FOR ICE CREAM.

Baer and Keating (1987) Ten batches of ice cream mix, varying in composition,
were prepared. Mix freezing points were calculated by a formula method, determined by an
osmometer, and the results of two methods were compared. Mix freezing points calculated by
the formula method ranged from −2.36 to −3.59°C (−2.741°C mean); freezing points
determined by the osmometer ranged from −2.40 to −3.53°C (−2.745°C mean). Comparative
results of these methods differed by an average of .04 ± .02°C. The correlation coefficient
between the two methods was .996, and there was no significant difference between them.

Review of Literature 47
 Dean and Zottola (1996) The survival characteristics of Listeria monocytogenes V7
were investigated in a full fat (10% fat) and reduced fat (3%) ice cream. The effect of nisin
on the survival of Listeria monocytogenes in the ice creams was also evaluated. Ice cream
mixes varying in composition were manufactured and inoculated with L. monocytogenes,
passed through a "soft serve" freezer and then frozen at − 18°C for up to 3 months. Samples
were removed from storage throughout the three months, thawed, and then placed on
Listeria-selective agar. In the samples that did not contain nisin, no reduction in the cell
population was observed throughout manufacture and frozen storage. When nisin was present
in the ice cream, a significant reduction in the cell population (P < .05) was observed. At the
end of 3 months of frozen storage, no Listeria cells were detected in the 3% fat ice cream
containing nisin. The effect of nisin on Listeria cells was decreased somewhat in the higher
fat ice cream but this decrease was not significant over the 3 month storage. The stability of
nisin in the ice cream remained constant throughout storage at − 18°C.

Trgo et al. (1999)The objective of this research was to derive information on the
technological influences on the ice recrystallization in ice cream after the freezer outlet
during the sensitive temperature range from the freezing point to −8°C. The parameters
studied were the total solids content and sucrose concentration, which determine the freezing
point of the ice cream mix as well as the overrun, mix viscosity, and the fat content, which
influence the texture of the ice cream. For the recrystallization experiments, the ice cream
samples, taken directly after the continuous ice cream freezer, were treated at defined
temperature time combinations. In the temperature range investigated, none of the parameters
had a significant effect on the ice recrystallization. The contradictory results compared with
previous research can be explained by the different experimental conditions and can
reemphasize the importance of the hardening conditions as an influencing factor for the ice
crystal sizes in ice cream.

2.12: OVER RUN IN ICE CREAM.

Goff and Freslon (1995) The influences of temperature, polysaccharide stabilizing

agents and overrun on the rheological properties of ice cream mix and ice cream were
measured using dynamic rheological techniques with a controlled stress rheometer. Storage
and loss moduli and tan δ all decreased significantly with increasing temperature.
Unstabilized samples demonstrated significantly greater storage and loss moduli at
temperatures < –8C and tan δ at all temperatures than stabilized samples, however,

Review of Literature 48
polysaccharides increased mix viscosity and resulted in significant increases in viscosity as
the mix was concentrated. This indicated the importance of considering both ice and unfrozen
phases in determining the impact of stabilizers on ice cream rheology. Increasing overrun
from 20 to 60% increased the storage modulus significantly but had less effect on the loss
modulus, especially in the stabilized samples. However, as overrun increased, the maximum
force required for large deformation decreased, emphasizing the need to consider the effects
of small-scale versus large-scale deformation testing on structure. Dynamic rheological
measurements can provide insights into the development of ice cream structure and are useful
in complementing other techniques.

Sofjan and Hartel (2004) Air is an important component in ice cream, affecting both
physical properties and storage stability. The objective of this study was to measure the
effects of air incorporation in ice cream, at overrun levels of 80%, 100% and 120%, on the
growth of air cells and ice crystals, as well as on the hardness and melt-down rate of the
product. Ice creams with different overruns were stored either in bulk containers (at −10°C
with normal refrigeration cycling) or on microscope slides (at −6°C, −10°C or −20°C) for
analysis. In bulk storage, mean air cell size initially increased during hardening, decreased
during the early stages of storage and ultimately increased to larger sizes at longer (up to 3
months) storage times. Initial air cell size was smaller in ice creams with higher overrun,
potentially due to the higher shear stresses during manufacture. Ice creams with lower
overruns (80%) were harder than those made with 120% overrun but melted more rapidly.
For samples stored on the microscope slide, lower storage temperature (−20°C) limited the
mobility and solubility of air cells within the serum phase so that disproportionation was
inhibited and primarily coalescence occurred for air cells in close proximity. At high storage
temperature (−6°C or −10°C), disproportionation and coalescence were enhanced due to the
higher mobility of the serum phase. Higher overrun led to slightly more stable air cells during
storage.

Tuba et al. (2012) in this research, the influence of Cape gooseberry (CG) addition at
different concentrations (5, 10 and 15%) on the physical, chemical and sensory properties and
mineral contents of ice cream was investigated. The increment of CG concentration caused
the decrease of fat, protein, pH and overrun values in ice cream, on the contrary it increased
the total solid, ash, titratable acidity, viscosity values and first dripping and complete melting
times. S contents of ice creams significantly increased with the CG addition. Moreover, CG

Review of Literature 49
increased K, and Na concentrations of ice cream, while lowered Ca and P contents. Mg
contents of ice creams didn't change with CG addition (P > 0.05). Fe, Zn, Mn and Ni were
determined as minor elements in ice cream samples and a significant increase was observed
in Fe, Zn and Mn values (P < 0.05). The addition of CG did not affect Ni content of ice
creams. The sensory results indicated that the ice cream containing 15% CG was the highest-
scored by the panelists.

2.13. YIELD STRESS OF FROZEN HERBAL ICE CREAM

Briggs et al. (1996) the ability of ice cream to be dipped or scooped is a direct
consequence of yield stress; however, yield stresses of frozen ice cream have not been
quantified because of the lack of suitable testing equipment. This work presents the
experimental equipment and methodology to solve this problem. A vane tester was designed,
constructed, and then used to measure the yield stress of ice cream at typical scooping
temperatures of –16 to –14°C. The moisture and fat contents of each brand varied
significantly. Yield stresses ranged from 2.5 to 8.0 kPa. In general, the yield stress of
chocolate was higher than the yield stress of vanilla ice cream. Also, yield stresses decreased
as temperature increased. Yield stress and temperature were highly correlated in the higher
fat ice cream; the lower fat brand did not show a strong correlation.

Patmore and Goff (2003) Locust bean gum (LBG) and guar gum (GG) are two
galactomannan stabilizers that help maintain smooth textures in ice cream by slowing down
ice crystal growth during constant and fluctuating temperatures. LBG and GG were dissolved
in sucrose solutions without or with milk solids-not-fat (MSNF), fat, and/or emulsifier.
Solutions were temperature cycled at subzero temperatures and measured after each cycle
with a controlled stress rheometer to obtain yield stress and frequency sweep data. LBG
solutions developed weak gel structures with temperature cycling, especially in the presence
of MSNF, but GG solutions did not. Fat droplets interfered with the formation of LBG weak
gel networks while emulsifiers did not change the rheological properties of emulsions. The
ability of a polysaccharide to cryo-gel with temperature cycling and protein/stabilizer
incompatibility leading to phase separation both helped create elastic structures. More
realistic ice cream model emulsions containing fat showed different rheological responses,
emphasizing caution in comparing model systems to real systems.

2.14: CHEMICAL EVALUATION OF FROZEN DESSERT.

Review of Literature 50
 Herrington (1994) Lactose solutions may be supercooled greatly without
crystallization taking place. The degree of supercooling necessary for crystallization to occur,
in the absence of agitation, is less for concentrated solutions than for dilute solutions. There is
no sharp line dividing the metastable and labile zones in the case of supersaturated lactose
solutions. As a solution of lactose is super cooled, the rate of nuclei formation passes through
a maximum. The temperature of most rapid nuclei formation is higher in the case of
concentrated solutions. The rate of crystal growth passes through a maximum as the
temperature is lowered. At low temperatures, the rate of crystallization, in the absence of
agitation, is so slow that mutarotation cannot be the limiting factor.

Alvarez et al. (2005) two milk protein concentrates (MPC, 56 and 85%) were studied
as substitutes for 20 and 50% of the protein content in ice cream mix. The basic mix formula
had 12% fat, 11% nonfat milk solids, 15% sweetener, and 0.3% stabilizer/emulsifier blend.
Protein levels remained constant, and total solids were compensated for in MPC mixes by the
addition of polydextrose. Physical properties investigated included apparent viscosity, fat
globule size, melting rate, shape retention, and freezing behavior using differential scanning
calorimetry. Milk protein concentrate formulations had higher mix viscosity, larger amount
of fat destabilization, narrower ice melting curves, and greater shape retention compared with
the control. Milk protein concentrates did not offer significant modifications of ice cream
physical properties on a constant protein basis when substituted for up to 50% of the protein
supplied by nonfat dry milk. Milk protein concentrates may offer ice cream manufacturers an
alternative source of milk solids non-fat, especially in mixes reduced in lactose or fat, where
higher milk solids nonfat are needed to compensate other losses of total solids.

2.15: ANTIOXIDANT ANALYSIS OF HERBAL PRODUCT.

Evans et al. (1996) Antioxidant activity depends on the number and position of the
hydroxyl groups of the aromatic ring binding site and the type of substituent. The strongest
antioxidant activity in the ABTS method was achieved by phenols with 3 hydroxyl groups
from all phenols tested in this experiment. The carboxylic group slightly increases this
activity (lower IC50 for gallic acid compared to IC50 for pyrogallol). The next antioxidants
in line are two hydroxylated phenolic acids with the strongest,3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic
acid, among them. It was proved that the type of spacer between the carboxylic acid and ben-
zene ring influences their activity, which increases for the methylenic group in phenolic acids
[27] Our results confirmed this thesis.

Review of Literature 51
 Sheng and Tay (2008) Total phenolic content, DPPH free radical-scavenging
activity, hydrogen peroxide-scavenging activity, ferrous ion-chelating activity and ferric-
reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of four citrus herbal products, Citri Reticulatae
Pericarpium (CRP), Citri Reticulatae Viride Pericarpium (CRVP), Aurantii Immaturus
Fructus (AIF) and Aurantii Fructus (AF) extracts were determined. EC50 values of DPPH
radical-scavenging activities ranged from 0.1 mg/ml (AF) to 1.59 mg/ml (AIF). EC50 values
of hydrogen peroxide-scavenging activities ranged from 0.08 mg/ml (AF) to 0.9 mg/ml
(CRP). EC50 values of ferrous ion-chelating activities ranged from 0.8 mg/ml (AF) to
2.08 mg/ml (AIF). The differences in DPPH free radical-scavenging activity, hydrogen
peroxide-scavenging activity, and ferrous ion-chelating activity of all citrus herbal product
extracts were significant. AF had the highest antioxidant activity. In this study, citrus herbal
product extracts did not have good reducing power.

Arulpriya et al., (2010) The petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, chloroform, aqueous and
HCl extracts of Samanea saman (Jacq.)Merr were examined for their phytochemical
constituenst and for their in vitro activities using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging assay and reducing power assay. Higher antioxidant potential of the
extracts was observed in both DPPH scavenging assay and reducing power assay.

2.16. SENSORY EVALUATION OF FROZEN DESSERT.

Specter and Setser (1994) Effects of milk fat and sucrose substitutes on selected
physical and sensory properties of a frozen dessert system were evaluated by sensory and
instrumental methods. Analysis of variance revealed no significant differences in textural
attributes between sucrose and polydextrose-aspartame in freshly prepared frozen desserts
and few differences after storage (140 d). Polydextrose-aspartame effectively compensated
for functional properties that normally are conferred by sucrose and some that are conferred
by milk fat. Replacement of milk fat with tapioca dextrin or potato maltodextrin increased
coarseness and wateriness and decreased creaminess relative to the control. Perception of
chalkiness increased more with increased tapioca dextrin than with increased potato
maltodextrin. Few or no significant differences among the frozen desserts were noted for the
sensory attributes of coldness, gumminess, and mouth coating. Physical measurements did
not relate highly to the sensory responses.

Review of Literature 52
 Prindiville et al. (2000) Lowfat and nonfat chocolate ice creams were made with
2.5% of milk fat, cocoa butter, or one of two whey protein-based fat replacers, Dairy Lo or
Simplesse. Polydextrose was added as required so that all formulations contained the same
amount of total solids. Ice cream was stored at a control temperature of –30°C. Hardness,
viscosity, and melting rate were measured by physical methods. Trained panelists conducted
descriptive sensory analyses of the samples at 0, 6, and 12 wk. Attribute ratings were
analyzed by analysis of variance with least significant difference mean separation and
orthogonal contrasting. Data were also analyzed by multivariate analysis of variance with
canonical variate analysis. Consumer acceptance (n = 50) did not differ among the fresh ice
creams (wk 0). Ice cream containing milk fat had less intense cocoa flavor and was more
resistant to textural changes over time compared with the other ice creams. Simplesse was
more similar to milk fat than was Dairy Lo in its effect on brown color, cocoa flavor, cocoa
character, and textural stability but was less similar in terms of thickness and mouthcoating.

Aime et al. (2001) Sensory and instrumental analyses were used to evaluate the
texture of regular (10%), light (5%), low fat (2.5%) and fat free vanilla (0.4%) ice creams.
The light, low fat and fat free ice cream were prepared using a modified pea starch as the fat
replacement ingredient. Two processing trials with continuous commercial-like process
conditions were undertaken. While the sensory attributes of the light sample were comparable
to the regular vanilla ice cream, the trained sensory panel rated the low fat and fat free ice
creams to have lower viscosity, smoothness and mouth coating properties. Instrumentally
determined apparent viscosity data supported the sensory data. There was good correlation
between the instrumentally determined firmness values and the sensory results for firmness.
The use of modified starch as a partial fat replacer in vanilla ice cream was demonstrated.

Thompson et al. (2009) this study was conducted to define and compare sensory
characteristics of high-quality Italian gelati to ice creams produced in the U.S.A. Trained
descriptive sensory panelists evaluated gelato samples in Italy, purchased direct from local
gelaterias, and ice cream samples in the U.S., purchased from grocery stores and local shops.
In general, gelati obtained higher overall fruity and fruit identification scores, chocolate gelati
obtained higher chocolate and cocoa notes and vanilla gelati obtained higher vanilla and
lower vanillin intensities than most U.S. ice creams. Gelati were consistently associated with
higher density, lower firmness and slower meltdown. When compared with U.S. ice creams,
Italian gelati are characterized by specific sensory properties: “true to type” flavors – high-

Review of Literature 53
intensity flavors considered to be typical to that flavor category or specific fruit and are
combined with a dense, smooth texture that allows for the development of flavor, body and
bloom, enhancing the perception of flavors.

2.17: RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF FROZEN PRODUCT.

Adapa et al. (2000) Ice cream mixes and frozen ice creams at milk fat levels of 12%,
8%, 6%, 6% plus a protein-based fat replacer, and 6% plus a carbohydrate-based fat replacer
were evaluated for viscoelastic properties by dynamic testing with sinusoidal oscillatory tests
at various frequencies. The storage modulus (G’), loss modulus (G”), and tan δ (G”/G’) were
calculated for all the treatments to determine changes in the viscous and elastic properties of
the mixes and frozen ice creams due to fat content. In ice cream mixes, G’ and G” exhibited a
strong frequency dependence. The G” was higher than G’ throughout the frequency range (1
to 8 Hz) examined, without any crossover, except for the 12% mix. Elastic properties of the
ice cream mixes decreased as fat content decreased. Tan δ values indicated that fat replacers
did not enhance the elastic properties of the ice cream mixes. In all frozen ice creams, G’ and
G” again showed a frequency dependence throughout the range tested (0.5 to 10 Hz). The
amount of fat in ice creams and the degree of fat destabilization affected the elasticity in the
frozen product. Even though the ice creams did not have significant elastic properties, when
compared as a group the samples with higher fat content had higher elastic properties. The
addition of protein-based and carbohydrate-based fat replacers did not enhance the elastic
properties of the ice creams but did increase the viscous properties.

Sevim and Ali (2001) Salep is a natural stabilizing agent used widely in Turkish-type
ice cream. The traditional concentration of salep added to these ice creams is about 0.78%.
The effect of salep concentration on the rheological characteristics of a representative ice
cream, prepared from whole cows’ milk and sugar, was studied together with a water–salep–
sugar mix using a Brookfield viscometer. The temperature-dependency of the apparent
viscosities of the samples with different salep concentrations was determined. The empirical
power law model was observed to fit the apparent viscosity–rotational speed data (r2: 0.954–
0.999). The power-law index values (n) of milk–salep–sugar and water–salep–sugar mixes
were in the range of 0.95–0.77 and 0.99–0.85, respectively. This is an indication that milk–
salep–sugar mix is non-Newtonian at all concentrations and temperatures studied. A gradual

Review of Literature 54
increase in salep concentration was found to alter the rheological characteristics of water–
salep–sugar mix from Newtonian to non-Newtonian. Salep concentration was more effective
on viscosity change than temperature.

Kus et al. (2005) The effect of salep concentration on the rheological characteristics
of ice cream mixes (0.5–1.5% salep content), prepared from nonfat cow's milk and sugar, was
studied using a controlled stress rheometer. The flow curves and time-dependent flow
properties of the ice cream mixes were assessed at different temperatures. The ice cream
mixes’ samples showed slightly thixotropic behavior, which was reduced as the salep content
decreased. The forward and backward measurements of the flow curves of ice cream mixes
were modeled with the power law model. The ice cream mixes showed pseudo plastic flow
behavior after destruction of the thixotropic structure. In mixes that were first presheared at a
high shear rate flow properties could also be described by the power law model. The second-
order structural kinetic, first-order stress decay and Weltman models were applied to model
the time-dependent flow properties of the ice cream mixes. Among these, the first-order
stress decay model was found to fit well the experimental data.

2.18: SHELF LIFE STUDIES AND MICROBIAL QUALITY OF FROZEN

PRODUCT.

Maifreni et al. (1993) samples of artisanal ice-cream had been collected from
different ice-cream shops in Udine and province and analysed. All tested flavours contained
aerobic germs, coliforms, Enterococci and yeasts in different quantities. In the analysed
samples neither Salmonellae spp., nor Listeria monocytogenes nor Staphylococcus aureus
were detected. Numerous species of coliforms and yeasts were randomly isolated and
identified. The statistical analysis, used to compare the variables (flavour, month, year),
showed significant differences among the samples analysed in the two years. In September,
the means of the total aerobic count were significantly different from the ones of July and of
August. No significant differences were noted in the means of coliforms, total aerobic counts
and yeasts in the different flavours. The techniques for recovery of freeze-stressed coliforms
in artificially contaminated samples of ice-cream showed that the three techniques, which use
both selective and non-selective mediums, are better than those ones, which use only
selective mediums. Lastly, with regard at the coliform values, the ice-creams tested have
small-medium quality. In fact 26% of the ice-creams cannot be sealed, according to the
Italian Ministry Ordinance.

Review of Literature 55
 Amos and Micha (2000) Sequences of industrial microbial counts of frozen apple
concentrate, ground beef, carrots and ice cream (two flavors), which included standard plate
count (SPC), yeast/molds, coliforms and in beef potential pathogens all had very irregular
flactuating patterns. In almost all the cases the fluctuations were independent, i.e. they had no
significant autocorrelation for any lag. All the counts were considered as having a lognormal
distribution as a first order approximation and its parameters were used to estimate the
frequencies of future events where the counts exceed predetermined levels. Comparison of
the estimates with the actually observed frequencies in fresh data sets showed that they were
in reasonable agreement. That the same general probabilistic model was applicable to very
different microbial populations types in four very different kinds of frozen foods suggests
that the irregular fluctuating pattern of the counts is a manifestation of the interplay of many
factors, some partly or fully unknown, whose effect varies randomly. Usually they roughly
balance one another and the fluctuations remain within a characteristic range. But there is a
probability, which can be estimated, that many of these factors will act in unison creating an
event of an unusually high (or low) count. Therefore, the irregular fluctuating pattern of the
counts should not be considered as a noise to be smoothed or discarded, but as a useful source
of information, and the basis for quantitative predictions.

Kamat and Warke (2000) The present study was undertaken to investigate the
efficacy of low-dose irradiation to improve the microbial safety of ice cream. Initially three
different flavors (vanilla, strawberry and chocolate) of ice cream were exposed, at −72°C, to
doses of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 30 kGy to γ-radiation. Irradiation at 1 kGy resulted in reduction of
microbial population by one log cycle, thus meeting the requirement limits prescribed by
Bureau of Indian Standards. Pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes 036, Yersinia
enterocolitica 5692 and Escherichia coli O157:H19, respectively, showed the D10 values
0.38, 0.15 and 0.2 kGy in ice cream at −72°C suggesting the efficacy of low doses (1 kGy) in
eliminating them. Sensory evaluation studies of ice cream irradiated at 1, 2, 3 and 5 kGy by a
15 member panel demonstrated that doses higher than 2 kGy irradiation induced off-odour
and an aftertaste was evident in vanilla ice cream. A radiation dose of 1 kGy was sufficient to
eliminate the natural number of pathogens present in the ice cream. No statistically
significant differences were observed in the sensory attributes of all the three flavours of ice
cream either unirradiated or exposed to 1 kGy (P<0.05).

Review of Literature 56
 Warke and Kamat (2000) With a view to determine the microbial quality of ice
creams, 30 samples of commercial brands of three flavours sold in the `open' and `packaged,
(cone, cup)' forms were analyzed for their total bacterial counts (TBC), yeast and mold counts
(YMC), coliforms and pathogenic psychrotrophs; Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus,
Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica and Salmonella spp. In general in both the
types of ice creams bacterial load (2.3 × 104–8.5 × 106 cfu/ml) was higher; particularly
coliform levels were 10–100 fold higher (3.0 × 102–5.8 × 104 cfu/ml) than the safety limits
prescribed by Indian Standards Institute (ISI). Staph. aureus was detected in both the types of
ice creams but occurrence of B. cereus was more frequent in open samples (40%) than in
packed ones (26.6%). Salmonella was not detected in any of the 30 samples tested. While
53% of the packed and 100% of the open ice creams exhibited Listeria contamination,
Yersinia were detected in 33% of packed and 40% of open ones. L. monocytogenes and/or Y.
enterocolitica was detected only in one of the open ice cream samples. Growth profile of Y.
enterocolitica 5692 and L. monocytogenes 036 at simulated temperature abuse conditions
during commercial frozen storage showed that after 10 days L. monocytogenes could grow to
>1 log and 1 log cycle at 8–10°C and 2–4°C, respectively and Y. enterocolitica grew 2 log
cycles at both the temperatures. Results are discussed in the context of present
microbiological specifications and the need for its implementation by regulatory agencies to
ward off possible health hazards arising from pathogens.

Windrantz and Arias (2000) The presence of total and fecal coliforms, E. coli,
Listeria sp and Salmonella sp. was evaluated in 65 samples of both commercial and
homemade ice cream. 37.1% of homemade ice cream and 20% of commercial ice cream did
not fulfill the international standard for total coliforms. At the same time 82.9% of homemade
samples and 56.7% of commercial ones presented fecal coliforms. E. coli was found in 51.4%
of home made samples and 26.7% of commercial ones. Sixteen Listeria sp. isolates were
obtained, 50% corresponded to Listeria monocytogenes and 50% to L. innocua. The overall
presence of L. monocytogenes in ice cream samples was of 12.3% and it was isolated in all
cases, from homemade ice cream samples. Salmonella was not isolated from the samples
analyzed. Although the results obtained show an important improvement in the quality of ice
cream, compared with a previous work done also in Costa Rica, further efforts shall be done,
in order to offer safe products to consumers.

Review of Literature 57
 Kruy et al.(2001) A study of the microbiological quality of ice lice creams/sorbets
sold on the streets of Phnom Penh city was conducted from April 1996 to April 1997. Socio-
demographic and environmental characteristics with two ice/ice creams samples were
collected from vendors selected in the city. A total of 105 vendors and 210 ice/ice creams
samples were randomly selected for the study period. Ice/ice cream vendors in the streets of
Phnom Penh were adults (mean age: 28 years old) with a male predominance (86.5%). Mean
educational level of vendors was 5 years with no training in mass catering. Most ice creams
and sorbets (81.7%) were made using traditional methods. Microbiological analysis
performed in the laboratory of Pasteur Institute of Cambodia indicated the poor
bacteriological quality of the samples. The proportions of samples classified unsafe according
to microbiological criteria were 83.3% for total bacterial count at 30 degrees C, 70% for total
coliforms, 30% for faecal coliforms, 12.2% for Staphylococcus aureus and 1.9% for presence
of Salmonella spp. These bacterial results suggest that many other food products sold in the
streets may be similarly poor. Safety measures should be undertaken to avoid potential
threats. Regulation of the street food sector should be part of a larger strategy for enhanced
food safety and environmental quality in the city.

Florence et al. (2011) Molecular methods are being increasingly applied to detect,
quantify and study microbial populations in food or during food processes. Among these
methods, PCR-based techniques have been the subject of considerable focus and ISO
guidelines have been established for the detection of food-borne pathogens. More
particularly, real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) is considered as a method of choice for the
detection and quantification of microorganisms. One of its major advantages is to be faster
than conventional culture-based methods. It is also highly sensitive, specific and enables
simultaneous detection of different microorganisms. Application of reverse-transcription-
qPCR (RT-qPCR) to study population dynamics and activities through quantification of gene
expression in food, by contrast with the use of qPCR, is just beginning. Provided that
appropriate controls are included in the analyses, qPCR and RT-qPCR appear to be highly
accurate and reliable for quantification of genes and gene expression. This review addresses
some important technical aspects to be considered when using these techniques. Recent
applications of qPCR and RT-qPCR in food microbiology are given. Some interesting
applications such as risk analysis or studying the influence of industrial processes on gene
expression and microbial activity are reported.

Review of Literature 58
2.19: PACKAGING OF ICE CREAM.

Balafas and Shaw (1999) A total of 136 food packaging materials were analysed for
the presence of six phthalate esters and one adipate ester. All of the sample materials were
manufactured from either synthetic polymers or from wood pulp and most were in immediate
contact with their food contents. The esters in the packaging materials were extracted into a
2:1 mixture of chloroform and methanol, and analysed by gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry. All of the materials examined were found to contain two or more of these
compounds above a detection limit of 0.01 μg/kg. Total phthalate concentrations ranged from
5 to 8160 μg/g and adipate concentrations ranged from not detected to 1728 μg/g. In general,
materials with the most surface coverage of printing inks had the greatest concentrations of
phthalates. Variations were noticed in the occurrence and concentrations of phthalate and
adipate esters in the packaging materials over a 12 month period during 1996 and 1997.

Brody (2004) the primary purpose of food packaging is to protect food against
environmental contaminants. Each food category, eg, ambient temperature shelf stable,
frozen, or chilled, has different requirements. Generally, product processing must be
integrated with the package to optimize shelf-life objective. Thus canned foods are both
heated and hermetically sealed to exclude microbiological recontamination; dry foods are
sealed against moisture access; frozen foods must be maintained at low temperatures and
protected against moisture loss; and chilled foods are refrigerated while controlling the
transmission of both moisture and air. The most widely used packaging materials are paper
and paperboard employed mostly in distribution channels. Second are metals; aluminum for
cans to contain carbonated beverages and beer dominates in this category. Steel is applied for
vacuum packaged foods. Glass has been declining as a package material because of weight,
relative fragility, and high energy consumption. Plastic materials constitute only about 20%
of the mass of package materials, but contain proportionately larger amount of food because
of low densities and exceptional surface-to-volume ratio to achieve functionality. A variety of
plastic materials is used for packaging depending on the food requirements, eg,
polyethylenes, polyesters, polypropylenes, polystyrenes, nylons, poly (vinyl chlorides), etc.
Among the structures employed are extrusion and injection blow-molded bottles,
thermoformed trays and cast or blown films. High gas barrier plastics are coated, coextruded,
or laminated to structural plastics to enhance properties.

Review of Literature 59
 Goff and Griffith (2006) Major technological advances in the fluid milk processing
industry in the last 25 yr include significant improvements in all the unit operations of
separation, standardization, pasteurization, homogenization, and packaging. Much
advancement has been directed toward production capacity, automation, and hygienic
operation. Extended shelf-life milks are produced by high heat treatment, sometimes coupled
with microfiltration or centrifugation. Other nonthermal methods have also been investigated.
Flavored milk beverages have increased in popularity, as have milk beverages packaged in
single-service, closeable plastic containers. Likewise, the frozen dairy processing industry
has seen the development of large-capacity, automated processing equipment for a wide
range of products designed to gain market share. Significant advancements in product quality
have been made, many of these arising from improved knowledge of the functional properties
of ingredients and their impact on structure and texture. Incidents of food borne disease
associated with dairy products continue to occur, necessitating even greater diligence in the
control of pathogen transmission. Analytical techniques for the rapid detection of specific
types of microorganisms have been developed and greatly improved during this time.

2.20: EFFECT OF STORAGE TIME AND TEMPERATURE ON ICE CREAM

PROPERTIES.

Hartel (1996) Control of ice crystallization during the manufacture of ice cream is
important for the development of proper texture, product quality and storage stability.
Improving our somewhat limited understanding of the mechanisms that control ice-crystal
formation, as well as of the effects of formulation and process factors, may lead to
improvements in processing techniques.

Donhowe and Hartel (1996) Ice recrystallization was studied in 1.9 L containers of
ice cream stored so that surface temperature of ice cream was controlled with fluctuations of
±1.0 °C. Core and surface samples were taken at regular intervals and analyzed for ice crystal
size by cold-stage microscopy and image analysis. Mean ice crystal size plotted vs. time0.33
resulted in a straight line, with a slope equal to recrystallization rate (μm day−0.33). Storage
temperatures between −15 and −5 °C were studied. Recrystallization rate increased with
storage temperature and extent of temperature fluctuations. Recrystallization rates determined
in this study were compared to those found at identical temperature conditions, but in an
accelerated storage study. Recrystallization was more rapid in the accelerated study for
fluctuating temperature, but slower for constant temperature.

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 Schaller and Smith (1999) Effects of substitution of inulin for 42DE (dextrose
equivalent) corn syrup in reduced fat ice cream were studied using sensory analysis. Three
combinations of inulin and corn syrup were evaluated for iciness, chewiness, sweetness and
vanilla flavor intensity. Replacing 50% or 100% of 42DE corn syrup with inulin increased
chewiness. However, sweetness and vanilla flavor intensity perception of the ice cream were
reduced. Storage stability data showed that partial or full replacement of 42DE corn
syrupwith inulin inhibited ice crystal formation over a 6-wk thermal abuse period.

Chang and Hartel (2002) Air cells in ice cream were monitored, with either a light
microscope technique or cryo-SEM, during hardening and storage at different temperatures.
Ice cream samples were: (1) held at −6.0 or −15.0 °C on a microscope stage for observation
of air cells; (2) hardened at different rates to −28 °C; and (3) stored at −15 °C for four
months. At temperatures above about −18 °C, three main mechanisms of air cell instability
(disproportionation, coalescence and drainage) were observed. As temperature of storage
decreased, the rate of change in air cells decreased. Disproportionation of air cells was
inhibited by addition of emulsifiers or stabilizers, although the mechanisms for this inhibition
were different. During long-term storage of ice cream, interconnection between air cells led
to severe channeling. However, cryo-SEM was needed to observe this channeling behavior
since the optical microscopy technique did not preserve the true structures of the air cells in
ice cream under these conditions.

Jaziri et al. (2009) the effect of tea on the fermentation and survival of yogurt
microorganisms was studied. Green and black teas were added to milk at the beginning of
fermentation. Acidity of yogurt products and survival of their microflora were studied during
42 days at 4 °C. Results showed that the presence of tea did not significantly (P < 0.05)
influence the yogurt characteristic microorganisms. HPLC studies demonstrated that yogurt
bacteria did not affect tea catechins when they were incubated together for 48 h. Indeed, all
five products reached about 109 CFU/ml after 6 h of fermentation. Viability during 6 weeks
storage at 4 °C varied very little (8.35 < log CFU/ml < 8.65). Similarly, green and black teas
had no effect on lactic acid levels of the final products (after 6 weeks of storage, acidity
remained above 80 °D). According to these findings, addition of teas or tea catechins to
yogurt can be recommended to take advantage of their beneficial properties on human health
attributed to their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.

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