Chapter 4: Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning consists of :
Bridge circuit
Process
Recovery of signals
Signal Conversion
Chapter 4/1: Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning elements/circuits: are used to process the
output signal from sensors of a measurement system to be suitable
for the next stage of operation.
The function of the signal conditioning and processing circuits
includes the following items:
Signal amplification and Filtering (opamp),
Protection (Zener and photo isolation),
Current-voltage change circuits,
Resistance change circuits (Wheatstone bridge),
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Chapter 4/1: Signal Conditioning
Linearization
Interfacing with (ADC),
Error compensation
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Chapter 4/2: Signal Conditioning
Input to signal condition element:
DC voltage and current
AC voltage and current
Frequency and electric charge
Output from signal conditioning
Voltage, current, frequency, timer, counter, relay
Signal conditions include:
Amplification, filtering, converting, range matching,
isolation.
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Chapter 4/2: Signal Conditioning
Commonly used amplifiers:
Op-amp, differential amplifier, Sample and hold, peak
detector, instrumentation amplifier,
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1. Deflection Bridges
Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of
resistive, capacitive and inductive sensors into a voltage
signal.
Thévenin equivalent circuit for a deflection bridge
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1/1. Deflection Bridges
To design resistive bridge, three parameters can be specified
by considering:
The range and linearity of the output voltage
Electrical power limitations for the sensor
The resistor depends on the input measured variable I.
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1/3. Deflection Bridges
Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge
Thévenin impedance for general deflection bridge
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1/4. Deflection Bridges
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2. Resistive deflection bridges
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2/1. Resistive deflection bridges
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2/2. Resistive deflection bridges
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2/5. Resistive deflection bridges
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2/6. Resistive deflection bridges
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2/7. Resistive deflection bridges
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The relationship between Eth and e is linear.
The resistance RT Ω of a metal resistance sensor i.e
platinum, at T°C is given approximately by RT=R0(1 +αT).
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linearity being obtained at the expense of low sensitivity.
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3. Design of reactive deflection bridges
A reactive bridge has an a.c. supply voltage:
two arms are usually reactive impedances and
two arms resistive impedances
• Figure below shows the bridge to be used with the capacitance level
transducer of chapter 3; here we have
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Thus in order to get: Th=0 at minimum level hMIN, we require
C0=ChMIN(R3/R2), giving:
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Similar result is obtained with the variable reluctance push-pull
displacement sensor:
from which
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4. Amplifiers
Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals,
e.g. Thermocouple or strain gauge bridge output voltages, to a
level which enables them to be further processed
Types of Amplifier
1. Operational Amplifier
2. Differential amplifier
3. instrumentation amplifier.
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Operational Amplifier
Differential amplifier
instrumentation amplifier.
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1. Op-amp
The operational amplifier is an electronic device that has two
input terminals and one output terminal,
The two inputs being known:
The inverting input and
Non-inverting input respectively.
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2. Inverting Amplifier
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3. Non-Inverting Amplifier
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4. Summing Amplifier
Rf Rf Rf
VOUT Va Vb Vc ...
R in R in R in
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4. Voltage Follower (Unity Gain)
Used to repeat a signal without loading down the sensor.
The figure below shows a signal source VIN, RIN connected to
a voltage follower circuit.
Here V− = VOUT, and since i+ = 0, V+ = VIN. Since V− = V+
then:
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Operational Amplifier
Differential amplifier
instrumentation amplifier.
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1. Differential Amplifier
• Ra = R b , R f = R g
Rf
VOUT (Vb Va )
Ra
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1/1. Differential Amplifier
1/2. Differential Amplifier
1/3. Differential Amplifier
1/4. Differential Amplifier
Strain gauge bridge connected to a differential
amplifier
Loading effects
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Integrator Circuit
The output voltage is proportional to amount of time a signal is
present, or, the area under a signal curve.
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Integrator curve
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Differentiator Circuit
Output is proportional to the rate of change of the input.
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Operational Amplifier
Differential amplifier
instrumentation amplifier.
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1. Instrumentation amplifier
An instrumentation amplifier is a high-performance differential
amplifier system consisting of several closed-loop operational
amplifiers.
An ideal instrumentation amplifier gives an output voltage which
depends only on the difference of two input voltages V1 and V2,
i.e.
where the gain K is precisely known and can be varied over a
wide range.
The input impedances of the difference amplifier can be
relatively low and, hence, tend to load the sensor output.
1/1. Instrumentation amplifier
To have high input impedance, the difference amplifier is
preceded by two voltage follower circuits to form the so-called
instrumentation amplifier.
where the gain K is precisely known and can be varied over a
wide range.
A practical instrumentation amplifier should have a gain that can
be set by a single external resistor and should combine the
following:
1/2. Instrumentation amplifier
High input impedance
High common mode rejection ratio
Low input offset voltage
Low temperature coefficient of offset voltage.
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A sensor output a range of 20 to 250 mV. Develop signal
conditioning so that this become 0 to 5 V. The circuit must have
very high input impedance.
Answer
Let us develop an linear equation for the output in terms of the
input Vout aVin b
where a and b are to be found.
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• For the given two conditions we can write
0 a(0.020) b
a 21.7, b 0.434
5 a(0.250) b
• Hence, the required equation is
Vout 21.7Vin 0.434
21.7(Vin 0.02)
• Therefore we need a differential amplifier with a gain of 21.7
and a fixed input of 0.02V to the inverting side. The following
circuit shows how this could be done using an instrumentation
amplifier.
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Example 2
A bridge circuit for which R4 varies from 100 to 102 is shown
below. Show how this bridge could be connected to the given
instrumentation amplifier to provide an output of 0 to 2.5V for that
change of R4. Assume that, in the instrumentation amplifier circuit,
R2 = R3 = 1 k and R1 = 100 k.
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• Clearly, the bridge is at null when R4=100 Ω.
• When R4 = 102Ω the bridge offset voltage is found as
102 100
V Vb Va 5 24.75 mV.
100 102 100 100
• To get an output of 2.5V at 102Ω we need a differential gain
of (2.5 V/24.75 mV) = 101.
• For the instrumentation amplifier we have
2 R R
Vout 1 1 3 (V2 V1 )
RG R2
2(100) 1
101 1
RG 1
RG 2k
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1. Conversion
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1/1. Conversion
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2. Digital Optocoupler
• Provides isolation of TTL level voltages.
• Also called opto-isolators.
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2/1. Digital Optocoupler
An optocoupler is a semiconductor device allowing electrical
signals to be transmitted between two isolated circuits.
Interfacing of high voltage, noisy systems to a controller.
Signal travels in only one direction.
A signal conditioner is used to manipulate an input signal to a
different output signal such as Analog to digital or 10V to a 4-
20mA signal.
• OC-Optocoupler
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2/3. Digital Optocoupler
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2/4. Digital Optocoupler
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3. Signal Processing Elements and Software
The output signal from the conditioning elements is usually in
the form of :
o d.c. voltage,
o d.c. current or
o variable frequency a.c. voltage.
In many cases, calculations must be performed on the
conditioning element output signal to establish the value of the
variable being measured.
These calculations are referred to as signal processing and are
usually performed digitally using a computer.
3.1 Analogue to digital conversion(ADC)
The operation of analogue-to-digital conversion can take up to a
few milliseconds;
it is necessary therefore to hold the output of the sampler
constant at the sampled value while the conversion takes place.
This is done using a sample-and-hold circuit.
In the sample state the output signal follows the input signal;
in the hold state the output signal is held constant at the value of
the input signal at the instant of time the hold command is sent.
signal (droop).
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3.2. Flash analogue-to-digital converter.
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3.3. Sample and Hold circuit
Capacitor charges to the current voltage level.
Charge time must be taken into account.
T = 5RC.
Useful to hold rapidly changing signals for analysis.
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2. Four strain gauges are bonded onto a cantilever as shown in
Figurebelow. Given that the gauges are placed halfway along the
cantilever and the cantilever is subject to a downward force of 0.5
N, use the data given below to calculate the resistance of each
strain gauge:
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3. A variable dielectric capacitive displacement sensor consists of
two square metal plates of side 5 cm, separated by a gap of 1 mm.
A sheet of dielectric material 1 mm thick and of the same area as
the plates can be slid between them as shown below. Given that the
dielectric constant of air is 1 and that of the dielectric material 4,
calculate the capacitance of the sensor when the input displacement
x = 0.0, 2.5 and 5.0 cm.
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A.Signal Conditioning
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1) A 100 Ω strain gauge of gauge factor 2 is connected to the
first arm of a Wheatstone bridge. Under no strain condition,
all the arms have equal resistance. When the gauge is
subjected to a strain, the second arm resistance has to be
changed to 100.56Ω to obtain a balance. Find the value of
the strain.
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