TOPIC 2 A Growing Concern

Figure 3.5 The application of insecticides, herbicides,

and water can increase food production for people.

In a normal healthy ecosystem, many species may access the same food
source. But human beings have an advantage — agriculture allows us to
carefully nurture a select group of plants for our use. To maximize the
Do you think it is possi-
quantity of plants we can harvest, we control other species who com-
ble to develop a system
pete for these plants. For example, if we grow potatoes, we might of agricultural production
actively discourage potato beetles in our fields. In other cases, we hin- that is not affected by
der the growth of other plants that would compete with our crops for pests and by crop and
soil resources. Spraying crops with pesticides to control “pests,” as livestock diseases?
shown in Figure 3.5, has become standard practice worldwide. Most Include reasons for
pesticides are designed to affect only specific types of pest species. your answer in your
Science Log.
Herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides control weeds, insects, and
fungus pests. Dealing with insect pests has long been the target of
scientific and technological attention. The citronella candles and mos-
quito coils you burn to keep mosquitoes away from your deck or camp
just send the insects away. Chemical sprays such as dieldrin and DDT
actually kill the insects, raising issues which were not immediately
recognized, as you will see in the next section.

A Growing Concern • MHR 187

 Issues Associated with the Use of DDT
The invention of DDT by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller
was originally seen as one of the greatest advances in medicine during
the twentieth century. Toward the end of World War II, the disease
typhus (transmitted by lice) threatened 1.3 million Allied troops. This
is the same disease that totally wiped out Napoleon’s Grand Army on
its retreat from Russia in the 1800s. The application of DDT com-
pletely removed the typhus threat. DDT proved so successful in con-
trolling insect infestations that Paul Müller was awarded the 1948
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for “his discovery of the high
efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods.”
In the 1950s it was hoped that DDT would prove equally effective in
stamping out malaria. Each year, this mosquito-transmitted disease affects
over 120 million people and is responsible for over 1 million deaths. In
the next investigation, you will explore the scientific basis for explaining
unforeseen consequences of introducing DDT into the environment.

In 1955, the World Health Organization (WHO) sprayed dieldrin, a chemical pesticide
similar to DDT, on north Borneo to control malarial mosquitoes. Although the mosqui-
toes were almost completely eliminated, so were the lizards that fed on the dead
insects. Island cats that preyed on the lizards soon began dying as well, leading to an
explosion of the rodent population as their natural predator died off. Plague carried by
fleas on the rodents was a serious threat to the islanders until the British Air Force (on
request by WHO) parachuted cats onto Borneo.
In your Science Log, write a
short paragraph reflecting on how
an understanding of the food chain
could inform issues associated
with killing insect pests.

188 Environmental Chemistry

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

3-B
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

DDT in a Food Chain

Think About It What to Do
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is an Study the following food web. Below the name
example of a persistent pesticide that can remain in of each organism is a number that indicates
the environment for long periods of time. The the amount of DDT in the organism’s tissues,
longer a pesticide is present in the environment, in parts per billion (ppb). One ppb is equiva-
the greater the chance that it will be consumed by lent to 1 mg/1000 L.
organisms. Some pesticides can accumulate in the Use the food web and the information about
bodies of organisms. As a result, they can increase DDT on page 190 to answer the questions
in concentration in specific tissues or organs. How that follow.
do pesticides, such as DDT, enter food chains? In
this investigation, you will trace the path of DDT
in a north Pacific Ocean food chain.
seabirds
2 800 ppb

fish
43 ppb
dolphins
5 200 ppb

young squid
22 ppb

plankton
1.7 ppb

seawater
0.0001 ppb

DDT in a north Pacific Ocean food web, in parts per billion (ppb). The arrows show the flow of energy from one
“trophic,” or feeding, level to another. Seabirds feed on fish, so seabirds are at a higher feeding level than fish. CONTINUED

A Growing Concern • MHR 189

The DDT Story
The risks of using pesticides in ecosystems first An unexpected outcome of using DDT was its
became widely known during the 1950s and 1960s, effect on populations of birds of prey. The numbers
when the toxic effects of the insecticide DDT were of hawks, eagles, and ospreys on farmlands across
recorded. DDT was one of the first and most power- North America and Europe fell sharply during the
ful insecticides developed. During World War II, it 1950s and 1960s. Scientists discovered that DDT
was used to control populations of insects (such as reduced the ability of these birds to produce normal
body lice, fleas, and mosquitoes) that can transmit eggshells. Affected birds laid eggs with thin shells
deadly diseases to people. As a result, the rate of that broke in the nest, so they were unable to pro-
death from malaria, bubonic plague, duce the usual number of young. The
typhus, and yellow fever fell dramatically. adult birds had accumulated DDT in
DDT was also used widely on crops to their bodies from the fish they ate. The
control damage caused by insect pests. amount of DDT had accumulated in the
In 1962 biologist and writer Rachel bodies of organisms, moving from pro-
Carson published a book entitled Silent ducers to primary consumers, to sec-
Spring, which described how pesticides ondary consumers, and so on. This
had spread throughout the environment. process is called biological
As a result of her scientific evidence and magnification or biomagnification.
the demands from an alarmed public, the Eventually concentrations of DDT
use of DDT was severely restricted in became large enough in birds of prey to
Canada after 1969. DDT has not been Rachel Carson affect their reproduction. Unfortunately,
registered for use in Canada since DDT continues to be used in some trop-
the mid-1980s. ical countries because it is such an
About ten years after the first use effective pesticide. It not only
of DDT, signs of trouble appeared. affects species that live in
Dead birds, fish, frogs, and other these countries but also
animals were found in areas that species that live elsewhere
had been heavily sprayed with in the world, including
DDT. The fat in their bodies con- people who consume
tained high levels of the insecticide. food products imported
Harmless or beneficial insects, such from the tropics.
as butterflies and honeybees, also
started to disappear from areas that
had been sprayed.
Tests of soil and water showed One part per billion (ppb)
that DDT remained in the envi- is equal to one glazed
ronment for many years. For exam- doughnut in a chain of
ple, DDT was still found in the soil doughnuts circling Earth
of some heavily sprayed orchards two and a half times.
ten years after the spraying was
stopped. DDT was also found in
the bodies of many different organ-
isms in areas around the world
where the insecticide had never
been used. It also began showing
up in the tissues of people. Pesticides can severely affect the reproduction of
birds of prey, such as this osprey.

190 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

Analyze your local library and/or the Internet to
1. How does DDT enter a food web? research Rachel Carson. How did she pre-
sent her ideas to the general public and the
2. Which organism shown in the food web on scientific community? What methods would
page 189 contains the most DDT? you use to inform people of a threat to the
environment? Why were Rachel Carson’s
3. Which organism is at a higher trophic level, ideas initially opposed?
dolphins or plankton?
11. The table below gives DDT levels, in parts
4. What is the relationship between the trophic per million (ppm), found in the eggs of three
level of an organism and the concentration species of seabirds. The eggs were sampled
of DDT in its body? from two different locations along Canada’s
5. In the food web on page 189, how many times east coast. Pesticide levels found in birds’
greater is the concentration of DDT in the fish eggs are a good indicator of pesticide levels
than in the seawater? How many times greater in the environment. Study the data and
is it in the dolphins than in the seawater? answer the questions that follow.
DDT Level in Atlantic Seabird Eggs
6. In your own words, explain why animals at
the top of a food chain are particularly at DDT level in eggs (ppm)
risk from poisons in the environment. Bay of Atlantic
Species Year Fundy Ocean
Conclude and Apply Leach’s storm-petrel 1968 no data 1.46
(feeds on small 1972 6.81 2.48
7. Use an example to explain how an animal living organisms near the 1976 1.75 0.75
hundreds of kilometres from an area sprayed surface of the water) 1980 1.13 0.46
with DDT might get DDT in its body. 1984 1.05 0.40
Atlantic puffin 1968 no data 0.89
8. DDT is stored in body fat and remains toxic (feeds on small fish) 1972 2.57 0.76
for many years. Explain why these characteris- 1976 1.27 0.59
tics are undesirable in a pesticide. What char- 1980 1.03 0.55
1984 0.74 0.30
acteristics would you want in a pesticide to
make it less harmful to non-pest organisms? Double-crested 1972 6.51 2.85
cormorant (feeds 1976 1.49 2.18
on larger fish) 1980 1.91 1.34
1984 1.07 1.88
Extend Your Knowledge
and Skills
9. After spraying crops with DDT for several (a) Describe general differences between pes-
years, farmers found that populations of ticide levels in birds’ eggs from nesting
insect pests rebounded. One reason was that sites around the Bay of Fundy and pesti-
the insects had developed resistance to the cide levels in birds eggs from nesting sites
insecticide. Suggest another reason, based on along the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean.
what you know about populations, food (b) Describe changes in pesticide levels from
pyramids, predators, and competitors. 1972, to 1984. What may account for
the changes?
10. When Rachel Carson published her book
about the effects of pesticides on food chains (c) Describe any differences in pesticide levels
and people, she had many opponents. Use found in different species of seabirds.
Suggest a reason for the differences.

A Growing Concern • MHR 191

 What’s Bugging You?
Although DDT is widely recognized as potentially hazardous, there are
people who take issue with the ban on DDT. Why would this be so? One
major concern is that a ban on DDT has serious health effects for the
human population. In Zanzibar alone, the incidence of malaria dropped
from 70 percent in 1958 to 5 percent in 1964 as a result of the application
of DDT in that country. After the use of DDT was restricted, the inci-
dence of malaria climbed upward, reaching 50–60 percent by 1984.
In attempts to find an acceptable substitute for DDT, the World
Health Organization (WHO) screened approximately 2000 compounds
for possible use as insecticides. Of the 30 compounds ultimately selected
for field tests, none has proven as effective or as safe as DDT. Additionally,
all of the substitutes are much more expen-
sive to produce and deliver than DDT — an
important factor for less developed countries.
To add to the problem, our attempts to
produce safe and effective pesticides are
hampered by the growing problem of pesti-
cide resistance. Figure 3.6 illustrates the rise
in the number of pest species that are resis-
tant to the effects of pesticides in current
use. This trend has implications for the
future of pesticide use. The production of
new pesticides, tests for safety and effective-
ness, and the development of standards
leading to guidelines for consumer use are
all issues of critical importance in the future.
The next activity will introduce you to more
on this issue.

Pesticide resistance
600
insects and mites
number of resistant species

500 plant diseases

weeds
400

300

200

100

0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
year
Figure 3.6 Growth in the number of pesticide-resistant species

192 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

 Find Out
The Use of Insecticides
in Agriculture
Governments collect statistics on pesticide use selected countries for the same year. Use
to help develop and evaluate risk reduction the data to calculate insecticide use per
programs. Such programs are then used to 1000 ha of agricultural area and make a
form the basis of government legislation and bar graph to represent your findings.
regulations. In this activity you will graph 1994
What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
statistics comparing the use of insecticides in
certain countries against the amount of agricul- 1. Which country has the lowest ratio of
tural land. insecticide use to agricultural area? The
Materials highest ratio?

atlas of the world or access to the Internet 2. Insecticide use is dependent upon the type
of crop. Typically cereal crops (wheat, bar-
Insecticide Agricultural
ley, oats) require fewer insecticides than
Country use (in Mt) area (in 1000 ha)
either fruit or vegetable crops. Using an
Canada 3 426 74 500 atlas, or statistics from the Internet, deter-
United States 103 419 420 250 mine the major agricultural crop type for
France 8 848 30 119 each of the countries. Do your results
agree with what would be expected?
India 41 994 181 030
Netherlands 439 1 971
United Kingdom 1 771 17 046

For tips on how to make bar graphs, turn

Procedure Performing and Recording
to Skill Focus 10.
1. The table gives the total amount of insecti-
cides used and the agricultural area in

Researchers from the University of Guelph reported in the

April 1995 issue of the Journal of Agriculture and Food
Chemistry that vegetables treated with pesticides could be www.mcgraw.ca/links/sciencefocus9
healthier than pesticide-free vegetables. Potatoes naturally
You have an insect “infestation” that you want to get rid
contain small amounts of the toxin solanine. Solanine is
known to cause damage to the developing fetus in mam- of, but your neighbour is concerned about the insecticide you
mals. Under insect attack, potatoes produce greater have chosen to use. What are your obligations to your
amounts of solanine, perhaps as a chemical defence neighbours from a legal and ethical perspective? Go to the web
against pests. The researchers found that potato plants site above, and click on Web Links to find out where to go
attacked by the Colorado potato beetle showed a 50 percent next. Then write a letter to your neighbour explaining your
increase in toxin levels. In contrast, potato plants attacked point of view and how you plan to make use of
by the potato leafhopper showed no significant change in the information you have learned.
toxin levels. The difference in the potato plants’ reaction to
attack is believed to be due to the feeding habits of the two
insects. Can you guess what the difference in their feeding
habits might be?

A Growing Concern • MHR 193

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

3-C
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Organic Agriculture
Think About It How Can Science Help?
Canada is among the top five world producers of Our scientific knowledge has helped us develop
organic grains and oilseeds. Its organic agriculture synthetic pesticides and microbial pesticides,
sector is small but growing. Organic agriculture ide- which contain micro-organisms. As well, we have
ally uses natural processes and cycles to minimize learned to understand naturally occurring bio-
environmental damage and optimize productivity. chemical pesticides and the production of organic
In 1999 the Canadian General Standards Board pesticides by plants after the addition of genetic
published the National Standard of Canada for material from another organism. The development
Organic Agriculture. This standard defines the and testing of new pesticides (regardless of type)
guiding principles and regulations used to deter- require careful observation of the effects of a pesti-
mine whether any product or operation can cide on all organisms, not just its intended target.
declare itself 100 percent “organic.” In part, this The monitoring and critical analysis of any envi-
act reads as follows: ronmental effect allow scientists to weigh the ben-
“Operators of organic enterprises strive to efits and risks associated with the possible use of
reduce or eliminate reliance on practices using that substance.
natural- or synthetic-based compounds that harm
beneficial organisms within the soil, deplete non-
renewable resources, compromise water and air
quality, or which, through misuse, could endanger
the health of agricultural workers, the agricultural
community, or the consumer.”
Canada’s largest trading partner, the United
States, has a similar set of guidelines in its 1990
Federal Organic Foods Production Act. In addition
to outlining the rules and regulations governing the
production and sale of organic products, this act
includes a list of approved substances that may be
used when circumstances warrant it. Interestingly, How does “organic” produce differ from produce grown by
the list of approved substances includes pesticides conventional methods?
derived from natural plants, microbes, insects, and
mineral ores. In some special circumstances the use
What to Do
of synthetic pesticides may be approved. As a group, choose one of the following top-
Why is there a distinction made between organic ics. Research your topic at your local library
and synthetic pesticides? Where do genetically mod- and/or the Internet. Prepare a one-page report
ified organisms fit in the scheme of organic and syn- summarizing your research.
thetic pesticides? How can a naturally occurring (a) What methods are used by organic farmers
mineral be used as a pesticide? What are the alterna- to control pest species (insects, weeds, fun-
tives to the use of pesticides for controlling pests? gi, bacteria) and to maintain soil fertility?
How effective are those alternatives? In this investi- How do these methods achieve the end
gation you will take a closer look at these questions. result? How effective are these methods?

194 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

 Under what circumstances should an What concerns would organic farmers have
organic farmer use an approved pesticide? regarding a neighbouring operation planting
(b) As a group, brainstorm the characteristics crop plants genetically modified by the inser-
that a safe, effective pesticide might have. tion of Bt. genes? What regulations exist in
Then determine the following information Canada for the use of genetically modified
for the approved pesticides pyrethrum, organisms in agriculture?
rotenone and neem: (d) As a group, brainstorm the characteristics
(ii) source that a safe, effective pesticide might have.
(ii) active ingredient Elemental sulfur, boron (as boric acid),
(iii)effect on pest species, humans, copper (as copper sulfate), and potassium
and wildlife (as a salt of fatty acids or “soapsalt”) are all
(iv) persistence in tissues and the approved organic pesticides. Determine
environment the effect on pest species, humans, and
Do your criteria for safe and effective pesti- wildlife; and persistence in tissues and the
cides match the characteristics of those pesti- environment of these pesticides. Do your
cides investigated? criteria for safe and effective pesticides
match the characteristics of those pesti-
(c) Determine the following information for
cides investigated?
the approved microbial pesticide Bacillus
thuringiensis, commonly referred to as Bt.: Present a summary of your report to the class.
(i) source
(ii) active ingredient Analyze
(iii)effect on pest species, humans,
1. A 1986 survey by Agriculture Canada
and wildlife
found that farmers who chose organic
(iv) persistence in tissues and the
methods did so because they felt organic
environment
methods were better for the health of their
family and for the soil. Would the applica-
tion of an organic pesticide change those
expectations? Explain how the information
you collected supports your answer.
For tips on how to use the Internet for research,
turn to Skill Focus 9. 2. Canada has been cited as ideal for organic
agriculture due to its climate. Explain why
climate might influence a country’s suit-
ability for organic agriculture.

You can limit your exposure to pesticides, antibiotics,

moulds, and bacteria by taking a few simple precautions.
• Wash and scrub all fresh fruits and vegetables thor- The term “poison” (from the Latin potare, “to drink”) gener-
oughly under running water. ally refers to chemical substances in our food that cause
• Discard the outer leaves of leafy vegetables and peel illness or death. The term “toxin” is usually reserved for
fruits and vegetables. protein molecules produced by a biological organism, and
comes from the Latin toxicum, “a poisoned arrow.” The
• Cut the fat off meat or eat lower on the food chain to
Latin word toxicum can be traced back to the ancient Greek
reduce your exposure to bioaccumulated chemicals.
word toxon, referring to any bow and arrow. Is it correct to
• Handle and store food carefully to prevent contamina- refer to industrial chemical pollutants as toxic waste? Look
tion with other foods or moulds. up the term “toxic” in a dictionary and check your answer.

A Growing Concern • MHR 195

 Where to Now?
Whether it is derived from naturally occurring substances in the envi-
ronment or is specifically formulated in a laboratory, the role of a pesti-
cide is to control pests. Concern about the potential of pesticides to
harm non-target organisms has led to a greater societal emphasis on
the control and appropriate use of such substances. Research and devel-
opment into new and safer pesticides has resulted in pesticides that
break down faster in the environment. It is now recognized that natural
processes and cycles can minimize the use of pesticides in our agricul-
tural economies. Despite this, the fact remains that some pesticides and
their breakdown products may remain in the environment for many
years. Much of our knowledge of pesticides is on an individual basis
and one of the challenges facing us in years to come is to determine the
effects of combinations of these substances on the environment.

TOPIC 2 Review
1. What is a pest? What are pesticides?

2. There does not appear to be any concern about running through a cloud
of DDT in this picture below taken at Jones Beach, New York, in 1948. In
fact, many people were grateful that such trucks operated in their neigh-
bourhood. Explain why this event could occur in 1948, but not in 1978.

3. What is the difference between toxic and poisonous?

4. Define organic farming in your own words. Is it a better method of growing

food than conventional farming? Consider cost and practicality in your
answer.

5. Apply List three ways you could reduce the use of pesticides in your
home or yard.

6. Thinking Critically Why are pesticides harmful to birds at or near the

top of the food chain?

196 MHR • Environmental Chemistry