MODELS OF THE ATOM

CONTENT

1. The Concept of Atom

2. J.J. Thompson’s Plum Pudding Model of the Atom
3. Rutherford’s Nuclear Atomic Model
4. Neil Bohr’s Postulate
5. Electron-cloud Model
6. Solved Examples

The Concept of the Atom

The word ‘atom’ was derived from the Greek word ‘atomos’ means indivisible. It was first used
by the Greek philosopher Democritus to refer to the tiny or minutest part of all substance that
cannot be further cut or divided. Although this idea had been since the late 5th century/early 4th
century BC, it was until 1808 that the actual existence of atom was first proved by the English
Chemist John Dalton when he put forward his famous John Dalton Atomic Theory.

However, the John Dalton Atomic Theory did not give insight into what the structure of an atom
is. John Dalton answered the question, ‘does an atom exist?’ with proves but did not answer the
question ‘what does an atom look like?’

Atomic Models
These were some of the attempt by scientists to answer the question – ‘what does an atom look
like?’. J J Thompson in1987 performed an experiment in which he used gas to conducted
electricity is a discharge tube. He observed that a negatively charged particles which travels from
the cathode of the tube to the anode in a straight line are always present in the tube no matter the
type of gas in the tube. He concluded that this particle must be a basic component of all
substance and he called them cathode ray ( or electrons).

J.J Thompson also successfully measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron.

J.J Thompson’s Plum Pudding Atomic Model

The existent of an electron had been show in the J.J. Thompson experiment and that they are
negatively charged. But since atoms are electrically neutral, there must be positively charge
particles in addition to the electron that made up the atom. J.J. Thompson therefore proposed an
atomic model called the plum pudding model.

He suggested that an atom is a sphere of positively charged fluid in which the negatively charged
electrons were symmetrically distributed.

J.J Thompson’s Plum Pudding Atomic Model

Rutherford’s Nuclear Atomic Model

The plum pudding atomic model was upheld for a while until there were inconsistencies with
experimental observation. Rutherford in 1911 bombarded a sample of gold foil with alpha
particles and observed the pattern in which the alpha particles were scattered. Many of the alpha
particle passes through the gold foil undeviated. However, some were scattered at different
angles to their original path (mostly acute angles). More so, some were observed to have been
deviated at angles greater than 900. The plum pudding atomic model could not explain an angle
of deviation greater than 900 because such a deviation could only have been caused by several
positively charged particle concentrated at a spot (and not scattered positively charged particles
as stated in by the plum pudding model).
 Rutherford’s Nuclear Atomic Model

The nuclear model of an atom considered the atom to be a massive, positively charged core
surrounded by negatively charged electrons.

Nuclear model of the Lithium atom. It has three electrons and three protons.

This model likens the atom to the solar system with the nucleus as the sun and electrons
revolving around it like the planets.

Although the nuclear model was an improvement on the plum pudding model, it could not
explain the stability of atom. An electron in the orbit will accelerate as it revolves around the
nuclear. According to the Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, such electron will radiate energy
(give out energy). This loss of energy will mean a continual decrease in the radius of the orbit
until the electron collapse into the nucleus thus implying that an atom is not stable.

In order to explain the stability of the atom with a nuclear model, Neil Bohr stated the
following postulates:

1. Electrons in atoms only occupies orbit of fixed energy state. These states are called
stationary state. The energy of electrons in these states are quantized.
2. Each stationary orbit is characterized by angular momentum of electron which can have
only those values that are integral multiple of h2π. An electron of mass m in a orbit of
radius r and revolving with a speed v will have angular momentum of:

angular momentum mvr=nh2π

3. Electrons do not radiate energy when they remain in a fixed energy state. They radiate
energy only when they undergo discontinuous jumps from a high energy level E2 to a
lower energy level E1. The energy loss will be radiated as a photon or energy bundle.

E2−E1=hf………(i)
Where h is the Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of the radiation.

The Bohr’s model was able to explain satisfactorily the spectra line for atom with one electron
(hydrogen). But it failed to explain spectra line for that of multi-electron atoms. This necessitated
the search for further answers.

The Electron-cloud Model

This is also called the wave mechanical model or the mathematical model. It pictures an atom as
consisting of a nucleus surrounded by a hazy cloud of electrons. The probability of locating an
electron in this cloud is higher where the cloud is denser.
The electron cloud model considers an atom as consisting of nucleus with electron moving
rapidly around the nucleus and spending most of their time in high probability region.

Solved Examples
In a model of hydrogen atom, the energy levels Wn are given by the formula Wn=−Rn2 where
n is an integer and R is a constant.

1. Determine the energy released in the transition from n=3 to n=2

Solution

Recall, energy absorption or emitted when an electron jump from one energy level to another is
given as n=E2−E1=ΔE=hf

But En=Wn

ΔW=W3−W1ΔW=[−Rn2]n=3−[−Rn2]n=2ΔW=−R32−−R22ΔW=−R9−
−R4ΔW=−4R−9R36=5R36

Energy released is 5R36

2. An atom radiates 1.5×10−19J of energy when an electron jumps from one energy level to
another. What is the wavelength of the emitted radiation? (h=6.6×10−34, 3×108ms−1)

Solution

Photon emitted

=hf=hcλ1.5×10−19=6.6×10−34×3.0×108λλ=19.8×10−261.5×10−19=1.32×10−6m

Note that E=hf=hcλ

Where c is the speed of light in vacuum and λ is the wavelength of the light.

EVALUATION

1. State the John Dalton’s atomic theory.

2. State the limitation of the following: (i) J.J. Thompson Model of Atom (ii) Rutherford’s
model of atom (iii) Neil Bohr’s Postulate

NUCLEUS
CONTENT

1. Structure of an Atom
2. Radioactivity
3. Radioactive Isotope
4. Radioactive Emission
5. Half Life and Decay Constant
6. Nuclear Energy
7. Nuclear Reactions
8. Nuclear Reactors
9. Solved Problems
10. Nigeria Nuclear Energy Program

Structure of an Atom
As discussed earlier, the modern atom model is the electron-cloud model which considers an
atom as consisting of nucleus with electrons moving rapidly around the nucleus and spending
most of their time in high probability region. The nucleus of an atom consists of a positively
charged proton and neutron which has no charge. The electrons revolve round the nucleus.
 S/N Sub-atomic Particle Charges Mass Position in the Atom

1 Electron -1.6 × 10-19 C 9.1 × 10-31 kg Orbits

2 Proton +1.6 × 10-19 C 1.675 × 10-27 kg Nucleus

3 Neutron No charge 1.675 × 10-27 kg Nucleus

Hydrogen, the simplest atom has one proton in its nucleus and one electron in its orbit. The next
is helium atom which has two protons and two neutrons in it nucleus and two electrons in its is
orbits

Proton and neutron are both called Nucleon because they can be found in the nucleus of an atom.

Z is used to represent the number of proton in the nucleus and it is called the atomic number.
The number of nucleon in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number A.

Atom is represented as AZX, where A represents the mass number of the atom and Z
represents the atomic number of the atom.

N.B.

 Atomic number Z: This is the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom.
 Mass number A: This is the number of nucleon (number of proton and neutron) in the nucleus
of an atom.

In a neutral atom (i.e. an atom with no net electronic charge), the number of proton in the
nucleus is equal to the number of electron in its orbit. (i.e. Z = number of electrons)

CLASSWORK

State the number of electrons, protons, neutrons, nucleon in the following:

(i) 42He2+

(ii) 168O

(iii) 31H

(iv) 23892U

(v) 3717Cl1−
Radioactivity
This is a spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei with the release of energy and radiation such
as alpha particle, Beta particle and gamma ray. Radioactivity was discovered by A.B Becquerel
in the year 1896 when he found that a sample of uranium could affect the photographic plate
even after it had been wrapped in black so as to prevent it fluorescence from reaching the
photographic plate.

After uranium had been shown to have this property,there had been other experiments to identify
other material of similar behaviour. Other radioactive materials that had been discovered include:
radium, thorium, polonium …

Radiations emitted during radioactivity exhibit the following properties:

1. They affect photographic plate

2. They ionise gas
3. They produce fluorescence

The ionising effect of radioactive material can be observed using a charge electroscope. The
electroscope discharge when a radioactive material is brought its cap. This is because radiation
emitted by the material causes ionization (produce electrons which discharge the electroscope).

Radioactive Elements

These are elements that undergo disintegration spontaneously by emitting radiation and particles.
Example include; radon, radium, uranium and polonium.

A form of radioactivity which occur spontaneously without doing anything to initiate it nor can
anything be done to control it is called NATURAL radioactivity.

22688Ra → 22286Rn + 42∝

A form of radioactivity that is induced in element that would have otherwise being stable is
called induced or ARTIFICIAL radioactivity.

147N + 42He → 178O + 11H73Li + 11H → 42He + 42He

Artificial radioactivity is induced by bombarding stable nuclei with fast moving ions such proton
or alpha particles. Artificial radioactivity is induced in device called accelerators. Example
include: cyclotron, linear accelerator, Van de Graff accelerator.
Types of Radiation

There are three main types of radiation emitted from radioactive materials:

1. Alpha particle
2. Beta particle
3. Gamma ray

Radiation Alpha Particle Beta Particle Gamma Ray

Electromagnetic
Helium nuclei High speed
Nature
42He electron wave of very
high frequency

5% - 7% of c
Velocity 97% of c 100% of c
(speed of light)

Charge +2e -e No charge

Mass 4 amu (6.6 × 10-27kg) 9.1 × 10-31kg Negligible

Effect of Strongly Little or no

Slight deflection
Magnetic Field deflected effect

Medium
Ionizing Power Heavy ionization Little ionization
ionization

Medium High
Penetrating Little penetrating
penetrating penetrating
Power power
power power

Radioactive Series

As a radioactive material emits radiation, it changes into nucleus of other which itself may be
radioactive. The new nucleus thereafter emits radiation and change to another nucleus. This
could continue until a stable nucleus is attained. This sequence of change is called radioactive
series.

Activity
The number of disintegration per unit time is called activity. The activity of a radioactive sample
decreases with time.

Decay Law

This states that the rate of disintegration of a radioactive material is directly proportional to the
amount of the material present (remaining).

∂N∂t∝−N∂N∂t=−λN

Where λ is constant of proportionality. λ is called the decay constant.

∂N=−λN∂t∂NN=−λ∂t

Integrating both sides,

∫NtN0∂NN=∫0t−λ∂t[lnN] /

NtN0=−λtlnNt−lnN0=−λtln(NtN0)=−λtNtN0=e−λt………(ii)

N0 is the initial number of nuclei

Nt is the remaining number of nuclei after t
λ is the decay constant
t is the time.
The graph of Nt against t is shown below.
T½ is called the half life of the radioisotope. It can be defined as the time taken for the
radioisotope to disintegrate to half its original amount.

At t = T½, the ratio NtN0=12

Substituting this into;

ln(NtN0)=−λtln(12)=−λT120.693=−λT12T12=0.693λ………(iii)

Types of Radioactive Decay

1. Alpha Decay

When a nuclei undergoes alpha decay, the mass number decreases by four and the atomic
number decreases by 2.

AZX → A−4Z−2Y + 42He23892U → 23490Th + 42He

For example,

23892U → 23490Th + 42He

Thus, the nuclei loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

2. Beta Decay

When a nucleus undergoes beta decay, the mass number remains unchanged by the atomic
number increases by one.

AZX → AZ+1Y + 0−1e

For example,

13153I → 13154Xe + 0−1e

3. Gamma Decay

There is no change in the mass number and the atomic number of the nuclei. The nuclei only
undergo transition in its nuclear state.

EVALUATION

1. State the decay law.

2. Write a short note on each of the types of radiation emitted during radioactive decay.
3. Write an equation to show alpha decay of radon -222
4. Define activity.
5. Complete the following reactions by completing and calculating the proton and nucleon
numbers of the missing terms: (i) U(n,β)… (ii) 73Li(…,α)42He (iii) 147N(n,p)…
6. Explain the term decay constant and half life.
7. Sketch the decay curve.

Nuclear Energy
Binding Energy

It is expected that the mass of a nucleus should be equal to the sum of the mass of it constituent
(i.e. sum of the masses of its protons and neutrons).

i.e. Mass of nucleus = Zmp+(A−Z)mn

Where mp is the mass of proton, mn is the mass of nucleon, A is the mass number, Z is the
atomic number.

However, this is not so. Instead,

Mass of Nucleus <Zmp+(A−Z)mn

This difference is a measure of the binding energy of the nucleus.

According to Einstein, energy and mass are equivalent.

If Δm is the mass defect, then

E=Δmc2………(iv)

E is the binding energy, c is the speed of light, Δm is the mass defect.

Binding energy can be defined as the energy equivalent of the difference in mass between the
mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of its constituent.

Nuclear Reaction

There two types of nuclear reaction, namely:

1. Nuclear Fission

When a fast moving neutron is used to bombard a uranium nucleus, the nucleus split into two
smaller nuclei – krypton and Barium.

Nuclear fission is the splitting of heavy nucleus into two smaller parts of relatively equal mass.

23592U + 10n → 23692U → 14857La + 8535Ba + 310n

+Q

The energy released in this reaction can be obtained from the binding energy.

The fission of uranium produces three other neutrons. These three neutrons can proceed to cause
the fission of other three uranium nuclei and thereby produce another nine neutrons. The nine
neutrons can cause more fission and this can continue until the reaction becomes self sustaining.
This kind of reaction is called chain reaction

For chain reaction to set up, the amount of fissile material present must exceed the critical mass.

The critical mass is the minimum amount of fissile material that must be present for chain
reaction to ensure.
If a chain reaction is set up in a sample of fissile fuel that exceeds the critical mass, the reaction
will continue at an increased rate as long as the materials are together until it gets out of hand
and an explosion will result. This is the basis of the atomic bomb.

A control chain reaction can take place in the nuclear reactor. This can be used to generate
electricity or to produce certain useful radioisotope.

2. Nuclear Fusion

This occurs when two smaller nuclei fuse together to fuse a larger nuclei. A decrease in mass is
expected and this is what accounts for the energy released during the nuclear fusion.

21H + 21H → 32He+ 10n + energy

Nuclear fusion occurs at higher temperature than nuclear fission because of nuclear repulsion of
the reactor must be overcome before reaction can take place.

Application of Radioactivity

Radioactivity is applied in the following areas:

1. Carbon dating
2. Radiotherapy
3. Radio diagnosis
4. Generation of electricity with nuclear reactor
5. Use of radioisotope as tracer element in agriculture, medicine and industry.

Nuclear Reactor
Erinco Fermi built the first nuclear reactor in 1946. The energy released in the fission reaction of
uranium fuel was used in the generation of electricity.

Modern nuclear reactors have the following parts:

1. Fuel rod: Uranium fuel is embedded in the fuel rod which are well spaced in the core of the
reactor.
2. Moderator: They are used to slow down fast moving neutron that induce fission. Graphite and
heavy water (D2O) are used as moderators.
3. Control rods: They are used to regulate the rate of fission reaction by absorbing neutron. To
stop the fission reaction completely, they are lowered into the core of the reactor. Boron and
Cadmium rods are used as control rod.
 4. Coolant: They are fluid circulating the core of the reactor to extract heat produced. Pressurized
water or carbon(IV) oxide are used as coolant.

Solved Problems
Example:

1. Two radioactive material A and B have half lives of 100 and 50 years respectively. Samples of A
and B initially contains equal number of atoms. What is the ratio of the remaining atoms of A to
that of B after 200 years?

Solution:

Recall NtN0=[12]tT12 Where NtN0 is the ratio of the remaining number of atoms to the amount

present originally. T12 is the halflife and t is time.

For A, [NtN0]A=[12]200100[NtN0]A=[12]2=14NtA=N04

For B, [NtN0]B=[12]20050[NtN0]B=[12]4=116NtB=N016

Ratio of NtA:NtBN04N016=N04×16N0=4:1

This is ratio 4:1

2. An element whose half life is 3 years has N atoms. How many atoms would have decayed
after 9years?

Solution:

Recall NtN0=[12]tT12t=9, T12=3years, N0=NNtN=[12]93=[12]3=18Nt=N8

The number of atom remaining is N8, but the number of atoms that would have decayed is
N−N8=7N8.
3. A radioactive substance has a half life of 20 hours. What fraction of the original radioactive
nuclide will remain after 80 years?
Solution:

Recall NtN0=[12]tT12t=80years, T12=20yearsNtN0=[12]8020=[12]4=116Nt=N8.

116 of the nuclide will remain after 80 years

4. A nuclide X is produced by bombarding a nitrogen nucleus with an alpha particle with the
release of heavy hydrogen nucleus as shown by the following nuclear equation:

α + 147N → pqX + 21D

Determine the value of p and q in the equation.

Solution:

To balance this type of equation, the sum of the sum of nucleons on the right hand side must
equal to the sum of the number of the nucleons on the left hand side.

This is also true for the atomic number on both sides.

α=42He

Re-writing the equation;

42He + 147N → pqX + 21D

Comparing both sides

Number of nucleons:

4+14=p+2p=16

Atomic number

2+7=q+1q=8p=16, q=8

Please note of these when balancing nuclear reactions:

S/N Particle Symbol

1. Alpha particle 42He

 2. Beta particle or electron 0−1β

3. Neutron 10n

4. Proton 11H

5. Gamma Υ
6. Positron 0+1p

5. A material of mass 1.0×10−3kg undergoes a fission process which reduces its mass by
0.02%. Calculate the amount of energy released in the process.
Solution:

Mass that decayed = 0.02% of 1.0×10−3

Δm=0.02100×1.0×10−3=2×10−7kgE=Δmc2E=2×10−7×(3×108)2E=18×
109J=1.8×1010J

6. Calculate the binding energy of 5927Co

(atomic mass of Co = 58.9332u, mass of proton = 1.00783u, mass of neutron = 1.00867,

unified atomic mass unit u=931MeV, 1eV=1.6×10−19J)

Solution

Mass of proton

Mp=zmp=27×1.00783=27.21141u

Mass of neutron Mn=(A−z)mn=(59−27)1.00867=32×1.00867=32.27744u

Total mass of nucleons =Mp+Mn=27.21141+32.27744=59.48885u

Mass of cobalt =58.9332u

Mass defect Δm=(Mp+Mn)

−M(Co)BE=Δm=59.48885−58.9332=0.55565u
Converting this to electron volt;
BE=(0.55565×931)MeV=517.31MeV=517.31×106eV

Converting this to J;

BE=517.31×106×1.6×10−19=827.7×10−13JBE=8.277×10−11J

(Please note that the relation BE=Δmc2 was not used to calculate the binding energy. This is
because, u has already being expressed in that form u=Δmc2=931MeV

7. The half life of a radioactive element is 5 s. calculate the decay constant.

Solution:

Recall

T12=0.693λT12=5sλ=0.693T12λ=0.6935=0.1386s−1

EVALUATION

1. Define binding energy.

2. What is nuclear fusion?
3. State three (3) applications of radioactivity.
4. What is critical mass?

Nigeria’s Nuclear Energy Programme

Global need of nuclear power has become so imperative for the following reasons:

 Increases in demand for energy

 Need to discontinue the use of fossil fuel as source of energy because of their negative impact
on the environment
 Nuclear energy is a clean source of energy
 Nuclear energy is environmentally friendly and relatively cheap to maintain.

Nonetheless, the use of this energy source demands technical expertise as well as caution. Safety
cannot be overemphasized. The government had put in place statutory regulatory bodies to
monitor the use of nuclear energy in the country. The body charged with this responsibility in
Nigeria is the Nigeria Nuclear Energy Commission established in 1976 and the Nigeria
Nuclear Regulatory Authority established in 2001. They register, license and inspect
infrastructure for safety in radiotherapy, uranium mining and milling, research reactors and
radioactive waste management.

For capacity building and training of man-power on nuclear energy, the country had established
the Centre for Energy Research and Development (CERD), Obafemi Awolowo University
(OAU) Ile-Ife and the Centre for Energy Research and Training (CERT) Ahmadu Bello
University Zaria.

There are indications that Russia has been contracted to construct Nigeria’s first Nuclear Power
Plant that is expected to boost power generation in the country. The plant is expected to generate
up to 1.2 thousand megawatts. This is in line which the projection of the government that nuclear
technology should contribute at least 4,000MW to the total National Grid by 2030.

EVALUATION

1. If the half life of a sample of radioactive material is 60 days, what fraction of the original
radioactive nuclear will remain after 120 days?
2. State briefly what happens when uranium-235 is bombarded by slow neutrons. Mention one
important peaceful practical application of the process.
3. (a) State two (i) differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fussion. (ii) peaceful uses of
atomic energy. (b) (i) Explain chain reaction. (ii) State one (1) condition necessary for chain
reaction to occur. (iii) State two (2) components in the nuclear reactor used to control chain
reaction. (c)(i) A nuclear reaction is given by: 21H + 11H → 42He+ 10n + energy.
What types of nuclear reaction is it? (c)(ii) The isotopes of a nuclide has a half life of
5.4×103s. Calculate its decay constant.
4. Differentiate between (i) nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. (ii) nuclear reaction and chemical
reaction.
5. If the decrease in mass in a fission process is 0.1 %, how much energy could be obtained from
the fission of 1.0 g of the material?
6. (a) What are radioisotope? (b) Explain the terms nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. (c) State two
(2) advantages of fusion over fission and explain briefly why in spite of the these advantages
fusion is not normally used for the generation of power.
7. The half-life of a radioactive iodine is measure to be 8.0 days. a solution contained 1.5 mg of this
iodine on a certain day. Write down on a table the mass of iodine remaining after 8, 16, 24, 32
days. Plot a graph of mass against time from it deduce the mass of the iodine that would remain
after 30 days.
8. Write a short note on nuclear reactor and state the component as we

ENERGY QUANTIZATION AND

DUALITY OF MATTER
CONTENT
  Energy Levels in an Atom
 Ground State and Excited State
 Emission of Light Energy on Return to Ground State
 Photo-electric Emission
 Einstein’s Photo-electric Equation and its Explanation
 X-ray Production
 Characteristics and Properties of X-ray
 Uses of X-ray
 Duality of Matter-wave
 Wave-Particle Paradox
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Energy Levels in an Atom

Electrons in atoms exist in certain energy levels. They can jump from one energy level to another
by gaining or losing energy but they are not allowed any energy that lies in between two energy
levels. The electrons can only accept or lose certain definite amount of energy. Energy is
quantised.

(i) A jump from E2 to E1 will result in emission of photon.

hf=E2−E1

(ii) A jump from E4 to E2 will result in emission of photon.

hf=E4−E2
(iii) A jump from E2 to E3 will be as a result of absorption of photon of energy.

hf=E3−E2

The energy for the nth energy level is given as En=−E0n2

It is customary for electrons to occupy the lowest energy level before filling the higher energy
levels. When every electron in an atom is in the lowest energy state available in an atom, the
atom is said to be in its GROUND STATE. However, when any of the electrons in the atom is in
any of the energy level higher than the occupied energy level, the atom is said to be in the
EXCITED STATE.

N.B.: An atom is said to be in the excited state if any of it electron is in a higher energy level
where there is a possibility of the electron returning to it normal energy state. The atom becomes
ionized if the electron is so far away that it can no longer experience the attraction of it nucleus.
The minimum energy required to move an electron to a point where it no longer experience the
the attraction of the nucleus is called Ionization energy.

The discontinuous jump of electron from one energy level to another involves the absorption or
emission of energy. These energies are better studied and measured when recorded on the
spectrograph (i.e. a spectrum for virtual observation)

N.B.: Spectrum simply means an array of entity in order of increasing or decreasing

magnitude.

These spectra of light can be grouped into two:

1. Emission spectra:

These are obtained when light from a luminous source are dispersed. There are three types of
emission spectra

 Line spectra: It consists of distinct and separate bright lines of definite wavelength. They are
produced by gas or vapour at low pressure.
 Band spectra: It consists of many distinct groups or bands of lines which are very close together
and at one side of the band. They are obtained from molecules of glowing gases or vapour and
by discharge tubes
 Continuous spectra: These are produced by solid and liquids or by gases at high pressure. It can
be produce by the filament of electric lamp.

2. Absorption spectra

These are produced when part of the radiation emitted by a source is absorbed by a material
which is placed between the source of radiation and the observer. When light from a source
having a continuous spectra is passed through a gas( e.g sodium vapour or sodium flame) and the
spectrum is observed, it is found to have dark lines in the position corresponding to bright line in
the emission spectra.

Kirchhoff explain this phenomenon by stating this law:

A substance which emits light of a certain wavelength at a given temperature will absorb light
of the same wavelength at that temperature.

Evidence for the Existence of Energy Levels in an Atom

1. Frank-Hertz experiment
2. Line spectra of the hydrogen gas
3. Emission and absorption spectra
4. Characteristic radiation of energy quanta emitted by hot bodies
5. Photoelectric emission

EVALUATION

1. What do you understand by ‘ground state’ and ‘excited state’?

2. Write a short note on the line spectra using energy level to explain the phenomenon
3. Differentiate between excitation and ionization.

Photo-electric Emission
This is when electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency falls on a metal surface and
electrons are emitted. According to Einstein;

 electromagnetic radiation consists of discrete packet of energy called photon

 each photon has energy: E=hf
 when a photon interacts with a photoelectric plate, it relinquishes all its energy to a single
electron. If the energy of the photon is greater than the binding energy of the electron, the
electron is emitted with a kinetic energy equals to the energy of the photon minus the binding
energy or work function of the plate.

KE=hf−hf0
Photoelectric effect can be easily demonstrated using this arrangement with the plate in vacuum.
If electrons are emitted from the cathode and they make it to the anode, this will be indicated on
the galvanometer. They following observation were also made;

1. Photoelectric effect is only observed if the surface is clean and pure.

2. Photoelectric effect is not observed if the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is below a
certain critical value. This critical frequency is called the threshold frequency. The value of the
threshold frequency depends on the type of material used as photoelectric plate. Threshold
frequency for a material is the minimum frequency that a radiation must possess for it to
cause photoelectric emission when it is incident on the material.
3. Photoelectric effect is more marked for certain metals than for others. Elements in group I and II
show photoelectric effect more readily than other metals
4. The intensity of the EM wave does not affect the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted. Energy
distribution of the photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the light used. However
strong intensity light yields more electrons than weak intensity light.
5. There is no detectable time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of electron.
6. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron is directly proportional to the frequency of
the incident radiation. For photoelectric emission to occur, the frequency of the incidence
radiation must exceed the threshold value. The excess energy appear as the kinetic energy of
the photoelectron.

Em=hf−hf0KE=hf−hf012mv2=hf−hf0

The expression hf0 represents the work function ∅, the minimum energy that the radiation must
possess for photoelectric emission to occur.

∅=hf0 is the work function of the material.

hf is the energy of the incidence photon.
If a graph of the maximum energy Em of the electrons is plotted against frequency of the
radiation, the graph below is

obtained.

If the line is extended backward to give an intercept on the vertical axis, the intercept
corresponds to the work function to the material. The intercept on the horizontal axis is the
threshold frequency. The slope of the graph is the Planck’s constant.

Solved Problems

1. Light of wavelength 5.00×10−7m is incident on a material of work function 1.90eV.

Calculate the

(i) Photon energy

(ii) Kinetic energy of the most energetic photo electrons

(iii) Stopping potential

(h= 6.6 × 10-34 Js c = 3.0 × 108 ms-1, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19J)

Solution:

(i) Recall, E = hf

h=6.6×10−34Js,

Frequency f=cλ,

λ=5.0×10−7m,
c=3×108ms−1f=cλ=3×1085.0×10−7=0.6×1015Hz

∴ Energy of photon E=hf.

E=6.6×10−34×0.6×1015E=3.96×10−19J

Energy of the photon is 3.96×10−19J

(ii) Recall K.E=hf−∅.

∅ is the work function (∅=1.9eV) and hf is the energy of the photon.

∅=1.9eV=1.9×(1.6×10−19)J=3.04×10−19K.E=3.96×10−19−3.04×10−19
K.E=0.92×10−19J=9.2×10−20J

(iii) Stopping potential: This can be defined as the potential between the anode and the cathode
for which no photo electron from the cathode reaches the anode.

Stopping potential equals to the maximum kinetic energy of the electron.

Stopping potential = K.Emax=9.2×10−20J

2. A metal has a work function of 4.375 eV. Calculate its threshold frequency.

Solution:

Recall ∅=hf0.
f0=∅h=4.375×1.6×10−196.6×10−34=7×10−196.6×10−34f0=1.06×1015Hz

3. An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 70 KV in a vacuum.

Calculate the maximum speed acquired by the electron. (e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, mass of electron = 9.1
× 10-31 kg)

Solution:

Kinetic energy of electron = accelerating potential difference

12mv2=eV12×9.1×10−31×v2=1.6×10−19×70×103v2=112×10−164.55×10−31=24.
62×1015v=2.462×1016−−−−−−−−−−√=1.57×108ms−1

X-ray Production
These are electromagnetic radiation of high frequency. It was discovered the German physicist
W. Roentgen in the year 1895. X-ray is produced when fast moving electrons are stopped
abruptly by a target. Here, some of the kinetic energy of the electron is converted to X-ray and
the remaining to heat energy. About 1% of the energy of the electron is what is converted to x-
ray. The remaining 99% is converted to heat energy in the anode. (X-ray production is a reverse
of the photoelectric effect)

X-ray is produced in the Coolidge tube.

The cathode is heated to emit electrons by thermionic emission. The electrons are then
accelerated by a high potential difference set up between the anode and the cathode. These
accelerating electrons are then stopped abruptly by the target to produce x-ray.

The energy of the accelerating electrons is

Energy of electron = eV

The maximum energy of the x-ray produced equals the energy of the electron.

hfmax=eV … … …(i)

V is the accelerating potential of the tube

E is the electronic charge
h is the Planck’s constant
fmax is the maximum frequency of the emitted x-ray.
The Coolidge tube consist of the following:

1. Thermionic cathode; from which electrons are emitted

2. Anode: A block of copper with a target on it which help to stop the accelerating electrons
whereby producing x-ray.
3. Potential difference source: This set up a large potential difference (50 000V) between the
anode and the cathode to accelerate the emitted electrons toward the anode.
4. Cooling fins. This helps to remove the heat from the anode thereby cooling the tube.

The x-ray produced depends on the type of material used as target and the potential difference
between the anode and the cathode of the tube.

Properties of X-ray

X-rays have the following properties:

1. They have very short wavelength (10−11 to 10−8m)

2. They travel in straight line
3. They undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction… like every other wave
4. They can affect photographic plate
5. They can penetrate most materials
6. They travel at the same speed as the speed of light (∼3.0×108ms−1)
7. It can be stopped by a lead
Types of X-ray

1. Hard X-ray:

 They have higher frequency

 Short wavelength
 high penetrating than the soft X-ray
 Produced by high tube voltage

2. Soft X-ray:

 They have lesser frequency

 Longer wavelength than hard x-ray
 They are not as penetrating as the hard x-ray.
 Produced by lower tube voltage than that required for hard x-ray

Uses of X-ray

X-rays are used for the following:

1. For diagnostic purpose in medicine

2. For destroying cancerous cell
3. Used as analytics tool in industry
4. Scanning luggage in airport
5. Used for pest and disease control in Agriculture
6. Used in checking the authenticity of art works

Solved Problems

1. An x-ray tube operates at a potential of 2500V. If the power of the tube is 750W. Calculate the
speed of the electron striking the target. (e = 1.6 × 10-19, mass of electron = 9.1 × 10 -31 kg)

Solution:

Maximum kinetic energy of electron = eV.

12mv2=1.6×10−19×250012×9.1×10−31×v2=4000×10−19v2=4×10−164.55×10−31
=0.88×1015v=8.8×1014−−−−−−−−√=2.97×107ms−1
EVALUATION

1. Describe the production of x-ray.

2. Draw and label the Coolidge tube.
3. Write a short note on the work function of a photoelectric plate.
4. What are the types of x-ray.

Wave-Particle Paradox
Light is a form of electromagnetic wave. It exhibits all the properties of wave such as reflection
refraction, interference. However, the phenomenon of photoelectric emission, Compton effect,…
cannot be explained from this perspective. Einstein in order to explain the photoelectric effect
assumed that light travel through space as a concentrated bundle or packet of energy called
photon and it is the bundle that interacts with electron to cause emission.

Light is taken as a wave to explain it interference and diffraction but as a photon (bundle of
energy) to explain it photoelectric effect Compton effects. Thus light has a wave-particle duality.
Other electromagnetic radiations have similar behaviour.

In 1923, a French Physicist Victor De Broglie proposed the wave-particle duality theory which
states that the wavelength of the wave associated with a moving particle is equal to the ratio of
the Planck’s constant and the momentum of the particle.

λ=hp … … …(ii)

P is the momentum of the particle. h is the momentum of the particle and λ is the wavelength
of the wave.

Examples of phenomena in which wave exhibits particle-like behaviour:

1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton effect

Phenomena of particles behaving as wave

1. Electron diffraction (which is applied in electron microscope)

2. Neutron diffraction

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

This principle states that it is not possible to measure two canonical events simultaneously to a
high degree of accuracy.

Examples of canonical events:

1. Momentum and position

2. Energy and time

Δx.Δp≥h … … …(iii)ΔE.Δt≥h … … …(iv)

But p=mV.

Δx.ΔV≥hm … … …(v)

Where Δx is the uncertainty in the measurement of position.

Δp is the uncertainty in the measurement of momentum.

Δt is the uncertainty in the measurement of time.

ΔV is the uncertainty in the measurement of velocity.

Solved Problem

1. An electron moves with a speed of 2.0 × 106 m/s in a straight line. Calculate the wavelength
of the electron.

Solution:

Speed off electron v=2.0×106m/s

Momentum of electron p=mv=9.1×10−31×2.0×106=18.2×10−25

Recall the De Broglie’ equation

λ=hp=6.6×10−3418.2×10−25=0.36×10−9

Wavelength of electron λ=3.6×10−10m

EVALUATION

1. State the nature of alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. Show how they can be
distinguished under the following headings: (i) Penetrating ability (ii) Effect of transverse
magnetic field (iii) Ionizing ability
2. Explain the term binding energy and calculate it for an alpha particle. {The relevant masses are p
= 1.008amu; n = 1.009amu; α = 4.003amu; 1amu = 66 × 10-27kg; 1eV = 1.602 × 10-19; 1J =
931MeV}
3. A new nucleus C formed artificially from A and B is radioactive and quickly decays to another
nucleus E as indicated below:

2311A + 21B → pqC + P+pqC → rsE + β−

Find the value of p, q, r and s.

4. (a) What are the Bohr’s postulates regarding the motion of an electron round a nucleus? (b)
Define the following: ground state, excited state, excitation energy, and ionization energy of an
atom (c) The energy E of an electron in Bohr’s theory can be expressed as E=−kn2; where n is
the quantum number of the energy level and takes the values 1, 2, 3, ….∞ and k is a constant.
Given that the ionization energy of hydrogen is 13.60eV, calculate the value of k, n and the
wavelength of the radiation emitted when an electron returns to the ground state from the
state n.
5. Write a short note on (i) emission spectra (ii) absorption spectra
6. Explain the following terms (i) line spectra (ii) band spectra (iii) continuous spectra

CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF CURRENT

CONTENT

 Definition of Electrolysis
 Terms Involved in Electrolysis
 Electrolysis of Solutions
 Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
 Determination of ECE
 Applications of Electrolysis
 Solved Problems

Electrolysis
When an electric current is made to pass through some liquid, the liquids dissociate into their
component parts. This process is called ‘electrolysis’.
Electrolysis is therefore defined as the process of decomposing certain liquids and solutions into
their component parts by the passage of electricity through them.

Terms Used in Electrolysis

1. Electrolyte: The liquid being broken down by the passage of electricity.
2. Electrode: Metal plates conductors in contact with the electrolyte, through which current enters
and leaves the electrolyte. The positive electrode is the anode, while the negative electrode is
the cathode.
3. Voltameter: The vessel containing the electrolyte and the electrodes. Electrolysis takes place in
the voltameter.

Electrolysis of Acidified Water

When current passes the such water, it is broken down into hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion. The
hydrogen ion migrates to the cathode where it is reduced to hydrogen gas and is thus liberated.

At the anode, the hydroxyl ion is oxidized to oxygen gas where is liberated.

H2O → H+ + OH−

At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e− → H2(g) (reduction) ↑

At the anode: 4OH− – 4e− → 2H2O + O2 (oxidation)↑

NB:

 Oxidation occurs at the anode, while reduction occurs at the cathode.

 Oxidation involves loss of electrons, while reduction involves gain in electrons.
 Oxidation involves increase in electron number, while reduction involves decrease in electron
number.

Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

First Law:

“The state that the mass of an element deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of electricity flowing through the cell.”
m∝QM=zQ

But Q=It

m=zIt… … …(ii)

Q is quantity of electricity, I is current, t is time, z is the electrochemical equivalent of the

substance.

N.B.: 96500C of electricity will liberate one mole of a univalent element.

Second Law:

“The amount of chemical change produced in different substance by the same amount of
electricity is directly proportional to electrochemical equivalent of the substance.”

Or

“When the same quantity of electricity passes through different electrolytes, the masses of the
elements deposited are proportional to the ratio of their relative atomic mass per valency.”

Applications of Electrolysis
1. Purification of metals

In the purification of metals like copper metal, the impure copper is made the anode, while the
pure copper is made the cathode. When current flows, copper ions are dissolved from the anode
and deposited at the cathode, leaving the impurities behind.

2. Electroplating

Electroplating is the application of electrolytic cells in which a thin layer of metal is deposited
onto an electrically conductive surface. Here’s a closer look at what electrochemistry is, how it
works, and what metals and anodes are used.

Reasons for Electroplating

1. To give the metal a good appearances and increase the value of the material
2. To improve the corrosion resistance of the material
3. To increase the thickness of the material
4. Electroplating can be use for the purification of metals such as copper
 5. It can be used for producing important chemicals such as sodium hydroxide, sodium
trioxochlorate (V).

Electroplating is carried out in an electrolytic cell. The material to be electroplated is placed at

the cathode while the material to be used to electroplate is placed at the anode. The electrolyte is
a solution or molten salt of the material to be used to electroplate.

Common Electroplating Processes

Metal Anode Electrolyte Application

Cu Cu 20% CuSO4, 3% H2SO4 Electrotype

Ag Ag 4% AgCN, 4% KCN, 4% K2CO3 Jewelry, tableware

Au Au, C, Ni-Cr 3% AuCN, 19% KCN, 4% Na3PO4 buffer Jewelry

Cr Pb 25% CrO3, 0.25% H2SO4 Automobile parts

Ni Ni 30% NiSO4, 2% NiCl2, 1% H3BO3 Cr base plate

6% Zn(CN)2, 5% NaCN, 4% NaOH,

Zn Zn Galvanized steel
1% Na2CO3, 0.5% Al2(SO4)3

Sn Sn 8% H2SO4, 3% Sn, 10% cresol-sulfuric acid Tin-plated cans

3. Electrolytic preparation of metals from their compounds

Metals such as aluminium, sodium and potassium, are prepared from their molten chlorides or
hydroxides by the process of electrolysis.

Solved Problems
1. In an electrolysis experiment, a cathode of mass 5 g is found to weigh 5.01 g after a current of
5A flows for 50 s. what is the electrochemical equivalent of the deposited material.

Solution:

Current I=5A

Time t=50s
Initial Mass mi=5g

Final mass mf=5.01g

Mass deposited =mf−mi=5.01−5=0.01g

Recall m=zIt.

0.01=z×5×50z=0.01250=0.00004gC−1

2. The electrochemical equivalent of platinum is 5 × 10-7 kgC-1. To plate out 1.0 kg of platinum,
a current of 100A must be passed through an appropriate vessel for

Solution:

z=5×10−7kgC−1m=1.0kgcurrent =100Atime t=?

Recall m=zIt.

1.0=5×10−7×100×tt=1.0500×10−7=20000s

To convert to hours;

t=20000360=5.6hours

EVALUATION

1. State the two Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.

2. Explain how a spoon can be plated with silver by electroplating.
3. State four (4) reasons for electroplating.
4. With the aid of a diagram, explain the electroplating process of coating jewellery with gold.
5. Mention the metals that should be used to electroplate in order to achieve the following: (i)
Increase in the resistance to corrosion of a metal (ii) Improvement in the appearance of a metal
6. Discuss the electrolysis of copper tetraoxosulphate (vi) solution using copper electrodes.
7. Discuss an experiment to verify Faraday’s first law.

DAMS AND ENERGY PRODUCTION

CONTENT
  Meaning of Dams
 Dams in Nigeria
 Production of Electricity by Dams

Meaning of Dams
Dams are physical structures constructed to trap or divert the flow of water. There are over
500,000 dams in the world. Dams are constructed for various purposes:

1. To raise the level of inland water to make way for navigation via barge and boat.
2. To irrigate farmlands or for other agricultural purposes
3. To distribute water to places where water is scarce
4. To control flooding
5. For generation of electricity

N.B.: Note that dams are not water bodies, they are solid physical structures constructed to trap
or divert water courses.

Dams in Nigeria
There are several dams in Nigeria as seen in the table below:

State Located Dam Capacity Surface Area Purpose

(millions of
(hectares)
m3)
Adamawa Irrigation, plans for
Kiri Dam 615 11,500
State hydro-electricity
Bauchi State Kafin Zaki Dam 2,700 22,000 Planned irrigation
Gombe State Dadin Kowa Dam 2,800 29,000 Water supply
Challawa Gorge
Kano State 930 10,117 Water supply
Dam
Kano State Tiga Dam 1,874 17,800 Irrigation, water supply
Katsina State Jibiya Dam 142 4,000 Water supply, irrigation
Katsina State Zobe Dam 177 5,000 Water supply
Kebbi State Zauro polder project Irrigation
Niger State Jebba Dam 3,600 35,000 Hydro-electric power
Niger State Kainji Dam 15,000 130,000 Hydro-electric
Niger State Shiroro Dam 31,200 Hydro-electric power
Water supply, irrigation,
Ogun State Oyan River Dam 270 4,000
hydro-electric
 Osun State Ede-Erinle Reservoir ---- ---- Water supply
Oyo State Asejire Reservoir 2,369 Water supply
Hydro-electric, water
Oyo State Ikere Gorge Dam 690 4,700
supply
Sokoto State Bakolori Dam 450 8,000 Irrigation
Sokoto State Goronyo Dam 942 20,000 Irrigation

Data Source: Wikipedia

These dams are constructed for various purpose; irrigation, water supply project, hydroelectricity
power generation.

Production of Electricity by Dams

The dams are constructed such that water is channel to be at very high altitude. Water at this
height has stored gravitational energy which can be converted into kinetic energy in turbine
when it falls. Water on getting to the turbine after the fall spun the turbine which in turn spun the
A.C. alternator (generator).

EVALUATION

1. What are dams?

2. Mention four (4) dams in Nigeria that are created for electricity production.

ROCKETS AND SATELLITES

CONTENT

Artificial Satellites

Artificial Satellites
These include all man-made objects that were positioned to orbit the earth (I.e. to go round the
earth) artificial satellites are used for various purposes such as:

1. For telecommunication
2. For identification of place on the earth
3. To enhance military intelligence
 4. Tor meteorological studies
5. Scientific study of the earth
6. For space science

Since the launch of the first artificial satellite in 1957, thousands of satellite had been positioned
to orbit the earth.