QUESTION NO 1: SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
DC motors are used extensively in adjustable-speed drives and position control applications.

Their speeds below the base speed can be controlled by armature-voltage control. Speeds
above the base speed are obtained by field-flux control. As speed control method for DC
motors are simpler and less expensive than those for the AC motors, DC motors are preferred
where wide-speed range control is required. DC choppers also provide variable dc output
voltage from a fixed dc input voltage.

Speed control of a DC motor is either done manually by the operator or by means of an

automatic control device. This is different to speed regulation where the speed is trying to be
maintained against the natural change in speed due to a change in the load on the shaft.

Generally, the speed of a DC motor can control in three ways:

➢ By varying the flux.

➢ By varying the current through field winding.
➢ By varying the armature voltage, and the armature resistance.
The speed control of d.c. motors can be obtained by 1.flux
control method.
2. armature-resistance control method.
3. Voltage Control Method

1. Flux control method

In this method, the flux produced by the dc motor is varied and hence the speed. The variation
of flux can be achieved in the following ways:
(i) Field diverters. In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is connected
in parallel with series field winding as shown in Fig. below. Its effect is to shunt some portion of
the line current from the series field winding, thus weakening the field and increasing the
speed. The lowest speed obtainable is that corresponding to zero current in the diverter (i.e.,
diverter is open). Obviously, the lowest speed obtainable is the normal speed of the motor.
Consequently, this method can only provide speeds above the normal speed. The series field
diverter method is often employed in traction work.

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(ii) Armature diverter. In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable
resistance (called armature diverter) is connected in parallel with the armature as shown
below. The diverter shunts some of the line current, thus reducing the armature current. Now
for a given load, if Ia is decreased, the flux f must increase (T ΦIa). Since N 1/Φ, the motor
speed is decreased. By adjusting the armature diverter, any speed lower than the normal speed
can be obtained.

(iii) Tapped field control. In this method, the flux is reduced (and hence speed is increased)
by decreasing the number of turns of the series field winding as shown in Figure below. The
switch S can short circuit any part of the field winding, thus decreasing the flux and raising the
speed. With full turns of the field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field
turns are cut out, speeds higher than normal speed are achieved.

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(iv) Paralleling field coils. This method is usually employed in the case of fan motors. By
regrouping the field coils as shown in Figure below, several fixed speeds can be obtained.

2. Armature Control Method

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With this method, the speed of the DC motor can be controlled by controlling the armature
resistance to control the voltage drop across the armature. This method also uses a variable
resistor. When the variable resistor reaches its minimum value, the armature resistance is at
normal one, and therefore, the armature voltage drops. When the resistance value is gradually
increased, the voltage across the armature decreases. This in turn leads to decrease in the
speed of the motor.
This method achieves the speed of the motor below its normal range

3. Voltage Control Method

Both the above mentioned methods cannot provide speed control in the desirable range.
Moreover, the flux control method can affect commutation, whereas the armature control
method involves huge power loss due to its usage of resistor in series with the armature.
Therefore, a different method is often desirable the one that controls the supply voltage to
control the motor speed. In such a method, the field winding receives a fixed voltage, and the
armature gets a variable voltage.
One such technique of voltage control method involves the use of a switch gear mechanism to
provide a variable voltage to the armature, and the other one uses Generator to provide
variable voltage to the armature (the Ward-Leonard System).Apart from these two techniques,
the most widely used technique is the use of pulse width modulation
speed control of a DC motor. PWM involves application of varying width pulses to the motor
driver to control the voltage applied to the motor. This method proves to be very efficient as
the power loss is kept at minimum, and it doesn’t involve the use of any complex equipment.

QUESTION NO 2. DC MOTOR STARTING METHODS

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In fact all DC motors are basically self-starting motors. Whenever the armature and the field
winding of a DC motor receive a supply, motoring action takes place. So we are using the
starting methods just to enable us to start the motor in a desirable safe manner. At the start of
the DC motor, the armature draws a very high current of the order of 15 to 20A which blows
out the fuses, disrupts the performance of other equipment connected to the same line which
is for a very short time.To avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to
limit the starting current. So, a DC motor is started by using a starter.
Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as
E = Eb + IaRa and hence,
Hence, Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra
Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back emf Eb = 0. Hence, armature current at the
moment of starting can be given as Ia = E / Ra. In practical DC machines, armature resistance is
basically very low, generally about 0.5 Ω. Therefore, a large current flows through the armature
during starting. This current is large enough to damage the armature circuit.
Due to this excessive starting current ,the fuses may blow out and the armature winding and/or
commutator brush arrangement may get damaged. A very high starting torque will be produced
(as torque is directly proportional to the armature current), and this high starting torque may
cause huge centrifugal force which may throw off the armature winding.Other loads connected
to the same source may experience a dip in the terminal voltage.
Main aim is to restrict this high armature current, Thereby DC motor is started by using a
starter. A variable resistance is connected in series with armature of the DC motor at the start
and it is known as a starter or starting resistance. In addition to the starters, more protective
devices are provided in the starters.
There are various types of dc motor starters, such as

➢ 3 point starter,
➢ 4 point starter, no-load release coil starter,
➢ thyristor controller starter (Electronic Starting Method)
➢ Automatic starter( contactors)
Benefits of using starters are:

➢ It offers a linear power slope which also enables smooth acceleration,

➢ Reduces in rush currents along with the excessive wear on mechanical driven elements.
➢ Provides adjust to the starting torque.
➢ Offers a linear power slope which also enables smooth

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The basic concept behind every DC motor starter is adding external resistance to the armature
winding during starting.
The following are the top Common starting methods or starters used for the DC motors.

1. Three-Point Starting Method:

A three-point starter is an electrical device, used for starting as well as maintaining the DC shunt
motor speed. The connection of resistance in this circuit is in series which decreases the initial
high current and guards the equipment against any electrical failures.
The starter used is basically a variable resistance divided into a number of sections. The contact
points of these sections are called studs starting from the OFF position to the RUN position with
many resistances within these positions. There are three main points of this starter:

❖ L line terminal which is to be connected to positive of supply.

❖ A to be connected to the armature winding. ❖ F to be connected
to the field winding.
Point L is further connected to the electromagnet called Over-load Release (OLR). The second
end of OLR is connected to a point where the handle of the starter is pivoted. This handle is free
to move from its other side against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle to
the OFF position under the influence of its own force. Another parallel path is derived from the
stud adjacent to the OFF position given to another electromagnet called No Volt Coil (NVC). The
NVC is further connected to terminal F causing the resistances in series with the armature
winding. The OLR and NVC are the two protecting devices of this starter. Initially, the handle is
in the OFF position when here is no supply. When the motor is switched ON, the handle starts
to move slowly against the spring force and it makes contact with stud one due to which limited
current is passed through armature winding and field winding gets supply through the parallel
path. As the handle is moved further gradually cutting out the starting resistance finally
reaching to the RUN position with the removal of entire starting resistance from the armature
circuit and motor starts operating at normal speed. While NVC being magnetized from the
supply keeps the handle in the RUN position against the spring force.

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2. Four Point Starting Method:
The basic difference between the three-point starting method and the four-point starting
method is the connection of No Volt Coil (NVC). In three-point starting method, NVC is in series
with the field winding while in four-point starting method, NVC is connected independently
across the supply through the fourth terminal called N in addition to the L, F and A. Hence, any
change in the field current does not affect the performance and NVC holds the handle against
the spring force using fixed resistance R in series with the NVC using fourth position N.

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3. Automatic Starting Method:
This starting method is not the manual in its operation as other starting methods, it is
automatic. It becomes inconvenient when the DC motor is to be started and stopped
frequently. In such a case, the automatic starting method is used.
The automatic starter uses the automatic switches called contactors which is a device whose
operation depends on the solenoidal coil controlled electromagnetically. When the main supply
is ON, the field winding gets supply as it gets directly connected across the supply which
provides the required working flux.

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The C1 is the line contactor which is in series with the armature and connects the armature to
the line with R1 and R2 when closed. The coil which energizes C1 is O1. The contactors A1 and
A2 are accelerating contractors which provide short circuit across R1 and R2 in sequence, to cut
out from the armature circuit when motor gets accelerated. The control of the entire circuit is
achieved by the push buttons S1 and S2, respectively. The O2 coil operates A1 while O3
operates the A2 contactor.
When S1 is pushed which is normally open, the O1 gets energized and operates C1 contactor.
Thus, current Ia starts to flow through R1 and R2 as A1 and A2 are open and are less due to the
R1 and R2. M1 is the auxiliary contactor which operates when C1 does. Thus, though S1
becomes open, O1 continues to be energized through M1 as S2 is usually off.
4. Electronic Starting Method:
The thyristor is an electronic device that can work as a switch. It acts as a closed switch when
conducts and becomes open when it is not conducting. Thus, the contactors in the automatic
starter can be replaced by the thyristors due to which it is called an electronic starter.
When S1 is pushed, the positive voltages get applied to the line thyristor TL and it starts
conducting due to which armature of the motor gets connected to the supply line through TL
and the starting resistances R1 and R2. At the same time, capacitor C starts to charge. To cutoff
R1 and R2, a tacho-generator is used to sense the back emf which produces the voltage
proportional to the speed of the motor. The stopping of the motor can be achieved by pushing
the S2 switch By pushing S2, it provides a positive voltage to the gate terminal of the third
thyristor T3 due to which it conducts and current starts to flow through R1 and capacitor C
starts to discharge. And this starts reducing the anode-cathode voltage across the TL and finally
reverses its polarities and due to which Ia armature current becomes zero. The turning ON and
OFF of the TL by capacitor C is done due to which it is known as the commutating capacitor.

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 QUESTION NO 3: EFFICIENCY OF DC MOTOR.
Is the ratio of work done by a dc motor to the given input, simply, it is the ratio of output power
to the input power, it is normally expressed in percentages.

INPUT= VI
OUTPUT= INPUT- looses OUTPUT:

HENCE,
EFFICIENCY :

Efficiency has no unit since it is a ratio of same quantity(Powers).

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