EEE – 313
Electrical & Electronic Measurement
Lecture-01
DEFINITION
Measurement: A method to obtain information regarding the physical values of
the variable.
Instrumentation: Process of acquiring data about one or more physical
quantities of interest using electrical sensors and instruments.
TERMINOLOGIES
Physical quantity: Variable such as pressure, temperature, mass, length etc.
Data: Information obtained from the instrumentation/measurement system as a
result of the measurements made of the physical quantities.
Information: Data that has a calibrated numeric relationship to the physical
quantity.
Measurand: Physical quantity being measured.
Calibration: Implies that there is a numeric relationship throughout the whole
instrumentation system and that is directly related to an approved national or
international standard.
WHY MEASUREMENT?
1.Monitor, 2.Control, 3.Analysis
e.g. In the case of process industries and industrial manufacturing…
To improve the quality of the product
To improve the efficiency of production
To maintain the proper operation
WHY INSTRUMENTATION?
To acquire data or information (hence data acquisition) about parameters, in
terms of:
➢Putting the numerical values to the physical quantities
➢Making measurements otherwise inaccessible
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➢Producing data agreeable to analysis (mostly in electrical form)
Data Acquisition Software (DAS) –data is acquired by the instrumentation
system.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
Direct method: Easy to do but less accurate
e.g. to measure a steel bar
Indirect Method: Calibrated System consists of several devices to convert
process (amplification or filtering) and display the output
e.g. to measure force from strain gauges located in a structure
GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM
Stage 1: A detection –transducer or sensor –transducer stage. e.g. Thermocouple
Stage 2: A signal Conditioning stage. e.g. Amplifier, Filters, Bridges
Stage 3: A signal processing stage. e.g. ADC, Computer
Stage 4: A terminating or readout –recording stage. e.g. Printers, Oscilloscope
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS IN MEASUREMENTS
Absolute Instruments: Absolute instruments give the quantity to be measured in
term of instrument constant and its deflection.
e.g. Tangent Galvanometer, Rayleigh’s Current Balance
Secondary Instruments: In secondary instruments the deflection gives the
magnitude of electrical quantity to be measured directly. These instruments are
required to be calibrated by comparing with another standard instruments before
putting into use.
e.g. Voltmeter, Thermometer
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS IN MEASUREMENTS
➢Measuring instrument for measuring small current
➢consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic
frame
➢based on the principle of the tangent law of magnetism B = Bhtanθ
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TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS IN MEASUREMENTS
Deflection Type instruments: The measured quantity produces some physical
effect with deflects or produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system
of the instrument.
e.g. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Ammeter
Null Type Instruments: A zero or null indication leads to determination of the
magnitude of measured quantity. e.g. DC Potentiometer
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS IN MEASUREMENTS
Active Instruments: The quantity being measured simply modulates the
magnitude of some external power sources.
Passive Instruments: The instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity
being measured.
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS IN MEASUREMENTS
Active Instruments: e.g. Float Type Petrol Tank Level Indicator
Passive Instruments: e.g. Pressure Measuring Device
Analog Instruments: An analog instrument gives an output that varies
continuously as the quantity being measured. e.g. Temperature measurement
using thermocouple
Digital Instruments: A digital Instrument has an output that varies in discrete
steps and only have a finite number of values. e.g. Revolution Counter
APPLICATIONS
Home:
➢Thermometer
➢Barometer
➢Watch
Road Vehicles:
➢Speedometer
➢Fuel Gauge
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Industry:
➢Automation
➢Process Control
➢Boiler Control
LECTURE-02: ANALOG AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS AND OHMMETERS
Book: Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation –A. K. Sawhney
Chapter -09
Introduction
Art-9.1
The action of all ammeters and voltmeters, with the exception of electrostatic
type of instruments, depends upon a deflecting torque produced by an electric
current In an ammeter this torque is produced by a current to be measured or by
a definite fraction of it In a voltmeter this torque is produced by a current which
is proportional to the voltage to be measured
The essential requirements of a measuring instruments are
➢ Its introduction into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does
not alter the circuit condition
➢ The power consumption for their operation is small
Introduction
Ammeter:
❑Connected in series
❑Power loss is I2Ra
❑It should have a low resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and
power loss
Voltmeter:
❑Connected in parallel
❑Power loss V2/Rv
❑It should have a high resistance, in order that current drawn by them is small
and small power loss
Ohmmeter:
❑Used for measurement of resistance
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Types of Instruments
Art –9.2
The main types of instruments used as ammeters and voltmeters are:
➢Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC); Used for Direct current measurement
only
➢Electro-dynamomter: Used for both AC and DC. Their calibration for both AC and
DC is same and hence they are very useful as “Transfer Instruments”.
➢Thermocouple; Their calibration is same for both AC and DC, particularly suited
for AC measurement.
➢Electrostatic; As voltmeters, electrostatic instruments have the advantage that
their power consumption is small. They can be made to cover large voltage range.
➢Moving iron;
➢Hot wire
➢Induction; Used for Alternating current measurement only
➢Rectifier
Errors in Ammeter and Voltmeter
Friction Errors:
❑Due the weight of the moving system
oThe ratio of torque to weight must be large
Temperature Errors:
❑Due to heat generated in the instruments or by change in ambient temperature
❑Change in temperature makes a change in resistance, it has small effects on
ammeter but large in voltmeter.
oWell ventilation
oThe working coil is wound with copper wire and is of comparatively low
resistance.
oUsing a high “Swamping resistance” of material in series with the coil.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
❑Used for DC measurement
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❑Working principle is same as d’Arsonvaltype of Galvanometer
Art –9.4.1
Construction
➢Moving Coil
➢Magnet Systems
➢Control
➢Damping
➢Pointer and Scale
Construction:
Torque Equation
Art –9.4.2
Deflecting torque
Td= NBldI= GI
where G = a constant = NBdl
The spring control provides a restoring torque
Tc= kϴ
where K = spring constant
For final steady deflection
Td = TcOr, GI = Kϴ
Final steady deflection
ϴ= (G/K)IOr, I = (K/G)ϴ
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As the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the meter
(K and G being constants) we get a uniform (linear) scale for the instrument
Ammeter Shunt
Art –9.4.3
The basic movement of a dc Ammeter is a PMMC galvanometer.
Rm = Internal resistance of movement
Rsh= resistance of the shunt
Im= Ifs= Full scaledeflection current of movement
Ish= Shunt current
I = Current to be measured
Science the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement the voltage
drops across shunt and movement must be the same.
Ish Rsh =ImRm or, Rsh= ImRm / Ish
But Ish= I –Im,
therefore we can write Rsh= ImRm / (I –Im)
I/Im–1 = Rm/ Rsh or, I/Im= 1 + Rm/ Rsh
Ammeter Shunt
The total ratio of total current in the
movement is called multiplying power of
shunt.
Multiplying Power,
m = I/Im
= 1 + Rm/ Rsh
Resistance of shunt Rsh= Rm/ (m –1)
The shunt resistance used with a d’Arsonvalmovement may consist of a coil of
resistance wire within the case of the instrument, or it may be external shunt
having a very low resistance.
Construction of Shunts
The general requirements for shunt are:
❑The temperature co-efficient of shunt and instrument should be low and should
be as nearly as possibly the same.
❑The resistance of Shunts should not vary with time.
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❑They should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.
❑They should have a low thermal electromotive force with copper.
➢Manganinis used for shunts of DC instruments.
➢Constantan is used for AC circuits.
