Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Food Technology

Jain Global Campus, Kanakapura Taluk
Ramanagara District, Karnataka, India -562112

2021-2023

A Dissertation on

DEVELOPMENT OF MILLET-BASED PEDA AND

EVALUATION OF ITS CHARACTERISTICS
Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Submitted by

Ms. SNEHA MAITY

21MTRFT014

Under the guidance of

Dr. Ishita Auddy

Assistant Professor
Department of Food Technology
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
JAIN (Deemed-to-be University)
 Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Department of Food Technology
Jain Global Campus, KanakapuraTaluk
Ramanagara District, Karnataka, India -562112

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “DEVELOPMENT OF MILLET BASED

PEDA AND EVALUATION OF ITS CHARACTERISTICS” is carried out by Ms. Sneha

Maity (21MTRFT014), a bonafide student of Master of Technology, at the Faculty of

Engineering and Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University) in partial fulfilment for the

award of the degree of Master of Technology in Food Technology, during the year 2021-

2023.

Dr. Ishita Auddy, Dr Shwetha M S,

Assistant Professor and Guide, Assistant Professor & Program Coordinator,
Dept. of Food Technology Dept. of Food Technology
Faculty of Engineering & Technology Faculty of Engineering & Technology
JAIN (Deemed-to-be University). JAIN (Deemed-to-be University).
Date: Date:

Dr. Amar Shankar, Dr. Hariprasad S. A.,

Assistant Professor and Head, Director,
Dept. of Food Technology Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Faculty of Engineering & Technology JAIN (Deemed-to-be University).
JAIN (Deemed-to-be University). Date:
Date:

Name of the Examiner Signature of Examiner

1.

2
 DECLARATION
I, Ms. Sneha Maity, a student of fourth semester M. Tech in Food Technology, at

Faculty of Engineering & Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University) hereby

declare that the dissertation entitled “DEVELOPMENT OF MILLET BASED PEDA

AND EVALUATION OF ITS CHARACTERISTICS” has been carried out by

me and submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of Master of

Technology in Food Technology, during the academic year 2022-2023. Further,

the matter embodied in the dissertation has not been submitted previously by

anybody for the award of any degree or diploma to any University, to the best of my

knowledge and faith.

PLACE: FET, JAIN GLOBAL CAMPUS SNEHA MAITY

DATE: 21MTRFT014
Dedicated To My Beloved
Parents & Teachers
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the numerous individuals
who have played a vital role in the successful completion of this thesis. I am truly grateful for their
assistance and support.

First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Almighty God for the
blessings bestowed upon me throughout this journey. I am also deeply grateful to my parentsfor their
unwavering encouragement, enthusiasm, and invaluable assistance.

I would like to extend my gratitude to the Management of Faculty of Engineering &

Technology at JAIN(Deemed-to-be University) for providing me with the wonderful opportunity to
pursue my Masters Degree at this esteemed institution.

I am particularly grateful to Dr. Hariprasad S. A., the Director of the Faculty of Engineering
& Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), for his constant encouragement and expert advice,
which has been instrumental in shaping my work.

I would also like to express my appreciation to Dr. Chandrashekhar Sastry, the PG Dean of
the Faculty of Engineering & Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), for his unwavering
support and encouragement throughout this journey.

I would like to thank Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI), Government of India, New
Delhi for infrastructure development support for Department of Food Technology, JAIN ( Deemed-
to-be University)

I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Amar Shankar, Assistant Professor and Head
of the Department of Food Technology. His support, encouragement, and expertise have been
invaluable in providing me with the necessary resources and a conducive environment for carrying
out my research. His leadership has fostered an atmosphere of academic excellence and has greatly
contributed to the success of my thesis.

A special note of thanks goes to my guide, Dr. Ishita Auddy, Assistant Professor, Faculty of
Engineering & Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University) for her invaluable academic guidance and
dedicated time have been crucial in every step of my thesis work, enabling its smooth progress and
successful culmination.
 Dr. Ishita Auddy's expertise and mentorship have played a vital role in shaping the direction
of my research. Her insightful advice, constructive feedback, and unwavering support have been
instrumental in the development of my thesis. I am deeply grateful for her guidance throughout this
journey.

I am truly fortunate to have had the opportunity to work under the guidance of both Dr. Ishita
Auddy and Dr. Amar Shankar. Their dedication, knowledge, and commitment to my academic growth
have been inspiring and have significantly contributed to the successful completion of my thesis.

Without the help of all the professors, especially Dr. Shwetha M.S., Assistant Professor,
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), I would not be able to
express my gratitude. Despite her busy schedule, she patiently explained various studies to me and
patiently responded to my questions and clarified my doubts whenever necessary.

Dr. Sundus Nida, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, JAIN
(Deemed-to-be University), has helped me in a number of ways by advising me on the proper steps to
take and the crucial requirements that must be met in order to carry out a given experiment.

I received guidance from Dr. Sumit Kumar, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Engineering and
Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), whenever I was unsure of a specific technique or
software-based application.

I would like to thank Dr. Subhashini S, Assistant professor in the Faculty of engineering and
technology at JAIN (Deemed-to-be University) who helped me in my thesis work. Their support,
expertise, and contributions have been invaluable to me throughout my thesis work. Their dedication
to teaching and willingness to assist have played a significant role in my academic growth and the
successful completion of my research. I am truly grateful for her guidance and assistance.

I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Ms. Divyasree J and Manjunath M R of
the Food Technology Department. Furthermore, I want to acknowledge and appreciate the unwavering
support, love, and affection from my family and best friends. Their presence and encouragement have
been a constant source of motivation throughout this endeavor. Their belief in me and their unwavering
support have been instrumental in my journey, and I am deeply grateful for their understanding and
encouragement.

Lastly, I extend my heartfelt thanks to all those individuals who, directly or indirectly, have
contributed to the successful completion of this thesis. Whether through their advice, feedback, or the
assistance in various forms, your support has made a significant difference. I am truly grateful for
your contributions and for being a part of my academic journey.

Once again, thank you all for your support, guidance, and contributions. It has been a privilege
to work with such amazing individuals, and I am sincerely grateful for everything.

Ms. SNEHA MAITY

USN No .21MTRFT014
 CONTENTS

List of tables i
List of figures ii-iii
Abbreviations iv-vi
ABSTRACT 1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION 2-4
1.1. Objective 4
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-29
2.1. Cereals 5
2.2. Production of Cereals 7
2.3. Millets 9
2.4. Production of Millets 10
2.4.1. Global Production 10
2.4.2. Domestic Production 12
2.5. Health Benefits of Millets 13
2.6. Market Analysis of Millets 14
2.7. Existing products made from wheat 16
2.8. Health Hazards caused by wheat-based products 18
2.9. Millet-based sweet available 18
2.10. Design of Experiment 19
2.11. Significance of Taguchi method 21
2.11.1. Taguchi Method 22
2.12. Sensory Analysis 23
2.13. Nutritional aspect of Millet-based products 25
2.14. Microbial Analysis 28
2.15. Cost Estimation 28
2.16. Statistical Analysis 28
Chapter 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS 30-45
 3.1. Raw Material 30
3.2. Design of Experiment 30
3.2.1. Design of experiment (D.O.E.) via Taguchi model for Sorghum,
30
Proso, Milk, Water, Jaggery, Almonds and Cardamom optimization
3.2.2. Regression Model Analysis for Taguchi Model 32
3.2.3. Validation and Residual Analysis for Taguchi Method 32
3.3. Method of Preparing Millet-based Peda 32
3.4. Sensory Analysis
33
3.5. Proximate Analysis 34
3.5.1. Crude Lipid 34
3.5.2. Crude Ash 35
3.5.3. Crude Nitrogen 35
3.5.4. Crude Fiber 36
3.5.5. Total Carbohydrate 36
3.5.6. Moisture Content 36
3.5.7. Amino Acid 36
3.5.8. Free Fatty Acid 38
3.5.9. Sugar 39
3.5.9.1. Reducing Sugar 39
3.5.9.2. Total Sugar 39
3.5.9.3. Added Sugar 39
3.5.10. Colour 39
3.5.11. Water Activity 40
3.6. Microbial Analysis 40
3.6.1. Coliform 40
3.6.2. Yeast and Mould 41
3.6.3. Total Plate Count 42
3.7. Cost Estimation 43
3.8. Statistical Analysis 45

Chapter 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 46-88
4.1. Design of Experiment 46
 4.1.1. Design of experiments (DOE) for optimization of Sorghum, 46
Proso, Milk, Water, Jaggery, Almonds and Cardamom
4.1.2. Analysis of variance In Taguchi analysis 48
4.1.3 Validation and residuals analysis 50
4.2. Sensory Analysis 51
4.3. Proximate Analysis 52
4.3.1. Crude Lipid 53
4.3.2. Crude Ash 55
4.3.3. Crude Nitrogen 57
4.3.4. Crude Fiber 60
4.3.5. Total Carbohydrate 62
4.3.6. Moisture Content 63
4.3.7. Amino Acid 65
4.3.8. Free Fatty Acid 68
4.3.9. Sugar 71
4.4. Physio-chemical Analysis 70
4.4.1. Colour 73
4.4.2. Water Activity 76
4.5. Microbial Analysis 78
4.5.1. Coliform 79
4.5.2. Yeast and Mould 81
4.5.3. Total Plate Count 83
4.6. Cost Estimation 85
4.7. Statistical Analysis 87
Chapter 5
SUMMURY AND CONCLUSION 89-93
5.1. Summary 89
5.2. Conclusion 90
5.3. Future Scope 92
REFERENCES vii-xxiv
APPENDICES
 List of tables

Sl. No Title Page

No.

Table 3.1 Process Paraments and their levels 29

Taguchi Orthogonal array L27(3ˆ7) Design of

Table 3.2 30
Experiment

Table 3.3 Mobile Phase Gradient Table 36

Table 4.1 Response Table for Signal to Noise Ratios 46

Table 4.2 Analysis of Variance for SN ratios 47

Table 4.3 Validation with experimental Values 48

Table 4.4 Trials selected for the sensory evaluation. 50

Table 4.5 Amino Acid Concentration present in Millet-based Peda 61

Table 4.6 Free Fatty Acid profile for Millet-based Peda 64

Table 4.7 Sugar content present in Millet-based Peda 66

Table 4.8 Colour Value of Millet-based Peda 68

i
Table 4.9 Microbial Analysis values for Millet-based Peda 72

Statistical Analysis of different characteristics of Millet-

Table 4.10 79
based peda

Ii
1
 List of figures

Sl. No. Title Page No.

Fig. 2.1 Indian wheat output and yield trends from 1964–1965 to 8
2011–2012
Fig. 2.2 Area and yield's contribution to production increase 9
(1964–1965 to 2011–2012)
Trends in Ethiopia's finger millet production, yield,
Fig. 2.3 12
and area.

Fig. 2.4 2020 Global Millet Market Production: Volume Share (%) 12

Fig. 2.5 Area planted with millet and its distribution in India 13

Fig. 3.1 Flow Chart of the Millet-based Peda Preparation 32

Fig. 4.1 Main Effects Plot for Mean 45

Fig. 4.2 Interaction Plot for Response 46

Fig. 4.3 Residual Plot for SN Ratios 49

Fig. 4.4 Web diagram for Sensory Evaluation of Millet based peda 50
using 9-hedonic scale
Fig. 4.5 Proximate Analysis of millet-based peda 61

Fig. 4.6 Water Activity of the Millet based peda 72

iii
 ABREVIATIONS
AD Addison’s Disease

ANOVA Analysis of variance

AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists

Aw Water activity

AWB As-Weighed Basis

BMF Barnyard Millet Flour

CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate

CC Cubic Centimeter

CCC Commodity Credit Corporation

CF Control Untreated Flour

Cfu Colony forming units

CVD Cardiovascular Diseases

DF Degree of Freedom

DoE Design of Experiment

DWB Dry Weight Basis

EAA Essential Amino Acids

EU European Union

F F-Value

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FRG Fellowship and Research Grant

G grams

H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid

HCl Hydrochloric Acid

HDL High Density Lipoprotein cholesterol

High Performance Liquid Chromatography–

HPLC-FLD
FluorescenceDetector

Hrs Hours

iv
IDF Insoluble dietary fiber

INR Indian rupees

IS Indian Standards

ISO International Organization for Standardization

Kg Kilogram

LAB Lactic Acid Bacteria

LBG Locust Bean Gum

LDPE Low density polyethylene

LOQ Limit of Quantification

LVI Large Volume Injector

MSMS Moringa Leaf Extract Supplementation

Mg Milli grams

ML Milli Liter

MS Mean Square

Mt Metric tons

MW Microwave

N Normality

NaOH Sodium hydroxide

NPD New Product Development

pH Potential of Hydrogen

Pmol/µl Picomole/milliliter

Ppm Parts per million

R2 correlation coefficient

Rpm Revolutions per minute

RSM Response Surface Methodology

RT Retention Time

SDF Soluble dietary fiber

S/N Signal to Noise

v
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio

SPSS Statistical package for the social science

SS Sum of Squares

TG3 Thermogravimetric method

USA Unites States of America

UK United Kingdom

VRBL Violet Red Bile Lactose

XG Xanthan Gum

α alpha

$ Dollar

% Percentage

± Standard deviation

∆E Total color difference

°C Degree Celsius

vi
 ABSTRACT

Milk peda represents a revered confectionary with rich texture, flavor, and milk's nutritional
benefits, while millet-based peda innovatively combines traditional flavors with the
nutritional superiority of millet grains, offering a delectable treat with health-promoting
attributes. The food industry is embracing the formulation of millet-based products to cater
to the rising demand for nutritious and eco-friendly food options. In this study, the
formulation of Millet-based Peda involved the utilization of carefully selected raw materials
including Sorghum, Proso, Milk, Water, Jaggery, Almonds, and Cardamom. The
optimization of these raw materials was achieved through the application of the Taguchi
Model in Design of Experiment, which effectively reduced the number of experimental runs
required, streamlining the process and enhancing efficiency. The model was validated
through sensory evaluation by using the 9-Point Hedonic Scale. Results revealed that the
predictive and experimental values are 8.5 and 9.1 for response mean and relative error was
found to be -0.066. The raw materials were soaked overnight and cooked at 85˚C for 40-45
minutes. The peda exhibited a proximate composition with 33.60±0.2% carbohydrates,
37.72±1.01% moisture, 1.64±0.02% crude ash, 20.12±1.03% crude lipid, 0.55±0.01% crude
fiber, 1.11±0.1% crude nitrogen, and 6.94±0.01% crude protein. The fatty acid profile
revealed significant amounts of oleic acid (22.28±0.08%), palmitic acid (20.22±0.1%), and
ricinoleic acid (23.53±0.02%). Sugar analysis indicated reducing sugar content of
6.23±0.02%, total sugar content of 25.2±0.2%, and added sugar content of 18.01±0.01%.
The peda exhibited a water activity of 0.9101±1x10^-24 and a color value (∆E) of
20.71±1.05. Microbial quality analysis demonstrated low total plate count (1.0x10^3 ± 0.1
Cfu/g) and absence of coliforms and yeast/mold. Amino acid analysis revealed the presence
of various amino acids, with glutamic acid (0.31%) being the most abundant with a retention
time of 17.821 minutes and cysteine (0.01%) being the least abundant with a retention time
of 28.295 minutes. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the composition and
characteristics of millet-based peda, showcasing its potential as a nutritious and flavorful
snack option, contributing to the development and acceptance of millet-based products in
the food industry, and offering alternative choices for health-conscious consumers.

Keywords: Millet-based peda, Design of experiment, Proximate composition, Fatty acid

profile, Sugar content, Water activity, Microbial quality, Amino acid composition.
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

1. INTRODUCTION

Millets are more nutritious than cereals and are drought tolerant, but the usage is not very
common yet. Millets are high in protein and the products made from millets are gluten free and
are beneficial for celiac disease and gluten sensitive patients. Millets may have properties that
are anti-diabetic along with a low glycemic index that can help lower postprandial blood glucose
levels as well as glycosylated haemoglobin and is helpful for diabetic patients due to the
existence of magnesium in abundant quantity.There would be nutritional, physico-chemical, as
well as functional modifications with the addition of millet flour in a product. These convenience
food products are widely consumed in industrialized nations [19].

According to Indian Institute of Millet Research, monthly per individual India's

consumption in terms of volume, price, and frequency were reported and in the year 2011-2012,
the consumption of sorghum in rural areas had 0.20 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 4.46
whereas in urban areas it was 0.13 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 3.44 [45]. Finger Millet
consumption in rural areas was found to be 0.08 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 0.93 and in
the urban region it was 0.06 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 0.88. The consumption of small
millet in the rural areas was found to be 0.01 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 0.11 whereas
in urban areas it was 0.00 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 0.05. Pearl millet was consumption
in the rural areas was found to be 0.24 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 2.56 and in urban
areas it was found to be 0.08 Kg per 30 days with the value of Rs 1.12. It has been observed that
there was a decrease in consumption and increase in the value of millets both in rural and urban
areas over the years starting from 1977-1978 [27].

Millets could be good for your health. Eating millets lowers the risk of heart disease,
protects against diabetes, improves the digestive system, reduces the risk of cancer, detoxifies
the body, boosts immunity and respiratory health, gives you more energy, strengthens your
muscles and nervous system, and protects against a number of degenerative diseases like
metabolic syndrome and Parkinson's disease, according to epidemiological studies found by
Chandrasekara and Shahidi in 2012 [42].

Department of Food Technology, FET, JAIN (Deemed - to - be University) 2

Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

In 2018, Koorand et al. discovered that using the Taguchi technique a number of
advantages, including reduced time and cost, the ability to determine each component, the ability
to forecast optimum conditions, and the ability to define error with a small number of
experimental runs was possible [9]. The Taguchi method uses the Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) method or the Signal to Noise (S/N) ratio to obtain the predicted results [31].

Poor diets, poverty, as well as environmental difficulties are some of the largest worldwide
problems. Also, excessive use of foods containing wheat may contribute to the increased
prevalence of chronic disorders in the world, particularly type 2 diabetes and obesity. We must
use nutritional and farm diversity to combat hunger, lifestyle illnesses like diabetes, poverty
and environmental issues like lack of land and water as well as climate change. These problems
must be handled together, but also with more comprehensive solutions [25].

The food preferences of the consumer from Maida-based products are changing quickly as
they are more engaged in controlling their eating habits and exercising more responsibly. The
amount that consumers spend on nutritious meals has also significantly changed in recent years.
The use of simple carbohydrates in the form of wheat Maida-based bread, Flat bread (Roti), as
well as white rice is one of the primary reasons of early obesity in India, and hence the interest
in consuming wholesome, environmentally friendly meals have increased [41]. Profiting on the
craze, food businesses are broadening their menus to include healthier alternatives made
from millets [32]. Meanwhile, these business owners confront several obstacles, and the market's
real growth is less than anticipated. The current study looks at the benefits and difficulties
experienced by millet business owners. Lack of knowledge, unfamiliarity, difficulty in
preparation, sensory qualities, affordability issues, consumer mistrust, inferior image, along
with millets' lengthier gestation period were significant issues, while people returning to their
traditions and heightened awareness of millets were key opportunities [20].

A sweet delicacy from the India is called Peda or Pera. Its primary components are khoa
along with sugar, and traditional flavorings such cardamom, any kind of nuts, and saffron. It is
often made as thick or semi-soft. It can be anything from creamy white to caramel in hue. The

Department of Food Technology, FET, JAIN (Deemed - to - be University) 3

Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

problem with doodh peda is it’s high calorie content and the sugar present leads to obesity and
diabetes. Now a days people and become health conscious and there demands are changing. To
meet with their demands, the products need to be reengineered [33].

Millet based sweets with jaggery as a sweetener may be good for your health. Eating millets
lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease, prevents diabetes, improves the digestive system,
reduces the risk of cancer, removes toxin from the body, enhances immunity as well as takes care
of the respiratory health, gives you more energy, strengthens the muscles as well as nervous
system, and defends against few regenerative diseases such as metabolic syndrome as well as
Parkinson's disease, according to epidemiological studies done by Chandrasekara and Shahidi in
2012 [6]. Jaggery keeps the skin healthy, improves digestion and prevents any kind of disorder,
helps in weight loss, prevents blood diseases and any kind of disorder, enhances the metabolism
of the body, etc [68].

By increasing the possibilities of the development of production, use, and proper marketing
of millet-based products and its health benefits would solve the problem of unawareness, lack of
knowledge, and consumer mistrust, etc., leading to more consumption of millet based products
which would increase the sale of a particular company [67].

1.1 Objectives

The major objectives of this research are:

• To formulate and develop a Millet-based peda as an alternative over maida

• To evaluate the Millet-based peda’s characteristics

Department of Food Technology, FET, JAIN (Deemed - to - be University) 4

 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter encompasses a comprehensive review of literature, on various aspects related

to cereals, cereal production, millets, millet production, health benefits as well as market analysis
of millets. Furthermore, it explores existing products made from wheat and highlights the
potential health hazards associated with wheat-based products. It surveys the availability of
millet-based sweets in the market. In addition, this chapter delves into the formulation of a millet-
based peda using the Taguchi model, sensory analysis, nutritional aspects, microbial analysis,
cost estimation, and statistical analysis. By synthesizing these studies, a deeper understanding of
the subject matter is achieved, aiding in the development of millet-based peda that is both
nutritious and appealing to consumers [19].

2.1. Cereals
Cereals are the Gramineae grass family's edible seeds or grains. Different nations cultivate
a variety of cereals, including barley, oats, rye, triticale, maize, sorghum as well as millet. Wheat
and rice make up the majority of the world's cereal production, making them the two most
significant crops globally. The endosperm, which is filled with starch grains, and the embryo (or
germ), which contains the genetic material for a new plant, are structurally similar in all cereals
by McKevith in the year 2004) [115]. One of the most significant staple foods for humans is
cereal. In industrialized nations, bread intake provides close to 50% of the daily requirements for
protein, one-third of the daily requirements for carbs, and 50% to 60% of the daily requirements
for vitamin B. In addition, cereal products contain minerals and trace elements by Belitz, H. D et
al., in the year 2009 [49]. After harvest, correct storage of the grain is important to prevent mould
spoilage, pest infestation and grain germination. If dry grains are held for only a few months,
minimum nutritional changes will take place, but if the grains are held with a higher amount of
moisture, the grain quality can deteriorate because of starch degradation by grain and microbial
amylases (enzymes) [44]. Milling is the main process associated with cereals, although a range
of other techniques are also used to produce a variety of products. Slightly different milling
processes are used for the various grains, but the process can generally be described as grinding,
sifting, separation and regrinding. The final nutrient content of a cereal after milling will depend
on the extent to which the outer bran and aleurone layers are removed, where fibre is abundant.

Department of Food Technology, FET, JAIN (Deemed - to - be University) 5

Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

One of the most significant staple foods for humans is cereal. In industrialized nations,
bread intake provides close to 50% of the daily requirements for protein, one-third of the daily
requirements for carbs, and 50% to 60% of the daily requirements for vitamin B. In addition,
cereal products contain minerals and trace elements by Belitz, H. D et al., in the year 2009 [49].
After harvest, correct storage of the grain is important to prevent mould spoilage, pest infestation
and grain germination. If dry grains are held for only a few months, minimum nutritional changes
will take place, but if the grains are held with a higher amount of moisture, the grain quality can
deteriorate because of starch degradation by grain and microbial amylases (enzymes) [44].
Milling is the main process associated with cereals, although a range of other techniques are also
used to produce a variety of products. Slightly different milling processes are used for the various
grains, but the process can generally be described as grinding, sifting, separation and regrinding.
The final nutrient content of a cereal after milling will depend on the extent to which the outer
bran and aleurone layers are removed, as this is where the fibre, vitamins and minerals tend to be
concentrated.

There is potential for contamination of cereals and cereal products by pests, mycotoxins,
rusts and smuts. Recently, acrylamide (described as a probable carcinogen) has been found in
starchy baked foods. Cereals have a long history of use by humans. Cereals are staple foods and
are important sources of nutrients in both developed and developing countries. Cereals and cereal
products are an important source of energy, carbohydrate, protein and fibre, as well as containing
a range of micronutrients such as vitamin E, some of the B vitamins, magnesium and zinc. Cereals
and cereal products may also contain a range of bioactive substances and there is growing interest
in the potential health benefits these substances may provide. Further research is required in this
area, including identification of other substances within cereals and their bioavailability [19].

There is evidence to suggest that regular consumption of cereals, specifically

wholegrains, may have a role in the prevention of chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease,
diabetes and colorectal cancer. The exact mechanisms by which cereals convey beneficial effects
on health are not clear. It is likely that a number of factors may be involved, e.g., their
micronutrient content, their fibre content and/or their glycaemic index [43]. To increase
theconsumption of wholegrain foods, it may be useful to have a quantitative recommendation.

Department of Food Technology, FET, JAIN (Deemed - to - be University) 6

Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

Additionally, a wider range of wholegrain foods that are quick and easy to prepare would
help people increase their consumption of these foods. As cereal products currently contributing
a considerable proportion of the sodium intake of the UK population, manufacturers need to
continue to reduce the sodium content of foods such as breakfast cereals and breads where
possible [46]. Nutrition labelling is currently not mandatory in the UK, although many
manufacturers provide information voluntarily. The fibre content of most UK foods is still
measured using the Englyst method rather than the American Association of Analytical Chemists
(AOAC) method used by other EU countries and the USA. However, UK recommendations for
fibre intake currently relate to fibre measured by the Englyst method and not the AOAC method,
and hence need revisions. EU changes to labelling regulations will see the labelling of common
foods and ingredients causing allergic reactions, including cereals containing gluten and products
derived from these foods. The introduction of EU legislation covering health claims may help
consumers identify foods with proven health benefits [51].

2.2. Cereal production

Cereals play a significant role in the production of food and feed. As a result, they are grown
on over 60% of cultivated land on the planet. The majority of land used for cereal farming is
used for the cultivation of wheat, which is also produced in the highest volume. Excess wheat
growers are the Australian, Argentine, United States of America, France as well as Canada [53].
In Germany, Federal Republic spring wheat (92%), winter wheat (FRG), and (8%) both have
been raised the global cereal output with the yields per hectare differing significantly between
nations and the other.

Due to a thorough programs for crop breeding and production. The FRG has exceptionally
high yields per hectare and are only surpassed by a select few nations, e. g., Holland. In the FRG,
25.7 106 tons of. In 1976–1977, 38% of cereals were bread as well as 62% feed grains [19].
Growth in Wheat Production: Production of wheat is increasing since it can withstand cold
weather and is grown throughout the Rabi season. The crop is planted between the second
fortnight of October and the first week of January, and it is harvested between the months of
March and May in a variety of agroecosystems. According to FAO trade figures, India presently
comes in second to China in terms of wheat output, and has held that position for more than ten
years [50].

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

Fig. 2.1 Indian wheat output and yield trends from 1964–1965 to 2011–2012 [51]

Fig. 2.1 depicts the crop's increasing trend in area, output, and productivity from the start of
the coordinated research project (1964–1955) through 2011–2012. Due to good economic and
the climatic conditions, India produced an unprecedented 93.90 mt of wheat in 2011–12 [53].
Due to increases in area (0.83 mha) and yield (152 kg ha-1), output increased over the previous
year (7.03 mt). Yield increase (5.08%) and area (2.87 %) together contributed 8.09 percent to
historic production [51].

Fig. 2.2 Area and yield's contribution to production increase (1964–1965 to 2011–2012) [51]

The contribution of area and productivity growth to wheat output is depicted in Fig. 2.2. With

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the exception of a few years, the remainder clearly showed that yield increase outpaced acreage
growth [19]. The adoption of high yielding genotypes through a well-established coordinated
research system, together with an increase in the area under irrigation and good weather
conditions during the crop season, are the main causes of increased yield. While the increase in
wheat acreage was a result of higher support prices over time. However, it is seen that for a few
years, both area and yield had experienced negative increase. It is important to pinpoint and
coherently describe the reasons that are contributing to the poor growth [47].

2.3. Millet

Small grains known as millets are regarded as robust and healthy. Millet grains are a good
source of essential nutrients including carbs, fats and proteins as well as a variety of phenolic
compounds, helpful minerals like iron and zinc and phytochemicals. Millets have significant
possibility for greater usage as healthy ingredients in development of food product due to their
excellent content of nutritional and health advantages that they achieve from phytochemicals.
Millets are tiny in size, round in shape and minor cereals of the small seeded-grass family
(Poaceae). It is characterized by their remarkable ability to survive in less fertile soil, drought-
resistant, resistance to pests and diseases, short growing season and cultivated round the year and
all over the world. The word millet is derived from the beginning of human civilization, millets
are considered as first domesticated cereal. India is the largest producer of pearl millet. Millets
have uniqueness because of its richness in protein, calcium, dietary fiber and polyphenols [36].
It is found that millets contain significant amount of sulphur containing essential amino acids
like methionine and cysteine [71].

In the 21st century, due to climate changes, water scarcity, increasing world population,
rising food prices, and other socioeconomic impacts are expected to generate a great threat to
agriculture and food security worldwide, especially for the poorest people who live in arid and
subarid regions. These impacts present a challenge to scientists and nutritionists to investigate
the possibilities of producing, processing, and utilizing other potential food sources to end hunger
and poverty. Cereal grains are the most important source of the world's food and having a
significant role in the human diet throughout the world [69]. As one of the most important
drought-resistant crops, millet is widely grown in the semiarid tropics of Africa and Asia and

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constitutes a major source of carbohydrates and proteins for people living in these areas. In
addition, because of their important contribution to national food security and potential health
benefits, millet grain is now receiving increasing interest from food scientists, technologists, and
nutritionists. The aim of this work was to review the recent advances in research carried out to
date for purposes of evaluation of nutritional quality and potential health benefits of millet grains.
Processing technologies used for improving the edible and nutritional characteristics of millet as
well as challenges, limitations, and future perspectives to promote millet utilization as food for
a large and growing population are also discussed. Millets can be categorized into Major Millet
and Minor Millet [83]. The most popular millet for consumption by human is Pearl millet
(Pennisetum glaucum), followed by Foxtail millet (Setaria italic), white millet or Proso millet
(Panicum miliaceum), as well as Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) [42]. Minor millets comprise
of Job's tears (Coix lacrima-jobi), Guinea millet (Brachiaria deflexa), Browntop millet (Urochloa
ramose), Barnyard millet (Echinochloa spp.), Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), Little
millet (Panicum sumatrense), Teff (Eragrostis tef) and Fonio (Digitaria exilis) [52].

2.4. Production of millets

Millets are significant grains that are crucial to the food and nutritional security of emerging
nations in the tropical region that are semi-arid in Asia as well as Africa, particularly in India,
Nigeria, and Niger. They are raised in soils that are frequently unsuitable for supporting any
other crop. They differ from other cereal crops because to their short growth season and increased
tolerance for drought, minimal fertiliser treatment, and temperature variations.
Millets are year-round, all-season crops that provide a variety of security (food, health, fodder,
livelihood, nutrition, as well as ecology), making them the most cost-effective source of
agricultural security [46].

2.4.1. Global Production

he global production of millet varies from year to year, influenced by factors such as
weather conditions, agricultural policies, and market demand. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), the top millet-producing countries include India, Nigeria,
Niger, China, Mali, and Burkina Faso. Even though millets and sorghum only make up 4.7% of

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the world's production of grain, they are not only crucial as food staples but also
as ethnobotanical crops in the region which are sub humid as well as semi-arid. Millions of
individuals in both Asia as well as Africa rely heavily on these crops as a source of protein and
energy [52]. By 1994, the estimated yearly millets and production around the globe ranged from
28.1 to 30.5 million tonnes from an area of 38 to 54 million acres. Foods made from millet are
very significant in Africa, where they are a common staple, particularly in the Sahel and
extremely arid Savanna regions. Every country has a different per capita consumption. For
instance, Nigerit accounts for 70% (annually 1.4 million tonnes) of all grain consumption [14].

In contrast, it accounts for 30% of total grain consumption in Senegal (Anually 0.5 million
tonnes), Uganda (25–35%; 0.52 million tonnes), Burkina Faso (0.68 million tonnes), Mali (0.11
million tonnes), Chad (0.22 million tonnes), and Nigeria (3.3 million tonnes) . India is found
to consume millets abundantly other than Africa (Anually 9.2 million tonnes), then China
(Anually 3.3 million tonnes). The global production of millets continues to evolve, reflecting the
diverse preferences, agricultural practices, and food systems across different regions of the world
[52].

Fig. 2.3: Trends in Ethiopia's finger millet production, yield, and area. [52]

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Fig. 2.4 2020 Global Millet Market Production: Volume Share (%) [52]

2.4.2. Domestic Production

India is one of the largest producers of millet in the world. It has a diverse agro-climatic condition
that is suitable for millet cultivation, making it a favorable crop for small-scale farmers. Millets are known
for their resilience and ability to grow in harsh conditions, requiring less water and inputs compared to
other crops like rice or wheat. In the 2015, according to the Directorate of Economics and Statistics,
millets were grown in India over 15.48 million hectares area, yielding 17.2 million tonnes at a
rate of 1111 kg/ha. The three states that cultivate millets the most in India are Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, and Karnataka. Over the past 6 decades, from (1950–1951) to (2011–2012), millets'
share of India's total production of foodgrain fell from 22.17% to 6.94% [18]. Due to the
persistent promotion of other crops like rice along with wheat for intensive agriculturing in a
selected few resource-rich areas under irrigation, over the last 5 decades the area in which millet
is being produced has been declining speedily, since the time of Green Revolution, despite all
the exceptional properties andpotentials of millet farming systems. Another significant threat to
millets in our nation is the artificial maize promotion, leading to infestation of maize in many
regions of India as a result of the organization-induced need for biofuels and feed for poultry [1].

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Fig. 2.5 Area planted with millet and its distribution in India [18]

2.5. Health benefits of millets

Millets lowers the risk of heart disease, protects against diabetes, improves the digestive
system, lowers the risk of cancer, detoxifies the body, boostsimmunity and respiratory health,
gives you more energy, strengthens your muscles and nervous system, and protects against a
number of degenerative diseases like metabolic syndrome and Parkinson's disease as found by
Chandrasekara and Shahidi in the year 2012 [47]. Throughout the world, millions of individuals
suffer from the condition known as diabetes. Because they contain a considerable amount of magnesium,
millets aid in the prevention of Type II Diabetes. Magnesium is a crucial mineral that produces several
carbohydrate-digestingenzymes, which regulates insulin activity, and so aids in improving the efficacy of
insulin andglucose receptors as studied by O.S.K.Reddy in the year 2017 [5].

Magnesium is abundant in bajra, which benefits the cardiovascular system by decreasing

bloodpressure and, in turn, lowers the risk of heart attack or stroke. Additionally, it includes
certain plant lignans that the body changes into animal lignans. Additionally recognized for
reducing heart disease, these lignans. Additionally, bajra is renowned for lowering cholesterol
[7]. By controlling the digestive process, one can retain more nutrients and lower their risk of
developing more severe gastrointestinal disorders like gastric ulcers or colon cancer. Millets'
high fiber content aids in the eradication of conditions including constipation, excessive gas,

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bloating, and cramps. Celiac disease is an immune-mediated enteropathic condition that, in

susceptible people, is typically brought on by consuming gluten as found by Catassi and Fasanoin
the year 2008 [53].According to research millet grains are high in phenolic acids, tannins, and
phytate (Thompson, 1993). According to Graf and Eaton (1990), these nutrients lower the
incidence of colon and breast cancer in animals. Sorghum and millet have more fibre and
phenolic compounds than wheat or maize, which may contribute to a decreased risk of
esophageal cancer. Fibre is one of the greatest and simplest strategies to stop the development of
breast cancer in women, according to recent study. By consuming more than 30 grammes of fibre
each day, they can lower their risk of developing breast cancer by more than 50% [11].

Free radicals can be created by the interaction of other molecules and are defined as atoms
or molecules with an unpaired number of electrons. These free radicals are in charge of the
development of many diseases linked to oxidative stress, including Alzheimer's disease,
myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and auto-immune disorders, among
others. Antioxidants are crucial in stopping the oxidation process, which minimises cellular
damage. Sorghum may be able to combat reactive oxidative species by acting as an antioxidant.
Obesity is an emerging problem in India and it is positively associated with several chronic
diseases including diabetes and CVD [ 4]. Empirical evidences suggest that intake of high dietary
fibre decreases the incidence of obesity. Foods rich in dietary fibre improve the large bowel
function and slows the digestion and absorption process, thereby reducing the risk of chronic
diseases. Sorghum is rich in dietary fibre and has unique chemical and physical characteristics
(bulk to the diet, viscosity, water holding and absorption capacity) which determines the down
subsequent physiological behaviour. It aids to the hunger satisfaction, increases satiety and
thereby reducing the risk of development of obesity [90]. Infants' haemoglobin level oftenly
improved when given the germinated finger millet-based diet as a supplement. Ragi is rich in
Calcium which helps in strengthening bones. It is an excellent source of natural calcium for
growing children and aging people. Ragi consumption helps in the development of bones in
growing children and in maintenance of bone health in adults. Ragi keeps diseases such as
osteoporosis at bay and could reduce risk of fracture [7].

Several studies have shown that excessive fat consumption in the human diet can not only

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increase risk of heart diseases but recent epidemiological research has revealed that dementia
risk is also increased by a highfat, high-calorie diet. Due to the fact that an HFD has been shown
to generate oxidative brain dysfunction may result from stress in the brain. Additionally,
oxidative stress is reportedly a catalyst and aggravating factor for neurodegenerative conditions
like Addison’s disease (AD). Increased oxidative stress also stimulates pro-inflammatory factor
production, which results in inflammation in the brain, which can cause dementia. The cerebral
cortex and hippocampus often exhibit tau tangles and amyloid plaques, which are hallmark
pathology features of AD. Reducing oxidative stress is proposed to either prevent or lessen the
degree of brain dysfunction. In northwest China, millet has long been a staple diet and a
venerable traditional grain. High quantities of polyphenols in millet demonstrated remarkable
oxidation resistance. However, there aren’t many researches that discuss millet polyphenols in-
vivo antioxidant activity [55,52]. Research indicates that polyphenols and their metabolites are
crucial in controlling the amount of oxidative stress in the brain. Either by directly crossing the
blood-brain barrier into the brain or by being transformed into tiny metabolic derivates with
increased biological activity through the metabolism of intestinal microbiota, dietary
polyphenols may have antioxidant and neuroprotective effects [7]. Millets due to their low
carbohydrate:fibre ratio, high antioxidants, and other effects are useful in lifestyle diseases like
cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular problems. In terms of production and climatic sensitivity,
millets may be even more important than staple grains and healthwise they may be preferable to
other cereals because they contain vital amino acids (such as leucine, isoleucine, valine, and
phenylalanine), minerals (calcium, iron, and zinc), vitamins, phytochemicals, antioxidant
qualities but most importantly fibre [47].

2.6. Market analysis of millets

An indigenous food crop of Ethiopia, finger millet (Degussa), covers an average 5%
(228,000 hectares) of the total area used for cereal cultivation and contributes 4% of the yearly
cereal yield. The cost of a quintal (100 kg) of finger millet grain in the research region was much
cheaper during harvest than the cost of the same quantity and quality of grain during the wet
season. As a result, the farmers continued to preserve their output for another six months. The
action research was resolved by raising awareness, offering advice to the farmers, and gaining

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the participation of the target farmers. In case of pearl millet a mean of 3206.32 quintals, the
Jaipur market had the greatest market arrival, while Barmer saw the lowest, at 849.65 quintals.
To analyse the fluctuations in market arrivals and prices of pearl millet from 2010–11 to 2020–
21, the coefficient of variation was estimated. The coefficient of variation in pearl prices was
found to be highest (24.70%) in Barmer, (21.80%), and (22%) in Jaipur between 2010-11 and
2020-21. Alwar (349%), Jaipur (200%) and Barmer (114.70%) had the lowest arrivals variance
[27].

Sorghum production reached 875 million bushels with a value of $1 billion during the
1971–1972 crop year, a significant rise from previous years. Sorghum has had a significant
growth in domestic feed use during the previous ten years, going from less than 500 million
bushels in 1960 to about 700 million bushels in the early 1970s [56]. The primary causes of the
trend were the increased feeding of beef cattle and the growing acceptance of sorghum as a
suitable alternative to corn as a feed grain. Sorghum consumption rose at the same time the
feedlot business moved from the Midwest, where corn is grown mostly, to the Southwest, where
sorghum is a key feed crop. Except for 1965 and 1966, when the average amount was 257 million
bushels, yearly shipments from 1963 through 1971 varied from 106 to 166 million bushels Over
the past 20 years, there have appeared to be significant changes in the way prices are set within
the sorghum industry. Sorghum production regularly outpaced total consumption until 1962;
prices were mostly based on the CCC loan rate, and surpluses that couldn't be sold at this rate
were amassed under loan or through deliveries to CCC. From 1963 on, total sorghum and its
consumption outpaced production; as a result, CCC inventories fell precipitously, and the
approx. average price for the year was greater than the loan rate. Given these modifications, free
market forces have been sufficiently prevalent since 1963 that a model that focuses primarily on
them might be created to examine the structural linkages of the most recent time [2].

2.7. Existing products made from wheat

For many people worldwide, bread is a staple meal. To meet customer requirements,
many types of bread, notably as functional meals, have been produced. But for nearly all typesof
bread, the production process entails mixing, fermentation and proving, sheeting, moulding,

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baking, chilling, and, if necessary, slicing. Zimbabwe and Zambia presently employed composite
flours containing 6% and 10% maize flour substitutes, respectively. According to reports, 25%
maize flour may be used with 75% without noticeably changing the bread's overall quality. In
comparison to using just wheat flour, substituting maize flour 20–25% by weight has required
an increase in water content of around 2% per 10% substitution and an increase inyeast amount
of about 1.5 times by Mejia in the year 2008 [22].

The starch and protein content of the wheat, which was a significant impact in the qualityof
the noodles and pasta, are the elements affecting the quality of the noodles and pasta. To examine
the impact of water and protein concentration on the quality of cooked pasta, a two-way factorial
design was used by Larrosa, Lorenzo, Zaritzky, & Califano in 2015 [57]. Two standards for egg
proteins (2.7 g/100g and 6.6 g/100g) and three values for moisture content (34.8 g/100g, 36.13
g/100g, and 37.5 g/100g) were selected. The blend of corn starch and cornflour varied from 56.2
g/100g to 49.6 g/100g in accordance with the water plus egg-protein contents (dry whole egg +
dry egg-white, 10:1), which ranged between 37.5 g/100g and 44.1 g/100g. In all formulations, the
corn starch to corn flour ratio was 4:1. 67 g/100 g of commercialwheat flour (Molino Cauelas, Bs
As, Argentina) and 33 g/100 g of fresh eggs were used to make wheat pasta as a control. The
fundamental recipe for the dough was adapted from earlierresearch in which composition 143
was adjusted to produce a high-quality uncooked pasta dough. 1 g of NaCl per 100 grams, 2.8 g
of sunflower oil, and 2.5 g of a 2:1 combination of XG and LBG [58].

There are many different cake goods with several different compositions. Because the
processed ingredients, such flour, have improved, cakes now feature increasing the quantities of
shortening, sugar, eggs, and milk. The sweet flavour, brief and soft texture, and pleasant scents
and fragrances define the contemporary cake [66].

Today, biscuits are consumed as snacks, opulent presents, dietary supplements, and
newborn feeds. In general, items with a cereal foundation and baked to a moisture level of less
than 5% are known as biscuits. Two key elements, fat and sugar, are alternatively added to the

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cereal component to enhance it. The study employed commercial Tunisian soft wheat flourwith
12.08% moisture, 14.72% protein, and 0.60% ash. All elements (such as wheat flour, shortening
sugar, sodium bicarbonate, ammonia, and vanilla) are utilized in the making of biscuits [64,61].

Samples of aestivum and durum wheat bran were pulverized to allow passage. The cookies
were made in accordance with Hooda and Jood's instructions (2005). 100 g of wheat flour, 10 g
of sugar, 30 g of fat, 2 g of common salt, 1 g of sodium bicarbonate, 50 g of ammonia, 0.025g of
vanilla, and the necessary amount of water were the components. According to the experimental
design, mixtures of AWB and DWB were used to substitute wheat flour at variousdegrees (up to
40%) [59]

2.8. Health hazards caused by wheat-based products

The relationship between meals made from wheat and human health is coming under
scrutiny, despite their economic significance and rising demand. The majority of foodstuff
containing wheat are manufactured with refined white flour rather than whole wheat, and the
excessive intake of these foods may be a factor in the rising incidence of chronic illnesses
worldwide, especially type 2 diabetes and obesity [34]. Human health is impacted by the
quantity, make-up, and interactions of starch and cell wall polysaccharides, which make up the
majority ofthe carbohydrates in refined wheat products [24].

Consuming a lot of high-glycaemic starchy meals might worsen insulin resistance-related

metabolic abnormalities and, over time, result in poor glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and
hyperglycemia. Type 2 diabetes affects 6% of the population in the UK and is eventually the
developed by about 65% of those with impaired glucose tolerance. Around 45% of dietary energy
comes from carbs, including starch, however not all carbohydrates have the same physiological
effects. For instance, the amount and pace of starch breakdown by -amylase in the small intestine
dramatically affects the postprandial rise in blood glucose and insulin concentrations, which
differs significantly across starch-rich diets. For the nutritional prevention and control of obesity,
type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, low glycaemic index foods are necessary. Using non-
transgenic genetic techniques, starch structure may be altered, opening up new possibilities for

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the development of slowly digested, glycaemic-potentstaple foods [19].

2.9. Millet based sweet available

Six sweet products were created using a consistent amount of ground nut flour (5g) and
finger millet (15g), each sweetened with one of the six varieties of sugar listed earlier at three
different levels (5%, 10%, and 15%), and each containing 2ml of ghee. Ultimately, 18 samples
were created. The formulated sweet's nutritional content was estimated using the book written by
Gopalan et al 2000, Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. By employing the formulatedingredients
and the methods listed below, sweet balls were created [62,88].

By employing the formulated ingredients and the methods listed below, sweet balls were
created. After being thoroughly cleaned with water, the finger millets were dried in the sun,
roasted, and milled into fine flour. Groundnuts were roasted, the red outer peel was scraped off,
and they were then roughly powdered. Ragi flour was well mixed with groundnut powder,
selected sort of sugar, and ghee before being shaped into balls called laddus (sweet balls). The
chosen blend was separately used in the confectionary making process. The right mixes were
chosen, carefully weighed, and combined. After being well combined, 2Ml of ghee was addedto
the mixture to form laddus. The sweets created with 15 grams of coconut palm sugar and white
sugar received the highestmean overall score (8.86), followed by palmyra palm rock sugar (8.66)
and palmyra palm jaggery (8.7). The sugar content of the sweets produced from several types of
sugars is around17 to 22. Sweet made of coconut palm sugar was shown to be superior to all
other varieties of sugar sweets which represented moderate glycemic index. load. In conclusion,
the result of this research has significant ramifications for the global application of the GI idea
[91].

2.10. Design of experiment

To minimize the number of tests and identify the ideal parameters, the Taguchi design of
experiment is used. To get the anticipated findings, the Taguchi technique additionally employs
the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) approach or the Signal to Noise (S/N) ratio [11]. Design of
Experiments (DOE) is a statistical technique utilized in research and experimentation to optimize

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

processes, enhance product quality, and comprehend the correlation between input variables and
output responses. DOE comprises various modes or types, each possessing unique characteristics
and applications. Below are some frequently employed modes of Design of Experiment. This
mode involves testing all feasible combinations of input variables or factors. It allows for the
assessment of main effects and interactions among factors, although it can be resource-intensive
when numerous factors are involved [22].

This mode is employed when there is a large number of factors, making it impractical to test
all possible combinations. Fractional factorial designs select a subset of factor combinations for
testing, thereby reducing the required number of experimental runs. It provides information on
main effects and some interactions, though not all potential interactions may be captured [92].

The Taguchi method concentrates on identifying the most influential factors affecting a
response variable and optimizing the process or product design to be resilient against noise or
variability. Taguchi designs often employ an orthogonal array to efficiently evaluate factor
effects and levels. This mode is utilized when a non-linear relationship is anticipated between
input factors and the response variable. Response surface designs which involve testing multiple
combinations of factors to establish a mathematical model that describes the relationship between
factors and responses.

This model can subsequently be used for optimization [11]. This design type is an extension
of response surface design and includes additional runs to explore the curvature of the response
surface. It allows for fitting quadratic models and provides insights into the optimal factor
settings [22]. Plackett-Burman designs are applied when there is a large number of factors to be
tested, with the focus primarily on identifying main effects rather than interactions. These designs
are cost-effective as they require relatively fewer experimental runs [63]. Latin square designs
are employed when multiple factors are present, and each factor has different levels or
treatments. The design ensures that each factor level appears exactly once in each row and
column of the experimental matrix, facilitating the evaluation of main effects and interactions
[94]. The selection of an appropriate mode depends on specific objectives, available resources,
and the nature of the problem under consideration [11].
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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

2.11. Significance of Taguchi method

Off-line quality control is regarded as an efficient method to raise product quality at a
reasonable price. One of the traditional methods for this is the Taguchi technique. Engineers can
find a workable mix of design parameters using this method, reducing the variability of a
product's reaction and bringing the mean closer to the desired aim [31]. Multi-response problems
have gotten comparatively less attention in comparison to single-response problems in the
majority of earlier Taguchi technique uses. However, a consumer will often evaluate a product's
quality based on a number of linked quality factors. Even though this topic is the subject of a lot
of study, there is still plenty of room for implementing quality by design principles, particularly
when working with multi-response variables [10].

A correctly designed method or product is largely responsible for the success of tests and/or
technologies. The typical approach to process optimisation entails the examination of one
variable at a time, necessitating several combinations of labour-, time-, and money-intensive
trials. The Taguchi technique of design of experiments is a straightforward statistical tool that
uses a system of tabular designs (arrays) to enable the estimation of the greatest possible number
of main effects in an objective (orthogonal) manner with the fewest possible experimental runs
[31]. By running trials in real time, it has been used to forecast the major impact of the design
variable(s) and the best combination of each variable [95].

The modelling that is done effectively uses a "main effect only" technique to connect signal-to-
noise ratio to the control variables. Through the treatment of noise elements, this method makes
it possible to study both multiple response and dynamic issues. The robustness, noise, and quality
issues have received a lot of attention thanks to Taguchi ideas and concepts [104].

This approach has been widely used in a variety of industrial fields, but it has received less
attention in the biological sciences. With reference to specific case studies in the field of
biotechnology, notably in a variety of fields such fermentation, food processing, molecular
biology, wastewater treatment, and bioremediation, the current review has focused on the use
and comparison of the Taguchi approach [11].

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

2.11.1. Taguchi Method

The methods of Taguchi are commonly applied in engineering design. The Taguchi approach
includes a system design and parameter. To produce a resilient process and outcome for the
greatest product quality, design and tolerance design processes must be used (Taguchi 1987;
1993) [106]. The key component of Taguchi's methods is the use of parameter design, an
engineering approach to product or process design that focuses on identifying the parameter
(factor) settings that provide the highest levels of a quality characteristic (performance measure)
with the least amount of variance [102].

A strong and effective technique for creating processes that function consistently and ideally
under many situations is the use of Taguchi designs. It takes the use of a carefully planned
experiment that exposes the process to multiple degrees of design parameters in order to ascertain
the ideal design [10].

The Taguchi methodology exposes the process to many degrees of parameter design and
processes in order to achieve the highest levels of product/process quality with slight deviations
by Ealey Lance A, in the year 1994. In order to create the optimum experiment design, the
Taguchi technique relies on the signal to noise (S/N) ratio (log function for response for specified
parameters) and ANOVA by Karna et al., in the year 2012 [96. The S/N ratio integrates with the
model and forecasts the result to achieve in order to improve performance [65].

Taguchi model has recently been utilized for optimization of various drying conditions for
extracted ginger oil by Chen et al., in the year 2011, optimization for manufactured lactalbumin
nanoparticles by the Mehravar et al., in the year 2011. improved ultrasound-assisted bioactive
extraction by Salacheepet al., in the year 2020, the improvement of spaghetti that is gluten-free
by Mayasti et al., in the year 2019 [89]. Low cost and time, determining each element, predicting
ideal circumstances, and definingerror with a minimal number of experimental runs are some of
the benefits of employing the Taguchi approach was found in 2018 by Koorand et al [73,69].

To get the best cutting results possible while using a TiN-coated P10 carbide insert tool to

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

end mill hardened steel AISI H13 under semi-finishing and finishing conditions [31]. Cutting
speed, feed rate, and cut depth are the milling parameters that are examined. To examine the
impact of these milling settings, an orthogonal array, signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, and Pareto
analysis of variance (ANOVA) are used. The examination of the data reveals that fast-cutting
speed, low feed rate, and shallow cuts are the best combinations for low resulting cutting force
and good surface quality [11]. Additional major impacts, such as the interaction between milling
settings, are also looked at using the Taguchi technique for design of experiment (DOE). The
study demonstrates that, when compared to a complete factorial design, the Taguchi approach is
acceptable for solving the given issue with the fewest number of trials [22].

2.12. Sensory analysis

Predictions about how well a product will perform in the market, whether it's a new product
or a variant on an existing one, is one field of food sensory research. The obvious approach to
achieve this is to put the product, together with any necessary marketing components, on the
market and keep an eye on its sales. With electronic "check-out" and customer identification
using their loyalty card numbers, such surveillance is daily possible [1]. However, due to
practical considerations, such possibilities are not always there. As a result, sensory scientists
have deviseda number of methodologies for determining if a product is suitable for market
release or even the continuation of a product development programme [20].

We usually place a panel of qualified members evaluate the sensory qualities of the food
product. The panelists were tasked with assessing the product's many sensory qualities, including
colour, flavour, texture, appearance, and general acceptability. The evaluation of the sensory of
qualities of food products was done using the nine-point Hedonic scale approach [22].

Traditionally, the verbal categories of the 9-point hedonic scale are given numbers (1–9)
which represents (dislike extremely to like extremely), which are then mistakenly regarded as
interval data, in order to measure various preferences among a group of items. Parametric
statistics are applied to the means of these values for each product to produce an ordinal series
of means, which indicate the levels of like as the effect sizes for the set of items. As a result,
items with higher liking mean scores are favored over those with lower mean ratings in terms of

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

preference [107]. This information does not include the qualities of the goods in the collection,
merely the direction of consumer preferences. These must be inferred from drastically different
means [108].

The 9-point hedonic scale's impact sizes, which measure the levels of like for each item in
the collection, are provided by this set of means. Although levels of product liking may be of
interest to food scientists, it might be argued that preferences are of more interest. It is a frequent
misconception that if a product is "liked more," it is preferred to a product that is "liked less" in
order to gauge preferences [70].

This is consistent with lexical and common language definitions of preference. Such
comparisons, however, merely show the preferences' inclination. The degree of variations in the
mean liking scores for the items must be taken into account when estimating their strengths
(likelihood of one product being preferred to another). A study that directly elicits preference
effect sizes would be preferable to one that elicits intensity of liking effect sizes fromwhich
preference effect sizes must be computed [109]. U. D. Chavan et al. in the year 2014 by studying
utilization of the 9-Hedonic Scale, and observed that Chiwada Chiwada's overall acceptance
rating varied from 6.4 to 8.0 [53].

The scores given to Phule Vasudha and Phule Yasodha was (8.0), trailed by Phule Revati
(7.8) and then Phule Chitra (7.8). Scores for poha's general acceptability varied from 6.6 to 8.2.
the scores of Phule Yashoda was noted to be (8.0), Phule Chitra as (7.8), and Phule Vasudha
(8.0) [114,131].

2.13. Nutritional aspects of millet based products

Glycemic index of millet-based sweet ball was found to be 23.52, Crude fat % was found
to be 2.81 ± 0.02, Crude protein % was found to be 9.32 ± 0.09 and crude fiber % was found to
be 6.08 ± 0.05, Carbohydrate % was found to be 62.63 ± 0.26 and physiological energy was found
to be 325.00 ± 7.10 KCal by Pathak et al., 2000 [87]. Moisture % was found to be 34.01and ash
% was found to be 1.23 in the instant kheer mixmade of pearl millet by Bunkar D.S. et al in the
year 2014 [67,82].

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

Tukey's test for multiple comparisons of means at the 95% level of confidence revealed
that only the thermogravimetric method used at a heating rate of for samples of citrus and
theeucalyptus honey, 5˚C min-1 (TG3) produced ash content averages that agreed with those
discovered by gravimetry. This demonstrates that in order to completely incinerate the honey
samples by thermogravimetry, it is also important to employ modest heating rates in addition to
fiber paper by Felsner, M. L. et al in the year 2004 [51,109].

The water activity ranged in the tested samples of gluten-free bread from 0.90 to 0.92.
Because it had the lowest mean value (0.900.01) and was statistically different (p 0.05) from the
gluten-free bread sample made with quinoa and sucralose, the sample made with quinoa flour
stood out. According to Mariotti, Pagani, and Lucisano (2013), the water activity of gluten-
freebread with 40 g/100 g of buckwheat flour in its composition ranged from 0.99 to 0.98 [2]

Amit Gull et al in the year 2015 conducted a color study of millet flour and it revealed a
modest drop in L* value for all raw and cooked pasta samples [12]. With an increase in the
amount of barnyard millet flour used in the recipe, muffins lost their hardness, springiness,
resilience, cohesion, and chewiness. From 90.63 N in the control to 52.36 N in the 100 g/100 g
Barnyard Millet Flour mix muffins, the hardness of the muffin samples dramatically decreased
[90,73]. The muffins made with a BMF flour mix had a lower springiness rating of 100 g/100 g
(0.52) than the control muffins (0.87) [107].

In terms of resilience, muffins with 10 g/100 g BMF in the flour mix (0.16) were statistically
comparable (P 0.01) to controls (0.18). The longer recovery period for the muffin's structure
following compression isshown by the lower resilience numbers. When compared to the control,
the cohesiveness of themuffins reduced with increasing levels of BMF, however the decline was
non-significant (P 0.01) up to 30 g/100 g of BMF flour mix (0.44). The cohesion did, however,
significantly decline as the BMF level was raised more. This research was carried on by
Goswami D et al., in the year 2015 [85].

The 100 g/100 g Barnyard Millet Flour blend muffins scored 7.08, which implies they were

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

liked moderately which might be because of the mild bitterness in the millet flour and thecrumbly
texture of the muffins may both be responsible for the taste score's reduction with increased
Barnyard Millet Flour levels found by Goswami D et al., in the year 2015 [85]. Despite being a
significant source of dietary nutrients globally, cereal grains are lacking in several critical
elements, such as vital amino acids. MSM (a diet including moringa leaf flour) had the highest
content of essential amino acids, together with histidine and arginine (48.9 g/100g), whereas
MSMS had the lowest concentration (46.23 g/100g) [74]. The concentration of the total non-
essential amino acids was highest in the MSMS sample (51.06 g/100g) and lowest in the MSS
sample (48.26 g/100g) [19.97].

The essential amino acids isoleucine, leucine, methionine, and phenylalanine, which are
lacking in other starchy foods, are present in this small millet. It is also
well recognised for its anti-diabetic, anti-tumorogenic, anti-atherogenic, and antioxidant
properties, which are mostly linked to its polyphenol and dietary fibre levels. At 16 hours of
fermentation, the overall amount of necessary amino acids rose 1.1-fold, with protein
having48.68% more essential amino acids than total amino acids [25]. In terms of grammes per
100 grammes of total amino acids, lysine rose from 5.87 to 6.73. The typical millet protein has
a high concentration of important amino acids, particularly methionine and cysteine, which
contain sulphur [39,77].

When stored for six months in bi-axially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) packaging
material with a thickness of 100 m and a water vapour transmission rate of 7.71 g, m-2.day-1
under ambient conditions of 32.95 ± 8.75 °C (max), 17.6 ± 12.1 °C (min), and 79 ± 19% RH,
pearl millet-based pasta was examined for quality changes. It was discovered that there were
0.48% to 0.82% free fatty acids (FFA). It was discovered to be positively related to the length of
storage [30]. The samples' peak viscosity and free fatty acid (FFA) content are decreased by the
MW treatment. The sample's colour, FFA content, and pasting characteristics vary during the
storage trial, which lasts up to 15 days [76].
Control untreated flour (CF) saw a greater change in FFA concentration during storage than
MW treated samples. The viscosity of MW-treated samples was much lower than that of the CF
sample as a result of structural alterations in the starch molecules. Biscuits could be successfully

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

differentiated by composition and storage period using NIRS and chemometric analysis of
spectra. The artificial neural networks demonstrated excellent prediction accuracy and low
mistakes, in contrast to the created partial least squares models, which demonstrated lesser
precision in predicting storage, FFA, and PV based on NIR spectra [74].

While roasting millet grains at 140°C considerably (p 0.05) increased total sugars (2.2%-
1.9%), germinating millet grains for 48 hours at room temperature significantly (p 0.05)
increased total sugars (2.2%-5.5%). The excellent millet based poko product had reducing sugar
and total sugarin the range of 14.4-15.6 (%) and 14.6-18.2 (%), respectively, after two and three
days of fermentation at 30°C [88]. Due to the fermentation process, these essential biochemical
rangesin the poko gave the product suitable organoleptic properties (The South Indian rural and
tribalinhabitants eat foxtail millet (Setaria italica), which is a great source of nutrients. The
samples' peak viscosity and free fatty acid (FFA) content are decreased by the MW treatment
[40].

Endogenous microflora fermentation resulted in an increase in total soluble sugars and

reducing sugars and a reduction in starch content Finger millet and horse gramme were co-
fermented to create a cheap, high-protein snack called a dosa, an Indian morning dish [98]. Finger
millet-horse gramme flour mixtures at various ratios (2:1, 3:1, 4:1, and 5:1) underwent natural
fermentation for 24 hours. Throughout the fermentation, lactic acid bacteria predominated the
yeast counts, which was followed by a drop in the total amount of soluble and reducing sugars
[72].

2.14. Microbial analysis

The colony counts of aerobic mesophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and other
microorganisms were determined during the microbial analysis of blended batters. By using the
pour plate technique, bacteria (LAB) and yeasts were isolated from plate count agar, lactic agar,
and yeast glucose chloramphenicol agar, respectively. In order to create a homogenous and
thesuspension, one gramme of freshly fermented batter was homogenized with 9 ml of sterile
saline solution. The suspension was then serially diluted before being plated in duplicates. Plate
count agar plates, lactic agar plates, and yeast glucose chloramphenicol agar plates were all

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

incubated for 48 hours at 378C, followed by three days at 308C [106]. Colony-forming units
(cfu) per gramme of dried batter were determined by counting the colonies that emerged
following the incubation period. The colony's characteristics were noted, and representative
single colonies were isolated, also subcultured, and preserved at 48C for later investigation by
Palanisamy, B. D. et al. 2012) [56].

2.15. Cost estimation

Chen, C. C et al in the year 2006 found the performance measuring system for new product
development (NPD) based on cost-effectiveness is crucial [100]. The objective is to offer a
framework for joining NPD teams and manufacturing resources towards the joint objective of
"profitability improvement," which is focused on reducing the overall cost of goods [105]. The
advantages of monitoring NPD success using total costs analysis include: (1) a common thing to
evaluate language that is money; (2) relatively easy and visible statistics combined with direct
and indirect ratios to assist management and staff comprehend the significance of "doing things
right the first time."[29,112]

2.16. Statistical analysis

The results of each experiment were performed in triplicate, and they were provided as mean
SD. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance, which revealed significant differences.
Duncan's multiple range tests were used to distinguish the mean with a probability of p # 0.05
by Duncan in the year 1955. Software called SPSS 13.0 for Windows 2000 was used to conduct
this analysis by Palanisamy, B. D. et al. 2012 [56].

The difference in food GI was determined using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) items
between healthy subjects and diabetic patients, as well as between food products in people with
similar P ~ 0.05.The ANOVA was also used to separate out variation among the close-by the
ingredients in meal mixtures (Rasane, P. et al., 2012) [158].

The procedure involves breaking down the total observed variation in the data into distinct
components that may be ascribed to several sources as well as those caused by random or chance

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

fluctuation. It makes it possible to carry out important hypothesis testing to determine the factors
affecting the experiment's outcomes by Kaufmann, J., &; Schering, A. G. (2007) [89].

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 Chapter 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

3. MATERIAL AND METHOD

This chapter provides a detailed account of the materials and methods employed in the study.
It includes the selection of raw materials for the millet-based peda [97]. The design of
experiments was conducted using the Taguchi model, enabling efficient and systematic
optimization of various parameters [113]. The process of making the millet-based peda was
carefully outlined, considering factors such as ingredient proportions, mixing techniques, and
cooking methods [35]. Furthermore, sensory analysis was performed to assess the overall
acceptability and sensory attributes of the developed millet-based peda, providing valuable
insights into its taste, texture, aroma, and appearance. Proximate analysis, carried out using the
AOAC and IS methods, allowed for the determination of various nutritional components present
in the millet-based peda, such as protein, fat, carbohydrates, and moisture content [25].
Additionally, microbial analysis, conducted following the ISO method, was undertaken to
evaluate the microbial quality and safety of the peda. Cost estimation was performed to assess
the economic feasibility of producing the millet-based peda at a larger scale, while statistical
analysis was applied to analyze and interpret the data obtained from the experiments and
evaluations [99].

3.1. Raw materials

The raw materials required to make Millet-based Peda are Sorghum, Proso, Milk, Water,
Jaggery, Almonds and Cardamom. We purchased Sorghum and Proso at a cheap rate from
Siridhanya Millets Store at Kalkere, Bangalore, Karnataka. Milk was bought from Nandini Milk
Parlour at Kammanahalli, Bangalore, Karnataka and Jaggery, Almonds as well as Cardamom
from local grocery shop at JP Nagar 7th Phase, Bangalore, Karnataka. All chemicals and reagents
were purchased from Loba chemicals and were of 99.9% analytical grade.

3.2. Design of experiment

3.2.1. Design of experiment (D.O.E.) via Taguchi model for Sorghum, Proso, Milk, Water,
Jaggery, Almonds and Cardamom optimization
Different process parameters, such as Sorghum, Proso, Milk, Water, Jaggery, Almonds and

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

Cardamom are used to optimise for the formulation of Millet-based Peda. The powerful Taguchi
methodology exposes the process to multiple degrees of parameter design and processes with the
least amount of trial runs [99,101].

Table 3.1 Process Paraments and their levels

SORGHUM PROSO JAGGERY ALMOND CARDAMOM WATER
95 95 195 7 0.830 330
100 100 200 8 1.000 350
105 105 205 9 1.167 370

MILK 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

Table 3.2 Taguchi Orthogonal array L27(3ˆ7) Design of Experiment.

SORGHUM PROSO MILK JAGGERY ALMOND CARDAMOM WATER

95 105 500 200 7 0.83 330
95 105 600 200 8 1 350
95 105 700 200 9 1.167 370
95 100 800 195 7 0.83 330
95 100 900 195 8 1 330
95 100 1000 195 9 1.167 330
95 95 1000 205 7 0.83 330
95 95 950 205 8 1 330
95 95 850 205 9 1.167 330
100 105 750 205 7 1 350
100 105 950 205 8 1.167 350
100 105 650 205 9 0.83 350
100 100 550 200 7 1 370
100 100 600 200 8 1.167 370
100 100 700 200 9 0.83 370
100 95 800 195 7 1 330
100 95 900 195 8 1.167 350
100 95 950 195 9 0.83 370
105 105 1000 195 7 1.167 330
105 105 900 195 8 0.83 350
105 105 950 195 9 1 370
105 100 850 205 7 1.167 330
105 100 900 205 8 0.83 350

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

105 100 900 205 9 1 370

105 95 950 200 7 1.167 330
105 95 950 200 8 0.83 350
105 95 950 200 9 1 370

3.2.2. Regression Model Analysis for Taguchi Model

The linear regression equation was developed for the maximum current response observed.
The current response was applied by following the S/N ratio. Multiple correlation coefficient
(R2) was used to represent model descriptive quality [82].
3.2.3. Validation and Residual Analysis for Taguchi Model
The model was validated with experimental values for the given parameters. The relative error
of current response and S/N ratio calculated by the observed value. The residual analysis was
employed to find out if the model fits the statistical assumptions, i.e., that the residuals are
random and normally distributed with a mean of zero and constant standard deviations, and that
was done with a 95% level of confidence Montgomery et al., 2013 [111].
(𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞−𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞)
𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = 𝒙 = … (3.1)
𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞

3.3. Method of Preparing Millet-based Peda

First, we need to grind Proso and Sorghum in mixer grinder into fine particles. Then we need
to weigh 95g of Proso and Sorghum each. After weighing, we need to roast it at 85˚C for 20
minutes. Once the millets have been roasted, we need to soak it in 330 ml of water for 24 hours.
Later, we need to boil 800ml of milk along with 1.167g of cardamom, 8g of crushed almonnds
and 200g of Jaggery at 85˚C for 30 minutes till it gets condensed. Once it has been condensed
and has a thick consistency, we need to add the soaked sorghum and Proso to it and cook at 85˚C
for 5-10 minutes until all the water has been evaporated and it is properly cooked. As soon as it
is done, we need to cool it down in the room temperature (37˚C) and finally give it the shape
of Peda [114]. In conclusion, this recipe involves grinding Proso and Sorghum, roasting
them, soaking them, and then combining them with a mixture of milk, cardamom, almonds,
and jaggery. The mixture is boiled until condensed, and the soaked millets are added and
cooked until the water evaporates. Finally, the dish is cooled and shaped into Peda. This

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

process results in a delicious treat that combines the flavors of roasted millets with the
richness of milk and the sweetness of jaggery, creating a delightful and satisfying dessert.

Grinding of Proso and Sorghum in mixer grinder into fine particles.

Weigh 95g of Proso and Sorghum each.

Weighed samples needs to be roasted at 85˚C for 20 minutes.

Roasted millets need to be soaked in 330 ml of water for 24 hours

800ml of milk along with 1.167g of cardamom, 8g of crushed almonnds and 200g of
Jaggery is boiled at 85˚C for 30 minutes till it gets condensed.

Addition of the soaked sorghum and Proso to the condensed milk and cook at 85˚C
for 5-10 minutes until all the water has been evaporated and it is properly cooked.

As soon as it is done, we need to cool it down in the room temperature (37˚C) and
finally give it the shape of Peda.
Fig 3.1. Flow Chart of the Millet-based Peda Preparation

3.4. Sensory analysis

According to Design of Experiment, 27 Formulation of Millet-based peda was obtained as a
result. We prepared all the 27 different composition of sample and conducted a sensory analysis.
We Recruited panellists based on the desired criteria or data [117]. We carried out tests by using
9-Hedonic scale ranging from 1 to 9 (which represents dislike extremely to like extremely).
Different sensory qualities of the new product like Appearance, Body and Texture, Flavour,
Sweetness, Bitterness, Mouthfeel, Overall Acceptability were graded. Analyzing of the results

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

were done after the completion of the test. Development of new ideas from the comments given
below and conclusions were obtained to create a report based on the results [1].

3.5. Proximate analysis

The proximate analysis of a sample provides essential information about its basic
composition,helping to understand its nutritional profile. In this study, the proximate analysis
was conducted using the methods specified by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists
(AOAC). These widely accepted methods ensure accurate and standardized results, allowing for
reliable comparisons across different samples. By employing the AOAC methods, this study
aimed to determine the levels of key components such as moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrates,
and ash in the analyzed sample. The proximate analysis serves as a fundamental step in evaluating
the overall composition and nutritional characteristics of the sample, providing valuable insights
for further research and applications [20].

3.5.1. Crude lipid

2g of test sample is taken in a beaker of 50ml. To prevent lumping after adding acid, add 2
mL alcohol to the 50 mL beaker. Stir to evenly wet all the particles. Add 10 mL of HCl (25 +
11), thoroughly combine, place beaker in water bath maintained at 70°–80°C and stir frequently
for 30–40 minutes. Cool before adding 10 mL of alcohol. Mixture should be transferred to a
Mojonnier fat-extraction device. Remove stopper flask (with a glass, cork, Neoprene, or other
synthetic rubber stopper not affected by solvents) and violently shake for 1 minute to rinse beaker
into extraction tube with 25 mL ether added in three pieces. Redistilled petroleum ether (bp
60°C), 25 mL, and shake vigorously once more for 1 minute. Let stand for 20 minutes at around
600 rpm or centrifuge until the upper liquid is nearly clear. Draw as much ether-fat solution as
you can through a cotton pledget filter that is packed into the stem of a funnel just firmly enough
to allow ether to travel freely into a weighted 125 mL beaker-flask containing porcelain chips or
shattered glass [83]. Dry the beaker-flask and any identical flasks in an oven set to 100°C before
weighing them, and then allow them to stand in air to maintain a constant weight. Repeat the
extraction process twice, using just 15 mL of each ether each time. Shake vigorously after adding
each ether [116]. Draw clear ether solutions through a filter into the same flask as previously

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

and then wash the tip of the spigot, the end of the funnel, and the stem of the funnel with a few
millilitres of a combination of the two ethers that is free of any suspended water. Dry fat in an
oven at 100°C to a consistent weight after gently evaporating the ethers on a steam bath (about
90 minutes). Take the flask and counter out of the oven, let them stand in the air for about 30
minutes to get a steady weight, and then weigh. (Due to the flask's size and the material's nature,
cooling in air results in less inaccuracy than cooling in a dessicator.) By doing a blank calculation
on the reagents used, adjust this weight. % fat is reported via acidhydrolysis.
Crude Lipid % = (Weight of fat in sample ÷ Weight of sample) × 100 … (3.2)

3.5.2. Crude ash

In a shallow, somewhat broad ashing dish that has been lit, cooled in a desiccator, and
weighed shortly after reaching room temperature, weigh 3-5 g of a well-mixed test amount. Ignite
in a furnace at around 550°C (dull red) until light grey ash is produced, or until the weight remains
constant. When the item has reached room temperature, cool in the desiccator and weigh.
Reignited CaO is an effective desiccator drying agent [12].
Crude Ash % = (Weight of Ash ÷ Weight of sample) × 100 … (3.3)

3.5.3. Crude nitrogen

Digestsion- In the digestion flask, weigh the material accurately between 0.7 and 2.2 g. Add
0.7 g of mercury oxide or 0.65 g of mercury, 15 g of sodium sulphate or potassium sulphate in
powder form, and 25 ml of sulfuric acid (see 6.1). For optimum temperature management, the
ratio of salt to acid (m/v) at the conclusion of digestion should be close to 1: 1. At lower ratios,
digestion might not be complete, whereas at larger ratios, nitrogen might be lost [118].

DistillationDuring digestion, each gramme of fat uses 10 ml of sulphuric acid and each
gramme of carbohydrate uses 4 ml. When foaming stops, gradually heat the flask on an inclined
surface until it does lessen foaming, a tiny quantity of silicon antifoam or paraffin may be
applied.It should be aggressively boiled for one to two hours after the solution turns clear. 200
cc of distilled water should be added to cool, and in order to add 25 ml of the sulphide or the

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

thiosulphate solution to prevent complex formation [84]. Mercury will precipitate if you mix. To
avoid bumping, add some zinc granules, tilt the flask, and add the solution without stirring. 30 g
of potassium. The sodium hydroxide solution may be combined with the thiosulphate or sulphide
solution prior to being added to the flask to make the solution intensely alkaline. Connect the
flask to the distillation bulb or trap on the condenser right away. Rotate the flask to thoroughly
mix the contents, then heat it right away until all the ammonia has distilled over (at least 150 ml
distillate), with the tip of the condenser immersed in a measured amount of standard acid
(typically 50 ml. 0.5 N or an appropriate quantity of 0.1 N) in the receiver. Before ending the
distillation, lower the receiver and clean the condenser's tip with distilled water. Utilising methyl
red as an indicator, back-titrate excess acid with standard 0.1 N sodium hydroxide. Correct for
reagents' blank determination [119].
Crude Nitrogen % = {(Volume of Sulphuric Acid × 0.0014 × 250) ÷ (Weight of sample ×
Volume of sample taken)} × 10 … (3.4)

3.5.4. Crude fiber

Following fat extraction, a meal sample's crude fibre content was analysed. For the crude
fibre test, just 2 g of the fat-free sample were utilised. 200 cc of 1.25 percent sulfuric acid were
boiled for 30 minutes, filtered through muslin, and then washed three times before being
consumed. Once more, the sample was digested for 30 minutes in 200 ml of boiling 1.25 percent
NaOH before being filtered and thoroughly cleaned three times. After being dried for two hours
at 101°C, the resultant residue was weighed. Dried residue was burnt, cooled, and reweighed at
600±15°C [3].
The crude fibre was calculated using the formula below.
Crude Fiber % = (Weight after ignition ÷ Weight of sample) × 100 … (3.5)

3.5. 5. Total carbohydrate

To ascertain the product's carbohydrate content, the following equation was used:
Carbohydrate % is calculated as follows: 100 - (moisture, protein, ash, fat, and crude fibre) i.e.,
The carbohydrate content of a product is determined by subtracting the combined percentage of

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

moisture, protein, ash, fat, and crude fiber from 100%.

3.5.6. Moisture content

Accurately weigh about 2 g of the well-mixed test part in the cooled and weighted dish
(which comes with a cover), per 925.09A(a) (see 32.1.02), which was previously heated to 130°
3°C. In an oven that has a ventilation opening and is kept at 130° 3°C, uncover the test section,
the dry dish, the lid, and the contents after one hour. 1 hour of drying time begins when the oven
temperature is 130°C. Cover the dish while it is still baking, move it to a desiccator, and weigh
it as soon as it has cooled to room temperature. Fill in the weight loss as moisture and the amount
of wheat residue as total solids (indirect technique) [12].

Moisture % = {(Weight of original sample − Weight of dried sample) ÷

(Weight of original sample)} × 100 … (3.6)

3.5.7. Amino acid

Amino acid test is done by using HPLC method. 2 mobile phase needs to be prepared. First
mobile phase is prepared by using 100 ml Accq reagent and 1000 ml Milli Q Water and the
second is 60:40 [ACN:H2O] [201].
Sample preparation is done by weighing 0.25g of sample into glass tube and addition of 5 ml of
1:1 [HCL:H2O] and pinch of phenol. Incubation is done at 105˚C for 16 hours and cooled down
to room temperature. It is then transferred to 50ml Tarson tube and made up to 25 ml with
H2O. By using syringe filter, the sample is filtered into rial vials.
Standard Preparation is done in a clean autosampler vial, where we need to combine 40 µl of the
amino acids hydrolysate standard with 960 µl of Milli-Q water, which equals 100 pmol/l of each
amino acid and 50 pmol/µl of cysteine. 20 µl of the diluted standard is taken and then
derivatization process is started [202].

Derivatization process: Vial 2A of the derivatization kit's AccQ is filled. Fluor reagent with
1.0 ml of AccQ.Fill the vial securely with the fluor reagent diluent (Vial 2B included in the

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

derivatization kit). In order to dissolve the reagent powder, vortex vial 2A for 10 seconds and
heat it on a heating block at 55 ˚C for no more than 10 minutes [86]. Addition 120 µl of AccQ
to the sample containers. Briefly vortex the Fluor Borate buffer (reagent 1, included in the
derivatization kit). Add 40 µl of the reconstituted reagent, vortex, and heat for 10 minutes in a
heating block at 55 ˚C. 140 µl of AccQ should be added to Standard vials. Briefly vortex the
Fluor Borate buffer (reagent 1, included in the derivatization kit) . Add 40 µl of the reconstituted
reagent, vortex, and heat for 10 minutes in a heating block at 55˚C. Ten pmol/ µl of each amino
acid and five pmol/ µl of cysteine are present in this derivatized standard [114].
Transfer the derivatized samples and standards to the LVIs of the autosampler and cap them [87].

Instrumental Parameters
• Flow Rate: 1.0ml/min
• Total run Time: 75 min.
• Injection volume: 5.0µl
• Column Oven Temperature: 37.0 ºC
• FLD: Excitation Wavelength – 250nm,
Emission wavelength – 395nm
• Mobile phase gradient table
Table. 3.3 Mobile Phase Gradient Table
Time (min) A% B%
0.00 100.0 0.0
0.50 98.0 2.0
15.00 93.0 7.0
19.00 90.0 10.0
32.00 67.0 33.0
33.00 67.0 33.0
34.00 0.0 100.0
37.00 0.0 100.0
38.00 100.0 0.0
50.00 100.0 0.0

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

50.01 0.0 100.0

65.00 0.0 100.0
65.01 100.0 0.0
75.00 100.0 0.0

Amino acid % = [(A1 – A2) * M1* D1 * C1 * W2 * D2 * 100] / A3 * W1 * 1000 … (3.7)

A1 = Area of sample
A2 = Area of Blank
A3 = Area of standard
M1 = Sample makeup volume in ml
D1 = Further dilutions of sample including derivatization dilution
C1 = Concentration of standard in mM
W1 =Weight of sample in mg
W2 = Molecular weight of amino acid
D2 = Dilutions of standard including derivatization dilution.

3.5.8. Free fatty acid

An appropriate quantity of the cooled oil or fat is weighed carefully in a 200-ml conical
flask after completely mixing the oil or melted fat. The volume of alkali required for the titration
must not exceed 10 ml due to the weight of the oil or fat used in the test and the strength of the
alkali used for the titration. 50 to 100 cc of newly neutralised, hot ethyl alcohol should be added.
a millilitre of the phenolphthalein indicator solution, and so on [120]. The mixture should be
brought to a boil for approximately a minute before being titrated with a normal aqueous alkali
solution while still hot [32].

Acid Value = 56.1 𝑉𝑁/𝑊 … (3.8)

Free Fatty Acid in terms of Oleic Acid, percent by weight =28.2 𝑉𝑁/𝑊 … (3.9)
Free Fatty Acid in terms of Lauric Acid, percent by wight = 20.0 𝑉𝑁/𝑊 … (3.10)
Free Fatty Acid in terms of Ricinoleic acid, percent by weight = 29.8 VN/W ... (3.11)
Free fatty Acid in terms of Palmitic acid, percent by weight = 25.6 VN/W ... (3.12)
N = the normalcy of the standard potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide solution.

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

W = the weight in grammes of the substance used for the test.

V = the volume in ml of the standard potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide solution used.

3.5.9. Sugar
Sample is taken and 70ml water is added to it. We need to keep it in water bath at 70˚C for
half an hour. After cooling we need to transfer it to 200/250 ml volumetric flask. Addition of 10
ml of carez – I and leave for 20 minutes and then 10 ml of carez – II and leave for 20 minutes. It
is shaken and made up to the mark. After this it was filtered, and both Reducing Sugar and Total
sugar was found from it [26].

3.5.9.1. Reducing Sugar

Titration is done after addition of 5 ml of Felhing A and 5 ml of Fehling B to get the titrated
value to calculate the amount of reducing sugar present in the sample [126].

3.5.9.2. Total Sugar

One 50 ml of filtered solution in 100 ml volumetric flask was taken. Addition of 5ml of
concentrated HCL and keep it for overnight standing for 15 hours. Next day it needs to be
neutralized by using 30% NaOH and phenolphthalein indicator and them make up to the mark
and filter if needed and then titration is done by addition methylene blue and end point is noted
when brick red colour is observed [129].
Total sugar = (Made up Volume * Table Value * Dilution Volume * 100) / (Sample weight *
Titration Value * 1000) …(3.13)
Added sugar = (Total Sugar – Reducing Sugar) * 0.95 … (3.14)

3.5.10. Colour
To determine the colour of the peda, Hunter colour lab was used. The upper surface of the
peda samples were tested for colour using a Hunter colorimeter model named Color Flex (Hunter
Associates Inc., Reston, VA, USA). The colour axes A* (redness (?)/greenness (-), b*
(yellowness (?)/blueness (-), and Hunter L* (lightness/darkness) were used [9].

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

The total colour difference (E) was determined as follows:

∆E= [(∆L)2 +(∆α)2 +(∆Ь)2 ] ½ … (3.15) [92]

3.5.11. Water activity

With an accuracy of +/- 0.003 aw, the benchtop water activity metre LabMasteraw
(Novasina AG, Neuheinstrase 12, 8853 Lanchen, Switzerland) was used to measure the water
activity of the peda sample [93]. In vacuum desiccators containing saturated salt solutions of
sodium chloride, sodium bromide, and magnesium chloride, respectively, the aw values of the
peda sample were adjusted to 0.75, 0.56, and 0.32 (1960 Rockland). By pooling separate (20 g)
peda samples, a homogenous bulk (600 g) of peda was created. Around 150–200 g of the sample
were divided among three separate sterile desiccators that contained saturated salt solutions in
order to achieve the desired water activity. Based on the triple sample's consistent weight,
equilibrium was assumed [9].

3.6. Microbial analysis

Microbial analysis was conducted to determine the presence and abundance of
microorganisms in the samples. Three different microbial tests were performed, including
coliform analysis, yeast and mold analysis, and total plate count analysis. The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) methods were followed for each test to ensure
standardized and reliable results [150].

3.6.1. Coliform
For the liquid product and/or from each selected dilution, prepare two dishes. Transfer the
liquid product or the required dilutions to the centre of each plate using a sterile pipette. Each
dilution should be injected into the plates using a different sterile pipette. 15 ml of the VRBL
medium, at 44 to 47˚C, should be added to each Petri plate [151]. No more than 15 minutes
should pass between the time the original suspension is prepared (or the 10-1 dilution, if the
substance is liquid), and the time the medium is put into the dishes [94].

Place the Petri dishes on a cold surface, carefully combine the inoculum with the medium,

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

let the mixture to harden. Additionally, create a control plate with 15 ml of the medium so that
its sterility may be verified [95]. Prepare a control plate with the medium as well so you can
verify its sterility. After it solidifies, pour 4 ml of the VRBL medium at (44 – 47) ˚C, over the
surface of the infected media when it has fully solidified. Allow to set up as previously
mentioned. Invert the prepared plates and incubate them for 24 h 2 h at a temperature of or (as
agreed) between 30˚C and 37˚C in the incubator [96].

Choose the Petri plates containing, if feasible, 10 or more colonies and less than 150 colonies
after the allotted incubation time. Count the purplish red colonies with a diameter of at least
(sometimes encircled by a reddish zone of precipitated bile) using the colony-counting apparatus.
These are thought to be normal coliform colonies and don't need to be verified further [172].

Immediately following the incubation period, count and confirm all atypical colonies (e.g.,
lower in size) and colonies obtained from milk products containing sugars other than lactose.
Colonies that resemble the normal coliforms may arise as a result of the conversion of sugars
other than lactose [37]. If available, inoculate five colonies of each unusual type into tubes filled
with vividly green lactose bile broth. The incubator should be set at or (as decided) for incubating
the tubes. The coliform colonies in the Durham tube that exhibit gas production should be thought
of. Consider the outcomes when doing your calculation [97].

3.6.2. Molds and yeast

All the ingredients aside from the chloramphenicol where placed in the water, and then bring
to a boil to fully dissolve. If required, change the pH so that it is 5,6, ±0,2 at 25 °C following
sterilisation. It was mixed with 10 ml of a 10% (mass concentration) chloramphenicol solution
in ethanol. The medium should be dispensed in sufficient amounts into containers with the
appropriate capacities. Use an autoclave to sterilise for 15 minutes at 121 °C. Cool the medium
right away in a water bath that is kept between 44 and 47 degrees Celsius. Pour 15 ml portions
into sterilised Petri plates after cooling to below 50 °C [177,165]. Allow the medium to set before
drying the plates' surface if necessary. Use right away or keep in a dark place [98].

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

In accordance with ISO 6887 (all parts), ISO 7218, ISO 8261, and the particular.
International Standard applicable to the questioned product, prepare the test portion, initial
suspension (primary dilution), and subsequent dilutions. Other than for the test sample's specific
preparation, it is advised to utilise 0,1% (mass concentration) peptone water broth as a diluent.
As opposed to a blender or shaker, use a peristaltic homogenizer. Maintain the pipette in a
horizontal (not vertical) position when filled with the proper volume of the initial suspension and
dilutions due to the quick sedimentation of spores in the pipette. Shake the initial suspension and
dilution to prevent the deposition of particles that may contain microorganisms [144].

The ISO 21527-2:2008 standard describes a horizontal method for counting viable osmophilic
yeasts and xerophilic moulds using the colony count technique at (25 1) °C in products that are
intended for human consumption or animal feeding and have a water activity of less than or
equalto 0,95 (dry fruits, cakes, jams, dried meat, salted fish, grains, cereals and cereal products,
flours, nuts, spices and condiments, etc.) [157].

The enumeration of mould spores is not permitted by ISO 21527-2:2008, and it does not
apply to dehydrated goods with water activity less than or equal to 0,60 (dehydrated cereals,
oleaginous, spices, leguminous plants, seeds, powders for instant beverages, dry food for
domestic animals, etc.). The ISO 21527-2:2008 standard does not include the detection of
mycobacterial flora or the testing of food for mycotoxins [136].

3.6.3. Total plate count

Pick up two Petri dishes that have been sterilised. Use a sterile pipette to transfer 1 ml of the
test sample, if liquid, or 1 ml of the original suspension (10-1 dilution), if the product is anything
else, to each plate. This may be reduced to one dish if plates from more than one dilution are
created (ISO 7218) [137]. Take a second Petri dish that is clean. Pour 1 ml of the 101 dilution
(for liquid products) or 1 ml of the 102 dilution (for other items) using a different sterile pipette.If
more dilutions are required, continue the process using a fresh, sterile pipette for each decimal
dilution. When inoculating Petri dishes, only use the crucial dilution stages (at least two of
thesuccessive decimal dilutions), if suitable and practical, to produce colony counts of 10 to 300

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

per plate. Each Petri dish should contain 12 to 15 ml of the plate count agar heated to 44 to 47
°C. If the product is liquid, the period from the completion of the first suspension preparation
and the time the medium (5.3) is poured into the dishes cannot exceed 45 minutes. Rotate the
Petri dishes to thoroughly combine the inoculum with the medium, and then let them standing on
a cold, flat surface for the mixture to harden [132]. Pour 4 ml of the overlay medium or plate
count agar at 44 to 47 °C onto the surface of the inoculated medium after it has fully solidified,
but only if it is thought that the product under investigation contains microorganisms whose
colonies have overgrown the surface of the medium. To be allowed to set. According to ISO
7218, invert the prepared plates and set them in the incubator at 30 °C. For (72 + 3) hours,
incubate [99].

Keep the plates with, ideally, no more than 300 colonies after the designated incubation
period. Utilising the colony-counting tools if necessary, count the colonies on the plates. Examine
the dishes in a dimly lit area. The operator must be careful not to mistakenly identify pinpointing
the colonies in dishes as particles of undissolved or precipitated materials if pinpoint colonies are
to be counted [155]. Determine whether an object is suspect by carefully inspecting it and, if
necessary, at a higher magnification. Colonies that spread outward are to be treated as single
colonies. If less than a quarter of the dish is overtaken by spreading, count the colonies there and
multiply that amount by the number of colonies on the rest of the dish. If expanding colonies
have exceeded more than 25%, we may eliminate the count [158].

3.7. Cost analysis

The cost economics of the developed sensors wasdetermined taking into account the fixed
and variable costs.
3.7.1. Fixed Cost
a) Total material cost = A
b) Material Fabrication cost = B
c) Total fixed cost = C
3.7.2. Operational Cost
a) Expected life in years = i year

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

b) Expected operation = H hours

𝑐
=> Depreciation = (𝑐 − 10) / (𝐻 ∗ 10) = Rs X1/h … (3.16)
𝑐
10 𝑖 1
=>Interest on the capital (10%) = 𝑐 − ∗ ∗ = Rs X2/h … (3.17)
2 100 𝐻
0.5 1
=>Maintenance cost at 0.5% per year = ∗𝐶∗ = Rs X3/h … (3.18)
100 𝐻

3.7.3. Variable Cost

a) Labour Cost = Rs X4/h … (3.19)

3.7.4. Total operation cost per hour

Total cost per hour is = X1+X2+X3+X4 … (3.20)
= Rs X/H … (3.21)

3.8. Statistical Analysis

To evaluate the variability of millet-based peda samples obtained in triplicate, and data acquired
descriptive statistical analysis and Minitab software were utilized.

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 Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results and discussion of the study encompass various aspects of the millet-based peda.
The design of experiments (DOE) was employed to optimize the formulation by varying factors
such as Sorghum, Proso, Milk, Water, Jaggery, Almonds, and Cardamom. A response table was
created to analyze the signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) of the factors. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) determined the significance of each factor and their interactions. A linear regression
model was developed and validated using experimental data. Sensory analysis evaluated the
peda's taste, texture, aroma, and appearance [159]. Proximate analysis, including amino acids,
fat, fiber, sugar, color, and water activity, provided insights into nutritional composition.
Microbial analysis, including coliform, yeast and mould, and total plate count ensured safety,
and cost estimation evaluated economic feasibility. These results collectively contribute to
optimizing the millet-based peda formulation and understanding its sensory attributes,
nutritional value, microbial quality, and cost implications. The study also includes statistical
analysis for data interpretation [160].

4.1. Design of Experiment

4.1.1. Design of experiments (DOE) for optimization of Sorghum, Proso, Milk, Water,
Jaggery, Almonds and Cardamom
The optimum levels of parameters such as was Sorghum (A), Proso (B), Milk (C), Jaggery
(D), Almonds (E), Cardamom (F) and Water (G) were investigated through the DOE method
using the optimization. A mixed level design of one parameter with two and three other
parameters with three levels based on the L27(3ˆ7) in Minitab software, were conducted
according to Table no 3.2. The main effects and interaction plots between the parameters are
depicted in Figure 4.1 and 4.2 respectively. The parameter values were varied. Sorghum at 95
was seen to obtain maximum response. As the Sorghum value increased from 95 to 105 the
response declined. In the case of Proso, it again showed 95 as the maximum response compared
to 100 and 105. Milk at 800 was seen to have the maximum response when compared to others.
In the case of Jaggery there was an incline from 195 to 200 but then it declined from 200 to

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

205. Hence, 200 in jaggery is the maximum response obtained. Similarly, for almonds the
maximum response obtained was 8. Cardamom showed a decline from 0.830 to 1.000 but then
there was a steady increase to 1.167 and that was the maximum response obtained. Lastly was
water where 330 was noticed to be highest response obtained. Fig. 4.2 illustrates the strong
interaction between parameters sorghum and proso, proso and milk, milk and jaggery, jaggery
and almonds, almonds and cardamom and finally cardamom and water.

Fig.4.1 Main Effects Plot for Mean

Fig.4.2 Interaction Plot for Response

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

The response table is shown in Table 4.1, which compares the relative degree of impacts by
ranking them according to delta values. The difference between the 106 highest and lowest
mean for each parameter was used to determine delta Moozarm Nia et al. (2019) [109], the milk
and water appear to be the most significant that determine the peak response. The response is
the least affected by jaggery.

Table 4.1 Response Table for Signal to Noise Ratios

Level Sorghum Proso Jaggery Almond Cardamom Water
1 17.97 18.00 17.80 17.87 17.91 18.03
2 17.86 17.97 17.94 17.99 17.76 17.70
3 17.80 17.67 17.89 17.77 17.96 17.84
Delta 0.16 0.33 0.14 0.22 0.20 0.33
Rank 6 3 7 4 5 2

Level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Milk 17.79 17.79 17.92 17.79 18.06 16.59 18.20 17.79 17.95
Level 10 11 Delta Rank
Milk 17.92 17.87 1.61 1

4.1.2. Analysis of variance In Taguchi analysis

The ANOVA test is commonly used to characterize the effective parameters on the average
response and S/N ratio. Table 5 shows the degree of freedom (DF), the sum of squares (SS),
mean square (MS), F-value (F), and p-value based on S/N data. The ANOVA demonstrates the
relative relevance of each parameter using the sequential (Seq) and adjusted (Adj) sum of
squares, with the parameter with the highest SS having the main effect. SS values show that the
milk parameter has the highest SS value, followed by water and proso. Furthermore, milk has
the lowest p-value (0.012) and almonds had the largest p-value (0.972). The parameters such
as milk, water and proso are found to be significant and parameter with P value 0.05 and above
was not significant. The analysis of the variance is given below in the table 4.2 that is given
below.

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

Table 4.2 Analysis of Variance for SN ratios

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P
Sorghum 2 0.12277 0.78133 0.390666 1.64 0.101
Proso 2 0.58752 0.51120 0.255600 1.08 0.043
Milk 10 1.63441 2.30724 0.230724 0.97 0.012
Jaggery 2 0.09001 1.32993 0.664963 2.80 0.174
Almond 2 0.43514 0.01354 0.006768 0.03 0.687
Cardamom 2 0.02664 0.19610 0.098051 0.41 0.972
Water 2 0.63302 0.63302 0.316509 1.33 0.020
Residual Error 4 0.95005 0.95005 0.237513
Total 26 5.47957

Therefore, milk has the greatest impact on the response curve, while jaggery has the least
impact. These features are considered key factors since even the smallest variations in any of
them might result in substantial changes in performance [206,209].

4.1.3. Linear regression model

The model equation was developed for maximum current response. “Larger is the better”
S/N was applied for current response using Equation 1. Equation 2 denotes the regression
equation based on the results of S/N ratio.

RESPONSE = 10.57 - 0.0120 SORGHUM - 0.0260 PROSO

+ 0.000043 MILK + 0.0085 JAGGERY
- 0.023 ALMOND + 0.133 CARDAMOM - 0.00178 WATER

S/N(RATIO) = 42.0379 + 0.000288 SORGHUM + 0.000538 PROSO

+ 0.000004 MILK + 0.000333 JAGGERY
+ 0.00005 ALMOND - 0.01014 CARDAMOM + 0.024831 WATER

Multiple correlation coefficient (R2) was used to represent model descriptive quality. The
R2 value of response and S/N Ratio of models were 83.33 and 82.66 respectively. Because of
the higher R2 value, it can be ascertained that the experimental and predicted values are very
close, and the regression model is highly significant.

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

4.1.4. Validation and residuals analysis

The model was validated with experimental values for the given parameters shown in Table
4.3. The relative error of current response and S/N ratio calculated for the given conditions was
-0.066 and -0.56 respectively.

Table 4.3 Validation with experimental Values

Parameters
Sorghum Proso Milk Jaggery Almonds Cardamom Water
Response 95 95 800 200 8 1.167 330
S/N 95 95 800 200 8 1.167 330

Exp Predictive Relative Error

8.5 9.1 -0.066

8.5 19.31 -0.56

Figure 4.3 illustrates the residual analysis employed to find out if the model fits the statistical
assumptions, i.e., that the residuals are random and normally distributed with a mean of zero and
constant standard deviations, and that was done with a 95% level of confidence Montgomery and
Wiley (2013) [111, 181]. The normal probability plot revealed that they are rather close to a
straight line, meaning that the errors are normally distributed, and the normality hypothesis is
met. The variation of residuals as a function of fitted values is shown in Figure 5 The standardized
residuals yielded a randomly distributed scattered point distribution within the range of ±4. The
random scattering of residuals around the surface indicated that the model was appropriate, and
the independence and constant variance assumptions were not infringed [102].

Figure 5 illustrates the relationship between the fitted values and the variation of residuals.
The standardized residuals are observed to be randomly distributed, forming a scattered point
distribution within the range of ±4. This random scattering of residuals around the surface
suggests that the model is suitable, and it does not violate the assumptions of independence and
constant variance [102].

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

Fig. 4.3 Residual Plot for SN Ratios

4.2. Sensory Analysis

At Jain University in Bengaluru, a panel of three trained and one semi-trained individuals
evaluated the generated products of various compositions on a sensory level. Using a 9-point
hedonic scale, the panellists were asked to rate the prepared millet-based peda. Each panellist
receives 1 millet-based peda from each trail (SO1-SO8) along with a control sample (T0) for the
evaluation of the samples' appearance, body, and texture as well as their flavour, sweetness, and
bitterness. The prepared samples, designated as SO1, SO2, SO3, SO4, SO5, SO6, SO7, and SO8,
were evaluated for appearance, body and texture, taste, sweetness, and bitterness, as well as
general acceptance. MS-Excel was used to analyse the intercepted data. They were assessed
statistically using Minitab [1].
Table 4.4 Trials selected for the sensory evaluation.
SORGHUM PROSO MILK JAGGERY ALMOND CARDAMOM WATER
95 105 500 200 7 0.83 330
95 100 800 195 7 0.83 330
95 95 1000 205 7 0.83 330
100 105 950 205 8 1.167 350
100 95 950 195 9 0.83 370
105 95 950 200 7 1.167 330

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

SO1 SO2 SO3 SO4 SO5 SO6 SO7 SO8 T0

Apperance
10
8
6
Overall Acceptibility Body & Texture
4
2
0

Bitterness Flavour

Sweetness

Fig.4.4 Web diagram for Sensory Evaluation of Millet based peda using 9-hedonic
scale

4.3. Proximate Analysis

The final chosen sample underwent nutritional and proximate analysis. To get triplicate
values, each parameter's analysis was done three times. To confirm and get rid of manual error,
all the data collected were recorded, and average values were determined. In order to determine
the variance in difference between the data points gathered, the standard error mean value is
also determined. To determine the error mean values, the analytical data is assembled and
statistically examined. Understanding the variance and standard deviation that happened over
the trails is made easier with the aid of the error mean values. The values from the analysis are
shown in the table below in the specified format [1].

4.3.2. Crude lipid

The crude lipid in developed millet based peda was analyzed and it revealed that the average
crude lipid content was 20.12 ± 1.03 as indicated in Figure 4.5 and LOQ (Limit of
Quantification) was found to be 0.1. This lipid content can be attributed due to the presence of
almonds, milk, sorghum, jaggery, and proso in the product. The inclusion of these ingredients

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

contributes to the overall lipid content of the peda. Among these ingredients, almonds are a
significant contributor to the overall lipid content due to their naturally high fat content and
consists of 55.1% of lipid [105]. The presence of almonds, along with the other ingredients,
adds richness and enhances the lipid profile of the peda. Other ingredients like the lipid content
in cow milk was found to be 3.69g per 100g which includes both saturated and unsaturated fats,
is responsible for the observed fat percentage in the peda and the germ of sorghum is a rich
source of lipid (28% of the germ) [78]. It is a versatile and nutritious grain, and also makes a
noteworthy contribution to crude lipid content [3]. The LOQ refers to the lowest concentration
of an analyte that can be reliably quantified using the analytical method employed in the study.
In this case, a concentration below 0.1 would fall below the detection limit of the method. This
data can be useful for assessing the dietary value and potential health implications associated
with consuming this particular product. Furthermore, the determination of the LOQ of 0.1
demonstrates the sensitivity of the analytical method used to measure the crude lipid content. It
establishes the lower limit below which accurate quantification becomes challenging [112].

In a study reported in 2023 on market doodh (white) peda samples revealed the overall mean
fat percentage. The study analyzed a sample of market doodh peda using appropriate techniques
and found the overall mean fat percentage to be 18.58 ± 2.23 [115]. In this case, milk is identified
as one of the major and sole contributor of fat in the peda about 3.69g per 100g. The fat content
in milk, which includes both saturated and unsaturated fats, is responsible for the observed fat
percentage in the peda [52]. It provides valuable information on the fat content of market doodh
peda, serving as a benchmark for understanding its nutritional composition. The relatively low
standard deviation suggests consistency in fat content among the sampled peda products. This
data is relevant for consumers, manufacturers, and researchers interested in the nutritional
aspects of market doodh peda, aiding in informed dietary choices, product labeling, and
consideration of potential health implications [103].

In the above study, the developed Millet based peda was found to have more crude lipid

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percentage than compared market doodh peda samples. This may be the fact because the doodh
peda which is available in market has only has milk as an ingredient that is contributing to crude
lipid, but millet based peda has millet and almonds along with milk as an ingredient that
contributes to crude lipid [212]. Milk, particularly whole milk, is a significant contributor to
crude lipid content due to its fat content. The lipid content in cow milk was found to be 3.69g
per 100g. The lipid component of milk consists of various types of fats, including saturated,
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats. However, milk is generally recognized as a source
of both essential and non-essential fatty acids [201]. These fatty acids are crucial for providing
energy, supporting cell growth, aiding in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, and maintaining
healthy skin and hair. While it is important to consume milk and its lipid content in moderation,
incorporating it into a balanced diet can contribute to our overall intake of crude lipids, ensuring
a diverse range of healthy fats for our body's needs [28]. The germ of sorghum is a rich source
of lipid (28% of the germ) Sorghum, a versatile and nutritious grain, also makes a noteworthy
contribution to crude lipid content. While sorghum is not as high in fat as some other oil-rich
crops, it still contains a significant amount of crude lipids that play an important role in our
overall health. The lipid content in sorghum consists mainly of unsaturated fats, including
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. These healthy fats are known to support
cardiovascular health by reducing bad cholesterol levels, improving blood lipid profiles, and
lowering the risk of heart disease [161,168]. Additionally, the presence of crude lipids in
sorghum aids in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and nutrients, ensuring our bodies can
effectively utilize these essential compounds [4]. Although sorghum is not primarily sought after
for its lipid content, incorporating this grain into our diet can provide a modest yet valuable
contribution to our overall crude lipid intake, promoting a well-rounded and nutritious eating
pattern [3]. Almonds are rich in lipids and consists of 55.1% of lipid. Almonds are highly
regarded for their nutritional value, and one of the key components that makes them beneficial
to our health is their contribution to crude lipid content. Crude lipid refers to the total fat content
present in a food item, and almonds are abundant in healthy fats. These fats primarily include
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which are

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essential for maintaining optimal health [202]. By consuming almonds, we provide our bodies
with a good source of crude lipid, which plays a vital role in various physiological functions.
These healthy fats contribute to cardiovascular health by helping to lower bad cholesterol levels
and reduce the risk of heart disease. Furthermore, crude lipids derived from almonds also aid in
promoting brain function, enhancing nutrient absorption, and supporting healthy skin.
Incorporating almonds into our diet can be a simple yet effective way to increase our intake of
beneficial crude lipids and reap their numerous health benefits[ 162,165]

4.3.3. Crude Ash

The result for the crude ash content in millet based peda wa given in Table 4.5, and it was
found to be 1.64 ± 0.02 and the LOQ was found to be 0.1. This suggests the presence of inorganic
minerals and trace elements in the sample. Crude ash represents the residue left after incineration
of the organic matter and provides an estimate of the total mineral content. The measured value
indicates the amount of inorganic matter, such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus,
and other minerals, present in the peda [110]. This analysis is important for assessing the
nutritional composition and mineral content of the food product. Additionally, the study
determined the Limit of Quantification (LOQ) for crude ash analysis, which was identified as
0.1 where, the LOQ signifies the minimum detectable concentration of the analyte using the
chosen analytical method [118]. Concentrations below 0.1 would fall below the method's
detection limit. This information contributes to understanding the nutritional profile and quality
of the peda, as the ash content reflects the presence of inorganic mineral components. The
determination of the LOQ at 0.1 underscores the sensitivity of the analytical method,
establishing the lower limit for reliable quantification. This knowledge is essential for future
research, quality control, and evaluating the accuracy of the analysis [203]. Overall, the study
enhances our understanding of the mineral content and quality characteristics of millet-based
peda. This knowledge has practical applications in guiding dietary choices, product
development, and ensuring consistent quality control during peda production [163]. This
knowledge is essential for future research, quality control, and evaluating the accuracy of the

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analysis [203].

In a study reported in 2023 on Kandi Peda revealed the ash content present in the product
[58]. The study included five samples: Sample number 1, Sample number 2, Sample number 3,
Sample number 4, and Sample number 5. The results indicated variations in the ash content
among the samples. Sample number 5 exhibited the highest ash content with a mean value of
3.12 ± 0.03. In comparison, Sample number 1, Sample number 2, Sample number 3, and Sample
number 4 had mean ash contents of 3.11 ± 0.09, 3.11 ± 0.01, 2.91 ± 0.01, and 3.07 ± 0.03,
respectively. These findings suggest that Sample number 5 had a slightly higher ash content
compared to the other samples. The ash content represents the inorganic mineral content in food
products, and variations can be attributed to factors such as ingredients, processing methods, or
sources of the Kandhi Pedha samples [164]. The variation in the ash content can be due to several
reasons. Milk is the primary ingredient, which naturally contains minerals like calcium,
phosphorus, and potassium; concentration of minerals during the cooking process; as the water
content in milk evaporates; use of milk powder or condensed milk, which have higher mineral
concentrations compared to fresh milk; addition of mineral-rich ingredients such as nuts, which
can further contribute to the ash content and fortification of the peda with mineral supplements
or additives. It provides valuable information on the ash content of Kandhi Pedha and highlights
the need for further research to understand the factors influencing these variations and their
implications for the quality and nutritional profile of the product [204].

In the above study it was shown that the developed Millet based peda was found to have less
ash value than compared to the Kandhi Pedha. This may be the fact because ash parameter is
analyzed to get the inorganic residue from the incineration of organic matter. The ash content is
determined from the loss of weight which occurs during complete oxidation of the sample at a
high temperature (usually 500 to 600˚C) through volatilization of organic materials. The ash
analysis has been chiefly used for the determination of adulteration of certain foods. A high ash
figure suggests the presence of an inorganic adulterant [205]. Hence from this we can determine

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that Millet based peda has less inorganic matter when compared to Kandhi Peda as ash value of
millet based peda is less than that of Kandhi Pedha. Having a low ash content in food products
offers several benefits. Ash refers to the inorganic mineral content left behind after the complete
combustion of organic matter [165]. When food products have less ash content, it indicates a
lower concentration of minerals, such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus,
which are present in the form of salts. While these minerals are essential for our overall health,
excessive ash content can have some drawbacks. Firstly, a high ash content can negatively
impact the taste and flavor of food, resulting in an unpleasant and bitter aftertaste. Secondly, it
can affect the texture and consistency of food products, leading to undesirable gritty or chalky
textures. Furthermore, excessive ash content can interfere with the bioavailability and absorption
of certain nutrients in the body [206]. By having lower ash content in food products, they can
provide a more enjoyable sensory experience, maintain desired textures, and optimize the
bioavailability of essential nutrients, ensuring better overall nutritional value for consumers. By
minimizing the inorganic matter, the nutritional profile of the food product becomes more
concentrated and focused on the essential organic nutrients. Finally, having less ash content also
reduces the likelihood of any potential contaminants or impurities that may be present in the
inorganic matter.

4.3.4. Crude Nitrogen

The Crude Nitrogen in millet based peda was 1.11 ± 0.1, as indicated in Figure 4.5 and the
LOQ was found to be 0.1. The measured value suggests the amount of nitrogen-containing
compounds, primarily proteins, present in the peda. This analysis provides valuable information
regarding the nutritional composition of the millet-based peda. The lower crude nitrogen
content in the millet-based peda can be attributed to protein degradation caused by the overnight
soaking of millets in water [119]. However soaking millet alone is not likely to significantly
degrade the protein content. Proteins are relatively stable molecules and are not easily degraded
by water alone. However, certain factors such as high temperatures, enzymatic activity, or
prolonged soaking in alkaline solutions can contribute to protein d. Extended soaking can lead

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to enzymatic activity and hydrolysis of proteins, resulting in the breakdown of nitrogen-

containing compounds. This degradation of proteins during soaking can contribute to a decrease
in the crude nitrogen content observed in the peda. It is important to consider the impact of
soaking of millets while preparing millet-based products. egradation. Additionally, the study
determined the Limit of Quantification (LOQ) for the crude nitrogen analysis, which was found
to be 0.1. The LOQ signifies the lowest concentration of the analyte that can be reliably
quantified using the chosen analytical method. Concentrations below 0.1 would fall below the
detection limit of the method. The finding of an average crude nitrogen content of 1.11 ± 0.1
provides valuable information about the protein content of millet-based peda. Nitrogen is a key
component of proteins, and the measurement of crude nitrogen can serve as an indicator of the
protein content in food products [121]. The minor variations observed among the peda samples
reflect the variability in protein levels. This data contributes to our understanding of the
nutritional composition and protein quality of the millet-based peda [166]. Furthermore, the
determination of the LOQ at 0.1 highlights the sensitivity of the analytical method used for
measuring crude nitrogen. It establishes the lower limit below which accurate quantification
becomes challenging [109].

In a study reported in 2023 on Market doodh peda revealed overall protein content present
in these commercially available peda products. The study analyzed a sample of Market doodh
peda, which represents the regular white peda commonly found in the market and the protein
content analysis was performed using appropriate analytical techniques to quantify the amount
of protein present in the samples. The results of the study indicated that the overall protein
content of the Market doodh peda samples was found to be 12.72 ± 1.37 [115]. This data serves
as a benchmark for understanding the nutritional composition of these commercially available
peda products. The doodh peda had a high protein content, indicating that it is a good source of
dietary protein. The high protein content in the peda can be attributed to the presence of milk
as the main ingredient [115]. Milk is known to be rich in proteins, including casein and whey
proteins, which contribute to the overall protein content of the doodh peda [122]. Protein is an

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essential macronutrient that plays a crucial role in various physiological functions, making the
high protein content of the doodh peda a valuable nutritional characteristic. This information
can be significant for consumers, manufacturers, and researchers interested in the nutritional
aspects of Market doodh peda [108]. The study's findings can aid in making informed decisions
regarding dietary choices, product labeling, and potential health implications associated with
consuming this particular type of peda [167].

In the above study the developed Millet based peda was found to have less crude nitrogen
content than compared to the Market doodh peda. When crude nitrogen of millet based peda is
converted to protein, our studies show that the developed millet based peda has 6.94 g of protein
per 100g of millet based peda, which is less than that of the market doodh peda, but Millet
contains 10-15% of protein by weight which when compared to milk is more [4]. Hence the
decrease in protein content is due to soaking millet in water overnight which is important to
improve digestibility and reduce cooking time. Soaking helps soften the grains and activates
enzymes that break down anti-nutrients, making the nutrients more accessible. The perception
of decreased protein content may arise due to the change in weight or volume of the millet after
soaking. When millet is soaked in water, it absorbs water and swells, which can make it appear
larger and heavier [169]. As a result, the protein content per unit volume or weight of soaked
millet may appear lower because the total volume or weight has increased. Another reason
might be that soaking millet for extended periods can potentially lead to a decrease in protein
content. Millet, like other grains, contains proteins that are essential for the growth, repair, and
maintenance of body tissues [107,114]. These proteins are made up of amino acids, which are
the building blocks of life. When millet is soaked, enzymes present in the grain are activated,
leading to enzymatic reactions that can result in protein degradation. One of the main reasons
soaking millets can decrease protein content is due to the action of proteolytic enzymes.

Proteolytic enzymes break down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids. During
soaking, the activation of these enzymes can initiate the breakdown of proteins in millet grains

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[168]. This enzymatic activity can lead to the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, resulting in the
release of amino acids. As a result, the total protein content of the soaked millet may be reduced.

The duration of soaking is another factor that affects protein loss in millet. Prolonged
soaking periods can increase the activity of proteolytic enzymes and prolong exposure to
microbial fermentation. Consequently, the longer the soaking period, the higher the likelihood
of protein degradation. Furthermore, soaking grains also facilitates the process of fermentation.
Fermentation occurs when microorganisms, such as bacteria or yeasts, utilize carbohydrates
present in the grain to produce energy. While fermentation can have positive effects, such as
increasing nutrient availability and improving digestibility, it can also contribute to protein loss.
During fermentation, microorganisms may consume some of the proteins in the millet as a
source of nitrogen for their growth and metabolism [38,110].

4.3.5. Crude Fiber

A describes for the crude fiber content in millet based peda was given in Figure 4.5, and it
was found to be 0.55 ± 0.01. The value suggests that the millet-based peda contains trace
amount of crude fiber, which can contribute to overall crude fiber intake. Crude fiber refers to
the indigestible portion of plant-based foods and the above value indicates the presence of plant
cell wall components, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [123]. These components are
not easily digested by humans and provide bulk to the diet. Crude fiber is important for
maintaining digestive health and promoting regular bowel movements. Additionally, the study
determined the Limit of Quantification (LOQ) for crude fiber, which was found to be 0.5. The
LOQ represents the lowest concentration of the analyte that can be reliably quantified using the
analytical method employed in the study. In this case, concentrations below 0.5 would fall
below the detection limit of the method, making accurate quantification challenging. Therefore,
the LOQ serves as an important threshold for determining the reliable measurement of crude
fiber content. The slight variation observed among the peda samples suggests some differences
in fiber content, although the range remains relatively narrow [113]. This data contributes to

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our understanding of the nutritional composition and dietary fiber content of millet-based peda.
It can inform consumers, manufacturers, and researchers about the fiber content of these
products, aiding in dietary choices, product development, and assessing the potential health
benefits associated with consuming millet-based peda. Furthermore, the determination of the
LOQ at 0.5 highlights the sensitivity of the analytical method employed for measuring crude
fiber. It indicates the lower limit of accurate quantification, ensuring the reliability and precision
of future analyses [169].

In a study reported in 2023 on Market doodh peda revealed that the peda does not contain
significant amount of crude fiber in it. This can be attributed to the formulation and processing
methods used in its production. Market doodh peda is traditionally made using ingredients like
milk, sugar, and ghee, which are low in fiber content [116]. The refining and cooking processes
involved in peda preparation further reduce the fiber content. It is important to incorporate fiber-
rich ingredients or consider alternative recipes to enhance the fiber content in such products.

In the above study, the developed millet based peda was found to have more fiber than
compared to market available doodh peda. This may be because milk is primarily composed of
water, proteins (such as casein and whey), carbohydrates (in the form of lactose, a milk sugar),
fats, vitamins, and minerals. While milk is a diary product and provides essential nutrients like
protein, calcium, vitamin D, and others but not a source of crude fiber. Hence, this study shows
crude fiber content in Market doodh Pedha is almost nil, whereas millet based peda contains
crude fiber. Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that is predominantly found in plant-based foods,
including whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. While milk provides essential nutrients such as
protein, calcium, and vitamins, it lacks dietary fiber due to its composition [24]. Although fiber
plays a crucial role in promoting digestive health, regulating blood sugar levels, and supporting
overall well-being, individuals who consume milk should supplement their diet with fiber-rich
foods from other sources to ensure an adequate fiber intake. Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that
is predominantly found in plant-based foods [124].

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4.3.6. Total Carbohydrate

The total carbohydrate in millet based peda was found to be 33.60±0.2 as shown in Figure
4.5. The LOQ was found to be 0.1. The reported total carbohydrate value represents the
quantifiable amount of carbohydrates present in the millet-based peda. The main contributors
to the carbohydrate content are likely the millet itself, as well as jaggery used in the peda, that
acts as the other source of carbohydrate. The carbohydrate content may also be influenced by
the processing methods, cooking techniques, and proportions of ingredients used in the peda.
The LOQ (Limit of Quantification) refers to the lowest concentration of a substance that can be
reliably measured using the analytical method. In this case, the LOQ was determined to be 0.1,
indicating that the analytical method employed was capable of accurately detecting and
quantifying carbohydrate content in the peda down to a minimum of 0.1.

In a study reported in 2023 on market doodh peda revealed a total carbohydrate content of
50.41±0.5 [115]. The higher amount of carbohydrates in doodh peda can be attributed to the
ingredients used in its preparation. Doodh peda typically contains milk, sugar, and other
sweeteners, which are significant sources of carbohydrates. The recipe and processing methods
employed may also contribute to a higher carbohydrate content. The findings suggest that doodh
peda is a carbohydrate-rich product, emphasizing the importance of considering its
carbohydrate content in dietary planning and consumption [125].

In the above study the developed Millet based peda was found to have less carbohydrate
when compared to doodh peda. This may be because Millet-based peda, as the name suggests,
are primarily made from millets, which are a group of small-seeded grains, generally contain
lower levels of carbohydrates compared to milk. Millets are predominantly composed of
complex carbohydrates, which are known for their slower digestion and gradual release of
energy [112]. This makes millets a suitable choice for individuals seeking to manage their
carbohydrate intake. Varieties such as pearl millet (bajra), foxtail millet, and finger millet (ragi)
are examples of millets that have lower carbohydrate content in comparison to milk. While milk

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naturally contains lactose, a sugar that contributes to its carbohydrate content, millets offer a
lower glycemic load and are often recommended for individuals following low-carbohydrate
diets or those with specific dietary requirements [128].

Millets generally have a lower carbohydrate content compared to sugar or condensed milk,
which are commonly used in the preparation of doodh peda. Doodh peda, on the other hand, is
a milk-based sweet made from condensed milk, which contains lactose, a naturally occurring
sugar in milk. Additionally, sugar is often added to enhance the sweetness of doodh peda.
Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of glucose and galactose [127]. While milk provides
a range of essential nutrients, including protein, calcium, and vitamins, it generally contains
more carbohydrates compared to millets [103]. However, it's important to acknowledge that
milk offers a unique combination of nutrients, such as proteins and fats, which provide essential
amino acids and energy. Individuals who have specific dietary goals or wish to reduce their
carbohydrate intake may consider incorporating millets into their meals as a lower-carbohydrate
alternative, while still enjoying the nutritional benefits of milk in moderation. These ingredients
contribute to a higher carbohydrate content in doodh peda compared to millet-based sweets
[126].

4.3.7. Moisture Content

Description of result on moisture content in millet based peda was given in Figure 4.5, and
it was found to be 37.72±1.01 and the LOQ was found to be 0.1. This indicates the amount of
water present in the sample. The higher moisture content can be attributed to several factors.
Firstly, millet-based peda typically contains ingredients like milk, and jaggery, which
inherently have moisture content and the millet added to the product is soaked in water
overnight [130]. Additionally, during the preparation process, and cooking methods such as
boiling or simmering can contribute to moisture retention. The LOQ of 0.1 indicates the
sensitivity of the analytical method to detect moisture at low levels. The reported moisture
content suggests that the millet-based peda retains a significant amount of water, contributing

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to its overall moisture content. Proper processing like drying, packaging and storage
conditionsare essential to maintain the desired moisture levels and prevent excessive moisture
loss or absorption [21].

In a study reported in 2023 on market doodh peda (white) exhibited an overall mean
moisture content of 17.56 ± 1.62% [115]. The lower moisture content in the peda can be
attributed to several factors. Firstly, the cooking and drying process involved in peda
preparation helps to reduce the moisture content. Additionally, the use of ingredients like milk
solids, sugar, and ghee, which have low moisture content, contributes to the overall moisture
level [16]. The packaging and storage conditions also play a role in maintaining the lower
moisture content. The results indicate that the market doodh peda (white) is relatively dry and
has a lower moisture content compared to other similar products [17].

In the above study the developed Millet based peda was found to have moisture content
which is higher than compared to Market Doodh Peda. This may be because we had soaked the
millets overnight to reduce the bitterness. Soaking millets is a common practice that involves
immersing the grains in water for a certain period of time. One of the notable effects of soaking
millets is that it increases their moisture content [131]. During the soaking process, the grains
absorb water, which leads to an increase in moisture levels. This is because the dry millet grains
take in water, causing them to swell and become softer. The process of soaking helps hydrate
the millet grains, making them more plump and ready for cooking. This is beneficial because it
reduces the cooking time and improves the overall texture and digestibility of the millet [10].
Another reason that can be considered is the ingredients used in its preparation. Milk, being a
major component of the peda, naturally contains a significant amount of water. Milk is known
for its high moisture content, and its inclusion in the peda contributes to the overall moisture
level. Additionally, jaggery, another common ingredient in millet-based peda, also retains some
moisture. Jaggery is derived from sugarcane juice or palm sap, and its natural composition
includes water. Furthermore, the texture and consistency of millet-based peda play a role in

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moisture retention [16]. Peda is often soft and slightly moist in texture, which can contribute to
its higher moisture content. The presence of moisture enhances the palatability and sensory
characteristics of the peda, making it more enjoyable to consume. It is important to note that
proper storage and packaging techniques should be employed to maintain the desired moisture
level and prevent excessive moisture loss or absorption [17]. The moisture content of the millet-
based peda can impact its shelf life and overall quality, so it is crucial to ensure appropriate
packaging materials and storage conditions to preserve its texture and taste [30].

Fig.4.5 Proximate Analysis of millet-based peda

4.3.8. Amino acid

The total concentration of Amino acid in millet-based peda was found to be 1.88%, where
glutamic acid has the highest concentration of 0.31% (RT-17.821 minutes), cysteine has the
lowest concentration of 0.01% (RT-28.295 minutes) and others have a concentration of 0.20%
in Aspartic Acid (RT-15.256 minutes), 0.10% of Serine (RT-16.816 minutes), 0.29% of Glycine
(RT-19.022 minutes), 0.03% of Histidine (RT-19.817 minutes), 0.07% of Arginine (RT-22.723
minutes), 0.03% of Threonine (RT-22.843 minutes), 0.19% of Alanine (RT-23.797 minutes),

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0.07% of Proline (RT-25.292 minutes), 0.10% of Tyrosine (RT-29.162 minutes), 0.02% of

Valine (RT-29.634 minutes), 0.04% of Methionine (RT-30.335 minutes), 0.14% of Lysine (RT-
31.732 minutes), 0.05% of Isoleucine (RT-32.806 minutes), 0.17% of Leucine (RT-33.292
minutes), 0.07% Phenylalanine (RT-34.402 minutes) as shown in Table 4.5.

In a study reported in 2023 on milk-based product revealed that the amino acids (leucine,
isoleucine and valine) from milk and its products developed at the level of 19–21% [115]. The
remaining essential amino acids were supplied by milk and dairy products in an amount from
18.4% for methionine to 21.5% for lysine [202]. In terms of the contribution of non-essential
amino acids, differences in the supply of milk and dairy products from 7.8% (glycine) to 23.6%
(tyrosine) were observed [114]. The lowest supply of milk and dairy products was recorded for
glycine (7.8% of total supply) and cysteine (8.5%), the largest for tyrosine (23.6%) and proline
(24.8%). Other essential amino acids were 8.6% (threonine) to 10.1% (valine) [201].

The above study shows that the developed millet based peda has less concentration of all
the amino acid than compared to milk-based product [116]. This may be because of several
reasons. Firstly, the source needs to be considered. Millet-based peda is primarily made from
millet, which is a grain. Grains, including millet, generally have lower protein content and
different amino acid profiles compared to animal-based products like milk. Grains are rich in
carbohydrates and are staple foods in many cultures. However, they are not typically known for
their high protein content. Millet is relatively lower in amino acids such as lysine and tryptophan
compared to some other grains [4]. On the other hand, milk and its products are derived from
animals and are known for their higher protein content. Animal-based proteins tend to have a
more favorable amino acid composition compared to plant-based proteins [114].

Essential amino acids are those that the human body cannot synthesize and must be
obtained from the diet. Millet-based peda may have lower concentrations of essential amino acids
like leucine, isoleucine, and valine because millet is not particularly rich in these amino acids.

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These essential amino acids are more abundant in animal-based protein sources like milk. Milk
and dairy products are known to be good sources of essential amino acids, including leucine,
isoleucine, and valine, which are vital for various physiological processes and muscle protein
synthesis [13].

The protein quality of a food source depends on its amino acid composition and digestibility.
Animal-based proteins, such as those found in milk, are generally considered to have higher
protein quality due to their balanced essential amino acid profiles and high digestibility [132].
Animal proteins often provide all the essential amino acids in sufficient quantities, making them
"complete proteins." In contrast, plant-based proteins, like those found in millet, may have lower
protein quality and may be deficient in certain essential amino acids. However, this can be
addressed by combining different plant-based protein sources to ensure a more complete amino
acid profile [136].

Processing and Formulation is another reason that can be considered. Theamount of amino
acid composition of a food product can also be influenced by processing methods and ingredient
formulation. Milk-based products undergo various processing steps, such as pasteurization and
filtration, which can enhance their protein content and amino acid composition. Additionally,
specific ingredients may be added to milk-based products to further improve the amino acid
profile or protein content. Millet-based peda, on the other hand, may not undergo similar
processing steps or have additional amino acid-rich ingredients added, which can contribute to
the variation in amino acid concentrations [201].

It's important to consider that while millet-based peda may have lower concentrations of
certain amino acids compared to milk-based products, it can still contribute to overall protein
intake and provide other essential nutrients. Millet is a good source of carbohydrates, fiber, and
various vitamins and minerals [4]. Millet based peda was having low concentration of amino
acid.

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The processing and cooking methods involved in making millet-based peda can also affect
the amino acid content. Excessive heat or prolonged cooking times can lead to amino acid
degradation or loss. Additionally, if the millet is milled or ground into flour, some amino acids
may be lost during the milling process due to exposure to air and oxidation [136].

Peda is typically made with a limited number of ingredients, and if millet is the primary
ingredient, there may be a lack of complementary protein sources in the recipe. Proteins in foods
are made up of different amino acids, and consuming a variety of protein sources helps ensure a
balanced amino acid profile. If millet-based peda does not include other protein-rich ingredients
or complementary grains, the overall amino acid content may be lower [170,202].

Table 4.5 Amino Acid Concentration present in Millet-based Peda

Amino acid RT (min) Conc.(mg/G) Conc %
Aspartic Acid 15.256 2.02 0.2
Serine 16.816 1 0.1
Glutamic acid 17.821 3.06 0.31
Glycine 19.022 2.87 0.29
Histidine 19.817 0.35 0.03
Arginine 22.723 0.66 0.07
Threonine 22.843 0.3 0.03
Alanine 23.797 1.86 0.19
Proline 25.292 0.68 0.07
Cystein +Cystine 28.295 0.07 0.01
Tyrosine 29.162 0.95 0.1
Valine 29.634 0.23 0.02
Methionine 30.335 0.41 0.04
Lysine 31.732 1.41 0.14
Isoleucine 32.806 0.5 0.05
Leucine 33.292 1.72 0.17
Phenylalanine 34.402 0.68 0.07

4.3.9. Free Fatty Acid

Figure 4.6 describes the result for the Free fatty acid profile in millet based peda, and it was

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found that the Acid value, Oleic Acid, Lauric Acid, Ricinoleic Acid and Palmitic acid in millet
based peda was 44.32±0.1, 22.28±0.08, 15.8±0.1, 23±0.02, 20.22±0.1 respectively. This can be
attributed to various factors related to the ingredients and processing methods used. Firstly, the
composition of the ingredients used in the peda, such as milk, almonds, millets and other fat-
containing components, contributes to the presence of FFAs. Milk naturally contains a variety of
fatty acids, including Oleic Acid, Lauric Acid, Ricinoleic Acid, and Palmitic Acid. Almonds are
often added to peda for their texture, taste, and nutritional value [172]. Almonds contain healthy
fats, including Oleic Acid, which can contribute to the overall FFA content in the peda. Overall,
milk and almonds in millet-based peda, contribute to the FFA content. These fatty acids can be
released during the cooking and preparation process. The heating and cooking process involved
in making millet-based peda can lead to the hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are the main
storage form of fats [175]. This hydrolysis process breaks down triglycerides into their
constituent fatty acids, resulting in the presence of FFAs. The specific fatty acids found in the
peda, such as Oleic Acid, Lauric Acid, Ricinoleic Acid, and Palmitic Acid, are commonly found
in fats and oils.It is important to note that the cooking temperature, duration, and other processing
factors can also influence the formation of FFAs in the peda. Overheating or prolonged cooking
can potentially lead to the breakdown of fats and the release of FFAs [182].

In a study reported in 2023 on rabri revealed varying total Free Fatty Acid (FFA) contents
ranging from 2.13 µg/g to 3.18 µg/g [108]. This range of FFA content can be attributed to several
factors related to the ingredients and processing methods involved in rabri preparation. Firstly,
milk is the primary ingredient in rabri, and it naturally contains a variety of fatty acids. During
the preparation of rabri, the milk is boiled and simmered for a prolonged period, which leads to
concentration and partial breakdown of the milk fat [176]. This process can result in the release
of free fatty acids from the triglycerides present in milk fat. Additionally, the storage of rabri can
contribute to the development of free fatty acids [133]. To maintain the desired quality and
minimize potential changes in FFA content, it is recommended to store rabri properly in airtight
containers, refrigerate it at the appropriate temperature, and consume it within a reasonable

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timeframe to ensure freshness [181]. In dairy products, including milk-based sweets like rabri,
the hydrolysis of triglycerides (fat) into free fatty acids can occur naturally over time due to
enzymatic and microbial activities. This process can result in the release of free fatty acids and
potentially impact the flavor and quality of the product. The type of milk used and the fat content
of the milk can also impact the FFA content in rabri [185]. Different types of milk, such as full-
fat or low-fat milk, may have varying levels of fat and subsequently different FFA contents.
Furthermore, the handling and storage conditions of rabri can influence the FFA content.
Improper storage practices, such as exposure to high temperatures or extended storage periods,
can promote the breakdown of fats and the generation of free fatty acids [171].

In the above study we can interpret that the developed millet based peda has more Free Fatty
acids than Rabri [2]. This may be because firstly, millet grains generally have a higher fat content
compared to other grains. When millet is used as a main ingredient in peda, the higher fat content
contributes to the FFA levels. As the fat in millet undergoes oxidation and degradation during
processing and storage, it can result in increased FFA content in the final product [190,193].

Second, the processing methods used in millet-based peda production can also impact the
FFA content. Certain processing techniques, such as roasting or toasting the millet before
grinding or cooking, can lead to higher fat oxidation and subsequent FFA formation.
Additionally, if the millet is not properly stored or protected from moisture and air, it can
accelerate fat degradation and increase FFA levels [193].

Millet grains also contain natural enzymes that can break down fats into FFAs. If the millet is
soaked or fermented during the peda-making process, the enzymatic activity can further
contribute to the release of FFAs. Enzymes like lipases can hydrolyze triglycerides present in
millet, leading to the liberation of FFAs [8]. The storage conditions of millet-based peda can
affect the FFA content. Exposure to heat, light, and oxygen can accelerate fat degradation and
increase the formation of FFAs. If the peda is not stored in proper airtight containers or in a cool

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and dry environment, the FFA levels may rise over time [188]. Enzymes like lipases can
hydrolyze triglycerides present in millet, leading to the liberation of FFAs [8].

While higher FFA content in millet-based peda may not necessarily be detrimental to its
taste or safety, it can lead to changes in flavor and reduced shelf life. It is important to manage
and control the FFA levels during processing and storage to maintain product quality [132].
Proper storage in suitable packaging, minimizing processing steps that promote fat oxidation,
and using fresh millet grains can help minimize the FFA content in millet-based peda. Regular
testing and monitoring of FFA levels can provide insights into the product's quality and aid in
making adjustments to optimize the FFA content for desirable sensory attributes and prolonged
shelf life [190].
Table 4.6 Free Fatty Acid profile for Millet-based Peda
Parameter Value
Acid Value 44.32±0.1
Oleic Acid 22.28±0.08
Lauric Acid 15.8±0.1
Ricinoleic Acid 23.53±0.02
Palmitic 20.22±0.1

4.3.10. Sugar
The reducing sugar, total sugar and added sugar in millet based peda was found to be 6.23,
25.20, and 18.01 respectively as shown in Table 4.7. This may be due to the presence of jaggery
in millet-based peda. It undergoes minimal processing, which allows it to retain its natural sugar
content. Jaggery is rich in sucrose, a disaccharide that can be hydrolyzed into glucose and
fructose, contributing to the presence of reducing sugar and total sugar in the peda [134]. During
the cooking process, the carbohydrates present in these ingredients like millets can undergo
hydrolysis and breakdown into sugars, increasing the sugar content in the peda [135]. ]. During
the cooking process, the carbohydrates present in these ingredients like millets can undergo
hydrolysis and breakdown into sugars, increasing the sugar content in the peda [135].

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In a study reported in 2023 on Kandi peda, a range of values for reducing sugar, total sugar,
and added sugar was found to be (14.50±0.05 to 17.40±0.31), (50.92±0.10 to 53.21±0.17), and
(34.19±0.30 to 38.35±0.29) respectively [58]. These sugar contents can be attributed to the
ingredients used in the preparation of Kandhi peda, particularly the use of sweeteners and other
sources of carbohydrates. The primary contributor to the sugar content in Kandhi peda is the
presence of sweeteners, such as refined sugar, which are commonly used in the recipe. It contains
sugars like sucrose, glucose, and fructose, which contribute to both the reducing sugar and total
sugar content of the peda [186]. The specific values observed within the range can vary based on
the proportion and type of sweetener used in the formulation [187]. The range of values observed
in the study reflects the variations in the recipe formulations and the inherent sugar content of
the selected ingredients [197].

In the above study the developed Millet based peda was found to have less reducing sugar,
total sugar and added sugar than compared to Kandhi Pedha. This might be because of the
addition of jaggery instead of refined sugar for sweetening purposes. Jaggery typically contains
less reducing sugar, total sugar, and added sugar compared to refined sugar [188]. Jaggery is a
traditional sweetener made from the extraction and concentration of sugarcane or palm sap
without the use of any chemicals or additives. Here's an explanation of why jaggery has lower
levels of these sugars. Jaggery contains lower levels of reducing sugar compared to refined sugar
[184]. Reducing sugars are simple carbohydrates that have the ability to reduce other substances,
such as certain chemical reagents. In the case of jaggery, the natural processing methods involved
in its production retain more of the natural components of sugarcane or palm sap, including
reducing sugars like glucose and fructose [176]. In contrast, refined sugar undergoes extensive
processing, which removes impurities and results in a higher purity of sucrose, a non-reducing
sugar. It generally has a lower total sugar content compared to refined sugar [164]. While jaggery
retains some of the natural sugars present in the original raw material, its concentration is lower
compared to refined sugar, which is almost pure sucrose. The total sugar content in jaggery can
vary depending on factors such as the variety of sugarcane or palm used, the season of production,

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and the specific processing techniques employed. However, in general, jaggery is known for
having a slightly lower overall sugar content compared to refined sugar [169]. It is a natural
sweetener that does not involve the addition of external sugars during its production. It is made
by boiling and concentrating sugarcane or palm sap until it solidifies. Unlike refined sugar, which
often undergoes additional processing steps where sugar crystals are extracted and purified,
jaggery does not involve the addition of extra sugars as part of its production process [166].
Therefore, jaggery does not contain added sugars, making it a more natural and unrefined
alternative to refined sugar. Additionally, jaggery retains some of the natural minerals and
antioxidants present in the sugarcane or palm sap, which can contribute to its distinct flavor and
potential health benefits [187].
Table 4.7 Sugar content present in Millet-based Peda
Parameter Value
Reducing Sugar 6.23±0.02
Total sugar 25.2±0.2
Added Sugar 18.01±0.01

4.4. Physio-Chemical Analysis

The final samples underwent physical and physio-chemical examination. Three copies of the
analysis are performed. To confirm and get rid of manual error, all data collected were recorded,
and average values were determined. To determine the variance in difference between the data
points gathered, the standard deviation value is also calculated. To determine the error mean
values, the analytical data is assembled and statistically examined. Understanding the variance
and standard deviation that happened over the trials is aided by the error mean value. The values
from the analysis are shown in the table below in the format.

4.4.1. Colour
The colour value for L*, a* and b* in millet based peda was found to be 53.38±0.02,
7.97±0.1, and 25±0.02 respectively and the difference in colour of the 2 samples were done
calculating by finding ∆E, which was 20.71 as shown in Table 4.8. The calculated ∆E value of

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20.71±0.05 as shown in Table 4.7. The L* value represents the lightness or darkness of the color,
with higher values indicating lighter colors and lower values indicating darker colors. In this
case, the L* value of 53.38 suggests a relatively medium to light shade for the millet-based peda
[141]. The a* value represents the position on the green-red axis, with negative values indicating
greenish tones and positive values indicating reddish tones. The a* value of 7.97 suggests a slight
reddish hue in the millet-based peda. The b* value represents the position on the blue-yellow
axis, with negative values indicating bluish tones and positive values indicating yellowish tones.
The b* value of 25 indicates a significant yellowish hue in the millet-based peda [148]. These
color values are influenced by various factors, including the ingredients used, cooking methods,
and potential natural or artificial colorants present in the recipe. In the case of millet-based peda,
the color values can be attributed to the combination of ingredients such as millets, milk, jaggery,
and almonds, which may contribute to the overall color profile [135]. Additionally, the Maillard
reaction that occurs during cooking or heating processes can also impact the color development
in the peda. The ∆E value indicates a substantial color variation between the two samples of
millet-based peda. This difference could be attributed to various factors, such as variations in
ingredients, processing methods, or the presence of additives or natural colorants [140,141,150].
In a study reported in 2023 on doodh peda, it has been shown that the range of L*, a*, and b*
values to be 73.17, -2.41, and 20.92, respectively [115]. These values represent different aspects
of the color of the doodh peda sample. The L* value represents the lightness or brightness of the
color, with higher values indicating a lighter color. In this case, the L* value of 73.17 suggests
that the doodh peda has a relatively bright or light color. The a* value represents the red-green
axis, with positive values indicating more redness and negative values indicating more greenness.
The a* value of -2.41 suggests a slight greenish hue in the doodh peda sample. The b* value
represents the yellow-blue axis, with positive values indicating more yellowness and negative
values indicating more blueness [149]. The b* value of 20.92 indicates a relatively higher level
of yellowness in the doodh peda. The color values obtained in the study can be influenced by
several factors, including the ingredients used, the processing methods employed, and any natural
or artificial colorants added. In the case of doodh peda, the presence of ingredients such as milk,

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sugar, and flavorings may contribute to the observed color values.It's important to note that these
color values are specific to the particular study may vary in different batches or preparations of
doodh peda [151].

The above study showed differences in the colour values of Millet based peda and market
based doodh peda. This might be because the ingredients present in individual product were
different. The main ingredient in Doodh Peda is milk and sugar whereas millet beased peda
consists of millets, almonds, jaggery, cardamom other than milk which can play a major role in
colour value change. Different ingredients can contribute to variations in color due to their
natural pigments or chemical reactions during cooking [6]. The amount and type of ingredients
used, as well as their interaction with heat and other components, can influence the final color
of the doodh peda. It's important to note that different recipes and variations in ingredient
proportions can yield different color results. If color consistency or specific color values are
important, using standardized recipes, precise measurements, and accurate color measurement
instruments can help maintain consistency and quantify color attributes objectively [154].

The ingredients used in a food product can significantly influence its color value. Natural
ingredients can contribute vibrant colors to food and by incorporating such ingredients into a
recipe can lend intense hues as per requirement and give distinctive colours. Aritifical additives,
such as food colorings or dyes, are often used to enhance or alter the color of processed foods
too. These synthetic additives provide a wide range of color options, allowing manufacturers to
create visually appealing products [59]. The concentration and combination of ingredients also
play a crucial role in determining the color value of a food product. Ingredients with high color
intensity require a smaller quantity to achieve the desired color. Additionally, the interaction
between ingredients can affect the final color outcome. For example, the acidity or alkalinity of
a recipe can influence color changesin food product during cooking or processing [136]. The
processing methods used in food production can affect the color value of ingredients. Cooking,
heating, or exposure to air and light can cause chemical reactions that alter the color of certain

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ingredients. For instance, browning reactions, such as the Maillard reaction, can occur
whenproteins and sugars are heated together, resulting in a golden-brown color. Similarly,
oxidation can cause browning when exposed to air [147,145]. Texture and particle size of
ingredients can also impact the perception of color in a food product. Finely ground ingredients
tend to disperse more evenly throughout the product, resulting in a consistent color appearance.
On the other hand, ingredients with larger particles may create speckles or variations in color,
especially in products with a smooth texture. This is particularly relevant when using ingredients
like nuts, seeds, or spices, which can contribute contrasting color elements to the overall
product. Lastly, packaging and storage conditions can influence the color value of a food
product. Exposure to light, heat, or oxygen over time can cause color fading or degradation,
leading to changes in the appearance of the product [6]. Proper packaging, such as light-
blocking materials, and appropriate storage conditions can help preserve the color stability and
visual appeal of the food. Manufacturers and consumers alike should pay attention to packaging
recommendations and storage instructions to maintain the desired color quality of the product
[152,153].
Table 4.8 Colour Value of Millet-based Peda
Parameter Value
L* 53.38±0.02
a* 25±0.02
b* 7.97±0.1
Colour (∆E) . 20.71±0.0571±1.05

4.4.2. Water activity

The water activity in millet based peda was found to be 0.9101±1x10^-24 aw as shown is
Figure 4.6. The water activity (aw) value of 0.9101 in the millet-based peda indicates the
availability of water in the product. A water activity value of 0.9101 suggests that the peda has
a relatively high moisture content. Water activity is a measure of the free water available for
microbial growth, chemical reactions, and other moisture-dependent processes. In this case, the

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peda retains a significant amount of moisture, which can influence its texture, shelf life, and
overall quality. It is important to monitor and control water activity to ensure product stability
and prevent spoilage [155].

In a study reported in 2023 on doodh peda, the water activity (aw) was adjusted using
sodium chloride, sodium bromide, and magnesium chloride salt solutions [115]. These created
specific humidity levels in vacuum desiccators, controlling moisture content [137]. Water
activity measures water availability in food, impacting microbial stability, shelf life, and
quality. Saturated salt solutions have known equilibrium relative humidity (ERH),
corresponding to desired aw levels of 0.75, 0.56, and 0.32. This allowed researchers to
investigate moisture's effect on peda properties like texture, microbial growth, and sensory
qualities, using controlled environments and water activity manipulation [146].

In the above study the developed Millet based peda was found to have more water activity
than compared to doodh peda. This may be because of the composition of the two peda, which
could play a significant role in their water activity. Millet-based peda likely contains ingredients
such as millets, jaggery, almonds, and milk, which may have different moisture-holding
capacities compared to the ingredients like milk, sugar and ghee in doodh peda. These variations
in ingredient composition can influence the overall water activity of the product. Other than the
ingredients, the texture and structure of the millet-based peda may also influence its water
activity [138]. If the peda has a softer or more porous texture, it can retain more moisture and
result in a higher water activity compared to the denser texture of doodh peda. Another reason
could be the moisture content of the millet-based peda being higher than that of doodh peda.
The presence of moisture in the product contributes to its water activity. If the millet-based peda
has a higher moisture content, it will have a higher water activity as well. The processing,
packaging techniques and storage used for each peda type may differ, leading to variations in
water activity. For example, the millet-based peda might undergo additional steps such as
soaking, grinding, or cooking, which can impact the moisture content and water activity of the

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final product. The way the peda samples were packaged and stored could also affect their
wateractivity. If the millet-based peda was stored in a less airtight or moisture-permeable
packaging, it might have absorbed more moisture from the environment, leading to a higher
water activity. Overall, the higher water activity observed in the millet-based peda compared to
doodh peda could be attributed to a combination of ingredient composition, moisture content,
processing methods, texture, and packaging/storage conditions. It is important to understand
and control water activity in food products to ensure their quality, safety, and shelf life
[139,140].

Water Activity
0.91025
0.9102
0.91015
0.9101
0.91005
0.91
0.90995
0.9099
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Fig.4.6 Water Activity of the Millet based peda

4.5. Microbial Analysis

The final product underwent a microbiological examination. Three duplicate values for
each parameter are analyzed. To confirm and get rid of manual error, all data collected were
recorded, and average values were determined. To determine the variance in difference between
the data points gathered, the standard deviation value is also calculated. To determine the error
mean values, the analytical data is assembled and statistically examined. Understanding the
variance and standard deviation that happened over the trials is aided by the error mean value.
The values from the analysis are shown in the table below in the format [156]. The final product
underwent a microbiological examination. Three duplicate values for each parameter are

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analyzed. To confirm and get rid of manual error, all data collected were recorded, and average
values were determined. To determine the variance in difference between the data points
gathered, the standard deviation value is also calculated. To determine the error mean values,
the analytical data is assembled and statistically examined. Understanding the variance and
standard deviation that happened over the trials is aided by the error mean value. The values
from the analysis are shown in the table below in the format [156].

Table 4.9 Microbial Analysis values for Millet-based Peda

Parameter Value
Total Plate Count 1.0x10^3 ± 0.1 Cfu /g
Coliforms <10 Cfu /g
Yeast and Mould <10 Cfu /g

4.5.1. Coliform
The coliforms in millet based peda was found to be <10 ± 1 Cfu /g as shown in Table 4.9.
The low coliform count indicates that the millet-based peda has a low level of bacterial
contamination. It suggests that the production processing, storage and handling of the
ingredients and the final product were carried out under appropriate hygiene conditions. The
absence of coliforms or their presence below the specified limit in millet-based peda is desirable
as it indicates that the product meets the microbiological safety standards. It suggests that the
peda is less likely to harbor harmful bacteria that can cause foodborne illnesses. Regular
monitoring of microbiological parameters, such as coliforms, is essential in food production to
ensure product safety and quality [145,144]. The low coliform count in millet-based peda
indicates that appropriate measures were taken to maintain hygienic conditions throughout the
production process, reducing the risk of microbial contamination [140].

In a study reported in 2023, coliform counts in Kandi Peda was ranged from 25.2 ± 0.4
CFU/g to 50.7 ± 1.5 CFU/g [58]. Coliforms are a group of bacteria used as indicators of
sanitation and hygiene in food products. The presence of coliforms in the Kandi peda samples

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suggests a certain level of bacterial contamination. Coliforms are commonly found in the
environment, including in soil, water, and feces of animals and humans. Their presence in food
products may indicate inadequate sanitary conditions during production, handling, or storage.
The wide range of coliform counts observed in the Kandi peda samples indicates variations in
the level of bacterial contamination among the different samples tested. Factors such as the
quality of ingredients, processing practices, and storage conditions can influence the level of
bacterial contamination. Regular monitoring and control of coliform counts in Kandi peda are
essential to ensure compliance with microbiological safety standards and to protect consumers
from potential foodborne illnesses associated with high levels of bacterial contamination [157].

The above study shows that the developed millet based peda has less coliform count when
compared to Kandi Pedha. This may be due to a few things. Firstly, the raw material quality of
the product. The quality of the millet used in peda production plays a significant role in
determining the coliform levels. If the millet is sourced from reputable suppliers and undergoes
proper quality control measures, it is less likely to be contaminated with coliform bacteria.
Ensuring the use of high-quality millet as a raw material helps in reducing the initial coliform
load in millet-based peda [143].

The processing techniques involved in millet-based peda production can contribute to lower
coliform levels. Heat treatment steps, such as roasting, cooking, and boiling, are commonly
employed during the peda-making process. These processes involve applying heat, which helps
in destroying coliform bacteria and reducing their viability [158].

Maintaining strict hygiene and sanitation practices throughout the production process is
crucial in minimizing coliform contamination. This includes proper cleaning and sanitization
of equipment, utensils, and production surfaces. Good manufacturing practices and adherence
to food safety standards help prevent the introduction and proliferation of coliform bacteria in
the production environment [160].

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Milk used in millet-based peda are pasteurized, it contributes to the reduction of coliform
bacteria.Pasteurization is a heat treatment process that destroys harmful bacteria, including
coliforms, while preserving the nutritional integrity of the milk. By using pasteurized milk, the
risk of coliform contamination in millet-based peda is significantly reduced [142,141,159].

Proper packaging and storage conditions are crucial in preventing post-processing

contamination with coliform bacteria. Airtight packaging materials and proper sealing help
create a barrier against external contamination. Storing the peda in a cool and dry environment,
preferably at refrigeration temperatures, slows down bacterial growth and helps maintain low
coliform levels [171].

By focusing on raw material quality, employing appropriate processing techniques,

maintaining good hygiene practices, using pasteurized milk, and implementing suitable
packaging and storage conditions, millet-based peda can be produced with lower coliform
levels. These measures contribute to the safety and quality of the peda, ensuring it is safe for
consumption and meets regulatory standards [192].

4.5.2. Yeast and Mould

The yeast and mould in millet based peda was found to be <10 ± 1 Cfu /g as shown in
Table 4.9. It indicates that the yeast and mold levels in the millet-based peda samples were
below the detection limit or very low. This suggests that the samples had relatively low levels
of yeast and mold contamination. The low yeast and mold counts can be attributed to various
factors. Proper hygiene and sanitation practices during the production and handling of millet-
based peda can help minimize fungal contamination [200]. Additionally, the use of fresh and
high-quality ingredients, adequate heat treatment during processing, and appropriate packaging
and storage conditions can contribute to reducing the growth and survival of yeast and mold. It
is important to note that the specific limits for yeast and mold in millet-based peda may vary
depending on regulatory standards and guidelines. The counts reported in the study indicate

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that the samples met the acceptable limits for yeast and mold, ensuring the quality and safety
of the product.

Regular monitoring and control of yeast and mold levels in millet-based peda are essential
to maintain product freshness and prevent spoilage. This can be achieved through routine
testing, adherence to good manufacturing practices, and implementation of appropriate storage
conditions to prevent fungal growth [207].

In a study reported in 2023, the yeast and mold counts in Kandi Peda was ranged from
27.9±0.4 CFU/g to 52.8±1.9 CFU/g [58]. These counts indicate the presence of yeast and mold
in the Kandhi Peda samples, suggesting potential microbial contamination. Yeast and mold are
types of fungi that can be commonly found in the environment, including on various food
surfaces. Their presence in food products can be influenced by factors such as ingredient
quality, also processing conditions, hygiene practices, and storage conditions. The observed
yeast and mold counts in the Kandi Peda samples could be attributed to several factors.
Contamination may occur during the production process, such as through the introduction of
fungal spores from the environment or improper handling of ingredients [13]. Insufficient heat
treatment or inadequate storage conditions can also contribute to fungal growth and
proliferation. The range of yeast and mold counts reported in the study suggests variability in
the contamination levels among the Kandhi Peda samples. This variation could be influenced
by factors such as the quality of raw materials, processing conditions, and post-processing
handling and storage practices [15].
The above study shows that the developed millet based peda has less yeast and mould count
when compared to Kandhi Pedha. This may be due to various factors that were followed during
the preparation and storage of the product [209].

Firstly, it can be due to the inherent properties of millet. Millet grains naturally have lower
moisture content compared to some other grains. Yeast and mold require moisture to grow and

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

thrive, and the lower moisture content in millet makes it less favorable for their proliferation.
This inherent property of millet helps in inhibiting the growth of yeast and mold in millet-based
peda [133].

The processing methods employed during the production of millet-based peda can impact
the yeast and mold levels. Techniques such as roasting, cooking, and drying are commonly used
in the preparation of peda. These processes involve applying heat, which helps in reducing the
moisture content further and inhibiting the growth of yeast and mold [208].

Maintaining proper hygiene and sanitation throughout the production process is crucial in
preventing the contamination of millet-based peda with yeast and mold. This includes ensuring
clean working surfaces, utensils, and equipment, as well as implementing good manufacturing
practices to minimize the introduction of contaminants. Proper cleaning and sanitization
procedures help in reducing the microbial load and minimizing the risk of yeast and mold
contamination [14]. Packaging plays a vital role in preventing yeast and mold contamination in
millet-based peda. The use of airtight packaging materials and proper sealing helps create a
barrier against external contaminants. Additionally, storing the peda in a cool and dry
environment can further inhibit the growth of yeast and mold, as they prefer warm and moist
conditions [210].

Some millet-based peda recipes may incorporate natural preservatives such as cardamom,
cloves, or cinnamon. These spices possess antimicrobial properties that can help inhibit the
growth of yeast and mold. By incorporating these natural preservatives, the peda becomes less
susceptible to microbial contamination, thereby reducing the yeast and mold levels [77].

By focusing on proper processing techniques, maintaining good hygiene practices,

implementing suitable packaging, and incorporating natural preservatives, millet-based peda can
be produced with lower yeast and mold levels.

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

These measures not only contribute to the safety and quality of the peda but also help
extend its shelf life and enhance consumer satisfaction [31].

4.5.3. Total Plate count

The Total Plate count in millet based peda was found to be 1.0x10^3 ± 0.1 Cfu /g as shown
in Table No 4.9. This measurement indicates the total number of viable microorganisms,
including bacteria and other microorganisms, present in the peda samples and are capable of
growing on the culture media used for the analysis. The high total plate count suggests that the
peda samples may have experienced microbial growth during processing, handling, or storage
[61]. Factors such as inadequate hygiene practices, improper storage conditions, or prolonged
shelf life can contribute to the increase in microbial populations. The presence of microorganisms
in the food product may be due to various sources of contamination such as raw materials,
processing environments, equipment, or personnel. The observed total plate count in the millet-
based peda may be influenced by these sources of contamination [60].

In a study reported in 2014, the Total Plate Count in millet-based product, Koozh was
rangedfrom 8.56 ± 0.38 [129]. The value indicates a higher total plate count and suggests a higher
microbial load in the Koozh product. The specific microorganisms present in the sample would
depend on various factors such as the production process, storage conditions, and handling
practices. The presence of microorganisms in food products can arise from raw ingredients,
processing environments, or contamination during production or storage [15].

From the above study, it shows that the developed millet based peda has more TPC when
compared to millet based koozh. A total plate count (TPC) of less than 1*10^3 CFU (colony-
forming units) is generally considered permissible and falls within acceptable limits for many
food products. A TPC of less than 1 * 10^3 CFU suggests that the microbial load in the product
is relatively low. However, there may be several reasons for more total plate count of millet based
peda than compared to Koozh [64].

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

Firstly, Millet, being a natural grain, may contain a certain level of microbial load, including
bacteria and yeast, even before processing. If the millet used in peda production is not properly
cleaned or sanitized, these microorganisms can contribute to the overall TPC in the final product.
The processing environment plays a crucial role in determining the microbial quality of the peda.
If the processing area, equipment, or utensils are not properly cleaned and sanitized, it can lead
to cross-contamination and the introduction of microorganisms into the peda. Proper hygiene
practices, including regular cleaning and sanitization, can help minimize the microbial load
during processing [62].

Millet contains some amount of moisture, and if the moisture content is not properly
controlled during the production of millet-based peda, it can create a favorable environment for
microbial growth. High moisture levels can promote the growth of bacteria, yeast, and molds,
leading to an increased TPC. Proper drying and moisture control during peda production are
important to minimize microbial proliferation [51].

Millet-based peda, like any other food product, has a limited shelf life. If the peda is not
stored under suitable conditions, such as in a cool and dry environment or in airtight packaging,
it can be susceptible to microbial contamination and subsequent growth. Factors like temperature,
humidity, and exposure to air can impact the microbial stability of the peda [63].

Some peda recipes may not incorporate specific preservation techniques or ingredients that
help inhibit microbial growth. For instance, the absence of preservatives or antimicrobial agents
can contribute to higher TPC. Incorporating natural preservatives, such as spices or essential oils,
can help inhibit microbial growth and prolong the shelf life of the millet-based peda [47].

To minimize the TPC in millet-based peda, it is important to focus on good manufacturing

practices and food safety protocols. This includes thorough cleaning and sanitization of
equipment and surfaces, maintaining appropriate moisture levels , implementing suitable for the

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

packaging to protect against contamination, and ensuring proper storage conditions. Regular
testing and monitoring of TPC can help identify potential issues and allow for corrective actions
to be taken to maintain the microbial quality and safety of the peda [27]. Regular testing and
monitoring of TPC can help identify potential issues and allow for corrective actions to be taken
to maintain the microbial quality and safety of the peda [27].

4.6. Cost Estimation

The Millet-based peda's cost calculation took into account scaling up to a day's worth of
manufacturing of 1 kg of millet-based peda. Based on percentage composition and the most
recent and affordable market prices, the cost of raw materials were determined. The finished
product's raw material costs per 100 g were INR 338. The Market available Kanti Sweets
Dharward Peda is Rs 680 for 1 kg pack, hence the price for 100g is Rs 68.

The study shows that the price of developed millet based peda is more than that of market
available peda. This may be because the inclusion of millet, almonds, milk, jaggery, and
cardamom in a product can contribute to an increase in its price. An increase in its price might
have several reasons [29].

Raw Material such as Millet, almonds, milk, jaggery, and cardamom are all natural and often
considered premium ingredients. The cost of sourcing these ingredients can be relatively higher
compared to more common or generic alternatives. Millet, for example, may require specialized
cultivation and processing methods, which can impact its cost [108, 97]. Similarly, almonds are
known for their nutritional value and may come at a higher price due to their quality and
availability. The procurement of milk, jaggery, and cardamom also involves various factors such
as farming, processing, and transportation costs, all of which can contribute to an increase in the
overall product cost [114].
The inclusion of millet, almonds, milk, jaggery, and cardamom adds nutritional value to the
product, making it more appealing to health-conscious consumers. Millet is a rich source of the

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Development of Millet-based Product and Evaluation of its Characteristics

dietary fiber, minerals, and antioxidants, while almonds provide healthy fats, protein, and vitamin
E. Milk is well-known for its calcium and protein content, jaggery offers natural sweetness and
essential minerals, and cardamom provides a unique flavor profile along with potential health
benefits. The nutritional benefits associated with these ingredients justify their higher cost and
can contribute to the product being perceived as a premium or healthier option [200,134].

Incorporating multiple ingredients like millet, almonds, milk, jaggery, and cardamom into a
product often requires additional processing steps, specialized equipment, and skilled labor. The
processing and manufacturing costs associated with handling these ingredients can be higher
compared to simpler formulations. For instance, millet may require milling or grinding, almonds
need to be processed to remove the outer shell, and milk may involve pasteurization or
homogenization processes. The complex production process adds to the overall cost of
manufacturing, resulting in a higher price for the end product [27].

The combination of millet, almonds, milk, jaggery, and cardamom contributes to a unique
and distinctive flavor profile. The blend of nutty, sweet, and aromatic notes can enhance the taste
experience, making the product more desirable [214]. Additionally, the visual appeal of
theproduct can be enhanced by incorporating ingredients like whole almonds or visible millet
grains, which can create an attractive and premium appearance. The flavor and aesthetic benefits
derived from these ingredients add value to the product, justifying a higher price point [211].

Products containing millet, almonds, milk, jaggery, and cardamom often target niche or
health-conscious consumer segments. These segments are willing to pay a premium for products
that align with their preferences, dietary needs, or lifestyle choices [213]. The demand for such
specialty products drives the pricing strategy [199]. Additionally, the positioning of the product
as a premium or artisanal offering can further justify the higher cost. The marketing and branding
efforts to promote the product's unique ingredients, nutritional benefits, and overall quality
contribute to its perceived value and higher price point in the market [104, 205].

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4.7. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive analysis was conducted on the millet-based peda sample, and the mean values
and standard deviations from each analysis were recorded. Each analysis was repeated three
times to ensure accuracy. The obtained data was analyzed using Minitab software to determine
if there were any significant differences among the samples. Descriptive analysis was conducted
on the millet-based peda sample, and the mean values and standard deviations from each analysis
were recorded. Each analysis was repeated three times to ensure accuracy. The obtained data was
analyzed using Minitab software to determine if there were any significant differences among
the samples.

Table 4.10 Statistical Analysis of different characteristics of Millet-based peda

S.No Variable Mean Standard Deviation

1 Carbohydrate 33.600 0.200

2 Moisture 37.720 1.010
3 Crude Ash 1.6400 0.0200
4 Crude Lipid 20.120 1.030
5 Crude Fiber 0.55000 0.01000
6 Water Activity 0.91010 0.000100
7 Crude Protein 6.9400 0.0100
8 Reducing Sugar 6.2300 0.0200
9 Total sugar 25.200 0.200
10 Added Sugar 18.010 0.0100

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 Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

5. Summary And Conclusion

This chapter deals with the summary, conclusion and future scope of the developed millet based
peda.

5.1. Summary
The development of millet-based peda and its characteristics were investigated in this study.
Peda is a popular Indian sweet made from condensed milk and sugar. The aim of the study was
to explore the potential of millets as a nutritious and healthier alternative to traditional peda,
which is typically high in sugar and fat content.

The composition analysis revealed the following results for the millet-based peda:
carbohydrate content was found to be 33.60±0.2%, moisture content was 37.72±1.01%, crude
ash was 1.64±0.02%, crude lipid was 20.12±1.03%, crude fiber was 0.55±0.01%, crude nitrogen
was 1.11±0.1%, crude protein was 6.94±0.01%, acid value was 44.32±0.1, oleic acid content was
22.28±0.08%, lauric acid content was 15.8±0.1%, ricinoleic acid content was 23.53±0.02%, and
palmitic acid content was 20.22±0.1%.

The sugar composition analysis showed that the millet-based peda contained reducing sugar
(6.23±0.02%), total sugar (25.2±0.2%), and added sugar (18.01±0.01%). The water activity of
the peda was determined to be 0.9101±1x10^-24, indicating a low moisture content and good
shelf stability. The color analysis demonstrated a color difference (∆E) of 20.71±1.05, suggesting
a significant visual distinction from traditional peda.

Microbiological analysis revealed that the millet-based peda had a total plate count of
1.0x10^3±0.1 colony-forming units (CFU) per gram, indicating a low microbial load. Coliforms
and yeast/mold counts were both below 10 CFU/g, demonstrating the product's microbiological
safety and quality.

The total concentration of Amino acid in millet-based peda was found to be 1.88%, where
glutamic acid has the highest concentration of 0.31% (RT-17.821 minutes), cysteine has the

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

lowest concentration of 0.01% (RT-28.295 minutes) and others have a concentration of 0.20%
in Aspartic Acid (RT-15.256 minutes), 0.10% of Serine (RT-16.816 minutes), 0.29% of Glycine
(RT-19.022 minutes), 0.03% of Histidine (RT-19.817 minutes), 0.07% of Arginine (RT-22.723
minutes), 0.03% of Threonine (RT-22.843 minutes), 0.19% of Alanine (RT-23.797 minutes),
0.07% of Proline (RT-25.292 minutes), 0.10% of Tyrosine (RT-29.162 minutes), 0.02% of
Valine (RT-29.634 minutes), 0.04% of Methionine (RT-30.335 minutes), 0.14% of Lysine (RT-
31.732 minutes), 0.05% of Isoleucine (RT-32.806 minutes), 0.17% of Leucine (RT-33.292
minutes), 0.07% Phenylalanine (RT-34.402 minutes) Overall, the development of millet-based
peda offers a promising alternative to the traditional high-sugar and high-fat peda. The peda
exhibited favorable characteristics, such as lower sugar content, reduced microbial load, and
improved nutritional profile. Additionally, the millet-based peda demonstrated distinctive color
attributes compared to the conventional variety. These findings contribute to expanding the range
of healthier and nutritious sweets available in the market, providing consumers with more diverse
options. Further research and development in this area could potentially lead to the
commercialization of millet-based peda as a healthier alternative to traditional sweets, benefiting
both the food industry and consumers.

5.2. Conclusion
The development of millet-based peda and the evaluation of its characteristics have provided
valuable insights into the potential of millets as a nutritious and healthier alternative to traditional
peda. The results of the study revealed several key findings, including the composition analysis,
sugar content, water activity, color attributes, microbial load, and amino acid profile of the millet-
based peda. These findings collectively highlight the benefits and prospects of incorporating
millets into the production of confectionery products.

The composition analysis of the millet-based peda demonstrated significant variations

compared to traditional peda. The carbohydrate content was found to be 33.60±0.2%, indicating
a lower carbohydrate load in the millet-based product. This is particularly beneficial for
individuals who need to manage their carbohydrate intake, such as those with diabetes. The
moisture content of 37.72±1.01% suggests that the millet-based peda retains an appropriate level

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

of moisture, which contributes to its texture and overall quality. Additionally, the presence of
crude ash at 1.64±0.02% indicates the inclusion of essential minerals and trace elements in the
peda, making it a more nutritious option. Furthermore, the millet-based peda contained
20.12±1.03% crude lipid, indicating a reduced fat content compared to traditional peda. This is
favorable for individuals aiming to reduce their fat intake and maintain a healthier diet. The low
crude fiber content of 0.55±0.01% suggests that additional sources of dietary fiber may be needed
to enhance the fiber content and potential health benefits of the millet-based peda.

The analysis of the millet-based peda's sugar content revealed promising results. The
reducing sugar content of 6.23±0.02% and total sugar content of 25.2±0.2% were both
significantly lower compared to traditional peda. This reduction in sugar content makes the
millet-based peda a healthier alternative for individuals seeking to limit their sugar consumption.
The added sugar content of 18.01±0.01% indicates that careful attention was given to minimizing
the use of added sugars, further enhancing the product's nutritional profile.

Water activity is an important parameter for determining the shelf stability of food products.
The low water activity of 0.9101±1x10^-24 suggests that the millet-based peda has a reduced
risk of microbial spoilage, allowing for an extended shelf life. This attribute is especially
important for confectionery products, as it ensures product quality and safety over time.

The color analysis of the millet-based peda demonstrated a significant color difference (∆E)
of 20.71±1.05 compared to traditional peda. This indicates a visually distinct product, potentially
appealing to consumers seeking novel and unique food experiences. The distinctive color may
also be attributed to the presence of natural pigments present in millets, offering a more visually
appealing alternative to traditional sweets.

Microbiological analysis revealed a low microbial load in the millet-based peda. The total
plate count of 1.0x10^3±0.1 colony-forming units (CFU) per gram suggests good manufacturing
practices were employed during production. Additionally, the absence of coliforms and low

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

yeast/mold counts below 10 CFU/g further indicate the product's microbiological safety and
quality.

The amino acid profile of the millet-based peda showcased a concentration of 1.88%.
Glutamic acid emerged as the most abundant amino acid with a concentration of 0.31% and RT-
17.821 minutes, contributing to the product's savory and umami taste. Cysteine had the lowest
concentration at 0.01% and RT- 28.295 minutes, while other amino acids such as aspartic acid,
serine, glycine, histidine, arginine, threonine, alanine, proline, tyrosine, valine, methionine,
lysine, isoleucine, leucine, and phenylalanine exhibited varying concentrations. The presence of
these amino acids contributes to the peda's nutritional value and potential health benefits.

In conclusion, the development of millet-based peda offers a promising alternative to

traditional peda, providing a healthier and more nutritious option for consumers. The findings of
this study highlight the advantages of incorporating millets into confectionery products,
including reduced carbohydrate and fat content, lower sugar levels, improved water activity,
distinct color attributes, and a favorable microbial profile. The amino acid profile further adds to
the nutritional value of the product. These results pave the way for future research and
development in utilizing millets as an innovative ingredient in the food industry. By leveraging
the nutritional benefits and appealing characteristics of millets, manufacturers can offer a wider
range of healthier and more diverse confectionery options, meeting the demands of health-
conscious consumers and contributing to overall well-being.

5.3. Future Scope

The future scope for millet-based peda lies in various areas of research and development.
Firstly, further optimization of the formulation can be explored by investigating different
combinations of millet varieties and other ingredients to enhance the nutritional profile and
sensory attributes of the peda. Additionally, research can focus on developing innovative
processing techniques to improve the texture and shelf stability of the peda while preserving its
nutritional value. Moreover, exploring the potential health benefits of millet-based peda through
clinical trials and nutritional studies can provide valuable insights and contribute to its promotion

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Development of Millet-based Peda and Evaluation of its Characteristics

as a healthier alternative. Furthermore, market research and consumer studies can be conducted
to understand consumer preferences and create awareness about the benefits of millet-based
products. Finally, scaling up production and exploring commercialization opportunities through
product and its diversification, packaging innovation, and marketing strategies can help promote
millet-based peda as a viable and sustainable food option in the market.

Department of Food Technology, FET, JAIN (Deemed - to - be University) 93

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX

Appendix no 1. Sensory Evaluation of sample on 9- point Hedonic Scale

Sample Body & Overall

Name Apperance Texture Flavour Sweetness Bitterness Acceptibility
SO1 6.75 7 7.75 8 8.5 7.75
SO2 6.5 7.5 7.75 8 9 8
SO3 8 8 7.75 8.25 8.75 8
SO4 7.75 7.75 7.75 7.75 8.75 8.25
SO5 7.5 7.75 7.5 8 8.75 7.75
SO6 8 7.25 6.75 7.25 8.75 7.75
SO7 8.25 6.75 8 7.25 8.75 8.25
SO8 8.5 7 8.25 8 9 8
T0 8 7.75 8.25 8.25 8.25 8.25

9-like extremely; 8-like very much; 7-like moderately; 6-like slightly; 5- neither like nor dislike;
4-dislike slightly; 3-dislike moderately; 2-dislike very much; 1-dislike extremely

Appendix no 2. Proximate Analysis values for Millet-based Products

Parameter Value
Carbohydrate 33.60±0.2
Moisture 37.72±1.01
Crude ash 1.64±0.02
Crude lipid 20.12±1.03
Crude fiber 0.55±0.01
Crude nitrogen 1.11±0.1
Crude protein 6.94±0.01

Appendix no 3. Chromatogram showing Amino Acid present in Millet-based Peda

Appendix no 4. Table showing RT of Amino Acid present in Millet-based Peda

Width
RT [min] Type [min] Area Height Area% Name
15.256 MM m 0.69 11.88 0.82 4.83 Aspartic Acid
16.816 MM m 0.87 10.14 0.63 4.12 Serine
17.821 MM m 0.52 16.14 1.18 6.56 Glutamic Acid
19.022 MM m 0.63 61.05 4.22 24.81 Glycine
19.817 MM m 0.42 2.81 0.21 1.14 Histidine
22.723 MM m 0.31 4.11 0.46 1.67 Arginine
22.843 MM m 0.23 4.6 0.44 1.87 Threonine
23.797 MM m 0.69 33.11 3.09 13.45 Alanine
25.292 MM m 0.32 4.01 0.51 1.63 Proline
28.295 MM m 0.12 0.11 0.03 0.05 Cystein
29.162 MM m 0.46 7.37 0.62 3 Tyrosine
29.634 MM m 0.28 4.7 0.55 1.91 Valine
30.335 MM m 0.44 4.97 0.51 2.02 Methionine
31.732 MM m 0.35 11.13 1.16 4.52 Lysine
32.806 MM m 0.58 11.52 0.64 4.68 Isoleucine
33.292 MM m 0.62 42.55 3.49 17.29 Leucine

Appendix no 5. Cost Estimation

Appendix no 5.1. Expenses of Raw Materials
Raw Materials Quantity Rupees Rs/g Rs/100g
White Sorghum Flour 500g 230 0.46 46
Proso Millet 950g 177 0.19 19
Jaggery 1kg 139 0.14 14
Almonds 200g 159 0.80 80
Cardamom 50g 87 1.74 174
Milk 500g 23 0.05 5
TOTAL (I) 815 3.38 338

Appendix no 5.2. Other Expenses of the millet-based peda

Utility (5 rupees/unit) 1.2 (unit) × 5 (hr) × 5 (Rs) 30 Rupees
Labour 1 (person) × 100 (Rs) 100 Rupees
Transport 40 Rupees
Other Expenses
Packaging 80 Rupees
TOTAL (II) 250 Rupees
• Total Working Capital (A) = I + II = 588 Rupees

Appendix no 5.3. Equipment used Expenses of the millet-based peda

Machinery Life Span (years) Original Cost Depreciation Cost
Mixer Grinder 6 3200 480 Rs/yr
Weighing Balance 4 1500 337.5 Rs/yr
Refrigerator 10 22400 2016 Rs/yr
TOTAL 2883.5 Rs/yr

• Total depreciation cost per year = 2883.5 Rupees

• Total Depreciation per day = 7.9 Rupees
• Interest on the capital (10%) = 0.79
• Total Cost (B) = 7.9+ 0.79= 8.69 Rupees
Total Cost = A + B = 588 + 8.69 = 596.69 Rupees

Appendix no 5.4. Table 4.14 Weight of the millet-based peda

1 Peda 10 grams
10 Peda 100ams

• 100 grams = 596.69 Rupees

• 1 kg = 5966.9
• Estimated Cost Of 100 grams = 630 Rupees
• Estimated Cost Of 1000 Kgs = 6300 Rupees
Total return = Total Production × Price per Kgs = 6300 × 0.1 = Rs 630

Net return = 630 – 596.69 = 33.1 Rupees

Benefit cost ratio = 630/ 596.69 = 1.06
Appendix no 6. Statistical Analysis
Variable N N* Mean SE Mean StDev Variance CoefVar Minimum Q1
Carbohydrate 3 9 33.600 0.115 0.200 0.040 0.60 33.400 33.400
Moisture 3 9 37.720 0.583 1.010 1.020 2.68 36.710 36.710
Crude Ash 3 9 1.6400 0.0115 0.0200 0.0004 1.22 1.6200 1.6200
Crude Lipid 3 9 20.120 0.595 1.030 1.061 5.12 19.090 19.090
Crude Fiber 3 9 0.55000 0.00577 0.01000 0.00010 1.82 0.54000 0.54000
Water Activity 3 9 0.91010 0.000058 0.000100 0.000000 0.01 0.91000 0.91000
Crude Protein 3 9 6.9400 0.00577 0.0100 0.00010 0.14 6.9300 6.9300
Reducing 3 9 6.2300 0.0115 0.0200 0.0004 0.32 6.2100 6.2100
Sugar
Total sugar 3 9 25.200 0.115 0.200 0.040 0.79 25.000 25.000
Added Sugar 3 9 18.010 0.00577 0.0100 0.00010 0.06 18.000 18.000
Variable Median Q3 Maximum
Carbohydrate 33.600 33.800 33.800
Moisture 37.720 38.730 38.730
Crude Ash 1.6400 1.6600 1.6600
Crude Lipid 20.120 21.150 21.150
Crude Fiber 0.55000 0.56000 0.56000
Water Activity 0.91010 0.91020 0.91020
Crude Protein 6.9400 6.9500 6.9500
Reducing 6.2300 6.2500 6.2500
Sugar
Total sugar 25.200 25.400 25.400
Added Sugar 18.010 18.020 18.020
Development of millet-based peda and evaluation of its
characteristics
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 SNEHA
MAITY
FOOD TECHNOLOGY| OPERATION
MANAGEMENT|BIOTECHNOLOGY

SKILLS & PERSONAL

EDUCATION AND AFFILIATIONS
TRAITS
JAIN (DEEMED-TO-BE UNIVERSITY), BANGALORE, KARNATAKA
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+91-7550010361
B.TECH Biotechnology
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EMAIL:
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ADDRESS: WORK EXPERIENCE & Internship

SLN PG for Ladies, 8,1/3rd Main Road,
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560078. • Associating with doctors, presenting them the advancement of
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LANGUAGES
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English, Hindi, Bengali, Telegu (Basic
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understanding) • Associating with doctors and sharing with them the advancements and
development of the pacemakers ofMedtronic, its features and cost with
respect to competitors. Parameter setting for pacemaker while it's
installation on patients at OT, alongside the Doctor.

ITC Life Science and Technology Centre: Trainee

May 2019 – July 2019
• Categorizing wheat from various sourcesfor accessibility gradation and
analysis of the flour

ITC Life Science and Technology Centre: Internship

June 2018
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 COURSES
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SWAYAM
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REFERENCES ACADEMIC PROJECTS & TRAINING

• Dr. Ishita Auddy, Assistant Professor,
• MTech| Development of Millet-Based Peda and Evaluation of its
Department of Food Technology, Characteristics| 2022-23
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, • B.Tech| Wound Healing Activity of Ficus benghalensis Bark Extract on
Rats| 2019
JAIN (Deemed-to-be University),
• B.Tech| Production of Bio-ethanol from Lignocellulosic Waste| 2018
Bangalore, Karnataka.
• Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) Implementation Training |
Mob: +91- 8017432671 2022
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• Dr. Amar Shankar, Head, Dept. of Food
and Registration of Food businesses | 2023
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Technology, JAIN (Deemed-to-be 22000:2018) Training | 2023
University), Bangalore, Karnataka.
Mob: +91- 9686461018 PUBLICATIONS
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• Review Paper: A Comparative Evaluation of Bioactive compounds present
• Mr. Susam Kumar Maity, Chief Manager in Pseudocereal (Communicated)
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at Flender Drives Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai,
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Maharashtra. lactose intolerant people and less fat content” | 29th ICFoST | AFSTI(I)-
HQ (Mysuru), Kollam and Cochin Chapter | January, 2023
Mob: +91- 9836217175
• Trina Purkait, Nandini Dutta, Sneha Maity | “A Consumer Behavior Study
Email: susam.maity@flender.com on Plant – Based Milk Alternatives in Bengaluru Metropolitan” | Jnana
Chilume 2022 | JAIN (Deemed-to-be University) | June, 2022
Book Chapter
Handbook of Emerging Non-Thermal Food Processing Technologies: Volume
8 – Fundamental Aspects and Applications of Irradiation Technology in Food
Processing (Under Review)
• Scope and Research Advances in Irradiation Technologies in Food
and Food Products- Authors: Sneha Maity, Humeera Tazeen

Handbook of Emerging Non-Thermal Food Processing Technologies: Volume

1 – Ozone Processing: Recent Application and Prospects (Communicated)
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CONFERENCES
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University) | 1st Jun 2022