Power System Protection
Introduction
Introduction
Power systems may experience faults at some time
Protection systems ensure safe, reliable and efficient
operation of the power system
Objective of protection system is to
Limit damage to the faulted equipment
Minimize disruption of supplies to adjacent un-faulted
equipment
Introduction
Risks of power system faults :
Severe damage to the faulted equipment :
Excessive current may flow
Causes burning of conductors or equipment windings
Arcing - energy dissipation
Risk of explosions for oil-filled equipments, or when in
hazardous environments
As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly
Due to the voltage depression / loss of supply
Introduction
Risks of power system faults
Danger to staff or the public :
Risk of shock from direct contact with the faulted equipment
Danger of potential (voltage) rises in exposed metal work that
is accessible to touch
Fumes released by burning insulation
Burns etc
Disruption to adjacent plant :
Prolonged voltage dips cause motors to stall
Loss of synchronism for synchronous generators / motors
Faults in Power System
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Faults in power system
Underground Cables
Diggers
Overloading
Oil Leakage
Ageing
Faults in power system
Overhead Lines
Lightning
Kites
Trees
Moisture
Salt
Birds
Broken Conductors
Faults in power system
Machines
Mechanical
Damage
Unbalanced Load
Faults in power system
Types of Fault a
b
Ø/E
c
e
a
b
Ø/Ø/E
c
e
a
b
Ø/Ø
c
a
a
b
3Ø b 3Ø/E c
c
e
Faults in power system
Open circuit + ø/e Fault between adjacent
parallel Lines
a
b
c
e
Faults in power system
Evolving fault in cable
a
b c
Faults in power system
Fault signals
Fault Currents
5000
4000
3000
2000
Ia
1000
Amps
Ib
0
Ic
-1000
-2000 In
-3000
-4000
-5000
Time
Faults in power system
Fault signals
Fault Voltages
600
400
200
Va
Volts
0 Vb
Vc
-200
-400
-600
Time
Faults in power system
A typical fault occurrence & its effect
Faults in power system
Factors influencing protection system design
Types of fault and abnormal conditions to be protected
against
Quantities available for measurement
Types of protection available
Speed
Fault position discrimination
Dependability / Reliability
Security / Stability
Faults in power system
Factors influencing protection system design
Overlap of protections
Phase discrimination / Selectivity
Instrument transformers (CTs & VTs)
Auxiliary supplies
Back-up protection
Cost
Duplication of protection
Attributes of
Protection System
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Attributes of protection system
Reliability / Dependability
Stability / Security
Speed
Discrimination (Zones, Phases)
Cost
Attributes of protection system
Dependability
Protection must operate when required to
Failure to operate can be extremely damaging and
disruptive
Faults are rare : Protection must operate even after years
of inactivity
Improved by use of : Back-up protection and duplicate
protection
Attributes of protection system
Security
Protection must not operate when not required to, e.g. due
to:
Load switching
Faults on other parts of the system
Recoverable power swings
Attributes of protection system
Speed
Fast operation :
Minimizes damage to equipment and personnel
Very fast operation :
Minimizes system instability
Attributes of protection system
Discrimination
Fault Position Discrimination
Power system divided into PROTECTION ZONES
Must isolate only the faulty equipment or section
Discrimination and security can be costly to achieve as it
generally involves additional signaling / communications
equipment.
Attributes of protection system
Zones Of Protection
Attributes of protection system
Zones Of Protection
Overlap of Protections
No blind spots
Where possible use overlapping CTs
Attributes of protection system
Overlap of protection zones
BBP BBP
‘1’ ‘2’
H J
‘Z’
G LP LP K L
‘H’ ‘J’
LP LP
‘K’ ‘L’
Attributes of protection system
Phase Discrimination
Correct indication of phases involved in the fault
Important for single phase tripping and auto re-closing
applications
Attributes of protection system
Example 1 – Dependability / Security
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7 F
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4
Directional relays provided as shown
Breakers marked as shown
Fault at F
Attributes of protection system
Example 1 – Dependability / Security R5 lost its
Security
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7 F
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4
Resulted in operation of R1, R2, and R5, which in turn tripped
their respective breakers
Was there loss of dependability or security?
Attributes of protection system
Example 2 – Zone discrimination
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4
System as shown with relays and breakers marked
Attributes of protection system
Example 2 – Zone discrimination
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4
System as shown with relays and breakers marked
A single fault has resulted in the operation of breakers B1, B2, B3
and B4.
There was no loss of security or dependability
Identify the location of the fault
Attributes of protection system
Example 2 – Zone discrimination
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4
Fault in the overlap zone at breaker B2 as shown
Attributes of protection system
Cost
The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance policy against
damage to plant, and loss of supply and customer goodwill.
Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and technical
factors. Cost of protection should be balanced against the cost
of potential hazards.
There is an economic limit on what can be spent.
MINIMUM COST : Must ensure that all faulty equipment is
isolated by protection.
Attributes of protection system
TOTAL COST should take account of :
Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring
Setting studies
Commissioning
CTs and VTs
Maintenance and repairs to relays
Damage repair if protection fails to operate
Lost revenue if protection operates unnecessarily
Types of Protection
Equipments
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Classification of Protection Equipments
Fuses
LV Systems, distribution feeders and transformers, VTs, auxiliary supplies
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
Lighting and Small power distribution & Auxiliary supplies
Moulded Case Circuit breaker (MCCB)
LV Systems, distribution feeders and transformers, VTs, auxiliary supplies
LV ACBs with release (Direct acting AC Trip)
LV Systems, distribution feeders of large rating
Protection Relays
All other protections
Classification of Protection Equipments
Switch Fuse Units
Classification of Protection Equipments
DP MCB TPN MCB
Earth
MCBs RCBO RCCB Leakage
Relay
Classification of Protection Equipments
SP : Single Pole
SPN : Single Pole with Neutral
DP : Double Pole
TP : Triple Pole
TPN : Triple Pole with Neutral
FP : Four Pole
Classification of Protection Equipments
MCCBs
Classification of Protection Equipments
LV Air Circuit Breakers
Classification of Protection Equipments
Fuses works on I2t principle (Energy = I2Rt, with R as constant for
given fuse). The fuse blows during the fault and can not be reused.
Bus
Power
Syste
m
Fuse
Classification of Protection Equipments
MCCB generally acts on Current limiting principle and can replace the
Fuses in Power System.
No need for replacement. Simply reset.
Bus
Power
Syste
m
MCCB
Classification of Protection Equipments
Releases are the devices which sense the abnormal conditions from
the power system, take trip decisions and trip the breaker by pulling
the lever (Manufacturer specific, can not be used with other makes
of ACBs)
Bus
Power CT
Syste
m CB
VT
Release
By Pulling the lever Other devices
Classification of Protection Equipments
Relays are the devices which sense the abnormal conditions from the
power system and take trip decisions. (Relay is independent, can be
used with any make of Breakers)
Bus
Power CT
Syste
m CB
VT
Relay
Other devices
Station
Battery
Classification of
Protection Relays
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Classification of Protection Relays
Over Current and Earth fault
Widely used in all power systems
Non-directional
Directional (Voltage dependant
Differential
Feeders, busbars, transformers, generators, etc.
High impedance or Biased (Low-impedance)
Pilot wire
Digital
Classification of Protection Relays
Distance (Impedance)
Distribution feeders and transmission and sub-
transmission circuits
Also used as back-up protection for transformers and
generators
Phase comparison
Transmission lines
Directional comparison
Transmission lines
Classification of Protection Relays
Miscellaneous
Under and Over Voltage
Under and Over Frequency
Special relays for generators, transformers, motors, etc.
Control relays
Auto-Reclose, tap change control, etc.
Tripping and auxiliary relays
Classification of Protection Relays
Non-Unit, or Unrestricted Protection
No specific point downstream up to which protection will protect
Will operate for faults on the protected equipment
May also operate for faults on downstream equipment, which has
its own protection
Need for discrimination with downstream protection, usually by
means of time grading.
Classification of Protection Relays
Unit, or Restricted Protection
Has an accurately defined zone of protection
An item of power system plant is protected as a unit
Will not operate for out of zone faults, thus no back-up
protection for downstream faults.
Classification of Protection Relays
Types
Electro-mechanical
Static
Digital
Numerical
Classification of Protection Relays
Electro-mechanical
Advantages
Robust & Sturdy
Easy to repair
Aux supply not mandatory
Immune to electrical interference
Disadvantages
Requires frequent maintenance
High burden for CTs/VTs
Requires lot of space
Continuous monitoring is not possible
Classification of Protection Relays
Static
No moving parts
Uses Comparators
Discrete devices / ICs
Advantages
Compact design
No frequent maintenance
Low Burden
Continuous monitoring
Disadvantages
Requires reliable aux supply
Susceptible to electrical interference
Requires clean environment
Classification of Protection Relays
Digital
Uses A/D converters
Use of Processors & Algorithms
Communication ports provided
Advantages
Compact design
No frequent maintenance
More functions in one relay
Low Burden
Remote Communication
Continuous monitoring
Disadvantages
Requires reliable aux supply
Susceptible to electrical interference
Requires clean environment
Classification of Protection Relays
Numerical
Uses Special DSPs
Software tools for one box solution
Communication ports provided
Advantages
Compact design
No frequent maintenance
Functions as IED / BCU
Low Burden
Multiple tasking
Remote Communication
Continuous monitoring
Disadvantages
Requires reliable aux supply
Susceptible to electrical interference
Requires clean environment
Device Numbers (ANSI)
ANSI Standard identifies various components of Protection
System using Numbers.
Exp : Timer - 2
Impedance (Distance) - 21
Under voltage - 27
Reverse Power - 32
Low Forward Power - 37
Instantaneous O/C - 50
IDMT Over Current - 51
Circuit Breaker - 52
Differential - 87
Isolator - 89
etc.,
Protection System Application
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Protection System Application
Radial Feeders
Non directional IDMT Over current & Earth fault
Under voltage
Over voltage
Interconnected Feeders
Directional IDMT Over current & Earth fault
Under voltage
Over voltage
Protection System Application
Transformers / Reactors
Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Differential
Backup IDMT O/C with Instantaneous feature
Mechanical protections (Buchholz, OT, WT, PRD)
Over fluxing
Backup impedance protection
Standby Earth fault
Busbar
Differential
Backup IDMT O/C
CT supervision
Protection System Application
Motors
Differential
Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Backup IDMT O/C with Instantaneous feature
Mechanical protections
Loss of Field / Excitation (Synchronous motors only)
Earth fault
Locked Rotor
Unbalance or Negative sequence
Thermal or overheating
Protection System Application
Overhead lines / Cables
Differential or Distance or Both
Backup IDMT O/C
Overvoltage
Auto re-close / synchro check
Power swing blocking
Distance to Fault recording
Broken conductor/wire detection
Capacitor Bank
Overvoltage
Under voltage
Neutral Displacement for earth faults
Back up Over current
Protection System Application
Common
Breaker fail protection
Trip circuit supervision
Stub protection
Auto re-close / synchro check
Disturbance recording
Event Loggers
Frequency relay with df/dt feature
Protection System Application
Generators
Differential
Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Backup IDMT O/C (Voltage restraint/Voltage controlled)
Reverse power & Low forward power
Mechanical protections
Loss of Field / Excitation
Stator & Rotor Earth fault
Over-fluxing
Over voltage/Under voltage
Under frequency / over frequency
Unbalance or Negative sequence
Accidental Energisation
Pole slipping
Thermal or overheating
Protection System Building Blocks
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Protection System Building Blocks
Relays are the devices which sense the abnormal conditions from the
power system and take trip decisions.
Bus
Power CT
Syste
m CB
VT
Relay
Trip Coil of
Station Breaker
Battery
Protection System Building Blocks
Circuit breakers
A CB is defined in ANSI standards as a mechanical switching
device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions. Also capable of making and
carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under
specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of a short
circuit
Circuit Breakers
Requirements - General
Perfect conductor – when closed
Perfect insulator – when open
Fast - when closing
Fast – when opening
Requirements – From protection aspect
Interruption of high short circuit current
Protection System Building Blocks
Current Transformer
Current Transformer
Current transformers (CT) are critical for proper functioning of
the protection system.
CTs have to faithfully reproduce the primary current at
secondary.
Custom designed CTs are specified for different protection
applications
Current Transformer
Ratio : Primary load current / 1A or 5A
Burden : Secondary load (in VA or Ohms)
Types : Protection & Metering
CT sec. winding resistance : In Ohms
Vk : 4.44 *f * N * A* Bmax
Current Transformer
Metering CT
Accuracy Limit Factor Current up to
Burden which Error limit
is guaranteed
Protection CT
Amplitude & Phase angle Error
Maximum Current limit for the above
5P10
Burden
Combined Error
in Percentage
Special Class (PS)
Vk > volts
Imag < mA at Vk or Vk/2 or Vk/4
Rct < ohms
Current Transformer
IP NP
+10% Vk
Exciting Voltage (VS)
N= NP/Ns
Vk
NS
Ip*N +50% Iek
Vk
Ie
Ze
IS
RCT ZB
Iek
Vs = ISZB = Vk - ISRCT
Exciting Current (Ie)
For faithful reproduction of the primary current in the secondary, the
CT has to operate in the linear region of its magnetizing characteristics
Thus the Vk of the CT has to be specified depending on the application.
From the above diagram we can write that
Vk = Is * (ZB+RCT)
Example 1
Specification of CT:
Turns ratio : 1200:5
CT Class: 10 P 20
This means,
Currents up to 100A (5*20) are reproduced faithfully at the
secondary within 10% error
Voltage Transformers
Electromagnetic voltage transformers
Capacitive voltage transformers
Voltage Transformers
Equivalent circuit of a transformer
Rp Lp Rs Ls
Burden
Ze
Primary Secondary
Voltage Transformers
System voltage (Vp) is applied across the input terminals.
Secondary voltage Vs need to be an accurate replica of the
primary voltage over a specified range of output.
Voltage drop in windings are small.
Flux density in the core designed to be well below the
saturation level.
Voltage Transformers
Ratio Error
(K n Vs − Vp )
x100%
Vp
Kn is the nominal ratio
Vp – Actual primary voltage
Vs – Actual secondary voltage
Phase Error
Phase difference between the reversed secondary and the
primary voltage vectors
Normally neglected for protective relaying purposes.
Capacitive Voltage Transformers
Structure of a CVT
Line voltage
C1 Ferro resonance
L Suppression circuit
Compensating
reactor Relay voltage
C2
Step down
transformer
Capacitive Voltage Transformers
Ferro resonance suppression circuits
The active ferro resonance suppression circuit acts like a
band pass filter and introduces extra time delay in the CVT
secondary output.
The energy storage element contribute to the severity of
the transient characteristics.
Capacitive Voltage Transformers
Connected burden
CVT transient characteristics Influenced by the magnitude
and angle of the connected burden.
Static and numerical relays have nearly resistive burdens
Estimate total burden of all devices connected to the CVT
Protection System
Design Considerations
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Protection System Design
Considerations
Instrument Transformer Circuits
Never open circuit a CT secondary circuit, so never fuse CT
circuits
VTs must be fused or protected by MCB
Do wire test blocks in circuit (both VT and CT) to allow
commissioning and periodic injection testing of relays
Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only
Wire gauge > 2.5mm2 recommended for mechanical strength.
Protection System Design
Considerations
Auxiliary Supplies
Required for : TRIPPING CIRCUIT BREAKERS
CLOSING CIRCUIT BREAKERS
PROTECTION and TRIP RELAYS
AC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are only used on LV and MV systems.
DC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are more secure than AC supplies.
SEPARATELY FUSED SUPPLIES used for each protection.
DUPLICATE BATTERIES are occasionally provided for extra security.
MODERN PROTECTION RELAYS need a continuous auxiliary supply.
During un-operated (healthy) conditions, they draw a small ‘QUIESCENT’
load to keep relay circuits energized.
During operation, they draw a larger current which increases due to
operation of output elements.
Protection System Design
Considerations
Trip output contacts
Check that these are rated sufficiently to make and carry the
circuit breaker trip coil current. If not, a heavier duty tripping
relay will be needed.
Use a circuit breaker normally open (52a) contact to interrupt
trip coil current. This extends the life of the protection relay
trip contacts.
Protection System Design
Considerations
Type of relay outputs
Close when energised, typically
Make (M) / Normally Open (NO)
used for tripping.
Break (B) / Normally Closed (NC) Close when de-energised.
Can be break before make (BBM)
Changeover (C/O)
or make before break (MBB).
Trip Relay Circuits
Trip Circuit Supervision
