12 Technical Report No DOT FAA CT 91 5

DOT/FAA/CT-91 /5
FAA Technical Center

Current Nonde~;tructive Inspection
Atlantic City International Airport
N.J. 08405 Methods for Agring Aircraft
IJ
OCT 8 1992
'!ECHNiCt~.LCE:"f~E:~ '..'''''Jt RV
~l>JofTJC CITY '" , 405
Final Report
This document is available to ·:he U.S.

,, through the National Technica I
'· Springfield, Virginia 22161
lJ
j
0
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Aviation Administration
NOTICE
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship

of the U. S. Department of Transportation in the interest
of information exchange. The United States Government
assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof.
The United States Government does not endorse products

or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers' names appear
herein solely because they are considered essential to the
objective of this report.
Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. ~ .. Recipienfs Catalog No.
DOT/FAA/CT-91/5
4. Title and Subtitle

..
·'· Report Date
June 1992
Current Nondestructive Inspection Methods
Ei. Performing Organization Code
For Aging Aircraft
II. Performing Organization Report No.
7. AuthorsGeorge Ansley, Stephen Bakanas, Maurice
Castronuovo, Ted Grant, Frank Vichi
9. Performing Organization Name and Address '10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
Galaxy Scientific Corporation
71 Cantillion Blvd '11. Contract or Grant No.
Mays Landing, NJ 08330 DTFA03-89-C-00043
13. Type of Report and Period Covered
12. Sponsoring Agency and Address
Final Report
u.s. Department of Transportation
Federal Aviation Administration
Technical Center 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Atlantic City International Airport, NJ 08405 ACD-210
15. Supplementary Notes
COTR: Nelson Miller, FAA Technical Center

Technical Monitor: Dave Galella, FAA Technical Center
16. Abstract
This report identifies and describes current methods USE!d during the
nondestructive inspection (NDI) of commercial transport aircraft for
structural damage. The six most prevalene NDI methods identified are
visual, eddy current, radiography, ultrasonic, penetrant:, and magnetic
particle. The physical principles, generalized performance characteristics,
and typical applications associated with each method anl described. In
addition, descriptions of specific airframe and engine :.nspection practices
are also presented .
17. KeyWords 18. Distribution Statement

NDI, NDT, NDE Nondestructive Inspection
Document is available to the public
Visual Eddy Current
through the
Dye Penetrant Ultrasonic
National Technical Information Service
Airframe Radiography
Springfield, VA 22161
Turbine Engine Magnetic Particle
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of lhis page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED 132
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii
INTRODUCTION 1
BACKGROUND 1
PURPOSE 2
SCOPE 2
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION METHODS 7

VISUAL 7
EDDY CURRENT 13
RADIOGRAPHIC 22
ULTRASONIC 38
PENETRANT 55
MAGNETIC PARTICLE 64
AIRCRAFT INSPECTION APPLICATIONS 71

AIRFRAME INSPECTIONS 71
JET ENGINE INSPECTIONS 78
CONCLUSION 89
REFERENCES 91
APPENDICES
A - EDDY CURRENT INSPECTIONS
B - ULTRASONIC INSPECTIONS
C - RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTIONS
iii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
1. TYPICAL BORESCOPE CONSTRUCTION 7
2. BORESCOPES DESIGNED FOR INSPECTING VARIOUS GEOMETRIES 8
3. CRACK INSPECTION USING REFLECTED LIGHT TO E~ANCE CONTRAST OF

CRACKED SURFACE 10
4. EDDY CURRENTS INDUCED IN CONDUCTIVE MATERIJ,LS BY VARYING

MAGNETIC FIELDS 13
5. METER DISPLAY ILLUSTRATING THE AMPLITUDE OF A TYPICAL EDDY

CURRENT SIGNAL 16
6. IMPEDANCE PLANE DISPLAY SHOWING THE PHASE, AS WELL AS THE

AMPLITUDE, OF THE EDDY CURRENT SIGNAL. THIS DISPLAY
ILLUSTRATES SIGNAL TRACES FOR SURFACE FLAWS OF 6, 10, 20,
AND 40 MILS IN LENGTH. 16
7. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR PRODUCING X-RAYS 22
8. ENGINE INSPECTION USING A 160 kV METAL-CE~~IC X-RAY UNIT 24
9. X-RAY UNIT USED TO INSPECT THE LANDING GE~~ OF AN A300 AIRBUS 24
10. A MOBILE 160 kV X-RAY SYSTEM USED TO INSPECT ENGINE MOUNT

COMPONENTS OF A BOEING 727 24
11. DIRECTIONAL X-RAY TUBES EMIT X-RAYS IN A NARROW CONE,

PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF THE TUBE 25
12. PANORAMIC X-RAY TUBES EMIT X-RAYS IN A 36J DEGREE CIRCLE

ABOUT THE TUBE 26
13. A MICROFOCUS X-RAY SYSTEM USED TO INSPECT A JT8D ENGINE

BURNER CAN 26
14. CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF A JET ENGINE TURBINE BLADE MADE BY

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY 28
15. USING IRIDIUM 192 TO INSPECT AN ENGINE 29
v
---· ·------ --~----~---~.--~------"------ ----~~-------~-~~--- -- -- ~-----
16. RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE - MORE RADIATION PASSES THROUGH THE

LOW DENSITY FLAW THAN THE SURROUNDING MATERIAL, CREATING
AN AREA OF DARKER EXPOSURE ON THE FILM. 29
17. TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVES FOR TWO DIFFERENT FILMS 31
18. ILLUSTRATION OF GEOMETRIC FOCUS AND DIVERGING X-RAYS 32
19. EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRIC EFFECTS - INCREASING THE TARGET TO

FILM DISTANCE, DECREASING THE SOURCE APERTURE, OR
DECREASING THE PART TO FILM DISTANCE WILL IMPROVE IMAGE
SHARPNESS 32
20. EXAMPLE OF ORDINARY WAVE MOTION 38
21. TYPICAL ULTRASONIC SYSTEM CONSISTING OF A PULSE GENERATOR,

TRANSDUCER, AND OSCILLOSCOPE 39
22. GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES 40
23. ILLUSTRATION OF PARTICLE MOTION IN A LONGITUDINAL WAVE 41
24. ILLUSTRATION SHOWING THAT PARTICLE MOTION IS PERPENDICULAR TO

WAVE MOTION 41
25. SURFACE WAVE PARTICLE MOTION IS ORBITAL, CONSISTING OF BOTH

PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR COMPONENTS 42
26. LAMB WAVES OCCUR ONLY IN THIN SHEETS OF MATERIAL IN EITHER

ASYMMETRICAL OR SYMMETRICAL MODES 43
27. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE DETERMINES WHETHER A LONGITUDINAL, SHEAR,

OR COMBINATION WAVE IS GENERATED IN THE MATERIAL 44
28. TYPICAL SETUP AND DISPLAY OF PULSE-ECHO TESTING 45
29. APPLICATIONS OF ANGLE BEAMS FOR ULTRASONIC INSPECTIONS 46
30. ILLUSTRATIONS USING SEPARATE TRANSDUCERS FOR SENDING AND

RECEIVING, OR "PITCH-CATCH" 46
31. TYPICAL SETUP AND DISPLAY FOR ULTRASONIC IMMERSION TESTING 47
32. BUBBLER ANGLE-BEAM TESTING FOR PIPE INSPECTION 47
33. ILLUSTRATION OF A WHEEL TRANSDUCER 47
Vl.
34. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL A-SCAN DISPLAY 48
35. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL B-SCAN DISPLAY SHOWING CROSS-

SECTIONAL VIEW 49
36. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL C-SCAN DISPLAY SHOWING TOP DOWN VIEW 50
37. PENETRANT AND DEVELOPER ACTION 55
38. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PENETRANT PROCESS 58
39. THE RIGHT-HAND RULE 64
40. ILLUSTRATION OF LONGITUDINAL MAGNETISM 65
41. ILLUSTRATION OF CIRCULAR MAGNETISM 65
42. SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT 66
43. SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIED CURRENT 66
44. SINGLE-PHASE FULL- WAVE RECTIFIED CURRENT 66
45. THREE-PHASE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED CURRENT 66
4 6. LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION DEFECT INDICA'J'IONS 68
47. CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION DEFECT INDICATIONS 68
48. COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS 72
49. COMMERCIAL AIRLINER WING STRUCTURE 75
50. ULTRASONIC DETECTION OF CRACKS IN HORIZON~~AL STABILIZER SKIN

PLANKS 76
51. CRACKING OF MAIN LANDING GEAR ATTACH FORGING 77
52. TYPICAL TURBOFAN ENGINE INSTALLATION 79
53. BORESCOPE INSPECTION THROUGH ENGINE BLEED PORT 80
54. TYPICAL TURBOFAN ENGINE COMPONENTS REQUIRING NDI 81
55. ISOTOPE RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF ENGINE 82
vii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. COMPARISONS OF INSPECTION METHODS 5
2. RADIOISOTOPE SOURCES 27
3. RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE QUALITY 30
4. CRITICAL ANGLES FOR IMMERSION AND CONTACT TESTING IN VARIOUS

MATERIALS 44
viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report identifies and describes the most prevalent nondestructive

inspection methods, equipment, and procedures currently in use at
aircraft maintenance facilities for the inspection of commercial
transport aircraft.
The report is divided into four sections: Introduction, Nondestructive

Inspection Methods, Aircraft Inspection Applications and supporting
Appendices.
Introduction. This section contains an o,rerview of aging

aircraft and related issues. It also provides a brief description of
the commonly used NDI methods.
Nondestructive Inspection Methods. This section describes

specific details of the six major NDI methods used for aircraft
inspection. These methods are visual, eddy current, radiographic,
ultrasonic, penetrant, and magnetic particle. Each method includes a
general description, the type of defects capable of being detected,
method characteristics, and specific equipment manufacturers.
Aircraft Inspection Applications. This SE:ction is divided into

the subsections of airframe inspections and jet engine inspections.
Each subsection describes flaws generally encountered in those areas
and the appropriate methods and procedures to detect them.
Appendices. The appendices include examples of actual procedures

to inspect aircraft using the eddy current, ultrasonic and
radiographic methods.
ix
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND.
An increased demand for commercial aircraft has forced air carriers to

operate existing aircraft beyond their original economic design life.
Consequently, the average age of the u.s. commercial fleet has risen
steadily from 4.6 years in 1970 to 12.7 years in 1989. If this trend
is maintained, 60 percent of the current fleet will exceed their
economic design life by the end of this decade.
Chronological age alone may not reflect the condition of the airplane
structure. The number of flights, the cumulative flight time,
environmental exposure, and usage patterns also play a role.
Together, however, these factors tend to correlate well with
chronological age,and structural problems such as fatigue cracking,
corrosion, and disbanding are more likely to be encountered in high-
time aircraft.
Prior to 1978, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) maintained

that aircraft structure be designed according to fail-safe
requirements. This required that sufficient re,dundancy be designed
into an aircraft structure such that if a major structural element
were to fail, the surrounding structure would Eafely bear the
additional load. Since that time, the fail-safe design requirement
has been augmented by damage tolerance criteric ..
Damage tolerance maintains that an aircraft ren1ain airworthy despite

the possibility of containing subcritical cracks and flaws. This
philosophy recognizes the impossibility of estcLblishing complete
structural redundancy throughout the aircraft. Accordingly, continued
airworthiness of damage tolerant aircraft strongly depends upon the
implementation of inspection programs capable of detecting cracks and
flaws prior to reaching their critical size. ~'o further strengthen
the maintenance and inspection procedures required to meet damage
tolerance criteria, the FAA issued Advisory Circular (AC) 91-56 in
1981. This AC provides aircraft manufacturers and operators with
guidelines for establishing Supplemental Structural Inspection
Documents (SSIDs). SSIDs provide a plan to ma:.ntain the continued
airworthiness of older transport aircraft by mE~eting damage tolerant
requirements. Through the SSID programs, aircraft that were
originally designed fail-safe are essentially brought into conformance
with the damage tolerance philosophy by means of updated inspection
programs.
Because of the additional number of inspection:> directed by the SSID

programs, there has been an increased emphasis placed upon the
1
importance of nondestructive inspection (NDI). The importance of NDI
stems from its ability to determine structural integrity with minimal
aircraft tear-down, disassembly, downtime and loss of revenue.
PURPOSE.
The purpose of this report is to identify and describe the most

prevalent NDI methods, equipment and procedures currently in use at
aircraft maintenance facilities for the inspection of commercial
transport aircraft.
SCOPE.
This report describes the six most prevalent NDI methods used to
inspect commercial aircraft. Also included are sections describing
NDI procedures for specific airframe and engine applications. It is
hoped that interested parties will seek additional information in more
extensive works on NDI.
METHODS OF INSPECTION. The principles underlying each method are

described as well as the types of defects sought by the method and a
listing of particular performance characteristics associated with that
method. Also identified are examples of specific equipment used at
inspection shops to accomplish the various inspection tasks.
Description of Methods. Brief descriptions of the six commonly

used methods of NDI are listed below.
1. Visual - Visual inspection is the most common form of NDI and

consists of viewing the area by the eye, with or without aid of a
magnifying glass, borescope, light source, etc.
2. Eddy Current - Eddy current inspection is used to detect

surface or near-surface cracks in metals, to detect thinning of metals
due to corrosion and to sort metals or alloys and their heat treat
conditions. High frequency eddy current techniques can be applied to
airplane parts or assemblies where the defective area is accessible to
contact by the eddy current probe. Low frequency techniques are used
to detect cracks or corrosion on back surfaces or cracks in underlying
structure. The inspection is performed by inducing eddy currents into
a part and electronically observing variations in the induced field.
3. Radiographic -Radiographic inspection will show internal and

external structural details of all types of parts and materials. It
is usually used for the inspection of inaccessible areas in the
airframe structure or thick sections which do not lend themselves to
inspection through other NDI methods. It is accomplished by
2
transmitting an x-ray or gamma-ray beam through the part or assembly
being tested. The transmitted beam impinges on radiographic film or
detector and reveals anomalies. The structural details of the part or
assembly will be shown by variations in density on film or a video
display. Interpretation of the radiograph will indicate defects.
4. Ultrasonics - Ultrasonic inspection i~: suitable for the

inspection of most metals, plastics, and composites for surface or
subsurface defects. Ultrasonic inspection requires at least one
surface of the part to be accessible in the vicinity of the area being
inspected. The inspection of aircraft structure is accomplished by
inducing ultrasonic waves into the part and picking up reflections of
this sound from within the part. The detected ultrasonic reflections
are electronically displayed on an oscilloscope for interpretation by
the inspector.
5. Penetrant - Penetrant inspection is used to detect small

cracks or discontinuities open to the surface that are not evident by
normal visual inspection. Penetrant inspection can be used on most
aircraft parts and assemblies accessible for its application. The
inspection is performed by applying a liquid tt.at penetrates into
surface defects. Excessive penetrant is then removed from the surface
and suitable developers are applied to draw thE! remaining penetrant
from the defects. Visual indications at the s~.rface are obtained by
using fluorescent or dye-colored penetrants.
6. Magnetic Particle - Magnetic particle inspection will

indicate surface or subsurface defects in ferromagnetic parts. It may
be performed on assembled or disassembled partE:. The test is
accomplished by inducing an electromagnetic fiE!ld in the part and
applying a dry powder or liquid suspension of fluorescent or colored
iron oxide particles. Local magnetic poles formed by defects in the
part will attract the particles and indicate areas of discontinuities.
Defects Sought. The types of structural defects and failures

associated with aircraft follow. These defectn are attributable to
aging effects caused by either time, flight cycles, service operating
conditions, or combinations of these effects.
1. Fatigue Cracks - Fatigue cracks occur in parts that have been

in service under repeated stress cycles. These cracks typically
initiate where the design or surface condition:3 provide points of
stress concentration. Such areas include sharp corners, seams,
grinding cracks, and at fastener holes having poor surface finishes or
sharp burrs. Undetected, fatigue cracks will ':!ventually propagate
through the part until failure occurs.
3
2. Corrosion - Corrosion occurs on almost all metals. Whether
or not an aircraft experiences corrosion depends on its fabrication
process and service conditions. Poor choices of surface treatments,
protective coatings and dissimilar metal combinations greatly increase
the likelihood of corrosion in those areas. In service, corrosion is
caused by the presence of salts in moist air, or by some other
abetment present in the chemical content of the water or elements in
the metal.
3. Disbonds - In addition to riveting, many structural elements

are joined by bonding processes. Weak or improper bonding can lead to
immediate joint failure or, where rivets are present, higher than
anticipated stresses which may cause fatigue cracking at those rivet
sites. It is therefore necessary to detect all areas of disbanding as
early as possible before such failure or fatigue cracking can occur.
Method Characteristics. Characteristics, including advantages

and disadvantages, portability, rate of inspection, training required,
and generalized descriptions of minimum detectable flaw size and
probability of detection (POD) and false alarms, are provided for each
of the six methods. Knowledge of these characteristics, coupled with
an understanding of the theory of each method, will aid in the
selection of a particular method for a given inspection. Table 1
lists the advantages and disadvantages of the prevalent methods of
NDI. The method of inspection for a part will depend on several
factors including accessibility, portability, type of defect sought,
material of the part, and degree of sensitivity required.
Typical Equipment Used to Inspect Aircraft. A list of typical

equipment used to inspect commercial transport aircraft is provided
for each NDI method. For a more comprehensive list of equipment and
manufacturers covering all industrial NDI applications, the reader is
referenced to the annual Buyers Guide published in Materials
Evaluation, the official journal of the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) .
AIRFRAME INSPECTIONS. In addition to the NDI method descriptions,

this report identifies specific NDI applications concerning various
aircraft subassemblies. These subassemblies include the fuselage,
wings, empennage, control surfaces and landing gear. Many specific
procedures pertaining to these areas are contained in the appendices.
JET ENGINE INSPECTIONS. Typical engine NDI routines including on-wing

and off-aircraft inspections and monitoring are presented.
4
Table 1. Comparisons of Inspection Methods
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Visual • Inexpensive • Surf~.ce defects only

• Highly portable • Generally only larger defects
• brunediate results • Misinterpretation of scratches
• Minimum training and part preparation
Eddy Current • Detects surface and subsurface • Surface must be accessible to probe
flaws • Rough surfaces interfere with test
• Portable • Metds only
• brunediate results • Skill and training required
• Sensitive to small defects • Time: consuming for large areas
• Thickness sensitive
• Moderately fast
X-ray • Detects surface and internal flaws • Very expensive

Radiography • Can inspect hidden areas • Highly sensitive to flaw orientation
• Permanent test record obtained • High degree of skill and experience
• Minimum part preparation required for exposure and interpretation
• Depth of defect not indicated
• Safety hazard
Isotope • Portable • Mm t conform to federal and state

Radiography • Less expensive than x-ray regtlations for handling and use
• Detects surface and internal flaws • Depth of defect not indicated
• Can inspect hidden areas • Hig:Uy sensitive to flaw orientation
• Permanent test record obtained • Hip degree of skill and experience
• Minimum part preparation required for exposure and interpretation
• S af~:ty hazard
Ultrasonic • Portable • Sur:'ace must be accessible to probe

• Detects surface and subsurface flaws • Rot gh surfaces interfere with test
• Sensitive to small defects • Highly sensitive to sound beam-defect
brunediate results orientation
• Little part preparation • High degree of skill required to set up
• Wide range of materials and and interpret
thicknesses can be inspected • Couplant usually required
Penetrant • Portable • Surface must be accessible

• Inexpensive • Rough surfaces interfere with test
• Sensitive to very small defects • Part preparation, such as removal of
• brunediate results finish and sealants, required
• Minimum skill required • High degree of cleanliness
• Direct visual detection of results required
Magnetic • Portable • Surface must be accessible

Particle • Inexpensive • Ro.1gh surfaces interfere with test
• Sensitive to small defects • Part preparation, such as removal of
• brunediate results fin.sh and sealants, required
• Moderate skill required • Field orientation affects flaw detection
• Detects surface and subsurface flaws • FeJTomagnetic materials only
• Relatively fast • Part must be demagnetized after test
5
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION ME'rHODS
VISUAL.
DESCRIPTION OF METHOD.
General. Visual inspection is the oldest and most common form of

NDI used to inspect aircraft. The physical principle behind visual
inspection is that visible light is reflected from the surface of the
part to the inspector's eyes. By observing the appearance of the
part, the inspector can infer its condition. Visual inspection is a
quick and economical method of detecting various types of defects
before they cause failure. Its reliability depends upon the ability
and experience of the inspector. The inspector must know how to
search for critical flaws and how to recognize areas where failure
could occur. The human eye is a very discerning instrument and with
training, the brain can interpret the slightest indications that point
to defects.
Optical devices are available to aid the naked eye in visual

inspection and flaw detection. This equipment can be used to magnify
defects that could not be seen by the unaided eye or to permit
inspection of otherwise hidden areas.
Equipment. Visual inspection is often conducted using a strong

flashlight, a mirror with a ball joint, and a magnifying aid.
Magnifying aids range in power from 1.5x to 2000x. Fields of view
typically range from 3.5 to 0.006 inches with Iesolutions ranging from
0.002 to 0.000008 inches. A lOx magnifying glass is recommended for
positive identification of suspected cracks. Other inspection
methods, such as penetrant or eddy current, car.. also be used to verify
questionable indications.
,....-...,.....- O&JECTIVE LENSES

. . - - - - SPACERS --"T""""----"T-----,
INTERMEDIATE LENSES
FIGURE 1. TYPICAL BORESCOPE CONSTRUCTION
1. Borescopes - A borescope (see figure 1) is a rigid rod that

allows an inspector to see into inaccessible areas by transmitting an
7
image from one end of the scope to the other. They can be inserted
into openings, such as an igniter hole in an engine, to facilitate
inspection of components deep inside. This is accomplished by forming
an image of the viewing area with an objective lens. That image is
then transferred along the rod by a system of intermediate lenses.
Finally, the image arrives at the ocular, which creates a viewable
virtual image. The ocular can be focused for comfortable viewing so
that the image appears anywhere from a few inches to an infinite
distance away. Borescopes typically range from 0.25 to 0.50 inches in
diameter and can be as long as 6 feet in length.
Borescopes often incorporate a light near the objective lens to

illuminate the viewing area. Their construction falls into four
types, depending on the field of view (see figure 2).
·...-~
..:_,
.
. ·.
DIRECT RIGHT ANGLE RETlOSP£CTIVE FORO&LIQUE
FIGURE 2. BORESCOPES DESIGNED FOR INSPECTING VARIOUS GEOMETRIES
Forward or direct-vision scopes provide vision directly forward from

the tip of the borescope.
Right angle scopes give a field of view to the side of the scope,
extending in an angular field from about 55 to 125 degrees from the
axis of the scope.
Retrospective scopes provide vision slightly rearward, from about 110

to 150 degrees from the axis.
8
Foroblique scopes allow vision forward and to t:1e side in a field
extending from about 0 to 55 degrees.
2. Fiberscopes - Fiberscopes are bundles eof fiber optic cables

that transmit light from end to end. They are similar to borescopes,
but they are very flexible. They can be inserted into openings and
curled into otherwise inaccessible areas. They also incorporate light
sources for illumination and devices for bending the tip in any
direction desired. Like the borescope, fiberscope images are formed
at an ocular or eyepiece.
3. Video Imaging Systems - Video imaging systems or

"videoscopes," consist of tiny charge coupled device (CCD) cameras at
the end of a flexible probe. Borescopes, fiberscopes and even
microscopes can be attached to video imaging systems. These systems
consist of a camera to receive the image, processors, and a monitor to
view the image. The image on the monitor can be enlarged or overlaid
with measurement scales. Images can also be printed on paper or
stored digitally. In this manner, a permanent record of the
inspection can be obtained.
Indications. Before attempting a close, 'Tisual inspection of any

part or area, it should be inspected for corrosion. Any corrosion
found should be examined to determine its extent and severity. The
first appearance of corrosion on unpainted aluntinum surfaces is
usually in the form of white powder or spots. Corrosion on painted,
plated, or clad surfaces is often characterized by a scaly or
blistered appearance, or a discoloration of thE! paint. Corrosion on
aluminum alloys or plated steel is characteriZE!d by a dulling· or
pitting of the area, sometimes with white or rE!d deposits.
One should also examine the area for deformed or missing fasteners.
These indicate possible structural failure and should be marked for
subsequent replacement. Areas around fasteners should be carefully
inspected, as cracks often start at fastener holes.
When searching for surface cracks, one should direct a strong light at
an angle to the surface under inspection (see figure 3). A lOx
magnifying glass can be used to confirm the ex:_stence or extent of a
crack.
Part Preparation/Safety. Visual inspection does not require part

disassembly or removal. However, access to th«~ desired area must be
acquired. Consequently, some fairing or accesB panel removal and
limited adjacent equipment disassembly may be :~equired. In addition
to this, the part must be adequately stripped and cleaned so that all
indications will be visible.
9
" - - · · - - - - - - - --- -----·--·--··--------~--- -------- -- - - - - ---
DEFECTS SOUGHT. Visual inspection is a fast, inexpensive NDI method

that can be used on any material. Principal applications consist of:
Flaw Detection. Typical flaws sought during visual inspection

include surface cracks, porosity and other defects in casted parts.
Weld defects such as cracks, blow holes, insufficient penetration,
lack of fusion, and other discontinuities at the surface can be found.
Forgings, such as turbine shafts and rotors, can also be inspected
during disassembly for defects.
Corrosion Detection. Surface corrosion, exfoliation, pitting,

and intergranular corrosion can be detected visually when proper
access to the inspection area is obtained.
EYE ABOVE
REFLECTED
LIGHT BEAM
INCIDENT
LIGHT BEAM
FAYING CRACK OPEN

SURFACES TO SURFACE
FIGURE 3. CRACK INSPECTION USING REFLECTED LIGHT TO ENHANCE CONTRAST

OF CRACKED SURFACE
METHOD CHARACTERISTICS.
Minimum Detectable Flaw Size. The minimum size flaw that can be
detected visually varies according to inspection aids used. More
magnification will allow smaller defects to be detected, but will
greatly increase inspection time and operator fatigue.
Advantages. The primary advantages of visual inspection include

its ability to be performed quickly and inexpensively without the need
of complicated equipment. Only little training is required and
typically no special safety precautions need to be taken. Where
10
necessary, permanent records can be obtained by photography or digital
imaging and storage.
Disadvantaqes. The disadvantage of visual inspection is that the

surface to be inspected must be relatively clean and accessible to
either the naked eye or an optical aid such as a borescope.
Typically, visual inspection lacks the sensitivity of other surface
NDI methods.
Probability of Detection/ProbabilitY of Fcllse Alarm. Probability

of detection (POD) for small defects is lower than with other methods.
Scratches can be confused with cracks and usually other inspection
methods can be used to confirm visual indications.
Inspection Rate. Visual inspection yieldB immediate results.

Magnification aids can slow down inspection considerably and are
typically used in critical or problem areas only.
Training. Simple visual testing can be pE~rformed with little

training. Searching for flaws in critical parts, however, requires a
high degree of experience and skill.
Portability. All visual inspection equiprnent is highly portable.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT USED TO INSPECT AIRCRAFT. There are three

categories of visual aids used by inspectors tc assist or supplement
visual inspections. These are magnification, rr.irrors, and borescopes.
Magnification (typically 5x or lOx magnifying glasses) and mirrors are

generally selected by inspectors to suit personal preferences and the
requirements of the inspection.
Rigid borescopes and fiberscopes in a variety of sizes and designs are

common inspection tools at aircraft maintenance! facilities where they
are primarily used for engine inspections.
The following are some of the manufacturers of rigid borescopes and

flexible fiberscopes used to inspect aircraft:
ACMI/Circon/Fujinon
ITI - Instrument Technology, Inc.
Lennox Instruments, Inc.
Machida, Inc.
Olympus Corp.
Wolf Medical Instruments
11
The following are manufacturers of videoscopes:
ITI - Instrument Technology, Inc.

Olympus Corp.
Welch Allyn, Inc.
12
EDDY CURRENT.
General. When an electrically conductive material is exposed to

an alternating magnetic field that is generated by a coil of wire
carrying an alternating current, eddy currents are induced on and
below the surface of the material (see figure 4). These eddy
currents, in turn, generate their own magnetic field which opposes the
magnetic field of the test coil. This magnetic field interaction
causes a resistance of current flow or impedance in the test coil. By
measuring this change in impedance, the test coil or a separate
sensing coil can be used to detect any condition that would affect the
current-carrying properties of the test material.
CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL
FIGURE 4. EDDY CURRENTS INDUCED IN CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS BY VARYING

MAGNETIC FIELDS
Eddy currents are sensitive to:
1. Changes in electrical conductivity. The electrical

conductivity of a metal may vary with its chemistry (alloy) or with
the heat treatment of the part.
2. Changes in magnetic permeability (ability of a material to be

magnetized) . The magnetic steels used in aircraft structure generally
have high permeability values. Eddy current i::1strumentation is very
sensitive to any change in permeability and the normal permeability
variations in a typical steel part may cause erratic and confusing
readings on an eddy current instrument. As a rule, eddy current
testing is recommended for steel parts only when other NDI methods
such as penetrant or magnetic particle are not feasible.
13
3. Geometry - The shape or geometry of a part may affect eddy
current readings. For example, the readings will be affected if the
part is thin and the eddy current field completely penetrates the
part. Similarly, the readings will be affected if the coil gets too
close to an edge (edge effect).
4. Defects - Cracks, inclusions, corrosion and porosity are

typical defects detectable by eddy current. Laminar cracks lying
parallel with the inspection surface are detectable with eddy current.
Most modern eddy current instruments in use by the airlines are

relatively small and battery powered. They can be used for a wide
variety of test applications by changing the probe containing the coil
and/or changing the test frequency.
In general, surface defect detection is accomplished with probes

containing small coils (for example, 0.10 inch diameter) at a
relatively high frequency. High frequency eddy current (HFEC) is
generally considered 100 kHz and above.
Low frequency eddy current (LFEC) is used to penetrate deeper into a

part to detect subsurface defects or cracks in underlying structure.
The lower the frequency, the deeper the penetration. LFEC is
generally considered between 100 Hz and 50 kHz.
The generation of LFEC requires relatively large coils and the

detectable crack size for subsurface or second layer cracks is
significantly larger than can be detected on the surface with HFEC.
For example, a 0.5 inch diameter coil operating at 500 Hz might be
used to detect a 1.0-inch long crack in an aluminum splice plate
beneath a 0.2 inch thick aluminum skin. For comparison, a typical
HFEC application might be performed at 250 kHz with a coil 0.10 inch
diameter with the capability of detecting surface cracks on the order
of 0.030 inch deep and 0.040 inches in length.
The test coil is contained in a probe or fixture that provides

protection of the coil and lead wires to the eddy current instrument.
Eddy current probes are available in innumerable configurations for
various applications.
Early eddy current instruments used for aircraft inspection operated

in the higher frequency ranges (i.e., 100kHz to 3 MHz) and were used
for surface crack detection. These instruments had a meter display
that responded to changes in the voltage in the test coil. The
application of low frequency test procedures in the late 1970's led to
the development of stable, multi-frequency, battery-powered metered
14
instruments. These are the systems primarily used by the airlines
today.
An improvement to the eddy current method came ·Nith the development of

phase analysis instruments which provide both i:npedance and phase
information. The information is displayed on an oscilloscope or LCD
(liquid crystal display). This is the basis for impedance plane
analysis techniques. Thus eddy current inspection has progressed to
where it has become the most widely used NDI method in aircraft
inspection.
Equipment. Eddy current instrumentation can range from simple,

portable units with hand-held probes to fully automated systems. Each
system, however, contains the following components:
1. A magnetic field source capable of inducing eddy currents in

the part being tested. Generally, this is a coil housed in a probe,
carrying alternating current. Various coil gecmetries are used for
different test conditions.
2. A means of sensing the coil impedance changes produced by

interaction of the eddy currents and the magnetic field produced by
the coil. This sensor is either the exciting coil itself or, in a
dual probe system, a separate receiving coil.
3. A means of measuring and displaying th'e changes of coil

impedance.
Indications. Results from eddy current inspections are obtained

immediately. Depending upon the type of instrt~ent used, the results
can be interpreted either by reviewing a meter deflection or a signal
trace on a cathode ray tube. Metered types are! typically used to
detect changes in the amplitude of the impedance of the receiving
coil. When using this type of metered, eddy current instrument, the
inspector would first set up the instrument on a calibration block
containing a crack of a known size. The inspector would zero the
instrument on a part of the calibration block that is not cracked.
Then, as the probe is positioned over the crack, the meter would
deflect from the zero point. By adjusting a gain control, the
inspector can have the needle deflect a predetHrmined distance for a
crack of known size. Figure 5 illustrates the operation of a typical
metered instrument. This type of instrument i:; relatively easy to
use, although proper knowledge is required in the selection of the
probe and frequency.
The other type of eddy current instrument currt~ntly used for aircraft
inspection displays its results in planar form on a CRT screen. This
15
--·-----~------·-----
UNFLIWED
FIGURE 5. METER DISPLAY ILLUSTRATING THE AMPLITUDE OF A TYPICAL EDDY

CURRENT SIGNAL
format allows both components of the coil's impedance to be viewed.
One component consists of the electrical resistance due to the metal
path of the coil wire and conductive test part. The other component
consists of the resistance developed by the inducted magnetic field
upon the coil's magnetic field, referred to as the inductive
reactance. The combination of these two components on a single
display is known as an impedance plane. During an inspection, if the
test coil encounters a change in conductivity, an overall change in
the impedance of the coil will occur and the result is a signal traced
across the CRT. From the trace, the inspector can determine both
relative amplitude and phase information. This phase data is
significant because it allows the inspector to determine the relative
depth of a surface or near-surface defect. Figure 6 shows an example
of an impedance plane display. It should be noted that interpretation
of an impedance plane display requires extensive knowledge of all eddy
current principles and therefore, requires proper training.
AL
AIR
FIGURE 6. IMPEDANCE PLANE DISPLAY SHOWING THE PHASE, AS WELL AS THE
AMPLITUDE, OF THE EDDY CURRENT SIGNAL. THIS DISPLAY ILLUSTRATES
SIGNAL TRACES FOR SURFACE FLAWS OF 6, 10, 20, AND 40 MILS IN LENGTH.
16
Part Preparation/Safety. A major advantaqe of the eddy current
method is that it requires only minimum part preparation. Reliable
inspections can be performed through normal paint or nonconductive
materials up to thicknesses of approximately 0.015 inch. Loose soils
and materials that might abrade the probe should be removed.
DEFECTS SOUGHT. Eddy current testing is used e'xtensively in aircraft

maintenance inspection to detect cracks, heat c.amage, and corrosion
thinning. The test is generally accomplished ~.sing variable frequency
instruments with either a meter or impedance plane display.
Cracks. Eddy current inspection is used ':xtensively for crack

detection in aircraft structure during maintena.nce checks.
Corrosion. HFEC inspection is used to det,:ct exfoliation

corrosion around installed fasteners.
Thickness Measurement. Eddy current insp,:ction is used while

performing thickness measurements. It is accon~lished by selecting a
frequency that will properly penetrate the part under inspection and
then comparing the impedance plane response of the part to a known
calibrated thickness standard. A different re~:ponse indicates a
change in thickness.
Metal Spacing. In some cases a gap may separate two metal sheets
or parts. The gap could be filled with air, a non-metallic shim, or a
nonconductive layer. In some cases this gap must be held within close
tolerances. It can be measured using eddy current with the same
procedure as in the thickness measurement. OnE! application is the
measurement of the gap between the outer aluminum skin and inner
titanium skin of an engine nose cowl inlet duct.
A description of specific applications of the E!ddy current method and

other NDI methods may be found in the airframe inspection and jet
engine inspection sections of this report.
Minimum Detectable Flaw Size. Flaw detection varies greatly with

material and distance of the flaw from the surface. Surface flaws as
small as a few thousandths of an inch can be dE!tected in aluminum
plate.
See appendix A for examples of specific eddy current techniques and

detectable flaw sizes.
17
-----------------
Advantages. The advantages of using the eddy current method are

that it can detect surface and subsurface flaws, it is usually
portable, and it provides immediate results. It is sensitive to small
defects and thickness changes, it is low cost compared to other NDI
techniques, it can produce a permanent record, and it is a moderately
fast test procedure.
Disadvantaoes. The disadvantages of this method are that the

surfaces to be inspected must be accessible to the eddy current probe,
rough surfaces may interfere with the test, tests can only be
performed on conductive materials, much skill and training are
required, reference standards are needed for comparison, the depth of
penetration is limited by the frequency of the probe, and it is a time
consuming method for large areas.
Probability of Detection/Probability of False Alarm. Eddy

current is one of the most sensitive and reliable methods for
detecting surface and subsurface flaws. However, its application
requires considerable skill. Trained and qualified personnel are
required to achieve a high degree of reliability.
Inspection Rate. The inspection results are obtained in real-

time using either a metered or impedance analysis instrument. Most
eddy current inspections are directed at highly specific areas where
the inspection can be accomplished rapidly. The method is not
generally used on large areas where the inspection would be slow and
require fixturing to assure complete coverage.
Training. Training is required to properly operate any eddy

current system. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing has
published Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A "Personnel Qualification and
Certification in Nondestructive Testing". These or similar guidelines
are used by many airlines and airplane manufactures for the training
and qualification of their inspectors. SNT-TC-1A requires
approximately 80 classroom hours and 10 months experience for a person
to be eligible to qualify for an ASNT Level II eddy current
certification.
Portability. Most eddy current inspection systems are portable.

Approximate weight of these systems ranges from 2 to 20 lbs.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT USED TO INSPECT AIRCRAFT.
General Purpose Instruments. High frequency eddy current

inspection procedures are used for the detection of defects that break
the surface being inspected. Low frequency procedures are used for
detecting subsurface defects or defects in a second layer. The
18
following are portable battery powered eddy current instruments used
by the airlines for a wide variety of flaw detection applications:
Model Manufacturer
Defectometer 2.164 and 2.835 Forst•~r Instruments

Very High Frequency
Meter Display
Defectoscop S-2.830 and Forst,:r Instruments

Defectoscop SD-2.832
Low and High Frequency
Impedance Plane Display
Halec MK II Hocking NDT Ltd.

High Frequency
Meter Display
Super Halec Hocking NDT Ltd.

Low Frequency
Meter Display
Locator UH Hocking NDT Ltd.

High Frequency
Meter Display
AV-100 Series Hocking NDT Ltd.

High an~ Low Frequency
ED 520 Magnaflux Corp.

High Frequency
Meter Display
Small portable instrument
widely used by the airlines.
ED-800 Magnaflux, Corp.

High and Low Frequency
Elotest B-1 ESR/:~agnaflux Corp.

19
---------------------------
Nortec 19 Staveley Instruments, Inc.

Nortec - 23 ST Staveley Instruments, Inc.

MIZ-10, lOA and lOB Zetec, Inc.

Meter Display
Versatile Multi-Frequency Instrument
widely used by the airlines.
MIZ-20 and 20A Zetec, Inc.

Rotating Bolt Hole Inspection Instruments. The instruments in

this category are designed for use with power driven rotating eddy
current probes, such as those used for bolt hole inspection. The
read-out is on a CRT or LCD display. There are several general
purpose impedance plane eddy current instruments that can be used with
rotating probes. The instruments listed below are designed
specifically to be used with rotating probes. They are supplied with
a variety of power driven probe "guns" or handles and operate at high
frequency on battery power.
Model Manufacturer
RECHII Staveley Instruments, Inc.
Rototest Electro-Spezial-Rohmann Gmbh
Defectoscop D 2.831 Forster Instruments
Conductivity Instruments. The following instruments are designed

specifically for measuring the electrical conductivity of non-ferrous
metals. Instruments marketed in the United States read directly in
I.A.C.S. (International Annealed Copper Standard) units. These
instruments are all battery powered.
Model Manufacturer
Sigmatest 2.067 Forster Instruments
Meter Readout
FM-120 Magnaflux Corp.
Meter Readout
20
FM-140 Magna El ux Corp.
Digital Readout
MIZ-6 Zetec, Inc.
Meter Readout
Nortec-17 Staveley Instruments, Inc.
Digital Readout
Verimet 4900 K.J. Law Engineers, Inc.
Digital Readout
21
RADIOGRAPHIC.
General. Radiographic inspection is a nondestructive method of

inspecting materials for surface and subsurface discontinuities. The
method utilizes radiation in the form of either x-rays or gamma rays,
which are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. The waves
penetrate the material and are absorbed depending on the thickness or
the density of the material being examined. By recording the
differences in absorption of the transmitted waves, variations in the
material can be detected. The variations in transmitted waves may be
recorded by either film or electronic devices. The method is
sensitive to any discontinuities that affect the absorption
characteristics of the material.
x-rays are generated in a vacuum tube when high energy electrons are
stopped by striking a high density target as depicted in figure 7. The
electrons are generated by passing current through a filament in the
negatively charged cathode of the x-ray tube. They are accelerated
toward the target by applying a large voltage differential from the
cathode to the anode where the target is embedded.
FILAMENT
ELECTRONS
-+-- -+--
-+-- -+--
-+--
-+-- c___
-+--
-+--
ANODE(+) CATHODE(-)
FIGURE 7. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR PRODUCING X-RAYS
The higher the energy of the emitted x-rays, the greater is their
penetrating power. The maximum energy of the x-ray beam is
proportional to the energy of the electrons, which in turn is
proportional to the voltage applied across the tube. The x-rays
produced form a spectrum of energies with the maximum energy limited
by the voltage across the tube. That energy is expressed in thousands
of electron volts (kV) or millions of electron volts (MeV) and
represents the maximum energy of the beam.
The number of x-rays being emitted is a function of the number of

electrons impinging on the target. The number of electrons flowing
through the tube is measured in milliamperes (rnA) and is referred to
22
as the tube current. The number of electrons generated is controlled
by the amount of current applied to the filament in the cathode.
The current multiplied by the time the tube is on is called the

exposure and represents the total number of x-rays impinging upon the
part. The energy of the x-ray beam determines the penetrating power.
The exposure, energy, and absorption characteristics of the material
determine how many x-rays will reach the recording medium.
Gamma rays have the same characteri~tics as x-rays but they are
generated during the decay of radioisotopes. The energy and quantity
of rays being emitted cannot be varied since they are a function of
the radioisotope and its activity. Each isotope has its own fixed
energy and penetrating power. Its activity is measured in Curies and
is a function of its disintegration 'activity. Its activity diminishes
with time as the material decays. The decay rate is expressed as
half-life which is the time for the isotope to decay to 50 percent of
its original activity. Because isotopes are gamma ray emitters they
do not need any external energy for power. They are generally small
and portable, although some of the protective shielding may be rather
cumbersome, especially for large sources. Isotopes have an advantage
of being able to be placed into small areas not accessible to tubes.
Isotopes present a greater health hazard than x-rays because they

cannot be shut off. Consequently, there are more regulatory controls
put on their use and transportation than on x-x·ay tubes. They are
further regulated by allowing only certified pE!rsonnel to possess and
work with them.
Equipment.
1. X-ray - X-ray equipment comes in a wide range of

capabilities, which are described here.
a) Energy Output. Output energies of x-ray equipment can vary

from 100 kV units used for x-raying thin aluminum, oil paintings, etc.
to 8 MeV systems for 9 inch thick steel parts or greater. The bulk of
x-ray work is done in the 200 to 400 kV range ~Tith a 10 rnA output.
The higher the energy output, the more shielding that is required and
the more costly the containment room becomes.
b) Exposure Rooms. In order to protect anyone in the area, most

x-rays are performed in enclosed rooms lined w:cth lead, or made with
thick concrete walls. The amount of protection needed is a function
of the energy and exposures factors. With small energy sources,
exposures can be made in a closed aircraft hanuar provided it is
evacuated and radiation is monitored and maintained below specified
23
FIGURE 8. ENGINE INSPECTION USING FIGURE 9. INSPECTING THE
A 160 kV METAL - CERAMIC X-RAY UNIT UNDERCARRIAGE OF AN A300 AIRBUS
Courtesy of Philips GmbH Courtesy of Philips GmbH .
FIGURE 10. INSPECTING ENGINE MOUNT COMPONENT'S FOR A BOEING 727

USING A MOBILE 160 kV X-RAY SYSTEM
Courtesy of Philips GmbH
levels. Figures 8 through figure 10 show variou3 applications of x-

radiography in a hangar environment. In production applications,
24
either enclosed rooms or small cabinets housing just the x-ray machine
and the part are used.
c) Types of Tubes. There are many differe!nt types of tubes used

for special applications. The most common is t h e directional tube
which emits radiation perpendicular to the long axis of the tube in a
cone of approximately 40 degrees. A group of these tubes are shown in
figure 11.
FIGURE 11. DIRECTIONAL X- RAY TUBES EMIT X - F~YS IN A NARROW CONE,

PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF THE TUBE
Courtesy of Rich . Seifert & Co.
Another type of tube is the panoramic tube which emits x-rays in a

complete 360 degree circle. This is very advan tageous for x-raying
girth welds on jet engine cases as it allows tt.e complete weld to be
examined with one exposure. Figure 12 shows a case being x-rayed by a
panoramic tube.
Most tubes are limited on how small they can ma.ke the focal spot or
area on the target from which the x-rays are entitted. The smaller the
focal spot the sharper the image that is geners. ted. Special
"microfocus tubes " have focal s pot sizes on thE! order of 50 microns.
25
They have very limited x-ray output and need long exposures but they
do allow images to be enlarged by geometrical placement and have
exceptional resolution of detail. Because of the damage done to the
target, targets must be replaced periodically. This is especially
true when the source is used with high current rates. Consequently,
the tubes are normally removable, that is, they may be taken apart and
the target may be replaced. This means that a vacuum system must be
included to re-establish the vacuum in the tube. Figure 13 shows a
microfocus x-ray system being used to detect cracks in jet engine
burner cans. This particular tube is sealed and does not require a
vacuum system.
I
I
FIGURE 12. PANORAMIC X-RAY TUBES FIGURE 13. A MICROFOCUS X-RAY

EMIT X-RAYS IN A 360 DEGREE CIRCLE SYSTEM USED TO INSPECT A JT8u
ABOUT THE TUBE ENGINE BURNER CAN
Court esy o f Philips GmbH C'OU1Le.3y of And.r12x NDT
d) Automatic Systems. When a series of similar parts are to be

in s pected, the parts handling portion and exposure parameters of the
process may be automated. Real-time imaging systems are usually used
with these systems. These real-time systems consist of radiation
detection devices that convert x-ray energy into light energy and then
u s e a video system to display the images. This allows image
manipulation to be used for detail enhancement. If enough parts are
inspected, the cost of the equipment can be absorbed by the savings in
x-ray film and time.
e) Computed Tomography (CT Scanning). Advanced uses of

radiography are being made with the aid of computers and high powered
algorithms to manipulate data. By scanning a part from many
directions in the same plane, a cross-sectional view of the part can
be generated and the internal structure may be displayed in a two
dimensional view. Figure 14 shows a cross-sectional view of a jet
engine turbine blade made in such a manner. The tremend ous advantage
26
of this method is that internal dimensions can be measured very
accurately to determine such conditions as wall thinning, size of
internal discontinuities, relative shapes, and contours. More
advanced systems can generate three dimensional scans when more than
one plane is scanned. Presently, CT scanning is extremely costly and
scanning is time consuming. However, this technology has been applied
to detect wall thinning in turbine blades.
2. Radioisotopic Sources - Radioisotopes provide very portable

sources that can be used to generate radiograpt.s where x-ray sources
cannot be placed. An example of this is shown in figure 15 where the
internal structure of the engine is being radiographed by placing the
isotope source inside the engine with the film placed on the outside.
The equipment does have inherent hazards and great care must be taken
with its use. Only fully trained and licensed personnel should work
with this equipment. Table 2 provides a list of the various available
isotopes with their energies and applications.
TABLE 2 - RADIOISOTOPE SOURCES
Radioactive
Element Half-Life Energy (llfeV) Applications
Thulium 170 127 days 0.084 and 0.54 Light alloys-
0.50 inch steel
Iridium 192 70 days 0.137 and 0.651 2.50 inch steel
Cesium 137 33 yrs 0.66 3.50 inch steel
Cobalt 60 5. 3 yrs. 1. 77 and 1. 33 9 inch steel
Indications. The most common method of measuring x-ray or gamma

ray transmission is with film. The film contains a silver emulsion
which is sensitive to radiation. After exposure and development, the
film will become proportionally darker depending on the amount of
radiation which reached the film. Areas that are thinner or lower
density will allow more radiation to pass through the part. The
greater the radiation transmitted through the part, the darker the
film will be (see figure 16).
Electronic devices may also be used to measure transmitted radiation.

After passing through the test part, the radiation impinges upon a
screen that emits light. This light is viewed by a camera which
converts the images to electronic signals and ':ransmits them to a CRT.
With these devices, real-time viewing is possible. However, these
systems are generally less sensitive and port~Jle than film, harder to
place in difficult to reach areas, and have co:~siderable capital
costs. Recent innovations, however, are makinq considerable progress
27
FIGURE 14. CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF A JET ENGINE TURBINE BLADE MADE BY
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
Courtesy of General Electric Co.
28
TURBINE
SHEIDED~ HOLLOW SHAFT
~TROL ASSEMILV
FIGURE 15. USING IRIDIUM 192 TO INSPECT AN ENGINE
FIGURE 16. RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE - MORE RADIATION PASSES THROUGH THE

LOW DENSITY FLAW THAN THE SURROUNDING MATER[AL, CREATING AN AREA OF
DARKER EXPOSURE ON THE FILM.
on all these fronts.
1. Radiographic Sensitivity (Image Quality) - Radiographic

sensitivity is a function of two factors. The ability to see a
density variation in the film, which is "radiographic contrast" and
the ability to detect the image outline which is "radiographic
definition". The factors affecting these parameters are discussed in
detail below and summarized in table 3.
Radiographic contrast is the difference in darkness of two areas of a

radiograph. If contrast is high, small defects or density changes
will be noticeable. Contrast can be affected by either the subject or
the film.
29
TABLE 3 - RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE QUALITY
Radiographic Contrast Radiographic Definition
Subject Film Geometric Film Graininess
Contrast Contrast Factors Screen Mottle
Factors
Affected by: Affected by: Affected by: Affected by:
Absorption Type of film Focal spot size Type of film

differences in (characteristic
specimen curve)
(thickness,
composition,
density
Radiation Degree of Target to film Type of screen
quality development distance
(type of
developer; time
and
temperature;
degree of
agitation
Scattered Density Part to film Radiation
radiation distance quality
Scatter Type of screens Abruptness of Development
Reduced by: (florescent, thickness
lead or none) changes in
specimen
Masks and Relative motion
diaphragms of specimen
Filters and
lead screens
Subject contrast is the difference in absorption of radiation by the

part. The ratio of the absorbed radiation to the transmitted
radiation is a function of the penetrating power of the radiation.
High penetrating power will result in more transmitted radiation and
the subject contrast will be low. Low subject contrast means lower
sensitivity to small discontinuities. Using lower power will result
in higher subject contrast. However, lower power requires longer
exposure times to obtain the adequate film density. Too low an energy
level will not penetrate the part at all.
30
Film contrast is the reaction of the film to the radiation and can
enhance or diminish subject contrast. Film ccntrast is a function of
the chemical composition of the film and the ~recessing. The relation
between the exposure applied to a film and the resulting density is
called the characteristic curve, (see figure 17). Film contrast
refers to the steepness of the characteristic curve of the film. At
densities below 1.0 the film has a relatively flat curve and shows
little contrast for large differences in radia.tion. This negates much
of the subject contrast generated. At density levels of 2.0 and
above, the film curve is steep, providing a la.rge contrast difference
for a small difference in radiation. This will enhance the subject
contrast and create more radiographic contrast. Using the
.. characteristic curve, an exposure level can bE! selected to result in
the greatest contrast.
If
3
3
11v-
II
r; I
2
IWX/_ j
I /FIWY
0
/_
I;
/ /
0
-----
0.5
___./
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.)

LOG RELATIVE EXPOSURE
FIGURE 17. TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVES FOR TWO DIFFERENT FILMS
2. Radiographic Definition- This term is defined as the ability

to resolve the defect image on the radiograph. It is also affected by
the geometric factors used during the exposur~:. A combination of the
geometric parameters of the exposure, including size of the radiation
source (focal spot size), distance from the target/source to the film
(TTF) and distance from the part to the film (PTF) can create
geometric unsharpness. As the geometric unsharpness increases, the
ability to see small defects decreases (see figure 18 and figure 19).
Film characteristics can also affect image sh~rpness. Fast films,

those films that darken with less radiation, have large grains in
their emulsion that cause a loss of definition. To achieve sharper
images, slower, fine-grained films are required. Use of fluorescent
screens to speed up exposures also contributes to image unsharpness.
31
SOURCE/TARGET
TARGET TO FILM
DISTANCE (TTF)
T
1
PART TO FILM
DISTANCE (PTF)
1
''-----'~ UNSHARPNESS
FIGURE 18. ILLUSTRATION OF GEOMETRIC FOCUS AND DIVERGING X-RAYS
INCREASED TTF DISTANCE DECREASED TARGET SIZE DECREASED PTF DISTANCE
FIGURE 19. EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRIC EFFECTS - INCREASING THE TARGET TO

FILM DISTANCE, DECREASING THE SOURCE APERTURE, OR DECREASING THE PART
TO FILM DISTANCE WILL IMPROVE IMAGE SHARPNESS
Another factor affecting image definition is scattered radiation.

Radiation striking objects creates secondary radiation called scatter.
It can occur from walls or other objects in the exposure area (side
scatter); from the part itself (internal scatter); or from objects
behind the part (backscatter) . This radiation affects the film in a
manner not consistent with the part configuration and tends to blur
the image and cause loss of definition.
3. Image Quality Indicators - Image Quality Indicators are used

to measure the quality of the exposure and to assure that proper
sensitivity has been achieved. They measure the definition of the
radiograph. The most commonly used indicator in the United States is
32
the penetrameter. There are several minor variations of the
penetrameter. Requirements for penetrameters ~re given in Mil-Std-
453, ASTM E 142-68, and in the ASME boiler code.
The thickness of the penetrameter is usually 1 percent or 2 percent of

the part thickness. They contain holes that are 1, 2, and 4 times the
penetrameter thickness. By selecting the proper thickness
penetrameter and assuring that the proper size hole is visible on the
radiograph, one can verify that a given radiographic sensitivity has
been achieved. For example, if a hole of diameter 2t (diameter equals
twice the thickness) can be detected in a 2 pe,rcent thick
penetrameter, the result is a 2-2t sensitivity or a 2 percent
radiographic sensitivity. Required sensitivity is normally specified
in an inspection requirement.
4. Screens - Fluorescent and lead screens are used to affect the

exposure characteristics in radiography. Fluorescent screens emit
light when exposed to radiation. They are usE~d to shorten the film
exposure time. In medical applications they are very important
because they reduce the amount of radiation eJ~osure by as much as a
factor of sixty. However, they also add significantly to image
unsharpness. Their application is prohibited when image quality is of
primary concern. Lead screens can enhance exposure in two different
ways. Since lead emits electrons when exposed to radiation, exposure
times can be shortened. Lead screens also aid in eliminating
scattered radiation by blocking the low energr scattered radiation
which degrades image quality. They are used extensively on the
backside of the film to eliminate backscatter. At penetrating powers
above 150 kV they are used on the front side to eliminate internal
scatter and reduce exposure.
5. Developing Film - Once the latent image has been generated on

the film by exposure to radiation, the sensitized silver grains must
be developed into a permanent image. The silver bromide grains are
converted to metallic silver which produces the black image on the
film. Developing times and temperatures are critical and image
quality can be lost with improper controls. Exposure and film
developing parameters must be coordinated to achieve the proper film
density and sensitivity. Developing can be Clone manually, but most
facilities use automatic processors which cor,trol the various cycle
times and provide consistent developing.
6. Reading Film - Once a quality image is obtained, it must be

read and interpreted. It is only with training and experience that
proper interpretation of images can be achie,red. Even with training,
if proper equipment and facilities are not uned, discontinuities can
be missed.
33
·--·-------·--- -----
Film is placed on a viewer for interpretation. The viewer must

provide sufficient light intensity to penetrate the density of,the
image on the film. Background lighting should be subdued to eliminate
reflections and to enhance film viewing. If small d~fects are to be
detected, magnification may be used up to lOx. When the film contains
large variations in density or the film does not cover the viewer,
masking should be used to eliminate the excess light.
Part Preparation/Safety. Since, x-rays and gamma rays are

excessively harmful to living tissue, extensive care must be used
during application. Only properly trained personnel should perform
this inspection. x-rays and gamma rays cannot be seen, felt, or
detected without special equipment. Tissue damage can occur without
any physical awareness of the radiation. Protection from radiation
can be obtained with barriers of high density materials such as lead
or concrete and surveys must be made of radiation facilities to assure
proper protection is provided. Protection may also be provided by
maintaining a buffer zone around the radiation source. The amount of
radiation decreases proportionally to the square of the distance from
the source. Areas utilizing radiation sources must be properly
marked. Each state may have their own regulatory controls in addition
to federal regulations. Regulations concerning the use of
radioisotope sources are usually very strict.
Radiation survey meters are commonly used to monitor radiation and are
especially important when using radioisotopes. Isotopes cannot be
turned off. They are controlled by containment in high density
containers. Before removal of the isotopes from their containers a
sufficient area must be roped off to assure personnel exposures are
below specified limits. When using isotopes, personal monitoring
devices are normally worn. These are usually film badges that record
the amount of radiation exposure that an individual has received.
Measurement is made by developing the fil~ and measuring its density.
Instant reading dosimeters may also be used. They measure the
ionizing effect of the radiation in a chamber by monitoring the loss
of a static charge in that chamber. If the radiation outside an x-ray
room is maintained below a given level, these devices may not be
required for those areas. Periodic surveys must be made to assure
this condition is maintained.
DEFECTS SOUGHT. Radiography is used on individual parts when looking

for internal defects. It is not the preferred method for the
inspection of surfaces which are accessible to other methods. Since
radiography is expensive and susceptible to orientation problems with
defects such as cracks, it is used where other, less expensive methods
are not appropriate. It will only detect defects that produce a
sufficient density change to affect the transmission of the radiation
34
through the part. This method is also used tc detect water and
corrosion in adhesive bonded honeycomb structures. Material thinning
is detected using radiography by observing film density variations
within the part.
Minimum Detectable Flaw Size. variation:3 in thickness down to

approximately two percent of the total part thickness can be detected.
For example, in a 0.100 inch thick aluminum sheet, a crack 0.002
inches deep could be found.
Advantaaes. The advantages of radiography include the detection

of both surface and subsurface flaws and the ability to use it on all
materials. It is also a very useful method in detecting different
types of flaws such as corrosion, voids, and variations in density and
thickness. All of the test results can be recorded permanently on
film.
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of radiography are that

operators require training as interpretation J.s sometimes difficult,
orientation of the equipment and flaw is crit:.cal, and the equipment
is relatively high in cost. Also, there is no indication of flaw
depth unless multiple exposures are made, a radiation hazard exists,
and film development time is required.
Probability of Detection/Probability of False Alarm.

Radiographic inspection is generally less senBitive than other NDI
methods for tight defects. It is especially poor at detecting fatigue
cracks. The radiation beam must be nearly paJ~allel to the depth of
the crack for an indication to be detectable. However, it is still
reliable enough to warrant extensive use in many areas.
Inspection Rate. Since it is necessary to develop the film after

exposure, radiography is not a real-time insp,~ction method in most
applications. As mentioned above, CRTs are sometimes used to view the
transmitted radiation. This method considerably speeds up the
inspection at the expense of sensitivity.
Training. Training is necessary prior to performing a

radiographic inspection. X-rays and gamma rays are detrimental to
living tissue, therefore, extreme caution must be used during
application. Proper training is also necessary to develop and
interpret the radiographs. Film developing times and temperatures are
critical and image quality can be lost with i1nproper controls.
Exposure and film developing parameters must :::>e followed to achieve
35
---------- ·----~-~-- - - - ----------· -·-·-··--------- --
proper film density and sensitivity. It is only with training and

experience that proper interpretation of radiographic images can be
achieved.
Portability. Typical x-ray systems have limited portability.

However, gamma ray sources are quite small and portable with the
ability to access many places that could not ordinarily be inspected
by x-ray tubes.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT USED TO INSPECT AIRCRAFT. Radiographic inspection

of airplanes is accomplished either with x-ray or gamma ray
procedures. X-ray inspection procedures are usually used for wing and
fuselage structure. Gamma ray procedures are generally limited to
engine inspection. X-ray inspection provides greater sensitivity and
resolution than gamma ray inspection. The small radioactive source of
gamma rays can be inserted into engines to accomplish inspections
beyond the capability of larger x-ray tubes.
X-ray inspection of airplane structures is limited by the size and

weight of the x-ray tube. In general, x-ray tubes up to a rating of
200 kV are considered portable and can be used in or on an airplane.
X-ray tubes over 200 kV are generally used in permanent installations
(shielded vaults) with hoisting equipment.
The following are some of the major manufacturers of portable x-ray

tubes used by the commercial airlines to inspect aircraft structure:
Andrex Radiation Products

Balteau
Norelco
Philips Electronic Instruments
Sperry/Staveley NDT Technologies, Inc.
Seifert X-Ray Corp.
The primary radioactive isotope used in airplane inspection is

Iridium. Two manufacturers of isotope inspection equipment used by
the commercial airlines are:
Gamma Industries
Tech Ops, Inc.
The following is a partial listing of radiographic film makers and

developers:
Agfa Matrix Corp.
DuPont NDT Systems
Eastman Kodak
Micro/Radiographs
X-Ray Products Corp.
36
The following are manufacturers of real-time radiograhic equipment:
Accu-Test, Inc.
BIR, Inc.
Brimrose Corp.
DTG Inc.
Digiray Corp.
Philips Industrial
37
ULTRASONIC.
General. Ultrasonic inspection utilizes high-frequency sound

waves as a means of detecting discontinuities in parts. Sound waves
are vibrations which cause an alteration in pressure or particle
position. The waves travel through materials and are reflected from
interfaces. The reflected beam is displayed and analyzed to determine
the condition of the part. Sonic frequency, the number of cycles
occurring in a unit time, is usually measured in cycles per second
{cps) or Hertz {Hz). The average person can perceive sound in the
range from 20-20,000 Hz, with the average male speech being
approximately 128Hz and a bat cry occurring at roughly 48,000 Hz.
Ultrasonic test equipment usually operates in the range of 200,000-
25,000,000 Hz {200 kHz to 25 MHz) with most inspections being
performed at 5 to 10 MHz. The speed with which the sound waves travel
through a material is dependent on the composition and density of the
material. The speed of sound in aluminum is approximately 250,000
inches per second and 230,000 inches per second in steel. At this
rate, the time it takes for a pulse to travel from the front surface
to the rear surface and back to the front of 0.1 inch thick aluminum
sheet is about one-millionth of a second. Sound, in the ultrasonic
frequencies, does not travel far through air.
The characteristics of sonic or ultrasonic waves can be visualized by

analogy with the behavior of waves in a body of water {see figure 20).
~~!1~<?. ~~!!~~- ......... .
WAVE MOTION
FIGURE 20. EXAMPLE OF ORDINARY WAVE MOTION

It may appear that the travel of the alternate crests and troughs is
the actual movement of water particles. However, the water particles
are not being horizontally translated. This is proven by the
observation that an object on the surface does not move along with the
waves, but only bobs up and down. The waves travel only in the sense
38
that the crests and troughs (which are comparable to the compressions
and dilations of sonic waves) and the energy associated with the waves
propagate through the water. The water particles remain in place and
oscillate up and down from their resting positions. This behavior is
similar for waves in any elastic medium.
Ultrasonic testing is accomplished by sending an electrical pulse to a

transducer. This pulse causes the transducer to send a pulse of high
frequency sound into the part. This pulse travels through the
material until it reflects from a back surfac~~ or discontinuity. The
reflected pulse is received by the transducer and converted back into
an electrical signal. This signal is then transmitted to an
oscilloscope for display (see figure 21). By examining the
variations of a given response pattern, discontinuities are
identified.
PULSE OSCILLOSCOPE
GENERATOR
TRANSDUCER
FIGURE 21. TYPICAL ULTRASONIC SYSTEM CONSI:::TING OF A PULSE

GENERATOR, TRANSDUCER, AND OSCILLOSCOPE
Ultrasonic inspections can be performed with aircraft on the ramp or

at the maintenance line, without requiring total disassembly. Some of
the more common inspections are for large subsurface cracks in heavy
section forgings, inspections of lugs for cra,:ks initiating at
connecting pin holes, and for inspection of i:~stalled bolts for large
cracks. Detailed discussions of some ultraso:~ic inspection procedures
are given in appendix B.
The following paragraphs describe the characteristics of ultrasonic

testing, including the generation of waves, m~de types, and
sensitivity:
1. Wave Generation - Sound is transmittE!d into the test item by

means of a transducer. Three materials which are commonly used in the
manufacture of ultrasonic transducers are barium titanate, lithium
sulfate, and polarized crystalline ceramics: These materials all use
39
a characteristic known as the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric
effect causes crystals to expand and contract when subjected to an
alternating electrical charge (see figure 22). Conversely, when these
materials are subjected to alternating compression and tension loads,
they develop alternating electrical charges on their faces.
-+ +-
;==1,
~
I ~------;,,
--------
CRYSTAL EXPANDS CRYSTAL CONTRACTS
FIGURE 22. GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
In order for a crystal to utilize its piezoelectric characteristics,

it is placed in a circuit like a capacitor. That is, both faces are
coated with a conducting material with no contact between the faces.
Coatings may be of any conducting material such as aluminum, silver,
gold, or chromium.
2. Wave Propagation -Ultrasonic waves can be propagated to some

extent in any elastic material. The waves travel through the material
causing the material to vibrate. An isolated group of these waves is
called a wave train or pulse. A pulse may have one of several
different forms depending upon the individual wave amplitude, and the
way the waves build up and decay. The most widely used modes of
vibration are longitudinal, shear, and surface waves. The mode is
often determined by the angle at which the ultrasonic beam enters the
material. This angle, called the angle of incidence, will be
discussed following the sections on wave types.
Longitudinal waves, also called compression waves, are the type of

ultrasonic waves most widely used in the inspection of materials (see
figure 23). They occur when the beam enters the surface at an angle
near 90 degrees. These waves travel through materials as a series of
alternate compressions and dilations in which the vibrations of the
particles are parallel to the direction of the wave travel. This wave
is easily generated, easily detected, and has a high velocity of
travel in most media. Longitudinal waves are used for the detection
and location of defects that present a reasonably large frontal area
parallel to the surface from which the test is being made, such as for
corrosion loss and delaminations. They are not very effective,
40
however, for the detection of cracks which are~ perpendicular to the
surface.
TRANSDUCER
II I J I [ VIBRATION
WllfE TRNEL
FIGURE 23. ILLUSTRATION OF PARTICLE MOTION IN A LONGITUDINAL WAVE
TRANSDUCER
FIGURE 24. ILLUSTRATION SHOWING THAT PARTICLE MOTION IS

PERPENDICULAR TO WAVE MOTION
Shear waves (transverse waves) are also used 43Xtensively in ultrasonic

inspection and are generated when the beam enters the surface at
moderate angles. As figure 24 shows, shear wave motion is similar to
the vibrations of a rope that is being shaken rhythmically; particle
vibration is perpendicular to the direction oE propagation. Unlike
longitudinal waves, shear waves do not travel far in liquids. Shear
waves have a velocity that is about 50 percen·: of longitudinal waves
in the same material. They also have a short,:r wavelength than
longitudinal waves, which makes them more sensitive to small
41
inclusions. However, this also makes them more easily scattered and
reduces penetration. They are superior for locating fatigue cracks
because the beam can travel nearly perpendicular to the flaws.
Surface waves (Rayleigh waves) occur when the beam enters the material
at a shallow angle (see figure 25). They travel with little
attenuation in the direction of propagation, but their energy
decreases rapidly as the wave penetrates below the surface. The
particle vibration follows an elliptical orbit consisting of both
longitudinal and shear wave motion. These waves have a velocity of
approximately 90 percent of the transverse wave velocity in the same
material. They are affected by variations in hardness, plated
coatings, shot peening, and surface cracks, and are easily dampened by
dirt or grease on the specimen. The waves will travel around curves
and surface contours, but will reflect from sharp corners associated
with flaws or edges of plates.
FIGURE 25. SURFACE WAVE PARTICLE MOTION IS ORBITAL, CONSISTING OF

BOTH PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR COMPONENTS
Most shear wave and surface wave inspections performed on airplanes

are accomplished using transducer assemblies that have a plastic
(generally lucite) wedge attached to the face of the transducer. The
plastic wedge is cut to the shape and angle needed to generate a
specific ultrasonic mode and angle in the part being inspected. For
example, the test might require a shear wave inspection at 45 degrees
in aluminum or a longitudinal beam at 10 degrees in a steel surface
with a radius of curvature of 4 inches. These angle beam transducers
are available commercially, however, some airlines prefer to fabricate
their own.
Lamb waves, also known as plate waves and guided waves, occur when
ultrasonic vibrations are introduced at an angle into a relatively
thin sheet (see figure 26). A Lamb wave consists of a complex
vibration that occurs throughout the thickness of the material,
42
somewhat like the motion of surface waves. The propagation
Direction of Travel At-Rest
Surface
A) Asymmetrical Waves
Direction of Travel Particle At-Rest
Motion Surface
····· ...•... ~
B) Symmetrical Waves
FIGURE 26. LAMB WAVES OCCUR ONLY IN THIN SHEETS OF MATERIAL IN

EITHER ASYMMETRICAL OR SYMMETRICAL MODES
characteristics of Lamb waves depend on the dEmsity, elastic

properties, and structure of the material as ~ffill as the thickness of
the test piece and the frequency of the vibrations. Their behavior is
analogous to that of electromagnetic waves traveling through
waveguides. There are two basic forms of Lamb waves; symmetrical
(dilatational), and asymmetrical (bending). Each form is further
subdivided into several modes having different velocities that can be
controlled by the angle at which the waves enter the test piece. Lamb
waves can be used for detecting voids in laminated structures, such as
sandwich panels.
There are few applications where Lamb waves a:~e used for the
inspection of airplanes other than their use :Eor detecting voids in
laminated structure as noted above. In this :regard, there are some
ultrasonic bond testers that generate Lamb wa·ves for the inspection of
thin, bonded or laminated structure.
As previously mentioned, the angle of inciden::e (figure 27, angle a 1 )

determines the mode with which the wave will travel through the part.
If the angle from the normal is small (near perpendicular to the
surface), sound waves propagating through the medium may undergo mode
conversion at a boundary, resulting in the simultaneous propagation of
longitudinal and transverse waves. If the angle is increased, the
direction of the refracted longitudinal wave will approach the plane
of the boundary (B 1 ---+ 90°) . At some specific value of a 11 B1 will
exactly equal 90 degrees, above which the refracted longitudinal wave
will no longer travel in the material, leaving only the refracted
shear wave in the second medium. This value of a 1 is known as the
43
first critical angle. If a 1 is increased beyond the first critical
angle, the direction of the refracted shear wave will approach the
plane of the boundary (Bt ~ 90°) . At a second specific value of a 11 Bt
will exactly equal 90 degrees, above which the refracted transverse
wave will no longer propagate in the material. This second value of a 1
is called the second critical angle. Above this angle only surface
waves will propagate.
Materlal1
Interlace
Material 2
FIGURE 27. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE DETERMINES WHETHER A LONGITUDINAL,

SHEAR, OR COMBINATION WAVE IS GENERATED IN THE MATERIAL
Critical angles are of special importance in ultrasonic inspection.

Because longitudinal and shear waves propagate at different rates,
confusing echo patterns may occur if both are present within the test
part. The incidence angle is usually adjusted to eliminate one type
of wave mode. Values of a 1 between the first and second critical
angles are required for most angle-beam inspections. Surface wave
inspection is accomplished by adjusting the angle of the transducer so
that it is slightly greater than the second critical angle. Table 4
lists examples of critical angles for various metals.
TABLE 4 - CRITICAL ANGLES FOR IMMERSION AND CONTACT TESTING IN
VARIOUS METALS
First Critical Angle Second Critical Angle
(Degrees) (Degrees)
Metals Immersion Contact Immersion Contact
Steel 14.5 26.5 27.5 55
Type 302 Stainless 15 28 29 59
Type 410 Stainless 11.5 21 30 63
Al 2117-T4 13.5 25 29 59.5
3. Sensitivity - Sensitivity, resolution, and noise

discrimination are among the most important factors limiting the use
of ultrasonics. Sensitivity is the ability to detect the small amount
of energy reflected from a discontinuity. Resolution is the ability
to separate and distinguish the indications from several defects lying
close together. Noise discrimination is the capacity of the
44
instrument for differentiating between the signals from defects and
unwanted noise of either electrical or acoustical nature. A small
defect in a material with a very large grain structure would be very
difficult to detect, since the flaw reflection would be hard to
separate from the background noise. The above variables are all
affected by frequency and pulse energy. For example, when frequency
is increased, the wavelength of the pulses becomes shorter and the
sensitivity of the instrument increases. However, with the increase
in sensitivity, smaller inhomogeneities within the material will
become detectable. This means that background. noise will increase,
thus hindering signal discrimination. Increasing pulse energy will
also increase material noise and decrease resolution. Therefore,
there is always a practical limit to frequency and pulse energy levels
depending on the material. In a very fine gra.ined material, frequency
and energy can be increased until very small flaws are detectable. In
a coarse grained material it will be impossible to detect a flaw of
similar size.
Eauioment. There are two basic methods ·::>f ultrasonic inspection,

and they determine the equipment required. The first method is
contact inspection and the second is immersion inspection. Contact
equipment is small and portable, requiring only the instrument,
transducer, couplant, and a reference standarcl. Most airframe
components are inspected using contact type ec~ipment. Contact
transducers are divided into two types which produce the desired wave
mode: the straight-beam technique for transmitting longitudinal waves,
and the angle-beam technique for generating shear waves and surface
waves.
The straight-beam technique is accomplished b~r projecting a sound beam

perpendicularly to the surface of the test spE~cimen to obtain pulse-
echo reflections from back surface or from discontinuities which lie
between the two surfaces. Figure 28 shows a typical contact pulse-
echo setup.
f:SEARCH UNIT TRANSDUCER
7 ...§
TEST PIECE
~ =i • I CRT PRESENTATION
l FRONT
SURF ACE
t BACIC fUP.FAa
DISCONTINUITY L - JNIT IAL
BACit REFLECTION
'--DISCONTINUITY INDICATION
PULSE (FRONT SURFACE)
FIGURE 28. TYPICAL SETUP AND DISPLAY OP PULSE-ECHO TESTING
Angle-beam techniques are used to transmit sownd waves into the test
material at a predetermined angle to the test surface so that shear
45
waves are produced. These angle-beam transducers are especially good
for inspecting piping and butt welds in flat plates (see figure 29).
PLATE
PIPE
FIGURE 29. APPLICATIONS OF ANGLE BEAMS FOR ULTRASONIC INSPECTIONS
Both straight beam and angle beam equipment sometimes utilize dual
transducer or "pitch-catch" arrangements. The double transducer unit
is useful when the test surface is rough or when the specimen shape is
irregular and the back surface is not parallel with the front surface.
One transducer transmits and the other receives. Figure 30 shows two
typical dual transducer arrangements. One for straight beam and one
for angle beam.
Connectors (one lor
sending and one lor
receiving the signal)
Epoxy Plastic / I
I \"- / I
.----lr---,---____o,.,.-A-- Dampening
I \ "-'- / / I
I \ ~ I
Crystal (one of two) I \ FLAW I
\ I
Acoustic Baffle I \ I
I \I
• -......I
FIGURE 30. ILLUSTRATIONS USING SEPARATE TRANSDUCERS FOR SENDING AND

RECEIVING, OR "PITCH-CATCH"
Immersion equipment transmits the sound into the specimen through a
water path or column, (see figure 31). When both the search unit and
the part are totally immersed it is known as immersed scanning.
Immersion equipment is much heavier than contact equipment and
therefore it is usually stationary. Engine components are often
removed and inspected by immersion type equipment.
Bubbler or squirter (see figure 32) scanning projects the sound beam
from an immersed search unit into the part through a column of water.
A wheel scanning unit is a type of immersion scanner that incorporates
some principles of contact testing. It consists of a transducer
mounted on the axle of a wheel within a liquid filled rubber tire,
46
BACIC SURFACE
--~--.~~·=:·BACK llEFLECTION
DISCONTINUITY·INDICATION
SEARCH UNIT
DISCONTINUITY FRONT 8IJ RFACE AEFB.C'I10N
FRONT SURFACE lNJTLU. PtJLIIB
FIGURE 31. TYPICAL SETUP AND DISPLAY FOR ULTRASONIC IMMERSION

TESTING
(see figure 33). The transducer is held in a fixed attitude relative

to the test surface while the wheel rotates freely. The sound beam is
transmitted through the liquid and the tire into the part.
LIQUID-FILLED TIRE
AXLE STATIONAR\
CRYSTAL
SEARCH UNIT
:. COUPLANT SUPPLY
~0 ULTRASONIC INSTR.
FIGURE 32. BUBBLER ANGLE-BEAM FIGURE 33. ILLUSTRATION OF A

TESTING FOR PIPE INSPECTION WHEEL TRANSDUCER
The basic components of an ultrasonic flaw de·:ector consist of:
1. Power supply - to produce the vari01..:.s required voltages.
2. Rate generator or timer - to start ar.d synchronize all other

functions.
3. Pulser or pulse generator - the source of short high-energy

bursts of electrical energy (triggered by the timer) which are
applied to the transducer.
4. Transducer (crystal) - transmits a high-frequency sound wave

into the test piece, receives the reflected echo, and converts it
into an electrical pulse.
5. Amplifier or receiver - to amplify and properly prepare the

echo signal for display.
47
6. Oscilloscope - which presents a graphic representation of the
echo signals.
7. Couplant -usually water, oil, or grease is needed.
8. Plastic wedge - usually required to hold the transducer at the

proper angle and position.
Indications. Ultrasonic echoes are often presented visually on

oscilloscopes. Three different presentation formats may be used: the
A-scan, B-scan, or C-scan.
1. A-scan - This format is the most common type of presentation

used in commercial ultrasonic inspection and consists of a horizontal
base line which indicates elapsed time between the pulse and the
return. Reflections are shown as deflections from the base line. The
horizontal position of the deflections indicate depth. The amplitude
represents the intensities of the reflected beams that can be related
to flaw size, sample attenuation, or other factors. The trace is set
up to show a reflection from the top and bottom of the part and
reflections due to flaws will appear between the two.
OSCILLOSCOPE
•.•... :.•.•. fRQN."t ~f1\c~ ..:..... _; ..... : ..... i..... ;_ .... -~ .... _; .....
: :AEFL:ECT~: : : : : : :
: .:.... : : : : : : : : :
TRANSDUCER ······:··:·····:·····j······j······:······i·····j······:······:······t·····
FLAW
..,p
FLAW
AEFLECTICI>IS
FIGURE 34. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL A-SCAN DISPLAY
An A-scan pulse, return and display works in the following manner

(refer to figure 34). The pulse generator sends a signal to the
transducer crystal. The crystal generates a sound pulse which is
transmitted into the part. A portion of the pulse is immediately
reflected at the transducer/material interface. The remaining energy
then penetrates into the part. The primary pulse reflects from the
back surface and returns to the transducer. If there is a flaw in the
48
material, it will be between the front and rear reflections. A
secondary reflection is created by part of the primary pulse
reflecting from the inside of the front surface. Another secondary
pulse is created by the reflection of the back side of the flaw. All
these secondary reflections will result in deflections from the
baseline signal on the display. In time, the secondary reflections
will decrease to an undetectable level. For most aircraft
applications, all this happens in a fraction of a second.
2. B-scan - A B-scan utilizes the same s:i.gnal as an A-scan, but

then presents it along a line as the transduce!r is scanned along the
part. The display results in a "cutaway" view of the part. The
location and depth of the flaw can be determir.ed, but in the case of
small defects, only a rough estimation of flaw size can be obtained
(see figure 35).
TOP
SURFACE
BOTTOM
SURFACE
FIGURE 35. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL B-SCAJI DISPLAY SHOWING CROSS-

SECTIONAL VIEW
3. c-scan - The c-scan presentation involves scanning the

transducer over an area (see figure 36). Results are displayed like a
plan view looking down on the part under test. The display is similar
to a radiograph of the part. A two dimensional scanner records the
movement of the transducer and a scale image is created on a video
monitor. Flaw depth cannot be determined fror1 the C-scan.
Part Preparation/Safety. Ultrasonic inspection does not require

part disassembly or removal. However, access to the desired area must
be acquired. Consequently, some fairing or access panel removal and
limited adjacent equipment disassembly may be required. Limited scale
or corrosion removal may be required on steel forgings to provide a
smooth surface. Heavy paint and dirt will abBorb most of the sound
energy and must sometimes be removed before inspection. The surface
condition of the part must be inspected. A rough surface with
numerous pits and bumps is difficult to inspect due to the unsteady
pattern of the response.
In addition, some equipment preparation is ne1~ded. It is essential

that the equipment be calibrated to a reference standard or test block
49
FIGURE 36. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL C-SCAN DISPLAY SHOWING TOP DOWN
VIEW
that matches or simulates the part being inspected and which contains
a known flaw. A mount to hold the transducer head in the proper
relationship to the part must be obtained or fabricated. A couplant,
as suggested by the individual inspection requirement, must be
selected.
DEFECTS SOUGHT. Ultrasonics is a fast, reliable nondestructive

testing method that will penetrate metals, liquids, and many other
materials. Because ultrasonic techniques are basically mechanical
phenomena, they are particularly adaptable to the determination of
structural integrity of engineering materials. Materials include:
metals, wrought metals, welds, brazed joints, adhesive bonded joints,
non-metallic and in-service parts. Principle applications consist of:
Flaw detection. This method is able to detect cracks, laps,

seams, laminations, inclusions, rolling cracks, and other defects in
raw material or installed parts. Porosity, cupping, internal
ruptures, and nonmetallic inclusions can also be detected. Weld
defects, such as cracks, blow holes, insufficient penetration, lack of
fusion, and other discontinuities can be found. Forgings, such as
turbine shafts and rotors, can be inspected for defects.
Thickness measurement. Pulse-echo contact techniques can be

used to make thickness measurements. The results of this test can be
displayed on an oscilloscope or a meter. The same signals can also be
used to activate an alarm when the test piece is out of tolerance.
Pulse-echo testing is capable of measuring a wide variety of
50
thicknesses with the minimum thickness being determined by the
frequency of the ultrasonic waves.
Determination of material degradation.
1. Corrosion Detection - Surface corrosion, exfoliation, stress

corrosion cracking, general material thinning, pitting and
intergranular corrosion can be detected by ultrasonic techniques. It
is measured by using pulse-echo techniques to determine changes in the
thickness of the part under test. This method may be difficult to use
on aircraft structures because the area under test may include bonded
regions, thus providing a signal whose originn cannot easily be
determined. Despite this drawback, ultrasonic thickness measurements
are frequently used to determine corrosion thJ.nning and to monitor the
rate at which it occurs.
2. Bond Quality - Delaminations and lack of bond in brazed joints

and honeycomb materials can be inspected by ultrasonics. A majority
of bond testing is performed by pulse-echo methods. A good bond will
show three indications on an oscilloscope, the initial pulse, a small
indication from the bond line, and the reflection from the opposite
face. Areas where the bond line signal is mir.imum are assumed to have
an acceptable bond. Where the bond line signal is larger, the bond is
questionable and if there is no reflection from the opposite face,
there is no bond present. Bonded aircraft structure, which is made up
of thin skins, produce multiple back reflecticns on the oscilloscope.
The method of reading these multiple reflecticns is called the
"ringing technique." When a void is present, the reflection pattern
changes and no ringing is observed. Testing of bonded aircraft
structures is difficult because of so-called "kissing disbonds."
These are areas of disbonds which are held tightly together by
compression forces in the airframe. Ultrasonically, these bonds may
be indistinguishable from acceptable bonds, however, their ability to
carry a load is greatly reduced.
Minimum Detectable Flaw Size. Flaws as f.mall as 0. 050 inches

diameter are detectable by both immersion and :ontact ultrasonic
techniques, however, ultrasonic testing applications on airplanes are
so varied that it is best to determine the det~ctable flaw size for
each application.
Advantages. The advantages of using ultrasonic inspection

techniques include its versatility in requirinq access to only one
surface of the specimen and the wide range of materials and
thicknesses that can be inspected, rapid response of the system, the
51
capability of automating the inspection application, accuracy in
determining flaw position and size, high sensitivity permitting
detection of minute defects, detection of both surface and subsurface
flaws, permanent data storage, and minimal part preparation and
special safety precautions.
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of the ultrasonic test method

are that is requires a high degree of experience and skill required to
set up and interpret the results, and both couplant and reference
standards are required.
Probability of Detection/Probability of False Alarm.

Detectability varies with material and flaw size and part geometry.
To obtain accurate results, great care must be taken during test
setup. Transducers must be matched to the material and type of wave
desired. The wave type is determined by suspected crack orientation
and depth. Frequency must be matched to flaw size, depth, and
material structure. To reach a high level of confidence all of these
factors should be considered.
Inspection Rate. Ultrasonic inspection yields immediate results

which can be viewed on an oscilloscope or detected audibly.
Training. Simple ultrasonic testing, such as thickness

measurement, can be accomplished without much training. However,
searching for flaws in critical parts requires a high degree of
experience and skill. Inspection setup and interpretation must be
performed by qualified personnel who are acquainted with the equipment
and procedures.
Portability. Contact type ultrasonic equipment is highly

portable. Systems are hand-held and can weigh from 2 to 20 lbs.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT USED TO INSPECT AIRCRAFT.
Flaw Detection Instruments. The following are portable battery

powered pulse-echo instruments that use a single transducer to both
generate and receive the return echo. The instruments have an
oscilloscope display, unless otherwise noted.
Model Manufacturer
Pulsar 5000 series Dupont NDT Systems, Inc.
USIP-11 and -12 Krautkramer-Branson, Inc.

USL-32, -38, -42, -48
USD-10, Digital Scope Display
52
Echograph 1013, FX-5, FX-7 Karl Deutsch/Magnaflux
Sonic -132 and 136 Staveley Instruments, Inc.
Bond Inspection Instruments. The follow:.ng bond inspection

instruments are capable of detecting disbonds or voids in a variety of
materials. They are not capable of identifying variations in bond
strength:
Model !12illlfacturer
ABE(Advanced Bond Evaluator) Unhrest

LCD Readout
No Couplant Required
Battery Powered
Fokker Bond Tester 70 Fokker/Halo Instruments

Meter and Scope Readout
Requires Liquid Couplant
Requires Line Power
Sondicator S-2B Automation Industries

Meter Readout
(Out of Production)
Battery Powered
S-3 Audible Bond Tester Zet.ac, Inc.

Earphone Readout
Battery Powered
S-5 Sondicator Bond Tester Zetec, Inc.

Meter Readout
Battery Powered
210 Bond Tester Dupont NDT Systems, Inc.

Meter Readout
Requires Liquid Couplant
Battery Powered
Thickness Gauges. The following ultrasonic instruments are

designed for measuring thickness from one side of a part. An
ultrasonic transducer is placed on the part with a liquid couplant.
The instruments provide a digital reading of the thickness to an
accuracy of± 1 percent. Measurements can be taken in metals and
53
------~--- ----------------
dense non-metals such as glass or plexiglass. The instruments are not

recommended for measuring moderate to severe corrosion loss.
Model Manufacturer
104 Digital Caliper Krautkramer-Branson, Inc.

CL 204 and CL 304
Thickness Gauges
Nova 201 and 800 Series Dupont NDT Systems, Inc.

Thickness Gauges
54
PENETRANT.
General. The penetrant method is used to nondestructively

inspect solid, nonporous materials by revealing fine surface defects
that are not readily visible to the unaided eye. There are several
different types of penetrants, each requiring specific knowledge of
their respective applications.
In general, the penetrant method involves applying a penetrating

liquid to the surface of the part to be inspected. By capillary
action, the penetrant is drawn into any tight, surface breaking
defects (see figure 37). Excess liquid on thE! surface is then
removed, leaving behind the penetrant which has entered into the
defects. This penetrant is then drawn out from the defects toward the
surface by a blotting agent called a developer. The surface of the
part is then examined for the presence of the penetrant which
typically contains either a visible or fluorencent dye to make it
readily visible under the proper lighting conditions. The bleed-out
or developing action provides an indication that is somewhat larger
than the actual defect size, allowing it to b1:! more readily
detectable.
In order to perform accurate penetrant inspections, it is imperative

to maintain strict adherence to all process specifications.
1. Penetrant Application - Penetrant may be applied by dipping,

spraying, or brushing as long as complete coverage is achieved.
Dipping provides positive coverage, but excess penetrant can be
removed along with the part, causing usage rates to be higher than
w~th spraying methods. Pressure spraying may use less penetrant, but
(A) LIQUID PENETRANT, APPliED (C) DEVELOPER ACTS AS A

TO SURFACE, SEEPS INTO (I) PENETRANT REMOVED fROM BLOTTER TO DRAW PENETRANT
DEFECT SURFACE, IUT DEFECT OUT OF SURFACE DEFECT AND
REMAINS fUlL PRODUCE VISIBLE INDICATION
FIGURE 3 7 . PENETRANT AND DEVEJ:..OPER ACTION
55
is operator dependent for uniform coverage unless an automated system
is used. Care must be taken to ensure that all areas are covered. In
electrostatic spraying systems, the penetrant is given an electrical
charge and the part is grounded so that the penetrant is electrically
drawn to the part. This decreases over-spray and reduces penetrant
waste. Electrostatic spraying tends to draw the penetrant to the
backside of parts, ensuring coverage. It does not, however, work well
on deep cavities because the penetrant is drawn to the edge of the
opening, preventing penetration into the cavity. Proper ventilation
must be provided whenever penetrants are sprayed. Brushing is usually
performed for localized application only, and is not a practical
application method for large areas or for a large number of parts.
The penetrant typically should remain on the part from 10 minutes to 2
hours to allow capillary action to be effective.
2. Penetrant Removal - Removal of excess penetrant can be

accomplished with either an emulsifier, solvent, or water depending
upon the type of penetrant used.
Emulsifiers aid in the removal of certain types of penetrants. They

are normally applied by dipping, but may be applied by pouring or
spraying. Timers are used to ensure that over-emulsification does not
occur. Lipophilic emulsifiers are oil based and may be stored in
steel tanks. Hydrophilic emulsifiers are water based and utilize rust
preventatives to enhance their effectiveness.
Solvent removable penetrants are used in portable systems in places

where access to water is limited. Application does require additional
time and caution compared to water-washable penetrants and for this
reason, it is typically used only for spot inspections or where other
methods are not feasible.
Several types of penetrants can be removed by washing with water,

sometimes in a two-step process. In hydrophilic systems, a prewash
cycle using a water spray is necessary for the removal of the bulk of
the excess penetrant. The resultant effluent is a mixture of oily
penetrant and water that requires treatment to comply with
environmental protection regulations. In many systems, charcoal
filters and/or coalescors are used to separate the oil from the water
and the water is then reused in the wash station.
The final wash station may consist of an agitated dip or a spray.

Care must be taken at this station to prevent over-wash. Ultraviolet
light may be used to monitor the wash cycle to assure adequate removal
of fluorescent penetrant. The effluent from this station contains
soaps as well as penetrant and water, and cannot be readily separated
at the wash station for reuse. Fresh water is added to keep the
56
contamination at an acceptable level. Reused water is sometimes used
as a preliminary rinse with the final rinse utilizing fresh water.
3. Drying - Parts must be air or furnace dried before applying

dry developers or after applying wet developers. Care must be taken
to prevent excessive drying since the penetrant in the defects can
lose its carrier fluids and not respond later during the developing
process. Both time and temperature must be carefully controlled
throughout the drying process.
4. Developing - Wet developers are normally applied by dipping or

spraying prior to drying. If suspended wet dE~velopers are used,
agitation must be provided to ensure that the developer does not
settle to the bottom of the tank. Tanks must be periodically checked
for penetrant contamination from previously processed parts. Dry
developers are applied by cloud chambers or by blowing the powder onto
the part. Reused powder must be checked for penetrant contamination.
It is important that the system be kept dry since the presence of
moisture will tend to cake the powder. Nonaqueous developers are
applied by spraying. Proper ventilation must be provided due to the
volatile nature of the carrier fluid. Sufficient time should elapse
after application of the developer before inspecti~n is begun. Normal
dwell time for the developer ranges from 10 to 30 minutes. A longer
dwell time can cause excessive diffusion of the developer and blur
defect indications.
5. Specifications - In an attempt to unify penetrant inspection

requirements, the airlines, aircraft manufacturers, penetrant
manufacturers, and the U.S. Air Force met undE!r the auspices of the
ATA and SAE to generate a consensus document for controlling penetrant
inspection at airline overhaul facilities. The resultant document is
AMS 2647 Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection, Aircraft and Engine
Component Maintenance, which was published April 1, 1985. This
document contains the agreed upon controls rec~ired for the penetrant
inspection process.
The following is a partial list of various process parameters that

must be controlled within specified limits. Generally accepted limits
are listed below:
Penetrant temperature 60 - 100 degrees F

Penetrant dwell time 10 min - 2 hrs
Water pressure 40 psi max
Water temperature 50 - 85 degrees F
Drying temperature 160 degrees F max
Developing time 10 min minimum
Light intensity (visible penetrants) 75 - 125 ft-candles
57
uv intensity (fluorescent penetrants) 800 microwatts/sqcm @5 in min
Background light (dark booth) 2 ft-candles maximum
Equipment.
1. Application Equipment - The equipment used in penetrant

inspections can range from simple aerosol cans used in portable
systems to fully automated systems with computer control of each
process station. Stations include penetrant application, washing,
drying, developer application, and inspection (see figure 38).
Self-contained inspection kits are used for inspection in the field

where shop facilities are not available. They contain aerosol cans of
pre-cleaner, penetrant, penetrant remover, and developer. Fluorescent
systems also contain a black light and require electrical power.
2. Penetrants - Penetrants are classified according to dye type,

visible or fluorescent, and by method of removal, water-washable,
post-emulsified or solvent-removable.
Visible penetrants contain dyes that are visible under white light.
They are available in bright red or green colors that are readily
visible against the white developer normally used. Proper lighting of
at least 100 foot-candles is necessary to ensure proper visibility of
defects. However, even under the best conditions, these penetrants
are not as readily visible as the least sensitive of the fluorescent
penetrants.
WATER WASH POs·f EMULSIFIED SOLVENT

PENETRANTS PENETRANTS PENETRANTS
HYDROPHIUCS UPOPHIUCS
SOLVENT WIPE
WET DEVELOPER
FIGURE 38. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PENETRANT PROCESS
58
Fluorescent penetrants glow when exposed to light having wavelengths
of about 360 nanometers. This characteristic makes very small defects
visible when the part is inspected under ultraviolet light in a
darkened area. Standard black lights are used in shrouded or darkened
booths, with 2 foot-candles or less of background lighting. Visible
penetrants can leave residues in the defects that are not compatible
with fluorescent penetrants. Consequently, fluorescent penetrants
cannot be used in conjunction with, or after, a visible penetrant
inspection unless proper cleaning has been accomplished.
Water-washable penetrants combine an emulsifiE!r with the penetrant to

make it miscible with water. Without this emulsifier, the oil-based
penetrant could not be removed by water. The key process in penetrant
inspection is the removal of the excess penetrant without the removal
of the penetrant in the defects. After the pE!netrant has been applied
and sufficient dwell time has elapsed, the excess penetrant is removed
by washing the surface with clean water. The length of time and the
pressure of the spray during the wash cycle is critical to ensure that
over washing does not occur.
Post-emulsified penetrants require the application of an emulsifier,

if water is to be used to remove the excess penetrant. The
emulsifiers are applied directly to the penetrant on the part after
the proper dwell time has elapsed. Emulsifiers can be either
lipophilics or hydrophilics.
Lipophilics are oil-based emulsifiers that con·:ain solvents. While

the emulsifiers are in contact with the penetrant, the solvent action
reduces the penetrant and makes it water-washable. The amount of time
that the emulsifier is in contact with the part is critical. If left
in contact too long, the emulsifiers will dissolve the penetrant in
the defects, as well as the excess on the surface.
Hydrophilics are water-based emulsifiers that contain a surfactant.

They require some agitation while they are in contact with the
penetrant and depend more on scrubbing action than on the dissolving
action of solvents. They are less susceptible to over-emulsification
than the lipophilics. However, because they hc.ve a lower tolerance
for penetrant contamination, a prewash step is usually performed to
remove some of the excess penetrant with a wate!r spray. Use of
hydrophilics is considered the most consistent and reliable of the
removal processes.
Solvent-removable penetrants require the use of a solvent for removal.

In many cases, such as field operations, it is not possible or
practical to utilize water to remove the excess penetrant. With these
penetrants, a common solvent is used to wipe the excess penetrant from
59
------------
the part. Dipping or pouring cannot be used since the solvent will
remove the penetrant from within the defects. The penetrant must be
removed by meticulously wiping with dampened rags. This process is
time consuming and is normally used only on localized areas or when
other means are not practical.
3. Developers - Once the excess penetrant has been removed, the

penetrant remaining in the defects must be drawn to the surface. This
is accomplished with developers that act as blotters, soaking up the
penetrant and spreading it on the surface. These developers are
classified as either wet, dry or nonaqueous.
Wet developers may be applied while the part is still wet from the
final wash cycle. They consist of blotting materials that are either
dissolved or suspended in water. Wet developers are applied to cover
the whole part and then let to dry. While drying, the water
evaporates, leaving a thin coating of the developer. Care must be
taken to ensure that puddling of the developer does not occur. Too
thick a coating will obscure indications. _If it is a suspended
solution, it must be periodically stirred to ensure uniform
distribution of the developer material. Periodic checks must be made
to ensure the proper concentration of the developer. Wet developers
are not normally used with water-washable penetrants because the water
in the developer may continue the penetrant removal process. In this
case, the penetrant could be removed from the defects or be diluted to
the point of ineffectiveness.
Dry developers are fluffy white, highly absorbent dry powders, similar
to talcum. They are applied after the drying cycle of the final wash
cycle since the part must be dry to prevent caking of the developer.
A thin film of powder is put on the part by blowing a dust cloud
around it. The powdered film should totally cover the areas to be
inspected and should be kept dry and free of any penetrant
contamination.
Nonaqueous developers are powders that are suspended in a volatile

carrier. After being sprayed on the dried part, the volatile carrier
immediately evaporates leaving a thin coat of developer. These are
the most sensitive developers and work well on localized areas but are
more difficult to apply over large areas. The use of these developers
requires adequate ventilation.
Indications. The different types of penetrants offer varying

levels of sensitivity. The level of sensitivity that should be used
depends on the application. Critical parts that cannot withstand the
smallest of defects require the most sensitive penetrants. Routine
parts and general hardware would require less responsive penetrants.
60
Aside from flaw size, other factors may affect the penetrant choice.
Rough surfaces, such as castings, present a pz·oblern of removal for the
higher sensitivity penetrants. A less sensitive penetrant would
produce less background indications so defect~ would stand out more
clearly. The level of sensitivity or type of penetrant to be used
will generally be specified in the OEM manuals or the operating
procedures. The classification of specific penetrant types into
levels of sensitivity may be made by the OEM, the airline, or by the
U.S. Air Force in their Qualified Products List of Mil-Std-25135.
When fluorescent penetrants are used, parts must be inspected in a

darkened area to allow small defects to be seen. The inspector should
allow time for his eyes to become accustomed to the dark before
inspecting the parts. Ultraviolet light is used to cause the
penetrant to fluoresce. The intensity of the black light emission
should be controlled to ensure adequate fluorescence.
Part Preparation/Safety. It is very important that the part be

clean and free of all foreign materials including moisture. Any
contamination can block the opening of a defect and prevent the
penetrant from entering. All grime, dirt, oil, paint, varnish, oxide
or any other contaminant must be completely re:noved to avoid false
defect indications. Because most penetrants are oil based, water is
especially detrimental to the process as it will repel the oil and
prevent penetration into the defect.
Several safety precautions are necessary when performing penetrant

inspection. Penetrants and solvents can cause skin irritation, so
contact with clothes and skin should be avoided. Eye protection
should be worn when there is risk of splashing. Adequate ventilation
must be provided since vapors may be toxic or volatile. Inhaling
excessive amounts of dry developers should also be avoided.
DEFECTS SOUGHT. Penetrant inspection is a reliable and inexpensive

method for finding surface cracks on many diffE~rent materials. It
will also locate seams, pitting, and porosity at the surface.
Minimum Detectable Flaw Size. The blotting action of the

developer forms an indication that is much wide!r than the actual
defect. This makes it possible to see small de!fects that would
normally go undetected by the eye.
Advantages. The advantages of penetrant inspection include its

relative ease of defect interpretation, its ability to be applied to
61
parts with complex shapes regardless of defect orientation, and its
general low equipment costs.
Disadvantages. The major disadvantage of penetrant inspection is

its limitation of detecting only surface breaking defects. Thorough
part cleaning is necessary, before and after inspection, and it is not
suitable for use on porous materials. Also, development time between
10 and 30 minutes is required.
Probability of Detection/Probability of False Alarm. POD with

penetrant inspection is fairly high. Easy interpretation of
indications makes it a reliable method for fin~ing surface cracks.
However, proper part preparation is necessary to ensure reliability.
Inspection Rate. It is necessary to allow 10 to 30 minutes for

the developer to draw the penetrant out of defects. Processing can be
accelerated by automation of the cleaning, penetrant application, and
developer application phases. Inspection, however, must be performed
manually.
Training. The reliability of penetrant inspection depends on the

ability of the operator to properly prepare and inspect the part.
Interpretation of indications, however, is somewhat easier than with
other methods.
Portability. Penetrant inspection systems range from highly

portable kits to stationary processing systems. The portable kits
contain cleaners, penetrants and developers that can be sprayed or
brushed onto the parts, without having to remove the parts from the
aircraft.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT USED TO INSPECT AIRCRAFT. Penetrant inspections

performed by the airlines consist of conventional "dye-check"
inspections performed on the airplane and fluorescent penetrant
inspections performed on parts removed from an airplane during
overhaul.
Dye-check is the most common penetrant inspection performed on an

airplane. Dye-check inspection is accomplished using a visible red
dye and requires the use of solvent, cleaners, and a qeveloper. Most
airlines use a dye-check kit that consists of the required chemicals
in convenient spray cans. Two major sources of visible penetrant kits
used by the airlines are:
Met-L-Check Ardrox/Tracer-Tech
62
The fluorescent penetrant process is genera~ly performed in a
permanent facility consisting of several large! tanks of chemicals and
cleaners and a controlled light area for viewing parts under black
light. These kits are available from many different sources. Two
manufacturers of fluorescent penetrant system~, are:
Magnaflux Corp. Ardi·ox/Tracer-Tech
63
------------------ ----------
MAGNETIC PARTICLE.
General. Magnetic' particle inspection is used to detect surface

and subsurface discontinuities in materials that are readily
magnetized. This NDI method is commonly used to inspect steel
fasteners, landing gear components, and other steel components such as
engine and empennage attach fittings. Magnetic particle inspection
provides excellent indications of all surface discontinuities provided
that the part is free from grease, oil, dirt, loose scale or surface
finish. Consequently, this type of inspection is generally applied to
parts which are disassembled from the aircraft. Generally,
alternating current is better at detecting surface defects and direct
current is more effective in finding subsurface defects.
1. Magnetic Fields - When ferromagnetic parts are exposed to an

electrical current or magnetic field, a similar field will be induced
within the part. These fields become distorted in the vicinity of a
discontinuity or defect. The direction of the magnetic field is
critical to the detection of flaws. For best results, the lines of
magnetic force should be at right angles to the longest dimension of
the defect. By controlling the direction of the magnetizing current,
the lines of magnetic force can also be controlled. A general rule
for magnetic field orientation is the "right-hand" rule. This rule
states that if you grasp the article being magnetized with your right
hand so that your thumb points in the direction of current flow, the
FIGURE 39. THE RIGHT-HAND RULE

64
direction of the lines of force in the magnet:.c field will be
represented by your four fingers (see figure ]9).
Longitudinal magnetism is achieved by current--carrying coils which

encircle the part and induce a longitudinal field (see figure 40).
The effective magnetic field extends from 6 to 9 inches from each end
of the coil and longer parts can be magnetized in sections by moving
the part through the coil.
Circular magnetism is achieved by applying thE! electrical contacts at

each end, or each side of the area being inspe!cted and allowing the
current to flow through the part (see figure 41). Where the part is
too large to apply end contacts, the part can be magnetized with clamp
contacts.
2. Magnetization Current - Direct current, alternating current

and many rectified forms of current are suitable for magnetizing
purposes.
Direct current produces magnetic fields which penetrate the cross

section of the part, providing detection of subsurface defects.
TEST PART
~
~
CURRENT CURRENT
APPLIED
AT ENOS
rnn;._ - - ____
'LUI _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~
t ~--------
MAGNETIC LINES
OF FORCE
FIGURE 40. ILLUSTRATION OF
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETISM
Alternating current (figure 42) produces a ma~1etic field that is

confined almost entirely to the surface of the part. This phenomenon,
known as "skin effect", occurs at high frequencies (above 50 Hz) and
makes alternating current useful only for defects at or near the
surface of the part.
Direct current that is rectified from alternating current is useful

for many purposes. Half-wave rectified single-phase (figure 43)
produces very sensitive fields with little skin effect. Full-wave
rectified single-phase (figure 44) is similar to half-wave, but uses
more power to produce a given magnetizing effect. Three-phase
65
----------- -------- -------- -----------------------
rectified alternating current (figure 45) is equivalent to direct

current for the purpose of magnetic particle inspection.
+ +
1- 1-
z z
~-r-----T-----+----~~----~TI~M~E~ ~-r-----+-----7----~.-----~T~IM~E~
3 a \
\ I
I \
\ I
I
\ I \ I
\ I \ I
FIGURE 42. SINGLE-PHASE FIGURE 43. SINGLE-PHASE HALF WAVE

ALTERNATING CURRENT RECTIFIED CURRENT
+ +
1- 1-
z z
w TIME w TIME
a: a:
a: a:
::::J \ I \ I ::::J
0
\ I \ I 0
\ I \ I
I I
'~ '~
FIGURE 44. SINGLE-PHASE FULL- FIGURE 45. THREE-PHASE FULL- WAVE

WAVE RECTIFIED CURRENT RECTIFIED CURRENT
3. Magnetization Level - It is important in magnetic particle
inspection to apply the proper field strength. Too weak a field will
not hold enough particles to provide satisfactory indications. Too
strong a field will hold too many particles and flaw indications can
be masked by background indications. Fortunately, a considerable
range is permissible in most cases. Experience will often determine
the best way to properly magnetize a part. Generally, one or more of
the following methods will be used to determine the proper magnetic
field strength:
Use of formulas (which usually applies only to simple geometry) .
Use of a test part containing defects of the size and type sought.
Test piece geometry must be very similar to the actual part and it
must be manufactured with the same material and processing steps.
Use of a gaussmeter to measure the tangentially applied field strength

at the surface of the part. Field strengths in the range of 30 to 60
gauss are normally adequate.
66
4. Demagnetization - All ferromagnetic materials will retain some
residual field after magnetization. This field may be very weak in
soft materials and quite intense in harder materials. Demagnetization
is necessary if the retained field would interfere with the operation
of the part or the instruments around it, such as a magnetic compass.
Also, the residual field could retain particlE~S that might prevent
proper cleaning, plating, or painting after the inspection.
Demagnetization is usually accomplished by subjecting the part to a

continually reversing field which is gradual!)' reduced in strength.
Eauioment. The two major components of any magnetic particle

inspection are the field inducers and the particles.
1. Magnetic Field Inducers - Methods of inducing magnetic fields

in test parts include use of hand-held yokes, prods, clamps and
various coil configurations. Equipment can bE~ energized by power
units ranging from 115 volts AC to 440 volts triple-phase. The larger
units are capable of generating in excess of 10,000 amps at low
voltage, which is necessary for inspection of large castings,
weldments, and forgings.
2. Magnetic Particles - During' or after magnetization of the

part, the flaw or discontinuity is made visible by covering the area
with magnetic particles that align themselves along the flaw or
discontinuity. The particles are made of car1~fully selected magnetic
materials of proper size, shape, magnetic perrneability, and
retentivity. There are two types of magnetic particles used in
magnetic inspection, wet particles and dry pa:~ticles. The particles
may be colored to provide better contrast with the surface being
inspected, or have a fluorescent coating for 'Tiewing with a black
light. Wet particles consist of a suspension of magnetic particles in
water, light petroleum distillate, or light o:Ll. They are applied by
dipping or immersing the part in the solution, or by delivering it to
the part by a shaker. Dry particles are in powder form and are borne
by air. They are applied using hand shakers, spray bulbs, shaking
screens, or an air stream.
Indications. Flaws are detected by observing the particle

pattern formed on the surface of the part being inspected. The
approximate size and shape of the flaw is disclosed by this pattern.
As shown by figure 46 and figure 47, flaw orit~ntation can
significantly affect detection. Permanent records of indications can
be made by photography, lacquer-fixing or tap~~ transfer. The
characteristics of wet, dry and fluorescent particles follow:
67
~- -------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----------~---
TRANSVERSE DEFECTS
INDICA TED BEST
DEJCSJDJ
POOR FAIR GOOD BEST
EJE1DD
lEST GOOD FAIR POOR
FIGURE 46. LONGITUDINAL FIGURE 47. CIRCULAR

MAGNETIZATION DEFECT INDICATIONS MAGNETIZATION DEFECT INDICATIONS
1. Wet Particles - Wet particles give the best indications of

very fine, shallow, surface cracks. When used in a bath, they will
quickly and thoroughly cover all surfaces of irregularly shaped parts.
Also, they can cover a large number of small parts at once. In
addition to a bath, particles can be dispensed from spray cans or
small portable shakers. However, wet particles are not usually
capable of finding defects lying more than a few thousandths of an
inch below the surface.
2. Dry Particles - Dry particles work best on rough, horizontal
surfaces, and are often used with portable equipment. They are
excellent for locating subsurface defects. They have good mobility
when used with alternating or half-wave current, however, they do
require care during application to ensure even dispersal.
3. Fluorescent Particles - Fluorescent particles are usually wet

particles that have been coated with a fluorescent dye to provide a
faster, more reliable inspection. Fine discontinuities will develop
more readily discernible indications when formed with the fluorescent
magnetic particles. Smaller flaws, flaws in corners, threads and
keyways become more clearly visible. Fluorescent particles must be
viewed under black light with the recommended minimum lighting
intensity of 1000 micro-watts per square centimeter. Significant
increases in visible brightness of fluorescent particles can be
achieved for black light intensities up to 4000 micro-watts per square
centimeter. However, there are safety concerns when ultraviolet light
incident on the eye and skin exceeds 1000 micro-watts per square
centimeter.
Part Preoaration/Safetv. Parts must be free from grease, oil,

rust, scale, paint, or other substances which can affect magnetic
particle inspection. The following precautions must be observed
during inspection:
1. Use only approved solvents, especially if the part being

inspected is heat-treated steel.
68
2. Keep cleaning fluids or magnetic particles out of areas where
they could be entrapped.
3. Remove dissimilar metals such as bushings, bearings, and

inserts prior to cleaning and inspection.
4. Do not magnetize bearings.
5. Avoid arc strikes when passing current through critical parts

which could be damaged.
DEFECTS SOUGHT. Magnetic particle inspection is the best method for

finding surface cracks on ferromagnetic materials. These materials
include iron, steel, cobalt, and nickel. Non:Eerrous materials, such
as aluminum, magn~sium, copper, lead, tin, titanium and ferrous
austenitic stainless steels cannot be inspect•~d. Principal
applications include:
Flaw Detection. Surface and subsurface defects, cracks, seams,

porosity, stress corrosion and inclusions can be detected by magnetic
particle inspection. It is extremely sensiti·1e to small tight cracks
on the surface of ferromagnetic parts.
Minimum Detectable Flaw Size. Wet particles are capable of

detecting fatigue cracks of a depth less than 0.001 inch and a surface
opening of perhaps one tenth that or less.
Advantages. The advantages of magnetic particle include its

ability to detect very fine surface and subsurface detects.
Inspections can be performed rapidly and at l~w cost. In most cases,
the equipment is highly portable and can inspect almost any size and
shape part. Interpretation of defect indications requires no special
training.
Disadvantages. The disadvantage of magnetic particle inspection

is that it can only be used on ferromagnetic parts. Proper alignment
of magnetic field and defect is critical to ensure proper inspection
and demagnetization is usually required after inspection. Cleaning is
necessary both before and after inspection and some indications can be
masked in the presence of some surface coatings.
Probability of Detection/Probability of False Alarm. Magnetic

particle inspection is the most reliable method for finding small,
tight cracks on the surface or slightly below the surface, of
ferromagnetic materials. If field orientation, field strength,
69
current and particle type are all matched to the suspected defect,
excellent results will be obtained.
Inspection Rate. Magnetic particle inspection yields immediate

results. Results will be visible on the part as soon as the field and
particles are applied.
Trainina. Interpretation of magnetic particle results is

relatively simple, however, inspection setup, magnetization and
demagnetization should be performed by qualified personnel who are
acquainted with the equipment and procedures.
Portability. Magnetic particle equipment is highly portable.

Most systems are hand-held and weigh from 5 to 20 lbs.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT USED TO INSPECT AIRCRAFT. Magnetic particle

inspection of airplane structure is accomplished either on the
airplane using portable magnetizing equipment or off the airplane
during major overhaul when large steel parts are removed.
Magnetic inspections of parts installed on the airplane are generally

accomplished using a portable magnetic yoke. Magnetic yokes are
essentially large adjustable horseshoe shaped magnets that are used to
induce a magnetic field in a relatively small area of a part between
the legs of the horseshoe. Large parts are inspected by repeating the
magnetization and inspection operations until the entire part is
covered. Two sources of magnetic yokes used by the airlines are:
Parker Contour Probe DA-200 (requires line power)

Parker Research Corp.
Y-6 Magnetic Yoke (requires line power)

Y-5 Magnetic Yoke (permanent magnet, no power required)
Magnaflux Corp.
When steel parts are removed from the airplane, they are inspected in
a fixed magnetic inspection facility. Most airline overhaul bases
have permanently installed magnetic bench equipment with the
electrical and physical capability to inspect the largest landing gear
components. Examples of fixed magnetic bench installations are:
84 inch AC/DC bench

Magnaflux Corp.
114 inch AC/DC bench

Ardrox
70
AIRCRAFT INSPECTION APPLICATIONS
AIRFRAME INSPECTIONS.
INTRODUCTION. The airlines use a wide variety· of NDI methods to

supplement the periodic visual inspections pez·formed on commercial
airplanes. Generally, these inspections are cleveloped by the airframe
or engine manufacturers and detailed NDI proCE!dures are published in
the manufacturers' NDI manuals, which are distributed to the airlines.
The Air Transport Association specification A~~-100 defines the

content and organization of the manufacturers' NDI manuals. The
manuals contain some general NDI information, but are primarily a
collection of NDI procedures specific to particular airplane models.
The manuals are divided into major chapters, E!ach devoted to a
specific NDI method.
The NDI manuals provide the details of how to perform specific

inspections. The manuals do not contain information on inspection
intervals, repair, or what model line numbers require inspection.
This information is contained in other documents, such as
manufacturers' service bulletins or maintenance plans. In some
situations an NDI requirement may be defined only by FAA Airworthiness
Directive.
Following are descriptions of some typical NDI inspections performed

by the commercial airlines. Actual examples of some of the techniques
used may be found in appendices A, B, and c.
FUSELAGE.
Fatigue Cracking At Fuselage Skin Fastener Holes. The components

of a commercial aircraft, including the fuselage section, are shown in
figure 48. The most common NDI technique used for detecting small
cracks in the fuselage skin emanating from fastener holes uses a high
frequency eddy current pencil probe. A guide such as a circle
template is used to ensure that the pencil prJbe scans uniformly
around each fastener. This procedure readily detects 0.10 inch or
longer cracks. Smaller cracks can be reliabl:v detected if fixturing
is used to accurately position the inspection scan. See appendix A,
Technique 1.
Many airlines are using a low frequency eddy current sliding probe
technique to inspect the aircraft skin along rows of identical
fastener holes. The inspection requires the use of a straight edge to
ensure that the probe passes over the center of each fastener in the
row. The inspection is presented on the screen of an eddy current
71
impedance plane instrument. The inspector must compare the complex
signal obtained at each fastener location with the signals obtained
from other fasteners and with a calibration standard. The sliding
probe technique readily detects cracks 0.10 inch or longer in the
outer skin. A similar technique may also be used for detecting cracks
in the inner skin at lap splices or similar doubler locations. Use of
the sliding probe greatly reduces inspection time in situations where
hundreds or thousands of identical fasteners require inspection. See
appendix A, Technique 2. Rudder
\\._ J) ,
1 /
I 1 All body
Vt:rlical siJI.Hiizer \ \
Leathng er.l•Je
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Faoungs \7~ ·•Y ./) /(/I Spoolers Leading edge
Mod fuselage 11('~\,~)'' [' '- APU doors & panels
Quarter panels ~-.:;~~Mod. blkd . ._ ~ :utbd ~::'"
I ~ ~. l~~~t;(i~ ==-\~
fWD h"elaqc
f ltqht SfiliiUJl ~~~-4~;r.77cJ/ c=~ ·· ~-;;;;;Y
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. Pylon
f h~1ht stalion Ia•... •!r assemOiy
W1ng enn lilt~
Uear doors
FIGURE 48. COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS
Courtesy of McDonnell Douglas Corp
Fatigue Cracking of Stringers, Frames, and Doublers. Large

cracks or broken parts can generally be detected by x-ray. The
inspection is normally accomplished by taping x-ray film to the
outside skin surface, and positioning the x-ray tube inside the
fuselage. When x-raying the crown of the airplane, it is common
practice to position a long strip of film circumferentially over the
crown and "shoot" several different stringer/frame connection points
simultaneously. See appendix C, Technique 1 and 2.
A low frequency eddy current sliding probe procedure can be used to

detect cracks in the stringers by inspecting through the fuselage
skin. In this procedure, the probe is slid along the row of rivets
common to the skin and stringer. The inspection detects cracks in the
72
stringer approximately 0.25 inch long and great:er. See appendix A,
Technique 2.
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Body Bulkhead Fittings. Stress

corrosion cracks may occur in thick section pa:~ts made from 7079-T6
aluminum alloy that was used extensively in older commercial
airplanes.
Visual, penetrant (dye-check) or surface eddy current inspection

procedures may be used to inspect for cracks t:~at break accessible
surfaces. In situations where large stress co:rrosion cracks propagate
internally or do not break an accessible surfa,:e, ultrasonic
inspection may be used. An ultrasonic beam is directed into the part
from a transducer placed directly on the surfa:e. If a crack
interrupts the ultrasonic beam, it may either reflect back to the
transducer or interfere with the back surface echo, alerting the
inspector to the possibility of a large internal crack.
Corrosion of Outer Skin. Corrosion loss on the inner surface of

the outer fuselage skin can be detected and estimated with low
frequency eddy current inspection. In this inspection, it is
essential that the operator select an eddy current operating frequency
that just penetrates the outer skin, but does not penetrate any
underlying doublers or fittings. A calibration standard of the same
thickness as the skin being inspected and with simulated corrosion
loss is essential. The low frequency eddy current procedure will
reliably detect and estimate corrosion loss of 10 percent of the outer
skin thickness and greater. See appendix A, ~'echnique 3.
Ultrasonic thickness gauges are not recommended for inspecting

corrosion loss as they measure only flat refle,ctive surfaces and do
not detect the intergranular cracking associated with moderate to
severe corrosion.
Disbanding of Skins and Doublers. There are several ultrasonic

instruments specifically designed for inspecting bonding that will
reliably detect disbands in metal to metal or composite structure.
None of the instruments can be used to determine or compare bond
strength.
Most ultrasonic instruments require a liquid couplant to get sound

energy from the transducer into the test piece~. Some bond testers,
however, operate at a low enough frequency that liquid couplant is not
required. This is a distinct advantage when :.nspecting large aircraft
surfaces.
73
Fuselage skin to doubler bonding can be inspected by sliding an
ultrasonic transducer over the fuselage surface. Disbonds are
indicated by a change in a meter reading, a scope presentation or an
audible signal heard in a head set, depending on the instrument used.
Minimum detectable disbonds vary from approximately 0.375 to 1.0
inches in diameter depending on the instrument, the probe used, and
the thickness of the skin doubler assembly being inspected. See
appendix B, Technique 2. However, this method is not entirely
effective when the lap joints are held together tightly with rivets.
WING AND EMPENNAGE STRUCTURE.
Solice Plate or Strinqer Cracks. A typical aircraft wing

structure is shown in figure 49. Large cracks in second layer
structure, such as splice plates, stringers, or the horizontal flanges
of spar chords, can be detected by x-ray provided that the part being
inspected is thick enough to allow adequate contrast on the film and
that the x-ray tube and film can be positioned correctly. In most
situations, however, low frequency eddy current is a more practical
method for inspecting cracks in second layer wing structure.
Low frequency eddy current techniques are used to inspect through

wing skins up to 0.375 inches thick, and occasionally thicker in
special situations. The inspections are either accomplished using an
encircling probe placed over the fasteners common to the skin and
second layer structure or, with thinner wing skins, a "spot" probe is
placed on the skin between fasteners to detect large cracks in the
underlying structure. The greatest penetration is achieved with
encircling probes operating at 100 Hz. "Spot" probes operated at 500
Hz will detect cracks on the order of 1.0 inch long beneath 0.25 inch
thick wing skins.
The airlines prefer to use low frequency eddy current inspection

procedures in lieu of x-ray to avoid the health risk involved with x-
ray. It is necessary to clear all maintenance personnel other than
the x-ray technicians from an airplane and usually the hangar when
performing an x-ray inspection. There are no health risks associated
with eddy current inspection, which is generally performed
simultaneously with other maintenance activities.
Broken or Cracked Bolts. When a bolt breaks in service it

generally remains in place, held firmly by sealant, surface corrosion,
and structural loads. It is difficult and expensive to inspect any
significant number of installations by the remove and replace method.
Many airlines are using ultrasonic inspection to check installed bolts

in critical structure. The simple ultrasonic inspection consists of
74
Center
wtng
FIGURE 49. COMMERCIAL AIRLINER WING STRUCTURE

Courtesy of McDonnell Douglas Corp.
placing a transducer on the end of the bolt a::1d obtaining an echo from
the opposite end. The return echo appears on a time-base oscilloscope
in a position corresponding with the length of the bolt. Broken bolts
or large cracks are indicated by signals shorter than or ahead of the
calibrated bolt length. See appendix B, Techaique 1.
Fatigue or Stress Corrosion Cracking of Attachment Luqs.

Ultrasonic inspection is commonly used to inspect for cracks
initiating at the connecting pin hole of attachment lugs such as those
used to hold engine struts or landing gears. A typical lug has a
curved surface and it is necessary to use a curved transducer "shoe"
with grease or oil to couple the ultrasound into the part. The
transducer shoe is generally made of lucite and shaped so that the
angle between the transducer and surface of the part refracts the
ultrasonic beam. A refracted longitudinal wave or shear wave may be
used depending on the beam direction needed in the part. This type of
ultrasonic inspection will reliably detect cracks on the order of
0.050 inch deep. Figure 50 illustrates an ultrasonic inspection of a
horizontal stabilizer skin plank.
Fatique or Stress Corrosion Cracks in Fastener Holes. Probably

the most well known NDI performed by the airlines is the eddy current
inspection of fastener holes in wing structure. The inspection is
performed with the fasteners removed and is generally performed during
a directed structural modification or repair. The inspection is not
applicable to general periodic maintenance programs.
75
------- --- ---- ----- ---------
TYPICAL CRACK
LOCATION ALL
LOWER PANELS
TYPICAL
ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION AREA
FIGURE 50. ULTRASONIC DETECTION OF CRACKS IN HORIZONTAL STABILIZER

SKIN PLANKS
Fastener hole inspection is performed with a high frequency eddy

current probe inserted into the hole. The probe is rotated with the
sensing coil in near contact with the inside diameter surface to
detect cracks breaking the inner surface of the hole. If hand held
probes are used, the probe must be positioned and rotated at depths of
0.05 inch increments. Newer power driven probes that rotate at high
speed make the inspection much easier as it is only necessary to push
the probe through the part and remove it to complete the inspection.
The read-out for a hand held probe can be displayed by either a meter
or an impedance plane presentation. The read-out for high speed power
driven probes is a scope type swept time-base presentation. The eddy
current hole technique will reliably detect cracks on the order of
0.030 inch deep in the wall of a fastener hole.
Control Surfaces. The honeycomb structure (either metal or

composite materials) used in control surfaces may be subject to
periodic inspections. Some of the materials are subject to water
ingestion while others may experience disbanding of the composite or
metal face sheets.
X-ray is the most practical, reliable method for detecting water

ingestion. The x-ray method will readily detect and quantify any
significant water in the honeycomb cells and will show any significant
core damage.
Ultrasonic bond inspection instruments may be used for detecting

disbond of the face sheets. This may be accomplished with a hand-held
probe inspecting one surface at a time, or through transmission system
76
can be used for inspecting both surfaces simultaneously. See appendix
B, Technique 2.
LANDING GEAR.
The in-service cracking of a landing gear co~~onent may result in a

one time on-wing NDI check being called out by a manufacturer's
service bulletin. However, the primary NDI c::1ecks of landing gears
are performed during major overhaul when the q-ear is removed from the
airplane and disassembled. The paint is stripped from the major
components, cadmium plating is stripped from steel components, and if
it is damaged, chromium plating is also strip:~ed from steel
components.
Components made from magnetic steels are given a magnetic inspection

while aluminum and other nonmagnetic parts are given a fluorescent
penetrant inspection. The magnetic steel parts receive a second
magnetic inspection following any rework or replating operations and
prior to painting. Figure 51 illustrates typical cracks found in
landing gear attachments.
FIGURE 51. CRACKING OF MAIN LANDING GEAR ATTACH FORGING

77
JET ENGINE INSPECTIONS.
INTRODUCTION. The philosophy of jet engine maintenance has undergone

significant changes during the last two decades. Prior to the mid
1960's, almost all airlines utilized a hard time engine overhaul
concept; that is, engines were torn down and overhauled at specified
intervals depending on their service history. Since that time,
operators have begun to use reliability programs and sectional
overhaul programs. These programs concentrate efforts on the areas of
the engine that need attention and recognize those areas that are
reliable and do not require tear-down. These programs are defined as:
Hard Time - Items must be removed from service at or before a

previously specified time.
On-Condition - Use of repetitive inspections or tests to

determine the condition of units, systems, or modules to determine
continued serviceability. Action is taken based on results of the
tests or inspections.
Condition Monitoring - Use of data from a whole population of

specified items to establish maintenance requirements. This procedure
allows some failures to occur and relies on experience to dictate
need.
Most operators use some combination of these programs. A cost

effective system is to use an on-condition or a condition monitored
program in conjunction with the refurbishment of specific hardware
based on hard time when an engine is removed for cause.
Engine manufacturers publish an overhaul manual that provides

inspection recommendations for each engine type and model. However,
these are only recommendations. Since each engine is subjected to
different service operating conditions, actual inspection intervals
are decided by the operators based upon their own service experience.
Consequently, this manual deals with generic inspections and schedules
that are common to most jets of a particular model.
ON-WING INSPECTIONS. Engine condition monitoring is often

accomplished while the engine is still mounted on the aircraft (see
figure 52). The following tests have been developed to provide the
operator with sufficient data to determine serviceability of an
engine:
Preflight. Before each flight a member of the crew does a "walk-

around" or cursory visual inspection to find obvious problems such as
foreign object damage (FOD) to fan blades, bypass exit area damage,
78
"f "·"
NAC NAC Tl: TR Cl THRUST REVERSER
STA (ENGINE STA Sl'A STA AND TAILPIPE
139.037
(REAR SPAR 218.65 TR
AT WK. 191.00 STA
154.66
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L....~U..."'t'--t-....._----1'-~~ LINE
(ENGINE
(AFT
MOUNT INTERSECTION OF ENGINE C
RING AND THRUST REVERSER (
(NACELLE
(NAC WL 100.0)
FIGURE 52 . TYPICAL TURBOFAN ENGIN:~ INSTALLATION
and any other exterior distress.
Overnight. More detailed inspections a:re performed periodically

when the aircraft is at a maintenance facilit:r for a layover between
flights. The frequency and extent of these inspections are based on
the individual operator's experience. The following inspections may
be performed:
1. Exterior - Exterior tubing is visually inspected to assure all

connections are tight, there are no leaks, and tubing is properly
secured. Control linkages are examined for p:roper operation.
2. Compressor and Fan Sections - These areas are visually

inspected for FOD. Minor damage may be blend1:d and all repaired areas
are inspected for cracks using either dye pen1:trant or eddy current
techniques. Loose fitting blades and other w1:ar conditions are also
checked.
Borescopes, as described in the Visual section, may be used to examine

the interior of the compressor sections (see figure 53). Compressor
blades are checked for cracks, erosion, wear, FOD, and proper
positioning of tab locks. Areas checked are dependent on the
availability of borescope ports for access and specific engine
requirements.
3. Combustion Chamber - Borescope ins~ection of the hot section

is performed to check combustion chambers and surrounding structures
for distress. Fuel nozzles, inner and outer ducts, first stage blades
and vanes are examined. Figure 54 depicts a cross section of a
79
-----··--·--------···
typical jet engine with the location of the components discussed.

Additional borescope inspections requiring partial disassembly of
other turbine stages may also be performed.
SECTION A-A
CROSS SECTION THROUGH COMPRESSOR INTERMEDIATE SECTION
FIGURE 53. BORESCOPE INSPECTION THROUGH ENGINE BLEED PORT
Radiography utilizing isotope equipment (see figure 55) may also be

performed to detect cracking, location shifts or other distress in the
hot section. A radioactive source is placed within the shaft and film
is placed on the outer periphery of the engine to record the images.
4. Accessories - The gearbox is visually checked for oil leaks.

The oil system is inspected for oil level and leaks, to assure filters
are clean, and to check for metal chips. Metal chips are a symptom of
wear of other parts of the engine, especially bearings. If magnetic
isolation plugs are installed they are checked for metal particles.
Oil samples are also taken and sent to a laboratory for the
Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program (SOAP) for detection of metal
particles.
80
TURBINE
CASE
BURNER
COMPRESSOR CASE
FAN Ulv"-. CASE
COMPRESSOR
DISKS
TURBINE
BEARINGS · • n nn ••• , .·• • •••••• s •••. , • • ••s •••••••••••
DISKS
I I .·.·.·.·.·.....:..::. ·.·.···.····· · := ::=:= : : :: : ::: : ==:: ::::::::. :::=::==:=:=::::::::::::::::::::::,::::,i:,:;,:,:):::/::)::):!:::}!{
~ COMPRESSOR ... 6
, , " -
BLADES -
FAN BLADES
FIGURE 54. TURBOFAN ENGINE COMPONENTS REQUIRING NDI

5. Engine Cleaning - Performance deterioration can be a function
of contamination which can result in power stalls, increase rotor
speeds, increased exhaust gas temperature, and increased fuel
consumption. To prevent this, periodic water spray washing with or
without detergent may be performed on the engine gas path, the turbine
section, and the fuel nozzles. These cleanings can isolate
contamination from other causes of performance deterioration.
TURBINE
SHIELDED CONTAINER
~TROL
HOLLOW SHAFT
ASSEMBLY
FIGURE 55. ISOTOPE RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF ENGINE
Condition Monitoring. The general health of a jet engine can be

determined by monitoring various parameters related to the gas path.
These measurements include:
Low compressor rotor speed

High compressor rotor speed
Exhaust gas temperature
Specific fuel consumption
Thrust
Static pressures
Pressure totals
Temperature totals
Vibration
By analyzing these parameters and studying their interactions, causes

for performance loss can be determined and problem areas can be
isolated. Performance may be affected by erosion, corrosion,
contaminants, distortion, wear of seals, FOD or other factors that can
affect flow capacity.
Several programs are available to the operator to track these

parameters and to use them for engine condition monitoring. An
example of a manual system of in-flight monitoring is the P&W Engine
82
Condition Monitoring (ECM) Program. With thiB system, data is taken
manually during steady cruise conditions and :_ater fed into a computer
program which provides engine condition reports and trend plots. A
more sophisticated form of this is the P&W Turbine Engine AIDS
Monitoring (TEAM) Program, which is an automated data acquisition
system being utilized on newer engines. It takes significantly more
data at various times during the flight. It has the ability to
isolate module conditions and can better pinpoint trouble areas.
Flight Hours and Flight Cycle Monitoring. Most major rotating

parts, some serialized parts, and some turbin1:! parts in jet engines
are life limited; that is, they have a finite life and must be removed
after a given period of time. Originally the life limits were given
in flight hours. As life limits are really based on low cycle fatigue
(LCF) data, and the ratio of fatigue cycles to flight hours varies
with each operator, flight cycle monitoring i::; the more accepted
criteria. One takeoff and landing is equival•:!nt to one flight cycle
or LCF cycle for commercial engines. As part of the condition
monitoring above, flight cycles are also monitored. It is important
that this information be kept up to date so that short time parts are
not rebuilt into an engine. A return to an O'rerhaul facility for
removal of the life limited parts would then be required.
Special Inspections. In addition to the routine inspections that

are performed there are many specialized insp•~ctions generated because
of service history. These inspections are usually for given parts in
specific engine models and may even be limited to engines with a
specified number of flight hours or cycles. 'rhey may require a simple
visual -inspection or a specified nondestructi-,e test procedure such as
penetrant, ultrasonics, x-ray or eddy current. They may be invoked by
any of the following methods:
1. FAA Airworthiness Directive (AD) - These are issued by the FAA

to require an inspection or other action rela!:ed to a situation that
affects flight safety. Operators must confor1n to these requirements.
2. Manufacturers Alert Service Bulletin - A notification to the

airline operators that a particular situation exists and that actions
may be taken to avert possible problems.
3. Manufacturers Recommended Service Bulletin- A bulletin by the

OEM that a situation exists that may not affe,::t flight safety but may
affect engine operation.
The difficulty presented by attempting to apply special inspections to

parts in an assembled engine has created some ingenious schemes for
applying such inspections. They usually require detailed explanations
83
---··--·-·-·-------- ..
and in some cases specialized training and equipment. For example, an

Alert Service Bulletin could lead to a specialized ultrasonic
inspection which would require an inspector training guide and special
fixturing fabricated by the engine manufacturer.
Eddy current and ultrasonics are the two main methods for probing into
the engines looking for small cracks not reliably detected with visual
methods. Isotopes are used for detection of improperly assembled
parts, clearance problems, and for some larger cracks.
OFF-AIRCRAFT INSPECTIONS.
When conditions warrant, the engine is removed from the aircraft and
more detailed inspections are performed on the individual parts. The
amount of tear-down that is performed is a function of the amount of
distress detected, the status of life limited parts, and desire to
refurbish for improved performance.
Test Stand Operation. Major airlines that have test stands

available to run engines on the ground may choose to take additional
data on engine performance to better define the trouble area.
Programs similar to the ECM and TEAM for in-flight monitoring are
available for test stand data as well.
Hot Section Tear-down. The part of the engine that sees the most
distress is the hot section. The high temperatures and air flow
create the most damaging conditions. The need to maintain coating
integrity on the parts requires more frequent detailed inspections.
Even though on-wing borescope inspections provide good visibility, hot
sections still require frequent tear-downs because of the greater
stresses. Consequently, partial engine tear-downs are performed for
the hot section.
The inspections that are performed on the individual parts are visual,
penetrant, x-ray, and eddy current. Specific coating thickness tests
may be performed for specialized coatings.
A major form of failure of first stage turbine blades is stress

rupture and/or creep, the elongation and failure due to high stresses
and temperatures over a long period of time. These conditions are
more related to flight hours than flight cycles. To monitor this
condition, blade length measurements may be made during tear-down. In
cases when an engine has seen an over-temperature, blades may be
sectioned and metallurgically examined to determine if microstructure
has been adversely affected by the excess temperature. To ensure
adequate life after reassembly, many parts may need to be refurbished.
84
This may require replacement of protective coatings and re-examination
to ensure proper refurbishment.
Major Tear-down. When conditions warrant, the engine will be

brought into the shop for a major tear-down w:ith one or more of the
other modules broken down as well as the hot :3ection. The extent of
the inspections performed on each part depend:3 on part history,
service stress, and criticality. In-flight shutdowns due to minor
part failure are cause for concern, but are not catastrophic since
aircraft have excess power and can fly with a lost engine. However,
failure of major rotor disk parts and fan blades can cause
catastrophic events. These parts are large and are difficult to
contain within the engine when they fail. Th1~ secondary damage they
can cause to the aircraft is a major concern and extraordinary
attention is applied to these parts. The fuel system can also be
dangerous and particular attention must be ta:<en so as to prevent fuel
leaks which can cause fires. All parts usually receive at least a
visual inspection.
1. Fan Blades - Because of the criticality of the fan blades,

they are penetrant inspected and may be eddy ~:urrent and/or ultrasonic
inspected in specific areas. Any refurbishme:~t will have specific
inspections applied to the refurbished area.
2. Major Rotor Parts -Major rotor part~ are inspected with ultra
high sensitivity penetrants. Specific areas 'Nith a history of
cracking, high stress areas, or difficult are~s to see such as bolt
holes, may be inspected with eddy current methods. The sensitivity of
the inspection is a function of the damage tolerance of the part.
Materials that are less tolerant of cracks will have the most
sensitive inspection that is practical.
3. Miscellaneous Parts - Many parts that are not stressed in the

engine, such as brackets and clamps, will receive only a visual
inspection. Other parts that may affect engine operation may receive
a penetrant inspection. Parts that are under steady stress and may
stretch, such as tie bolts, may be measured to determine
serviceability.
Module Replacement. Newer model engine~: are being fabricated

with the modular concept so that disassembly can be performed section
by section. For example, the fan sections of many engines may be
removed and replaced without removing the engine from the aircraft.
This permits extensive repairs to be done without the high cost of
engine disassembly. Even when the engine is removed, only the
troubled modules have to be disassembled and the engine may be rebuilt
with less maintenance time. While the engine is removed, it is
85
advantageous to refurbish sections to incorporate manufacturer's
service bulletins for improved performance and reliability.
NDI METHODS APPLIED TO ENGINE PARTS.
Penetrant Inspection. In an attempt to unify penetrant

inspection procedures a consensus document was formulated under SAE
auspices by members of the ATA NDT Forum participants. The group
included the major engine and airframe manufacturers, the airline
operators and the penetrant manufacturers. The resultant document was
AMS 2647. The group recognized that penetrant inspection for engine
parts was significantly more critical than for airframe inspection and
•.
incorporated certain restrictions for engine inspection. Lipophilic
emulsifiers are not allowed, closer attention is paid to the
processing parameters, and the high sensitivity, non-aqueous
developers are normally used for engine parts.
Ultrasonic Inspection. The ultrasonic inspections that are

applied are mostly contact methods looking for fatigue cracking in
welds, high stress areas of fan blades and other localized areas with
known or suspected crack histories. Standard, off-the-shelf
electronics are used, but many specialized probes are also fabricated
to fit special shapes and to reach difficult areas. Some immersion or
bubbler techniques may be used to examine major rotor parts for
internal distress and on turbine blades or other areas with thinning
problems to verify wall thickness. Sensitivity levels are as
necessary to meet part requirements but may be as sensitive as a
Number 1 flat bottom hole (0.015 inch diameter) for immersion testing
and a 0.003 inch deep slot for contact testing.
Eddy Current Inspection. Eddy current inspection is a localized

surface inspection that is utilized only where very high sensitivity
is required for specific areas, or where it is difficult to perform
penetrant inspections such as in bolt holes. It is very limited in
its area of interrogation and requires many scans to do any
significant area. Consequently, it is generally used only on specific
areas with a history of crack formation.
Radiography. In addition to the radioisotope inspections done on

the wing, some x-ray work is done in the shop. It is limited to
detecting cracking that is larger than that detected with the other
methods, but it does have the ability to inspect in areas difficult
for the other methods to access. It works well with thin materials.
Resolution for detecting fine cracks has been improved in some
applications with the use of microfocus systems.
86
Visual Inspection. All parts should reCl3ive a visual inspection
for distress. Inspection should be performed in a well lit area with
100 to 200 foot-candle illumination. For specific areas of concern,
magnification of 2x to lOx should be used. In many cases, standards
for acceptable conditions and refurbishment limits are provided.
General condition of parts may be recorded for future reference.
87
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this report was to identify and describe the most
prevalent nondestructive inspection methods, equipment, and procedures
currently in use at aircraft maintenance facilities for the inspection
of commercial transport aircraft. As a result, the six most commonly
used inspection methods were identified, namely:
Visual
Eddy Current
Radiographic
Ultrasonic
Penetrant
Magnetic Particle
Several aspects of each method were covered including a description of

the inspection method, defects sought, method characteristics, and a
listing of typical commercial equipment used for aircraft inspection.
In addition to these descriptions, specific NDI applications for both

airframe subassemblies and jet engines were p:~esented. Actual NDI
procedures pertaining to some of these areas are included in the
appendices.
89
REFERENCES
1. Metals Handbook, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control,

ASM International, vol 17. 1989.
2. FAA Advisory Circular AC 43-3, Nondestructive Testing in

Aircraft, May 1973
3. FAA Advisory Circular AC 43-7, Ultrasonic Nondestructive Testing

for Aircraft, 1975
4. Boeing Inspection Manuals
5. McDonnell Douglas Inspection Manuals
91
APPENDIX A - EDDY CURRENT INSPECTIONS
Figure Page
A-1 REFERENCE STANDARD A-3

A-2 INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION A-4
A-3 INSPECTION ITEM A-8
A-4 EDDY CURRENT REFERENCE STANDARD A-9
A-5 EDDY CURRENT INDICATIONS FOR LONGERON N~D SKIN CRACK A-10
A-i
Technique 1 - Inspection Around Rivet Heads
1. Purpose
To detect cracks extending from the edge of the fastener hole at the
base of the countersink out past the rivet head in fuselage skins up
to 0.045 inch thick using an oversize template.
2. Equipment
A. Any eddy current instrument that can operate between 100 and 800
kHz and satisfy the performance requirements of this procedure may
be used. Instruments with visual and/or audible alarms are
recommended. The following equipment was used in the development of
this procedure:
1. Locator UH, Hocking Instruments
2. MIZ-10A, MIZ-10B, Zetec, Inc.
3. Magnatest ED-520, Magnaflux Corp.
B. Probe - Shielded probes are recommendec~. Shielded or unshielded

probes may be u·sed provided the calibratior. notch in the reference
standard can be reliably detected. The following probes were used
in the development of this procedure.
1. 0.125-inch diameter, 3-inch long shielded pencil probe, PIN

MP-30, NDT Product Engineering
2. 0.187-inch diameter, 3-inch long unshielded pencil probe,

PIN UP-30, NDT Product Engineering
3. Unshielded Locator probe, PIN 29P101, Hocking Instruments
C. Reference Standard (Figure A-1)
D. Probe Guide - Drafters Circle Template
3. Preparation for Inspection
A. Make sure the inspection area is clean.
B. Locally remove paint only if necessary to locate the rivet

heads. Paint removal is not required to pt~rform the inspection.
A-1
- ---------- -~-------
c. Sand paint locally to remove rough spots only as necessary to

facilitate the inspection.
4. Instrument Calibration
A. Do the initial calibration and adjust for lift-off.
B. Put the probe guide on the reference standard.
C. Visually center one of the holes around the rivet head. Choose
a hole that positions the pencil probe to scan the edge of the
countersink (figure A-2). The hole chosen should give the best
detection of the reference notch in the countersink of the reference
standard. Identify the hole selected on the probe guide.
D. With the probe guide held firmly in place, scan around the
circumference of the rivet head. Monitor the instrument response.
The operator should be able to clearly identify the difference
between the sudden instrument response from the reference standard
crack and the slow instrument response from an off-center condition.
E. Set the instrument sensitivity to clearly identify the reference

standard crack so that the needle does not move suddenly off scale
as the probe is moved around the fastener head.
F. If the instrument has an alarm, set the alarm to respond to 50

percent of the reference standard notch signal amplitude.
5. Inspection Procedure
A. Identify the fastener location to be inspected.
B. Center the probe guide hole from par. 4.C. around the rivet
head.
C. Scan around the head with the pencil probe while monitoring the
eddy current instrument.
D. Note all locations where a rapid meter deflection, similar to

the response from the reference standard notch, is obtained.
6. Inspection Results
A. Cracks can be confirmed by removing the paint and visually

checking the crack signal location at 5x or lOx magnification.
A-2
0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 o.s
( 1.25) ( 2.54) ( 2. 54) ( 2. 54) ( 2.54) (1.25)
I I I I
1.0
(2.54)
A A
@~L@-O>J@ © @ I
1.0
(2.54)
@G::> @-a:> ©I ·@ .._I @ J
1.0
(2.54)
[t::>
110.100 0.04010.1011
:=:::::;~lJ'
le::1 ?-:----:
0.04010.1011
SECTION A-A
• ALL DIMENSIONS ARE l N . INCHES_ ( Ct"' HI . P.ARENTHES IS)

•TOLERANCE: X.X.±.0.05 (0.13)
x.xxx±o.oos· co.o1.3r
EXCEPT AS NOTED
•MATERIAL: 2024-T3 OR T4 AL CLAD
[l:::::>EDM NOTCH OR EQUIVALENT 0.007 (0.018) WIDE
~ETCH OR STEEL STAMP WITH PART I . D.

(t:> 5/32 INCH FASTENERS REQUIRED FOR INSPECTION OF LAP JOINTS
G::::> 3/16 INCH FASTENERS ~ECUIREC FCR !:·JSPECIION CF

CIRCUMFERENTIAL EUTT JOINTS
FIGURE A-1. REFERENCE STJ~DARD

Courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplanes
A-3
------- ------------------
0 0 0-
PROBE GUIDE
(DRAFTER'S CIRCLE TEMPLATE)
PROBE
PROBE GUICE
TEMPLATE
''\ REFERENCE
STANDARD
FIGURE A-2. INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

A-4
Technique 2 - Low Frequency Eddy Currer,t - Sliding Probe
1. Purpose
The inspection element is located from y=588 to Y=803 where

Longerons 2 (R&L) and 3 (R&L) attach to the skin. This inspection
is performed to detect circumferential fatigue cracks in the
fuselage skin and longerons. (See figure A-3).
2. Preparation For Inspection
Clean all dirt, grease, and loose paint from inspection area.
3. General Visual Inspection
A. Perform a preliminary check of the general area for cleanliness,

presence of foreign objects, securi~y of parts, cracks, corrosion,
and damage.
4. Inspection Sequence 1
A. Equipment/Materials
1. Inspection Method 01
a. Eddy Current Flaw Detector with Flyinc Dot CRT Capable of

Accepting Reflectance Type Probes.
NDT-18, Staveley Instruments or equivalent
b. Reflectance Type Low Frequency Eddy Current Probe Operating at

1 to 5 kHz.
SPO 1958 with 0.3 inch spacer, Staveley Instruments or

equivalent
c. Eddy Current Reference Standard - LoccLl Manufacture (See

figure A-4 for passenger aircraft)
d. Trichloromethane 1,1,1 or equivalent.
e. Nonmetallic straightedge approximately 2 feet long.
B. Inspection Procedure
1. Inspection Method 01
A-5
~: Ensure that spacer located between the red and blue
sections of probe SPO 1958 is 0.3 inch wide.
a. Attach probe to eddy current instrument and set operating

frequency at 2 kHz for passenger aircraft.
b. Place probe on reference standard and calibrate in

accordance with manufacturer's instructions.
c. Using the nonmetallic straightedge, center reflectance probe

over the rivet line of the reference standard which simulates
the longeron.
d. Scan across the longeron and skin reference EDM notches in

the longeron rivet line and adjust the horizontal and vertical
gain controls to obtain a scope pattern similar to that shown in
Figure A-5 for passenger aircraft.
e. Place straightedge on aircraft so as to center the

reflectance probe over the row of rivets at Longeron 2R at
Station Y=588. Scan the length of the guide.
f. Move the straightedge to Longeron 3R and repeat e. above.
g. Repeat e. and f. above until entire length of longerons 2R

and 3R are inspected from Stations Y=588 to Y=803.
NOTE: Mark area of straightedge coverage to insure complete

inspection of longeron{s).
h. Repeat e., f., and g. above until longerons 2L and 3L are

completely inspected within the required station locations.
NOTE: Chipped paint in the inspection area{s) may cause erratic

probe motion. This condition can be minimized by placing a
piece of flexible plastic sheet {Mylar or equivalent) between
the probe and the fuselage skin equal to the length of the
nonmetallic straightedge. The plastic sheet should be fixed to
the straightedge.
PRIOR TO USING THE FLEXIBLE SHEET METHOD, PLACE SHEET OVER

REFERENCE STANDARD AND RECALIBRATE EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENT.
A-6
5. INSPECTION RESULTS
A. Any indication is considered a crack, which exhibits the same

relative phase angle and an amplitude of 50 percent or greater than
that of the reference standard.
B. Crack indications are to be evaluated .
.•
A-7
STA STA
Y•588.000 Y•803.000
I I
····~
LOOKING INBOARD
LEFT SIDE
- R-3
• A-2
------- • L-1
~FWD
FIOUAE 1. INSPECTION ITEM
FIGURE A-3. INSPECTION ITEM

courtesy of McDonnell Douglas Corp.
A-8
LONGE RON
FIGURE A-4. EDDY CURRENT REFERENCE STANDARD

A-9
SKI~ EDM NOTCH
rSIDE OF LONGERON AND
SIDE OF FORMER CLIPI
CRACK IN SKIN CRACK IN LONO!RON

CRACK IN SKIN CRACK IN
\ y LONGERON \ I
ll f\ ~ \ \ I
\ ~ A.
"
•
i\ \ ,~ ~
IT
\ \. 11
,
II'
"
1\ 'I '\ 'f/ ~ l'
-1\l\
I
I I l
v
II
II I
~
I'
,
II " r rJ
j J
NO CRACK NO CRACK
INSTRUMENT • NDT·tl NOTE: INSTRUMENT • NOT•18
PROBE • SPO 19!1 WITH 0.3 SPACER S!TTINGS LISTED WI!RE PROSE • SPO 1151 WITH 0.3 SPACI!R
FREQUENCY • 2 kHz US!D TO DEVELOP 'REOUENCV • 1.5 kHZ
GAIN •40d8 PROCEDURES. VALUI!8 GAIN ·4Sd8
Y!RTICAL • 0.2 MAY VARY FROM VERTICAL • o.2
HORIZONTAL • 1.0 INSTRUMENT TO HORIZONTAL • 0.2
ROTATION • 4:00 INSTRUMENT. ROTATION • 4:00
FILTER ·OFF FILTER. ·0,
A. PASSENGER AIRCRAFT B. FREIOHTER AIRCRAFT
II'IGURE I EDDY CURRENT SCOPE PRESENTAnON FOR LONGERON AND SKJN CRACK
FIGURE A-5. EDDY CURRENT INDICATIONS FOR LONGERON AND SKIN CRACK
A-10
Technique 3 - Inspection for Corrosion
1. Purpose
A. To detect and estimate corrosion loss i::1 aluminum outer skin at

faying surface of skin-doubler structures f:>r outer skin up to 0.125
inch ( 0. 32 em) thick using meter signal dis:;:>lay eddy current
instruments. Calibration details are provided for clad 2024-T3 or
T4 and clad 7075-T6 Aluminum alloys. Further correction would be
required in the case of bare skins or different alloys and heat
treatments with different base conductivity.
B. Eddy currents respond to both intergranular cracking associated

with corrosion and volume loss. Therefore, this procedure cannot be
used to give an exact depth of corrosion. rhe procedure is
recommended for locating and identifying severe, moderate, or minor
areas of corrosion.
C. Visual aids should be used to locate suspect areas, e.g.,

bulging of the skin due to corrosion product, popped fastener heads,
or corrosion product around fastener heads.
2. Equipment
A. Instruments - Any eddy current instrument satisfying the

requirements of this procedure is suitable for this inspection. The
following instruments were used in the development of this
procedure:
INSTRUMENT MANUFACrURER
Alcoprobe MK III Inspection Instruments (NDT) limited
Alcoprobe S Inspection Instruments (NDT) limited
Super Halec Hocking Electronics, Inc.

Halo InstrumEmts Division
MIZ-10 or MIZ-lOA Zetec, Inc.
B. Probes -- This procedure uses flat surface probes. Probe

operating frequency is determined by thickness of test skins. In
general, smaller active probe diameters are preferred because of
their improved capability in estimating corrosion loss. See figure
A-8 for eddy current probe recommendations.
A-ll
c. Reference Standard -- Manufacture reference standard as shown in
figure A-6. The material used in the standard should match the skin
material used on the airplane.
A. Thick or rough paint should be lightly sanded smooth.
B. Wipe surface clean.
A. Determine skin thickness on airplane and select appropriate eddy

current probe.
B. Select a frequency between the two curves, designated upper and

lower limit for corrosion in the skin, in figure A-7.
c. Place probe on the full upper skin thickness, on SIDE A, of the

reference standard.
D. Balance the instrument per manufacturer's instructions.
E. Adjust for lift-off as follows:
Place probe on the good area of reference standard and rock the
probe so that the probe to part spacings of up to 0.006 inch
(0.015 em) give no more than a 5 percent of full scale change in
meter response.
F. Slide the probe over the 10 percent material loss spot face and
adjust instrument sensitivity to obtain a 20 percent of full scale
meter response.
G. Add an additional 0.012 inch (0.03 em) thick non-conductive shim

to the 0.004-0.008 inch {0.01-0.02 em) shim of the reference
standard to represent the faying surface adhesive.
H. Place prope over a full thickness area on the reference standard

and note meter reading.
I. Remove only the 0.012 inch (0.03 em) shim and note change in
meter reading. If the difference in meter readings exceeds 10
percent of full meter scale, select a different frequency.
A-12
NOTE: Lower frequencies are more sensitive to separations between
the skin and doubler and too high ' a frequency will not penetrate
sufficiently to detect shallow amounts of corrosion.
If frequency change is required, repeat steps in par. 4.B through

4. I.
J. Reassemble the reference standard with only the 0.004-0.008 inch

(0.01-0.02 em) shim.
K. Check instrument sensitivity by sliding the probe over the

surface representing the 10 percent material loss and adjusting the
sensitivity to obtain a 20 percent of full ~;cale meter response.
L. When sensitivity is adjusted properly, Blide the probe over the

20 percent and 30 percent material loss spot faces, note meter
response.
M. Place the probe on the skin-only portion of the standard and

note the characteristic meter response as the probe is slid onto the
skin-doubler portion of the standard.
A. Calibrate instrument per par. 4.
B. Place probe on the skin to be inspected, in an area where there

is no second layer structure and no evidenc«:! of corrosion.
C. Position meter response on scale and slide the probe onto the
adjacent skin-doubler area. The instrument should respond in a
manner similar to that of par. 4.M. If not, repeat check at another
location to assure corrosion was not present. If response from
airplane and reference standard are not approximately the same, re-
check standard and airplane for similarity of skin alloy and
thickness.
D. Place probe on good area and slide the probe into the area of
suspected corrosion. Note location where t::"1e meter response is
equal to or greater than the 10 percent mat·::!rial loss calibration
response.
NOTE: A non-conductive straight-edge may be used to maintain

uniform distance to the edge of the second layer structure or
fasteners.
A-13
NOTE: corrosion indications are characterized by erratic meter
movement due to the intergranular corrosion, cracking, and pitting
associated with corrosion.
A. Any meter response indicating 10 percent or greater corrosion

loss in suspect area should be investigated further.
A-14
It>
DEPTH OF SPOTFACE
IS 10 PERCENT OF It>
DEPTH OF SPOTFACE
[:>
NOMINAL SKIN DEPTH OF SPOTFACE
THICKNESS IS 20 PERC:ENT OF
NOMINAL SKIN IS 30 PERCENT OF
THtCKNE~;s "NOMINAL SKIN
THICKNESS
I
I
5.0
+ +
,..-, _,-
r
3.0
( \ I \
---+-~---r+-·'-
' ...__. I '- / I
j +
,_._________________ ~o--~-o~--~-----~---~-o__ A_.__

,_.__ ,_~_.~
NOTES
e ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES PAPI:R 0.004 TO 0.008
/THIC:K TO SIMULATE
e MATERIAL: CLAD 2024-TJ OR £.___ ADHESIVE
CLAD 2024-T4 SHEET
,..._
e IDENTIFY MATERIAL THICKNESS
ON BOTH MEMBERS OF REFERENCE - - +·+-1--
STANDARD
_ ......
--
(C:> PROBE PLACED OVER
AJLL THICKNESS OF
REFERENCE STANDARD -
J 12-, ~
I /
NtJMINAL
SI~IN THICKNESS
0111 AIRPLANE
(t>- SPOTFACE DEPTH TOLERANCE:

::: 0.001 INCH SECTION A-A
FIGURE A-6. CORROSION REFERENCE STANDARD

courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airpl~nes
A-15
--~--------~----------~---------------------r-------w~0-120
r---------r---------~--------+---------~--------~------~-+0.105
r---------+---------~--------4---------~--------~----~~-+0.090
0.075
,...
~
w
:::
u
z
....
...,
0.060
~
~
w
z
:w:
....u
:::
....
0.045
-
z
:w:
~
IZ
....w
~
Q
0.030
UPPER
LIMIT
~-------+--------+--------4--------~--------~-------+o
150 125 100 75 50 25 0
FREQUENCY <kHz)
FREQUENCY SELECTION LIMITS
DETAIL II
FIGURE A-7. FREQUENCY SELECTION LIMITS

A-16
PROBES USED IN THE DEVELO~ENT Of THIS PROCEDURE:
USABLE ACTIVE ··ROBE ·
PROBE FREQUENCY fiANUFACTURER
RANGE DIMETER UNCHES)
(1) SPO. 565A 500 Hz-10kHz 0.312 NORTEC

C2) SPO 1391 1 kHz-20kHZ 0.211 NORTEC
C!> SPO 1591 20 kHz-50kHz 0.125 NORTEC
(1) PROBE 565A
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 !111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111! 111111
a a.ozo 0.040 o.cuo o.oao 0.100 0.120
OUTER SKIN THICICHESS CINC:HES)
C2) PROBE 1391
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 ~
I
0 0.020 0.040 o.cuo l.oao 0.100 0.120
OUTER SJCIN THICJCHESS CINCHES)
C3) PROBE 159B
lllllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
I I
0 o.ozo 0.040 o.cuo IJ.oao 0.100 0.120
OUTER SKIN THICJCHESS ClNC!iES)
- OPTII'IUit RANGE FOR PROBEITHICJtHESS COfi&INATIONS
FIGURE A-8. PROBE RECOMMENDATIONS

courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplanes
A-17
APPENDIX B - ULTRASONIC INSPECTIONS
Figure Page
B-1 TYPICAL BOLT TYPES B-4

B-2 BOLT HEAD RESPONSE B-5
B-3 THREADED END RESPONSE B-6
B-4 ADHESIVE BOND TEST SPECIMEN B-9
B-5 TYPICAL BONDED DOUBLER INSPECTION B-10
B-i
Technique 1 - Inspection of Fasteners
1. Purpose
To detect broken or severely cracked bolts using ultrasonic

inspection.
NOTE: This procedure cannot be used to inspect certain bolt types.

For typical bolts, which may be inspected, Hee figure B-1.
2. Equipment
A. Instrument/Transducer -- Any pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument

and transducer combination operating in the 5 to 10 MHz range,
satisfying the calibration requirements of par. 4, is suitable for
this procedure. The following equipment wa~: used in developing this
procedure:
1. Instrument USL 38, Krautkramer Branson
2. Transducer 0.25-inch diameter, 10 llliz, gamma, PIN 2911645-

1, K. B. Aerotech
B. Reference Standard Calibration Bolt c:md Calibration Block.
1. Calibration Bolt Use bolt of similar material, type, and

length as bolt to be examined.
2. Calibration Block -- one inch thick b:.ock of similar material

as bolt to be examined.
C. Couplant Light grease or equivalent, compatible with airplane

structure.
A. Locate inspection bolt and ensure end of bolt contacting

transducer is clean and free of sealant.
A. Apply couplant to calibration block and ends of calibration

bolt.
B. Perform preliminary instrument adjustmer..ts per the operating

manual.
B-1
·NOTE: Reject or signal suppression is not to be used in calibration
or inspection
c. Place transducer on calibration block. Adjust screen range to

equal one major division on the screen graticule per one-inch of
calibration block length.
D. Adjust instrument gain using calibration bolt for inspection

conducted from:
NOTE: Transducer used for inspection should not allow more than 10
percent full screen height of spurious signals between the initial
pulse and the back surface reflection at the calibration gain
setting.
1. Bolt head (annulus).
a. Place transducer firmly on flat surface of calibration bolt

head (annul us) .
b. Adjust gain to obtain a back surface reflection amplitude of

40 percent of full screen height (figure B-2).
2. Bolt threaded end.
a. Place transducer firmly on flat surface of calibration bolt

threaded end.
b. Adjust gain to obtain a back surface reflection amplitude of

60 percent of full screen height (figure B-3).
A. Determine the bolt properties and the end of bolt to be

inspected.
B. Calibrate instrument per par. 4.
C. Apply couplant to bolt end.
D. Place transducer firmly on flat of bolt end and scan. Screen

presentation should appear as noted during calibration.
NOTE: Bolt length can be verified by comparing the length indicated

by the position of the back surface reflection to the known length
of the calibration bolt or block (par. 4.C.). If bolt appears to be
B-2
0.25 inch shorter or 0.50 inch longer than calibration bolt, verify
length in reference drawings.
NOTE: Ensure that transducer is placed firntly on bolt when

obtaining inspection results.
A. A fracture along the shank will be noted by an indication from

the fracture face with the absence of the e}~ected back surface
reflection.
B. A large crack without shank separation n~y be noted by an

indication of 20 percent full screen height or greater, with the
expected back surface reflection still visible.
c. If fracture face of bolt is irregular, the reflected ultrasound

may be deflected away from the transducer. Loss of back surface
reflection amplitude indicates a potential cracked or fractured
bolt.
D. Compare all results to those obtained from calibration bolt

(par. 4.D).
B-3
·---~--------------~~~~---
RECESSED
HEADl~
~
TVPICAL BQ.1S 'Milo-t MAY BE INSPECTED
FRa-1 Elll-IER END
u~ DIMPLE LARGER
.__""' THAN SHAFT
TYPICAL BOLTS WHICH MAY ONLY BE INSPECTED DIAMETER
FROM THREADED END
TYPICAL BOLTS WHICH MAY ONLY BE

INSPECTED FROM BOLT HEAD END
FIGURE B-1. TYPICAL BOLT TYPES

B-4
INITIAL
/PULSE
10
9
v
[/
8
7
~
6 '-""BACK SURFACE
5 y
k:::' REFLECTION
•• ll> v
t.~' !.'
3
2
~~
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EJ
/
TRANSDUCER
NOTES
e TYPICAL SCREEN' RESPONSE
FOR INSPECTION CONDUCTED
FROM BOLT HEAD (ANNULUS)
OF A 5.5 INCH BOLT
[!::::>SIGNAL FROM BOLT SHOULDER

WHEN TRANSDUCER POSITION
OVERLAPS BOTH BOLT
SHOULDER AND SHANK
[i:::> BACK SURFACE REFLECTION
IS FIRST SIGNAL OF RECEIVED
BACK SURFACE REFLECTIONS
AND IS AMPLITUDE SENSITIVE
ACCORDING TO BOLT DIAMETER.
SET SIGNAL AMPLITUDE TO 40%
OF FULL SCREEN HEIGHT
!!::> TYPICAL FRACTURE OR CRACK

INDICATIONS WILL APPEAR
BETWEEN BOLT SHOULDER
SIGNAL AND BACK SURFACE
REFLECTION
FIGURE B-2. BOLT HEAD RESPONSE

B-5
INITIAL
PULSE
10
9
!7
'7
8 BACK SURFACE
' / REFLECTION
7 /
I.._ v [t>
6
:..- /
~
5
4
3
2
..
~I
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TRANSDUCER SHOULDER
NOTES
e TYPICAL SCREEN RESPONSE FOR INSPECTION
CONDUCTED FROM THREADED END OF A 5.5 INCH BOLT
[!::> TYPICAL FRACTURE OR CRACK INDICATIONS
WILL APPEAR BETWEEN INITIAL PULSE AND
CALCULATED SCREEN DISTANCE OF SHANK
LENGTH
(t::> BACK SURFACE REFLECTION IS FIRST
SIGNAL OF RECEIVED BACK SURFACE
REFLECT10NS AND IS AMPLITUDE
SENSITIVE ACCORDING TO BOLT DIAMETER.
SET SIGNAL AMPLITUDE TO SO% OF FULL
SCREEN HEIGHT
FIGURE B-3. THREADED END RESPONSE

B-6
Technique 2 - Inspection of Fuselage Doublers
1. Purpose
To detect disbanding of the fuselage bonded doublers. The structure

consists primarily of 0.036-inch thick 2024-T3 outer skin. The
inspection is from the exterior skin side.
2. Equipment
A. Any bond inspection instrument capable of detecting disbands 1

square inch and larger in the structure described above is
acceptable. The following instruments, which do not require a
liquid couplant, have been used for the inspection and found
satisfactory:
1. Model S-3 Audible Bondtester, zetec Corporation.
2. ABE (Advanced Bond Evaluator) UNIWEST Inc.
3. Model S-5 Sondicator Bondtester, Zetec Corporation.
B. Probes
1. Sondicator Contact Probe, zetec, Inc., use with either the

Sondicator Bondtester Model S-2B, Model 8(15 or Model S-3 Audible
Bondtester.
C. Test Specimen
1. It is recommended that a bonded test E;pecimen containing known

bond voids be fabricated or procured to SE!rve as an inspection
standard and to aid in training inspection personnel. A test
specimen representative of the skin thickLess per figure B-4
should be obtained.
2. If a test specimen is not available, the instrument may be

calibrated on a portion of the aircraft aEsumed to be bonded.
However, since this procedure does not permit checking the level
of response to voids, it is not recornrnende'd except for experienced
personnel.
D. Bonded Doubler Location
1. The location of the bonded doublers (tear straps} is shown on

figure B-5. This configuration is typical of the structure above
stringer 10.
B-7
A. Clean loose dirt, paint flakes, or blisters from inspection

surface.
B. Locate position of tear straps by the fastener pattern at lap

splices.
A. Turn on the bond inspection instrument and following the

instrument manufacturer's instructions, check the operation of the
instrument on bonded and disbonded portions of the test specimen.
A. Use the fastener pattern just above the longitudinal lap joints
to locate the location of the doublers.
B. Place the probe on the fuselage skin away from the doubler. The
instrument should give a single thickness (disbond) indication.
C. Slide the probe either fore or aft across a bonded doubler. The
instrument should give a bonded indication as the probe passes
across the bonded area.
D. Inspect the bonded doublers (tear straps) by sliding the probe

back and forth across the doubler locations.
B-8
.----5.0 ----f
BOTTOM
SHEET
EPOXY
ADHESIV
l.C
a.o
EPOXY
A ADHESIV A
EPOXY ADHESIVE LAYERc=======/=;~r~~~~~====:====~

(0.004 TO 0.005 INCH THICK)
SECTION A-A
NOTES
• ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES.
• ANY EPOXY ADHESIVE MAY BE USED. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT

THE ADHESIVE LAYER BE 0.004 TO 0.005 INCH THICK FOR
ADEQUATE STRENGTH.
• MATERIAL: TOP AND BOTTOM SHEETS 2024-T3 OR 7075-T6

CLAD ALUMINUM.
• 737 BONDED TEST SPECIMENS ARE FABRICATED WITH BOTH

TOP AND BOTTOM SHEETS OF 0.036 OR 0.0-10 INCH THICK CLAD
ALUMINUM.
• TEST SPECIMENS ARE AVAILA8LE FROM:

IDEAL SPECIALITY COMPANY NOT PRCOUCT ENGINEERING
FIGURE B-4. ADHESIVE BOND TES'r SPECIMEN

Courtesy of Boeing Conunercial Airpl<.nes
B-9
FRAME
STATION
INSPECTION AREA
SKIN
SKIN
FIGURE B-5. TYPICAL BONDED DOUBLER CONFIGURATION

B-10
APPENDIX C - RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTIONS
Figure Page
C-1 DOOR JAMB REPAIR PLATE C-3

C-2 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF PASSENGER DOOR JAMB REPAIR PLATE C-4
C-3 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF SERVICE DOOR JAMB REPAIR PLATE C-5
C-4 X-RAY GENERATOR AND FILM POSITIONING C-6
C-i
Technique 1 - Door Jamb InsDection
1. Purpose
A. This inspection is performed to detect fatigue cracks in the

skin and/or doublers below the door jamb repair plate.
2. Radiographic Check (See Figures C-1 through C-3)
A. Test Equipment and Materials Required
Type and Number
Portable X-ray Sperry SPX160 (1.5nm projected focal spot)

or equivalent.
X-ray Film Type 1 and 2
Film Size Kodak AA or equivalent, enough film to

cover repair area.
Kodak M or equivalemt, enough film to cover
repair area.
B. Preparation for Inspection
1. Clean area around door jamb of all gn~ase and dirt.
2. Remove scuff plate if covering inspection area.
3. Mark area for proper film positioning.
C. Inspection Procedure
WARNING: A. USE OF RADIATION IN NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING PRESENTS

POTENTIAL HAZARDS TO ALL PERSONNEL IN THE AEEA. OBSERVE ALL
RADIATION SAFETY REQUIREMENTS WHEN OPERATING X-RAY EQUIPMENT.
WARNING: B. TO AVOID INJURY TO PERSONNEL OR DAMAGE TO EQUIPMENT,

ADEQUATE PRECAUTIONS MUST BE TAKEN WHILE PEEFORMING ANY WORK IF
ELECTRICAL POWER IS APPLIED TO THE AIRCRAFT.
CAUTION: A. ELECTRICALLY GROUND THE AIRCF~FT.
B. USE APPROPRIATE RIGGING AND PLATFORMS AND/OR MANLIFT IN

ORDER TO POSITION THE FILM AND HOLD THE POR'l'ABLE TUBE-HEAD IN PLACE.
C-1
SOURCE PLACEMENT FOR
!.OWER AFT JAMB
SOURCE PLACEMENT FOR

LOWER AFT JAMB \
~
ELECTRICAL POWER ,
CENmEA BUCKHEAD '~ ~
I
41.0
II I
I
'
"'FLOOR
FILM
FILM
NOTE:
CIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES.
FILM l !
EXPOSURE
NO. SUBJECT kV* m••• SFD
(INCH) TYPE
I
' SIZE I
liNCH) I
REMARKS !
i
!
1 LOWER AFT
JAMB CORNER 100
I 425
" I1AN021 .. I REPAIR SHOWN IN
. SAM 53.(15. PAGE 16.
I
MAY BE FOUND ON 1
l
I I i i I I
I
I OTHER DOORJAMBS. '
*ADJUST AS NECESSARY TO OBTAIN A FILM DENSITY OF 1.5 TO 3.0 H&D UNITS.

**FILM SHOULD BE LARGE ENOUGH TO COVER INSPECTION AREA.
FIGURE C-2. RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF PASSENGER DOOR JAMB REPAIR PLATE

C-4
/
-7.-·
~· ..
· X·AAY
_ ....,_SOURCE
'<~
/ !' '\\ \
[d ru~ I
~I
:!8.0
t /
I
.. 48.0~
\J
;;7,·.
l7.0 (TYP) \ I
'/ /
I
/ 'FILM
t~/
FLOOR/ ~
NOTE: DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES I.OOKING FO~WARD
EXPOSURE
FILM rl
! NO. SUBJECT
TYPE I SI4:E
lltiCHI I
REMARKS
I
LOWER FWD
JAMB PLATING 100 4251 '8 ,! 1 AND 21, .. X 17 I
: I
• ADJUST AS NECESSARY TO OBTAIN A FILM DENSITY OF LS TO 3.0 H&O UtiiTS.
FIGURE C-3. RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF SERVICE DOOR JAMB REPAIR PLATE

C-5
Technique 2 - Skin And Splice Inspection
1. Purpose
A. To detect cracks in stringers, stringer splices and skin splices

in the crown area (stringers S6 and above, left and right sides) at BS
360, 540, 663, 727, and 908 (see figure C-4).
0
l(p
FWD
NOTES
e SETUPS FOR FILM POSITIONS 1 THRU 6 ON LEFT SIDE SHOWN

USE SAME SETUPS FOR FILM POSITIONS 7 THRU 12
ON RIGHT SIDE
e ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES (!:::::> LOCATION FOR EXPOSURES 1 AND J

~ X-RAY GENERATOR POSITION [t::> LOCATION FOR EXPOSURES 2 AND 4
X-RAY PARAMETERS
FILM GENERATOR SETTINGS

EXPOSURE
NUM~ER
SFD
POSITION ASTM CLASS SIZE KV MAS
1 1 THRU 3 I 14X17 74 150 1260

2 4 THRU 6 I 14X17 74 150 1260
3 7 THRU 9 I 14X17 74 150 1260
4 10 THRU 12 I 14X17 74 150 1260
I i I
FIGURE C-4. X-RAY GENERATOR AND FILM POSITIONING

[End of procedure]
C- 6 *U.S. GOVERNMENT I'RINTING OFnCE: 1991- 604-061/60141

12 Technical Report No DOT FAA CT 91 5

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DOT/FAA/CT-91 /5

FAA Technical Center

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This document is disseminated under the sponsorship

The United States Government does not endorse products

4. Title and Subtitle

COTR: Nelson Miller, FAA Technical Center

17. KeyWords 18. Distribution Statement

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii

NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION METHODS 7

AIRCRAFT INSPECTION APPLICATIONS 71

1. TYPICAL BORESCOPE CONSTRUCTION 7

2. BORESCOPES DESIGNED FOR INSPECTING VARIOUS GEOMETRIES 8

3. CRACK INSPECTION USING REFLECTED LIGHT TO E~ANCE CONTRAST OF

4. EDDY CURRENTS INDUCED IN CONDUCTIVE MATERIJ,LS BY VARYING

5. METER DISPLAY ILLUSTRATING THE AMPLITUDE OF A TYPICAL EDDY

6. IMPEDANCE PLANE DISPLAY SHOWING THE PHASE, AS WELL AS THE

7. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR PRODUCING X-RAYS 22

8. ENGINE INSPECTION USING A 160 kV METAL-CE~~IC X-RAY UNIT 24

9. X-RAY UNIT USED TO INSPECT THE LANDING GE~~ OF AN A300 AIRBUS 24

10. A MOBILE 160 kV X-RAY SYSTEM USED TO INSPECT ENGINE MOUNT

11. DIRECTIONAL X-RAY TUBES EMIT X-RAYS IN A NARROW CONE,

12. PANORAMIC X-RAY TUBES EMIT X-RAYS IN A 36J DEGREE CIRCLE

13. A MICROFOCUS X-RAY SYSTEM USED TO INSPECT A JT8D ENGINE

14. CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF A JET ENGINE TURBINE BLADE MADE BY

15. USING IRIDIUM 192 TO INSPECT AN ENGINE 29

16. RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE - MORE RADIATION PASSES THROUGH THE

17. TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVES FOR TWO DIFFERENT FILMS 31

18. ILLUSTRATION OF GEOMETRIC FOCUS AND DIVERGING X-RAYS 32

19. EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRIC EFFECTS - INCREASING THE TARGET TO

20. EXAMPLE OF ORDINARY WAVE MOTION 38

21. TYPICAL ULTRASONIC SYSTEM CONSISTING OF A PULSE GENERATOR,

22. GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES 40

23. ILLUSTRATION OF PARTICLE MOTION IN A LONGITUDINAL WAVE 41

24. ILLUSTRATION SHOWING THAT PARTICLE MOTION IS PERPENDICULAR TO

25. SURFACE WAVE PARTICLE MOTION IS ORBITAL, CONSISTING OF BOTH

26. LAMB WAVES OCCUR ONLY IN THIN SHEETS OF MATERIAL IN EITHER

27. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE DETERMINES WHETHER A LONGITUDINAL, SHEAR,

28. TYPICAL SETUP AND DISPLAY OF PULSE-ECHO TESTING 45

29. APPLICATIONS OF ANGLE BEAMS FOR ULTRASONIC INSPECTIONS 46

30. ILLUSTRATIONS USING SEPARATE TRANSDUCERS FOR SENDING AND

31. TYPICAL SETUP AND DISPLAY FOR ULTRASONIC IMMERSION TESTING 47

32. BUBBLER ANGLE-BEAM TESTING FOR PIPE INSPECTION 47

33. ILLUSTRATION OF A WHEEL TRANSDUCER 47

35. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL B-SCAN DISPLAY SHOWING CROSS-

36. ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL C-SCAN DISPLAY SHOWING TOP DOWN VIEW 50

37. PENETRANT AND DEVELOPER ACTION 55

38. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PENETRANT PROCESS 58

39. THE RIGHT-HAND RULE 64

40. ILLUSTRATION OF LONGITUDINAL MAGNETISM 65

41. ILLUSTRATION OF CIRCULAR MAGNETISM 65

42. SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT 66

43. SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIED CURRENT 66

44. SINGLE-PHASE FULL- WAVE RECTIFIED CURRENT 66

45. THREE-PHASE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED CURRENT 66

4 6. LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION DEFECT INDICA'J'IONS 68

47. CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION DEFECT INDICATIONS 68

48. COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS 72