ELECTRIC PROPULSION

qFeatures
qPower Transmission
qApplication Areas
qSystem Overview and Control
qSystem Review
qSystem Design - Harmonics
qExamples
qQuestions/Discussion/Summary

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Electric Propulsion

Driving ship with electric motor is an almost 100 year old concept.

Icebreakers – pioneers of modern electric propulsion system

Cruise ships – increasing market

Ship elec. Load + Ship propulsion Load = All Elec. Ship (AES) or
(domestic, Aux.) (Propulsion motor load) Integrated Elec. Propulsion (IEP)

On older systems seperate generator sets and switchboards for Ship. elec power and electric
propulsion . No connection between switchboards.

Present day systems (IEP / AES) draw electric energy from a common source. Reversable
propulsion motor (norm. synchronous) drives FP propellor. Propulsion Motor load is treated as
’another electrical load’ at the switchboard.

Ships that have large non-propulsion electrical load benefit from IEP, AES concept.

Complex technology but easy to operate and maintain.

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 AES (All Elec. Ship) / IEP (Integrated Elec. Propulsion)
System consists of a centralized power plant (supplying propulsion and domestic
services requirements) and a variable speed drive system connected to propeller. A
comprehensive Power Management System (PMS) ensures that each prime mover
operates at its optimal load.

Optimal
operation

Example

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Features
• Flexibility and freedom in ship architecture.

• Use of lighter medium/high speed diesel engines, (low emissions, space).

• Optimal running - decreased fouling of engine.

• DP mode – station keeping (edge over conventional mechanical systems).

• Intermitent propulsion loads can be absorbed (e.g. ice breakers).

• Redundancy, Flexibility in maintenance (offline without affecting whole system, UxE).

• Vibration and noise , increased comfort, reduced signatures.

• Cost-benefits during construction phase. Large engine needs early stage planning
where as generators can be installed directly.

• Improved manouverability, response, rudder elimination, port to port capability.

• If frequency control fitted, fixed pitch propellers are sufficient .

• Maximum torque at zero rpm possible.

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi
Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Power Transmission

•Increased investment costs.

•Additional components increases transmission losses.

8...10 % higher
losses than diesel
mechanical drive

•Electric generator speed requirements dictate prime mover speed. supplier tend to
make compact and high speed generators, necessitating the high speed prime
movers (V-type diesel engines!), this may increase fuel and maintenance costs
(compared to large inline slow speed diesel engines).
• Payload (earning space) increment and other advantages must outweigh its
disadvantages. (Payback time, reliability, etc)
•Economy : Safety : Reliability

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Applications – Cruise ships
Increasing market – strong pros
Ø Noise and vibration – comfort requirements
Ø Relaibility and Availability – Passenger safety
Ø Improved Manouverability
Ø Increased Propulsion efficiency (~10 %)
Ø large non-propulsion electric load (large cruiseliner ~ 10-15MW).
Ø DP mode for environmental concerns, anchor damag to coral reefs!
Ø Emission concerns, tax penalties for gas emissions, especially in
coastal and recreational areas

Tax
Penalty

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Drilling Units, Production Vessels, Tankers

Ø High demand of stationkeeping / DP operation

Ø High electric loads for production and drilling
Ø Typicall installed electric power 25...55 MW
Ø All weather- operation reqiurements

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Ice Breakers

Ø Significant and rapid load variation – almost shock loading

Ø Highly dynamic performace required – tripping undesireable
Ø High Torque at low speed (Frequency control applications)
Ø Electric propulsion in new buildings since 1980
Ø Typical installed propulsion power 5...55 MW depending on
ice breaking capability

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Applications

Various others,

Ferries
Tankers
Research vessels
Yachts, Pleasure crafts
War ships
Offshore Supply Vessels
Dredgers

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - SLD

SLD (Single Line Diagram)

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi
Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - SLD - Components

Diesel
generator sets

Divided main
switchboard 3.3 kV

Large electric
motors: Frequency
bow thrusters, converters
AC compressors (some types
need separate
Transformer transformers)

Low voltage Some motors

switchboard 440 V need low voltage
To low voltage To low voltage excitation
Propulsion motors
consumers consumers

Simplified SLD (Single Line Diagram)

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi
Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Propulsors

Rear bearing block

Pods

Shaft Line Azimuth

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Pods
Azipod - ABB SAM/JC-L - DOLPHIN

SSP

Compact Azipod - ABB Mermaid - RR

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Pods

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Pod

Steering Unit
Cooling air in- and
Slewing Bearing output

Steering Hub Lubrication Oil Pumps

Bilge Pumps
Seal Support Tanks

Pod
Housing

Aft Bearing Position

Electric Motor

Forward Bearing Position

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Arrangement, pod housing

Electric motor Front bearing

Rear bearing block and seal

Exciter

Shaft holding brake

Propeller

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Arrangement, pod housing

Electric motor Front bearing

Rear bearing block and seal

Exciter

Shaft holding brake

Propeller

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Components - Generators

= =

•AC generation AC distribution

•Synchonus Machines

•Brushless, Excitation controlled by AVR

•Unless otherwise specified:
Terminal volt : +/- 2.5 % of Nominal Voltage
Largest transient load variation : - 15 % or + 20 % of Nominal Voltage

•Some common voltage levels (Medium, Low) - (various standards IEC, IEEE, ANSI etc)

11KV 6.6KV 3.3KV 690V 450V 230V /

120V

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Components – Switch boards

According to rules & regs for elec. propulsion,

redundancy is required.
i.e. tolerance to failure against short circuit
(also fire and flood could be considered)

Normaly distributed in 2, 3 or 4 sections,

depending on redundancy requiremnts and costs
involved.

Installed power affects normal load current and

short circuit currents. Physical limitations on
handling thermal and mechanical stresses in
busbars, and switching gear capacity met by
increasing voltage and reducing current levels.

Variosu circuit breakers – air, vaccume , gas

Vaccume breakers may chop current and casue
spikes when breaking inductive load, over-
voltage protection maybe necessary

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Components – Transformers

Physically isolate current flow to obtain different

voltage levels and / or phase shift.

Phase shifting can be used to feed frequency

convertors

Example: reducing the injection of distorted

currents into el. Network by Canceling the
most dominant harmonic currents.

Delta or star connections

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Components – Propulsion Motors
Synchronous Motors
(examples: RR Mermaid : 5 -25 MW, ABB Azipods 5 ~ 30MW)

Permanant Magnet Synchronous Motors

(example: compact Azipods 400 kW – 5 MW)

Variable speed motors, double windings for continous operation, cooling by air,
water

Asynchronous motors are competetive below 5 MW

DC motors were popular in early days, since 1980 AC motors becam e industrailly
available and commercially competetive. Since then all new deliveries of electric
propulsion are based on AC drive topologies

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Components – Propulsion Motors

Some examples configurations

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Drives & Control
Variable speed drives (Convertors):

Ø VSI (voltage source invertor) type convertors (with PWM , DTC)

Ø CSI (current source invertors) type convertors (other names LCI, Synchro)
Ø Cyclo - cycloconvertors (dominant in marine applications)
Ø others (CSI with PWM, VSI with PAM, limited application)

Most drives except cyclo

consists of rectifier and
an invertor, cyclo is a
direct convertor without
DC link

Fixed Variable
Frequncy , Frequency,
Voltage AC voltage AC

§ DC link typical for VSI and CSI

Convertor
§ No DC link in cyclo
Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi
Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Cycloconverter
• The cyclo-converter consist of at least 3 thyristor bridges, each supplied
from propulsion switchboard
• These bridges are required to allow positive and negative current into the
winding
• Basic arrangement for has 36 switching devices (thyristors)
• More commonly a propulsion motor has 2 sets of 3-phase windings, each
with its own network of 36 devices
• The cycloconvertor “constructs” the output voltage wave-form from sampled
portions of the supply wave-form.
• 6 pulse, 12 pulse

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - Drives & Control
+ Major advantage is high torque at low speeds with low torque pulsations
+ Applied as direct propeller drives on modern icebreakers
(possible to free a propeller frozen in ice or to cut a block of ice without stalling the motor)
+ Dynamic possitioning and passenger vessel applications (not necessary) where low
speed / maneuvering performance is essential
+ Overload tolerance ( e.g 250 % and field weakning)
+ Multiple bridges give high power ratings
+ Ratings typically up to 30MW

- Output frequency is limited (30 to 40 % of AC supply frequency, aprox. 20 Hz)

- Complex AC supply effects (Harmonics)

Cycloconverter drive technology was ideally suited to the extreme requirements (large
powers at low speeds and high dynamic performance) of the Icebreaker
Icebreaker

Example:
• twin shafts each rated at 11.2 MW,
• each shaft being powered by two 5.6 MW Cycloconverters capable of providing 175%
full load torque (FLT) for 30 seconds at zero speed.

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Overview - CSI (synchro, LCI)
Thyristor controled rectifier feeds DC link. Invertor side is fed by motor resulting
in increased dimensions of motor.

By controlling the switching of thyristor pairs in the inverter, controlled current at

variable frequency is applied sequentially to the motor windings.

At low speeds (5-10 % of rated speed) EMF too low to perform natural
commutation.

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Torque Performance

Frequency controlled electric motor can deliver high torque at

low speed.
Fixed pitch propeller is suitable for widely varying conditions.
Reversing and start from shaft standstill is easy.
Important for dredgers, icebreakers and similar.

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Torque Performance

Torque
Constant power
Short duration
overtorque, 170%
for 30 seconds in
icebreaker Healy Cycloconverter
drive

100 %

Synchro
electric drive
Diesel engine
(seldom used)
mechanical drive

100 % Rev. speed

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi
Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Cyclo-converter

number of thyristors: 36

Cyclo-Converter: Typical
Average Torque Characteristic
1,4
1,2

Avg. Torque [p.u.]

1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
Motor Frequency [1/sec]

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Single line diagram cyclo-converter

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Synchro-converter

Designed with less thyristors than cyclo-converters

Power / Torque Characteristic of Synchro-Converter Drive

area of field
1,4 weakening
allowed for short time cont. operation for

Power,Torque [p.u.]
1,2 monitored by motor and converter
control system motor design point

1,0

0,8
torque limited by
bollard pull
design of converter
0,6

0,4 Pmot
pulse
0,2 operation
free travelling
Mprop

0,0 Mmot
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
Speed [p.u.]

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Synchro-converter

• Synchro-converter is connected to AC synchronous motors

• The converter arrangement is fully reversible and allows

motor drive operation in the four quadrants

• The input bridge and line reactor in the DC link provide

current source for the output inverter bridge.

• By controlling the switching of thyristor pairs in the inverter,

controlled current at variable frequency is applied
sequentially to the motor windings.

• Does not have the same overload characteristic as cyclo-

converter, but is suitable for propeller law characteristics

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Single line diagram synchro-converter

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Cyclo versus CSI or Synchro-converter

Comparison for propulsion drives 2x6.5 MW

(12 pulse characteristic)

Cyclo-conv. Synchro-conv.

Number of thyristors 72 24
Number of prop.transformers 12 4
Number of prop.circuit breakers 4 4

Length of converter panel (mm) 27600 15600

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Review - SLD

SLD (Single Line Diagram)

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi
Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Review – cont’d

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Design - Engineering

Ø Load Flow calculations

Ø Short Circuit calculations Dependent on system configuration
Ø Ground Fault calculations and vessel application extended
Ø Relay Coordination study analysis can also be :
Ø Harmonic analysis Ø Transient analysis (network behavior
Ø Voltage drop calculation after disturbance, e.g. short circuit)
Ø Reliability or failure mode analysis

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 System Design - Harmonics
When load is non linear, load current will distort the sinusiodal voiltages.
This deviation from sinus. voltage or current wave form is harmonics.
Distortion of currents and supply voltage waveforms may lead to:
-Accelerated aging of insulation material. Increased power dissipation
(losses) in equipment connected to the network, may cause overheating and
deterioration.
-Overloading of electronic equipment: Increased load current of electronic
equipment that has been designed for sinusoidal voltage supply, may cause
overheating and malfunction of this equipment.
-Malfunction: The distorted waveform may cause electromagnetic interference
or erroneous measurement signals

Rules and regulations guidelines or requirements that limit the harmonic

distortion in a ship are not a guarantee for proper functionality. It is therefore
necessary to be able to predict harmonic distortion, evaluate the effects, and
perform the proper means to manage the voltage distortion, without functional
faults over the life time of the installation.

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Example Systems – LNG/Tanker

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Example – Cruise Ship

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Example – Ice Breaker

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Example - Semisubmersible

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Synchro-Converter Board

Half Section of 15 MW Synchro-

Converter

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 MS Fantasy

Widely variation operation profile: both propulsion and electric power

Four to six main generators sets

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 MS Fantasy

Oil fired boiler 8ZA40S engines Lub oil purifiers Machinery auxiliaries

12ZA40S Stabilizers
engines
A60 fire
bulkhead
Fuel oil
purifiers

CL

WT bulkhead Evaporators Central coolers Sea water main line

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Electric propulsion in Cruise Liner -Alternatives

Combined electric gas and steam plant (COGES)

Two major references now sailing (GTS Millenium was 1st)
Problems met, mainly related to design errors
Economic balance is very labile: heat needed for fresh water
generation and gas turbine specific loading are decisive
Permanent setback is fuel price and possibly maintenance costs
LM2500+ and other gas turbines are ‘too big’ units
Low turbine weight allows optimal location; but ship stability
needs concern
Small space demand. Air supply ducts, exhaust gas pipe duct
are smaller than in diesel electric ship

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Electric propulsion

Economic comparison must be made case by case

Even small deviations in the initial conditions may
change the result
If pod propulsion is profitable, then the electric pod
concept will be profitable

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 General Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Numerical example for 40.000 GRT 1400 pax. cruise liner, 2 * 7.5 MW.
Electric variant has 14 extra cabins => added income 1.330.000 USD/a...
loses 45.000 USD/a as diesel engine fuel, saves 41.000 as heating fuel,
saves 20.000 as machinery maintenance. Total savings 15.000 USD/a
= > Electric propulsion investment is paid back in 2.2 years!
Equipment Electric Geared
propulsion propulsion
pcs. Cost USD pcs. Cost USD
Main engines, mounting 5 6.200.000 4 4.400.000
Electric propulsion pack 1 6.700.000 - -
FPP 2 750.000 - -
Reduction gear, coupl. - - 2 1.400.000
CPP plant - - 2 1.200.000
Shaft bearings sets 2 320.000 2 40.000
Aux. diesel generators - - 4 3.800.000
Aux. engine auxiliaries - - 590.000
Main switchboard 170.000 400.000
TOTAL 14.140.000 11.830.000
Difference 3.310.000

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 General Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

This numerical example was based on ABB comparison 1989,

including an estimated operation profile. Results are very
sensitive to changes in initial estimations. Objective comparison
is impossible and figures here show orders of magnitude.

Electric pod units are Daily running

expensive but offer costs 22 %
slightly higher
propulsion efficiency, Capital costs
elimination of rudders Voyage
22 %
costs 18 %
& steering gears, ...
including
propeller shafts etc. including fuel oil 7 %
machinery
related capital
costs 10 % Shore
costs 22 %

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Electric power plant concept became alternative in many ship

types which traditionally have mechanical power transmission.
Medium speed engine have long been alternative in ships which
traditionally have low speed engine.
Multi-engine concept does not always bring valuable advantages.
Eg. large container ship maintains constant 25 kn speed at sea.

Hydrodynamic evaluation tells if pod propulsion (rudder propeller)

is justified. If pod propulsion, then medium speed engines.
If greatly variating sailing speed and high, greatly variating
electric power demand then electric power plant concept.

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Traditionally the comparison was between diesel engine types:

Low speed Medium speed
Simplicity, number of cylinders ++ +
Simplicity, power transmission + -
Fuel costs ++ +
Machinery weight - +
Space demand - ++
Reliability ++ ++
Flexibility - + (multi-engine plant)
Hull vibrations + (?) +
Exhaust emissions - +
Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi
Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Many factors can easily (directly) be observed in the comparison

of alternative ship machinery concepts. Such as
machinery purchase costs
machinery fuel costs and other operation costs
availability (sometimes difficult to calculate)

Unfortunately some factors are difficult to convert into money:

effect of engine room volume on ship earning potential
effect of machinery mass on ship earning potential
machinery reliability (failures have variating consequences)

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 General Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Numerical example for 40.000 GRT 1400 pax. cruise liner, 2 * 7.5 MW.
Electric variant has 14 extra cabins => added income 1.330.000 USD/a...
loses 45.000 USD/a as diesel engine fuel, saves 41.000 as heating fuel,
saves 20.000 as machinery maintenance. Total savings 15.000 USD/a
= > Electric propulsion investment is paid back in 2.2 years!
Equipment Electric Geared
propulsion propulsion
pcs. Cost USD pcs. Cost USD
Main engines, mounting 5 6.200.000 4 4.400.000
Electric propulsion pack 1 6.700.000 - -
FPP 2 750.000 - -
Reduction gear, coupl. - - 2 1.400.000
CPP plant - - 2 1.200.000
Shaft bearings sets 2 320.000 2 40.000
Aux. diesel generators - - 4 3.800.000
Aux. engine auxiliaries - - 590.000
Main switchboard 170.000 400.000
TOTAL 14.140.000 11.830.000
Difference 3.310.000

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Comparison should base on realistic and

detailed operation profile.
Comparison should be made between
alternatives where the ship project has
been modified and optimised
according to the machinery!

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Generally small engine room is important in those ships where

cargo volume is the major design constraint.
E.g. care carriers, luxury cruise liners, many container ships.
But can the saved space be utilised for something profitable?

Generally low machinery weight is important in those ships

where deadweight is the major design constraint.
E.g. RoRo vessels, ferries, most tankers and bulk carriers.
But is additional ballast required to fulfil the stability criteria?
Or added ballast required to submerge propeller on return leg?
Is the propulsion power small compared with ship size?

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology
 Comparison of Machinery Alternatives

Pod propulsion gains ground in

ships where propulsion power is
moderate and manoeuvrability is
important.
Electric power plant concept is
suitable for ships that have high &
variable auxiliary power demand.

If electric power plant

concept is profitable,
electric pod propulsion
is often also profitable.
But simple is always
beautiful!

Asif Munir / asif.munir@tkk.fi

Electric propulsion / 02Nov2006 Helsinki University of Technology