INTRODUCTION

This course focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current research and
theories on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of development. Further,
this includes factors that affect the progress of development of the learners and appropriate
pedagogical principles applicable for each developmental level of the learners. The course also
addresses, laws, policies, guidelines and procedures that provide safe and secure learning
environments, and the use of positive and non-violent discipline in the management of learner
behavior.
The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Meaning, Concepts and Approaches Human Development

 the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span
 includes growth and decline
 can be positive or negative Major Principles of Human Development:
1. Development is relatively orderly
a.) Proximodistal Pattern Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

b.) Cephalocaudal Pattern Development proceeds from the head downward.

2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of developmental processes
and rate of development are likely to vary among individuals.
3. Development takes place gradually. 4. Development as a process is complex because it is the
product cognitive and socio- emotional processes.

Approaches to Human Development

1.) Traditional Perspective
• Believes that individuals will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change
in adulthood and decline in late old age
2.) Life-span Approach
• Believes that even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as it does during childhood.
Characteristics of a Life- Span Perspective
a.) Development is LIFELONG- It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage dominates
development.
b.) Development is MULTIDIMENSIONAL- Development consists of biological, cognitive and socio-
emotional dimensions.
c.) Development is PLASTIC- Development is possible throughout the lifespan.
d.) Development is CONTEXTUAL- Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
e.) Development involves GROWTH, MAINTENANCE and REGULATION- Growth, maintenance and
regulation are 3 goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental
stages.

Principles of Child Development and Learning that Inform Practice

All areas of development and learning are important.
Learning and development follow sequences.
 Development and learning proceed at varying rates
 Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.  Early
experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
 Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self- regulation, and symbolic or
representational capacities.
 Children develop best when they have secure relationships.
 Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.
 Children learn in a variety of ways.
 Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language, cognition, and
social competence.
 Development and learning advance when children are challenged.
 Children‘s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.

The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks Prenatal Development Conception occurs and
development begins.
All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary
concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth
defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Three Phases:
1.) Germinal Stage= first 2 weeks, conception, implantation, and formation of placenta
2.) Embryonic Stage= 2 weeks-2 months, formation of vital organs and systems
3.) Fetal Stage= 2 months –birth, bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells
multiply age of viability. Infancy and Toddlerhood The first year and a half to two years of life are
ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is
transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are
also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving
guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
• Extreme dependents on adult
• Beginning psychological activities
• Language of newborn is cry
• Usually eats every two to three hours
• Uncoordinated movements
• Toothless
• Poor vision
• Usually doubles weight by 9 months
• Responds to human voice and touches
• Responds to human voice and touch 1 year old
• Change from plump baby to a learner
• Begins to walk and talk
• Ability for passive language
• Tentative sense of independence

2 years old
• Begins to communicate verbally
• Can usually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences
• Famous for negative behavior ―NO‖ to everything!
• Will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them
• Great imitators Early Childhood Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting
of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the
child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning
to learn the workings of the physical world.
A toddler‘s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old‘s sense of guilt for
doing something that brings the disapproval of others.

3 years old
• Wants to be just like parents
• Vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand
• Climbs stairs with alternating feet
• Can briefly stand on one foot

4 years old
• Sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand
• Imagination is vivid; line between what is real and imaginary is often indistinct
• Develops fears (common fears: fear of dark, fear of animals, and fear of death) Years old
• Can hop on one foot and skip • Can accurately copy figures
• May begin to read
• Socialize with other children their age
Middle Childhood and Late Childhood The ages of six through twelve comprise middle childhood and
much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades.

Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And
children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends
and fellow students.
• Both large and small muscles well-developed.
• Developed complex motor skills
• From independent activities to same sex group activities
• Acceptance by peers very important
• Parental approval still important Adolescence (13 to 18 years old) Adolescence is a period of
dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known
as puberty.
It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to
consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of
invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted
infections that can have lifelong consequences.
• Traumatic life stage for child and parent
• Puberty occurs
• Extremely concerned with appearance
• Trying to establish self- identity
• Confrontation with authority Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old) The twenties and thirties are
often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in their mid-30s tend to love to hear that
they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for
involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting
a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of
others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.
• Physical development complete
• Emotional maturation continues to develop
• Usually learned to accept responsibility for actions and accept responsibility for actions and accept
criticism
• Usually knows how to profit from errors
• Socially progress from age- related peer groups to people with similar interests. Middle Adulthood
(30 to 60 years old) The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is
a period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period.
It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of
recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group
hardest hit by the AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of
workers in those economies (Weitz, 2007).
• Physical changes begin to occur:
 Hair begins to begin to thin and gray
 Wrinkles appear
 Hearing and vision decrease
 Muscles lose tone
• Main concerns: children, health, job security, aging, parents and fear of aging
•Love and acceptance still take a major role Late Adulthood (61 years and above) This period of the
life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries. Late adulthood is
sometimes subdivided into two or three categories such as the ―young old and ―old old or the
―young old, ―old old, and ―oldest old‖. We will follow the former categorization and make the
distinction between the ―young old‖ who are people between 65 and 79 and the ―old old or those
who are 80 and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old are
very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in being
productive and active. The ―old old‖ remain productive and active and the majority continues to live
independently, but risks of the diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral
vascular disease increases substantially for this age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and
extending active life expectancy are only a few of the topics of concern for this age group. A better
way to appreciate the diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and
examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who is in
very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which
the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone
who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age).
• Fastest growing age bracket of society
• Physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination
• Some memory problems
• Coping with retirement and forms of entertainment
• Very concerned with health and finances
• Significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high

Issues on Human Development There are a number of important issues that have been debated
throughout the history of developmental psychology. The major questions include the following:

Is development due more to genetics or environment?

Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?
Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later events equally
important?

Developmental Psychology Issues and Debates

Here are some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental psychology and what many
psychologists today believe about these issues.

The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to as
the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.
Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the
other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind
is a blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge. Some aspects of development
are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of puberty can be affected by
environmental factors such as diet and nutrition. Early Experience vs. Later Experience A second
important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of early
experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that occur in early
childhood, or do later events play an equally important role? Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus
on events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud, much of a child's personality is
completely established by the age of five.

Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:

1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to
developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual
stages.
1. Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of psychosocial
development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and,
unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan.
2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes
include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behavior is
shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples
of cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
4. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences- One of the biggest concerns of many parents is
whether or not their child is developing normally. Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the
ages at which certain skills and abilities typically emerge, but can create concern when a child falls
slightly behind the norm. While developmental theories have historically focused upon deficits in
behavior, focus on individual differences in development is becoming more common.
5. Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so developmental
theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning theories rely more on the
environment's unique impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important component
of these theories.

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT SIGMUND FREUD

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents dealt
with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities
developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults.
• Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he labeled
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.

STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

The Role of Conflict Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must
be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage. The resolution of each
of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at
a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as
he/she matures psychologically. To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the
march. As the troops advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in
winning the battle (resolving the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to
the next battle (stage). But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater
the need for troops to remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the
next confrontation. Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation Some people do not seem to be able to
leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the
developing individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there
is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant
to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence. Both
frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call
fixation at a particular psychosexual stage. Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of
the individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much
satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands.
Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all
around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage
in such oral behaviours, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.
The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring
them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed). Freud
believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose
restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority
can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority. Early or harsh potty training
can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy,
punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and
possessions.

Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty.

It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down
in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to
heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper
outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may
prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. For example, fixation at the
oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather
than sexual intercourse.
PSYCHOANALYSIS Overview of Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis emphasizes unconscious ,motivation-
main cause of behavior lies buried in the unconscious mind. It is both an approach to therapy and a
theory of personality.
Three Structures of Personality
1.) ID
2.) Ego

The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e.,
biological) components of personality, including the
sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. It
operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful impulse should
be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world (like a
referee). It is the decision-making component of personality The ego operates according to the
reality principle, working our realistic ways of satisfying the id‘s demands, often compromising or
postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities
and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents
and others. It is similar to a conscience, which can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt.
Trait Approach to Personality This approach assumes behavior is determined by relatively stable
traits which are the fundamental units of one‘s personality.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Schema

- Piaget used the term ―schema‖ to refer to the cognitive structure by which individuals
intellectually adapt too and organize environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create
meaning about a thing experience.
Assimilation- cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt too and organize their
environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create meaning about a thing experience.
Equilibration- Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) cognitive structures, we
experience cognitive disequilibrium this means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and
what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium.
Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensory-motor Stage
The first stage corresponds for infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in
grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term
sensory-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the
infant comes to learn, about him and the world. Object permanence This is the ability of the child to
know that and object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor
stage.
Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage
The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old roughly corresponding to the
preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make
mental
representations and is able to pretend the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols.
This stage is highlighted by the following:

 Symbolic Function This is the ability to represent object and events. Symbolic function gradually
develops the period between 2 to 7 years. Reil, a two-year old may pretend that she is deinking from
a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretend the presence of water, the glass remain to
be a glass at around for years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turn
the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone.

Egocentrism/Self centered
This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has
his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in five year-old
boy who buys a toy truck for his mother‘s birthday. Or a three years old girl who cannot understand
why her cousins call her daddy ―uncle‖ and not daddy  Centration This refers to the Tendency of
the child only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and include other aspects. For example, when
a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they
have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses s transferred to an
obviously taller buy narrow glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The
child only focused or ―centered‖ only one aspect for the new glass, that it is a taller glass. 
Irreversibility Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can
understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand 5-3 is 2.

Stage 3. Concrete- Operational Stage

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in term of concrete
objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8 - 11 years or the elementary school years. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:  Decentering This refers to the ability of the
child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or
limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to e more logical when dealing with
concrete objects and situations

Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage

In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes
more logical. They can now solve in general ideas or specific problems and can educated guess. This
stage is characterized by the following  Hypothetical Reasoning This is the ability to come up with
different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final devision
or judgment.

Best known theories of personality and development. Personality develops in a series of

predetermined stages. Psychosocial, and not psychosexual. In each stage of development conflicts
acts as turning points in life

Personality- consists of all the relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought, behavior and
emotional responses that characterize a person‘s adaptations to surrounding situations.
Psychosexual Development- Refers to the emotional and psychological changes across the life cycle
that occurs in the context of the individual‘s social environment.
Stage
Trust vs. Mistrust Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development.

This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant
is uncertain about the world in which they live,
and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson,
children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a
sense of independence.

Initiative vs. Guilt Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently.
These are

particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child‘s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a ―time of
vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

4. Industry vs. Inferiority Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs.
inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage
where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin
to take an important role in the child‘s life as they teach the child specific skills.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is
identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this
stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of
personal values, beliefs, and goals.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving
relationships with other people.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages
40 to 65 yrs). Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing
things that will outlast an individual

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson‘s
stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at
death.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that moral development is a continual process that
occurs throughout the lifespan.
• Used Piaget‘s story-telling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.
• He based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.
• A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed
to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.
• One of the best known stories of Kohlberg‘s (1958) concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe.

Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger,
some over nine), we don‘t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is outside
the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions.

• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid
being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one
right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional morality At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to
internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being
a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.
The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the
rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and

moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral
reasoning is as far as most people get..

• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while
rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work
against the interest of particular individuals.

• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law.

Sociocultural theory of development:

• Crucial influence that social interactions and language, embedded within a cultural context, have
on cognitive development.
• Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities.
• Parents, teachers and other adults in the learner‘s environment all contribute to the process. They
explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback.
• Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience. Language
• Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture. • Every culture has the words it needs
for its lifestyles

• It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. • It is use to know
and understand the world and solve problems.
• It serves a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the learner to
regulate and reflect on his own thinking.

Scaffolding
Refers to the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he/she cannot accomplish
independently. It is not about doing the task for the child while he/she watches.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model:

Microsystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate
environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or
daycare, peer group and community environment of the children. Interactions within the
microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members, classmates, teachers and
caregivers.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model:

Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find
themselves in.. According to Bronfenbrenner‘s theory, if a child‘s parents are actively involved in the
friendships of their child, for example they invite their child‘s friends over to their house from time to
time and spend time with them, then the child‘s development is affected positively through harmony
and like-mindedness.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model:

Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which
may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model:

Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that
still have significant influences on them.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model:

Chronosystem
the Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which
demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children‘s environments.

Developmental stages As your child grows, you may find yourself searching for clues to her behavior.
As a parent, you may hear the words ―developmental stages.‖ This is just another way of saying
your child is moving through a certain time period in the growing-up process. At times, she may be
fascinated with her hands, her feet, and her mouth. As she grows, she may get into everything. Lock
your doors and cabinets, and take a deep breath during those exploration years! Then there will be
an age when independence is all she wants. At every stage, what she needs is your love,
understanding, and time. Parent Tip Recent brain research indicates that birth to age three are the
most important years in a child‘s development.

Be warm, loving, and responsive. Talk, read, and sing to your child. Establish routines and rituals.
Encourage safe explorations and play. Make TV watching selective. Use discipline as an opportunity
to teach. Recognize that each child is unique. Choose quality child care and stay involved. Take care
of yourself.

Learning styles Children learn in many different ways. Each child has his own way of learning—some
learn visually, others through touch, taste, and sound. Watch a group of children and you‘ll
understand at once what this means. One child will sit and listen patiently, another cannot wait to
move and count beads. Another wants you to show her the answer over and over. Children also learn
in different ways depending on their developmental stage.
Ages and stages Depending upon the age of your child, his learning style and personality, your child
will have different needs. The first five years are especially crucial for physical, intellectual, and
social-emotional development. Keep your child’s personality and age in mind when looking for child
care experiences and activities. The following pages provide insight into a child’s developmental
stages from birth through fourteen years.
Birth to eighteen months: an overview In the first eighteen months after birth, an infant makes
miraculous progress. In this relatively short time span, an infant sees her world through her senses.
Babies gather information through touch, taste, smell, sight, and sound. To help infants mature and
learn, the caregiver should stimulate but not overwhelm them. The overall goal is not to “teach” your
baby but to interact and explore her world with her. Older infants are on the move. They take great
pleasure in discovering what they can do with their voice, hands, feet, and toes. Soon they practice
rolling skills, crawling, walking, and other great physical adventures. Through “the eyes of a child,”
here is what you might expect during the first eighteen months. One month What I’m Like: I can‘t
support my own head and I‘m awake about one hour in every ten (though it may seem more). What I
Need: I need milk, a smoke-free environment, a warm place to sleep, hugs and kisses, and to hear
your loving voice. It‘s not too early to sing or read to me. The more you talk and introduce different
things to me, the more I learn. Three months What I’m Like: My hands and feet fascinate me. I‘ll
laugh and coo at them and you. I‘m alert for 15 minutes, maybe longer, at a time.

Cognitive Development
This is the child's ability to learn and solve problems.
For example, this includes a two-month-old baby learning to explore the environment with hands or
eyes or a five-year-old learning how to do simple math problems.

2. Social and Emotional Development

This is the child's ability to interact with others, including helping themselves and self-control.
Examples of this type of development would include: a six-week-old baby smiling, a ten-month-old
baby waving bye-bye, or a five-year-old boy knowing how to take turns in games at school.

3. Speech and Language Development

This is the child's ability to both understand and use language. For example, this includes a 12-
month-old baby saying his first words, a two-year-old naming parts of her body, or a five-year-old
learning to say "feet" instead of "foots".
4. Fine Motor Skill Development
This is the child's ability to use small muscles, specifically their hands and fingers, to pick up small
objects, hold a spoon, turn pages in a book, or use a crayon to draw.

5. Gross Motor Skill Development

This is the child's ability to use large muscles.
 Reflection

Child Adolescent is about explaining all process we Human undergo in each stage of development. The
process of growth and maturation of the human individual. It tackles also about the biological,
psychological and emotional changes. The different changes in our body and mood in each stage of our
lives. It explains about the attitude of an individual and on how our surrounding affects our perspective,
attitude and the way we see things. Then on how we handle different situations that we face every day.
We also learn different theories about moral development, cognitive development stages of moral
development and many more theories. It helps me understand about my personality, the physical changes
that are happening, my emotion and feelings towards myself. After all the discussion of each group
reporter daily it helps me realize the humans cycle of life and all the process and stages of our
development. This subject gave me so much knowledge and information which I can use to know more
about my personality. To help me understand and accept
each individual’s differences and also the good and bad side of their attitude into other
people. It gave me information that we are not learning in school but also in all situation that we
experience daily. We also gain confident through socialization. It is very helpful for all of us as a future
educator
PORTFOLIO IN THE CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLES

SUBMITTED BY: ELLEN L. GINEZ BEED 2A

SUBMITTED TO: MA’AM THELMA CABANILLA
PORTFOLIO IN THE CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLES