1.

0 Introduction

Microorganisms are ubiquitous in nature where they have a variety of essential

functions. Many microbes are uniquely adapted to specific environmental niches,

such as those that inhabit the DeadSea (Halobacterium) and Chlamydomonas

nivalis that causes pink snow. Microbes also play an essential role in the natural

recycling of living materials. All naturally produced substances are biodegradable,

that is, they can be broken down by living organisms such as bacteria or fungi

(Atalia et al., 2017).

Microorganisms have been invaluable in finding solutions for several problems

mankind has encountered in maintaining the quality of the environment. They

have, for example, been used to positive effect in human and animal health, genetic

engineering, environmental protection, and municipal and industrial waste

treatment. Microorganisms have enabled feasible and cost-effective responses

which would have been impossible via chemical or physical engineering methods.

More so, microbial technologies have successfully been applied to a wide range of

environmental problems, especially waste management issues (Beylot, et al.,

2023).

The scenario of waste management (WM) is significantly different between

developed and developing nations because developing nations are lacking proper

collection and disposal mechanism of waste. So, WM has become very critical and
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receives priority due to progressive concern related to environmental degradation

and sustainability (Brewer 2001). Uncontrolled, haphazard and unscientific means

of dumping of wastes on the outskirts of towns and periphery of villages results in

overflowing landfills, which are not only impossible to return to a suitable

condition but also have solemn environmental implications in terms of soil and

groundwater pollution and contribution to global warming (Atalia et al., 2017).

Bacteria and other microbes are often associated with illnesses, but they have an

important role in the waste recycling process. They are responsible for the

biodegradation of organic materials and nutrient recycling in the natural

environment. In addition to this fundamental role, microbes are also essential to the

fermentation stages of waste recycling, biodegradation of oil in the marine

ecosystems, helpful in the treatment of waste-waters and in the production of

alternative energy (Atalia et al., 2017).

Microorganisms recycle nutrients in the environment, by decomposing organic

materials. Organic materials, such as animal carcasses and tree trunks, decay by the

action of decomposing microbes, which are also responsible for getting rid of

industrial and household waste. Through a process called biodegradation, microbes

use nutrients and chemical substances found in the environment for their own

survival. The nutrients from the breakdown of these products are free in the

environment to feed plants or algae, which in turn feed all animals.

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2.0 Waste

Waste is generated from human activity mostly. Rapid and unplanned development

and modification of livelihood all over the world put complexity in the generated

waste. Overall biosphere is degraded rapidly due to continuous release of

hazardous pollutants from different industries throughout the world. Rapid

expension of health-care facilities and modernization of agricultural practices

generate large quantity of biomedical and agricultural wastes which brings adverse

effect on environmental health. There are three kinds of wastes mainly such as

solid waste, liquid waste and gaseous waste (Woodard, 2021).

2.1 Impacts of Waste on the Environment

2.1.1 Pollution

Leachate is a liquid pollutant caused by waste breaking down that contains high

levels of heavy metals, chemical compounds, pesticides and solvents which filter

down into the bottom of a landfill site. Many modern landfills created today have a

sealed barrier to prevent liquid pollution from entering groundwater, however the

growing level of waste generation can increase the risk of leachate pollution

(Atalia et al., 2017).

2.1.2 Loss of Biodiversity

Demand for new landfill sites results in the clearing of large amounts of vegetation

and alterations to the natural environment. This can displace hundreds and
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thousands of species (both plants and animals) which live in the surrounding

habitat. Over time, excessive land clearing can result in the extinction of many of

these species, and a significant loss of biodiversity (Atalia et al., 2017).

2.1.3 Pests

Once the natural habitat has been removed by land clearing, many native species

may no longer be able to compete with non-native species such as weeds, vermin,

flies and rats. Unlike native species, these pests can often live on a vast variety of

food sources and are better adapted to live on these landfill sites. As a result,

foreign species such as rats, ibis, feral cats and dogs thrive in landfill areas on

rotting food sources (Atalia et al., 2017).

2.1.4 Litter

Lightweight materials like plastic bags and film (such as lolly/chip wrappers) can

easily be dispersed from rubbish bins and landfill into the surrounding environment

by the wind and rain. Much of this lightweight material presents a range of hazards

for wildlife and domestic animals who can become entangled or choke if they

accidentally mistake litter for food. The chemical composition of plastic means

that it takes a substantial period of time to break down in the environment, and is

capable of travelling long distances without decomposing. Around 80% of plastic

litter found in the ocean has travelled there from inland waterways (Atalia et al.,

2017).
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2.2 Bioremediation

Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system

(typically bacteria, microalgae, fungi in mycoremediation, and plants in

phytoremediation), living or dead, is employed for removing environmental

pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluents etc., in natural or

artificial settings (Abila et al., 2023). The natural ability of organisms to adsorb,

accumulates, and degrade common and emerging pollutants has attracted the use of

biological resources in treatment of contaminated environment. In comparison to

conventional physicochemical treatment methods bioremediation may offer

considerable advantages as it aims to be sustainable, eco-friendly, cheap, and

scalable (Abila et al., 2023).

Most bioremediation is inadvertent, involving native organisms. Research on

bioremediation is heavily focused on stimulating the process by inoculation of a

polluted site with organisms or supplying nutrients to promote the growth. In

principle, bioremediation could be used to reduce the impact of byproducts created

from anthropogenic activities, such as industrialization and agricultural processes.

Bioremediation could prove less expensive and more sustainable than other

remediation alternatives (Hussein, 2020).

Bioremediation techniques can be classified as (i) in situ techniques, which treats

polluted sites directly, vs (ii) ex situ techniques which are applied to excavated
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materials (Beylot et al., 2023). In both these approaches, additional nutrients,

vitamins, minerals, and pH buffers are added to enhance the growth and

metabolism of the microorganisms. In some cases, specialized microbial cultures

are added (biostimulation). Some examples of bioremediation related technologies

are phytoremediation, bioventing, bioattenuation, biosparging, composting

(biopiles and windrows), and landfarming. Other remediation techniques include

thermal desorption, vitrification, air stripping, bioleaching, rhizofiltration, and soil

washing. Biological treatment, bioremediation, is a similar approach used to treat

wastes including wastewater, industrial waste and solid waste. The end goal of

bioremediation is to remove or reduce harmful compounds to improve soil and

water quality (Beylot et al., 2023).

2.3 Waste Recycling

The definition of recycling is to pass a substance through a system that enables that

substance to be reused. Waste recycling involves the collection of waste materials

and the separation and clean-up of those materials. Recycling waste means that

fewer new products and consumables need to be produced, saving raw materials

and reducing energy consumption.

Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and

objects. This concept often includes the recovery of energy from waste materials.

The recyclability of a material depends on its ability to reacquire the properties it

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had in its original state (Barman, 2021) It is an alternative to "conventional" waste

disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse gas emissions. It can

also prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption

of fresh raw materials, reducing energy use, air pollution (from incineration) and

water pollution (from landfilling).

Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third

component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste hierarchy (Erkut, 2018) It

promotes environmental sustainability by removing raw material input and

redirecting waste output in the economic system. There are some ISO standards

related to recycling, such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste and ISO

14001:2015 for environmental management control of recycling practice.tyres.

2.4 Biological waste treatment technique

Biological waste treatment is a modern technique in which wastewater is treated

with microorganisms instead of chemicals. In this way, we try to prevent the

adverse effects caused by chemical treatment of wastewater such as chemical

accumulation in water bodies or algal blooming.

2.4.1 Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process is the most widely used biological waste treatment in

secondary stage of wastewater treatment. An activated sludge process refers to a

multi-chamber reactor unit that makes use of highly concentrated microorganisms

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to degrade organics and remove nutrients from wastewater to produce a high-

quality effluent. In this method, the sewage containing organic matter with the

microorganisms is aerated (by a mechanical aerator) in an aeration tank. This

process speeds up waste decomposition. Aeration in an activated sludge process is

based on pumping air into a tank, which promotes the microbial growth in the

wastewater. The effluent from the aeration tank containing the flocculent microbial

mass, known as sludge, is separated in a settling tank, sometimes called a

secondary settler or a clarifier (Woodard, 2021)

FIG 2.1: Activated Sludge Process (Woodard, 2021)

2.4.2 Trickling filters

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Trickling filters have been used to treat wastewater since the 1890s. The name is

something of a misnomer since no filtration takes place. A very active biological

growth forms on the rocks and these organisms obtain their food from the waste

stream dripping through the rock bed (Weiner and Matthews, 2022). It was found

that if settled wastewater was passed over rock surfaces, slime grew on the rocks as

mentioned above and the water became cleaner. Today this principle is still used,

but in many installations plastic media is used instead of rocks. In most wastewater

treatment systems, the trickling filter follows primary treatment and includes a

secondary settling tank or clarifier. Trickling filters are widely used for the

treatment of domestic and industrial wastes. The process is a fixed film biological

treatment method designed to remove BOD and suspended solids. A trickling filter

consists of a rotating distribution arm that sprays and evenly distributes liquid

wastewater over a circular bed of fist-sized rocks, other coarse materials, or

synthetic media. The spaces between the media allow air to circulate easily so that

aerobic conditions can be maintained. The spaces also allow wastewater to trickle

down through, around and over the media. A layer of biological slime that absorbs

and consumes the wastes trickling through the bed covers the media material. The

organisms aerobically decompose the solids and produce more organisms and

stable wastes that either become part of the slime or are discharged back into the

wastewater flowing over the media. This slime consists mainly of bacteria, but it
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may also include algae, protozoa, worms, snails, fungi and insect larvae. The

accumulating slime occasionally sloughs off (sloughings) individual media

materials and is collected at the bottom of the filter, along with the treated

wastewater and passed on to the secondary settling tank where it is removed

(Spellman, 2019). The overall performance of the trickling filter is dependent on

hydraulic and organic loading, temperature, and recirculation. The performance of

a trickle bed reactor highly relies on the uniformity of liquid distribution

throughout the bed. Liquid distribution critically affects mass and heat transfer

efficiency and thus the overall reactor performance. In a catalytic reactor liquid

maldistribution caused non-uniform wetting of catalyst particles, which in turn

reduced the contact between liquid and catalyst leading to an inefficient catalyst

usage. Good liquid distribution throughout the trickle bed filter is essential for the

full utilization of the bed capacity. However, because of liquid maldistribution a

portion of the packing in the bed remains dry. Non-wetted zones in the bed are not

colonized by the micro-organisms rendering a low efficiency of the trickle bed

filter. In addition, good Buyukgungor and Gurel 7255 liquid distribution minimizes

plugging and sloughing problem and liquid channeling (Doan et al., 2018).

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Fig 2.2: Trickling filters application (Doan et al., 2018)

2.4.3 Membrane bioreactors

Membrane bioreactor technologies are, as the name suggests, those technologies

that provide biological treatment with membrane separation. The term is more

appropriately applied to processes in which there is a coupling of these two

elements, rather than the sequential application of membrane separation

downstream of classical biotreatment. Conventional treatment of municipal

wastewater (sewage) usually proceeds through a three stage process: sedimentation

of gross solids in the feed water followed by aerobic degradation of the organic

matter and then a second sedimentation process to remove the biomass. An MBR

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can displace the 2 physical separation processes by filtering the biomass through a

membrane.

Fig 2.3: Membrane bioreactors application (Judd, 2018)

As a result the product water quality is significantly higher than that generated by

conventional treatment, obviating the need for a further tertiary disinfection

process (Judd, 2018). The 2 most common configurations for membrane

bioreactors are submerged membranes and external membranes. Submerged types

MBRs are preferred more than the external types. Membrane bioreactors (MBRs)

are becoming increasingly popular due to their various advantages in wastewater

treatment, e.g., flexibility of operation, ability to attain higher sludge age and

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consequently, less sludge production and higher nitrification and denitrification

rates (Ahmed et al., 2018). Some disadvantages of this system include frequent

membrane monitoring and maintenance requirements, relatively high running costs

and there is a limitation as to the pressures, temperatures and pH to which the

system can be exposed (Dobson and Burgess, 2017). Besides wastewater

treatment, membrane bioreactors are used for the production of amino acids,

antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, anticancer drugs, vitamins, optically pure

enantiomers and isomers, etc. Many research studies concerning several membrane

bioreactor configurations were made to improve and optimize this process for

different purposes (Chandrasekeran et al., 2017).

2.4.4 Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands have been widely used in the treatment of primary or

secondary domestic sewage effluents, and others have been used to treat domestic

wastewater and have also been modeled to handle high organic loads associated

with agriculture or domestic wastewater (Abou-Elela, 2018). A large number of

constructed wetlands have also been built to treat drainage from active and

abandoned coal mines. The constructed wetland technology has recently been used

in the control and management of stormwater flows, and its application in reducing

the impacts by stormwater floods within urban areas is expanding globally

(Mangangka et al., 2020). The constructed wetland technology is not only

13
preferred in stormwater flow control but also in the treatment of wastewater, and

its preference is based on its low cost, low energy requirement, and need for

minimal operational attention and skills. Due to its numerous merits and high

sustainability potential, there is an increasing extensive research on its practical

application to expand the knowledge on its operation and to provide more insight

on its appropriate design, performance, operation, and maintenance for optimum

environmental benefits. Even though the constructed wetlands are sturdy and

effective systems, their performance depends on the periodic improvements to

handle emerging contaminants such as antibiotic and antibacterial resistant genes,

and for them to remain effective, they must be carefully designed, constructed,

operated, and maintained (Lamori et al., 2019).

Fig 2.4: Constructed wetlands (Lamori et al., 2019)

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2.4.5 Waste stabilization ponds

Stabilization ponds are ponds designed and built for wastewater treatment to

reduce the organic content and remove pathogens from wastewater. They are man-

made depressions confined by earthen structures. Wastewater or "influent" enters

on one side of the waste stabilization pond and exits on the other side as "effluent",

after spending several days in the pond, during which treatment processes take

place (Hazra et al., 2019).

Waste stabilization ponds are used worldwide for wastewater treatment and are

especially suitable for developing countries that have warm climates.[2] They are

frequently used to treat sewage and industrial effluents, but may also be used for

treatment of municipal run-off or stormwater. The system may consist of a single

pond or several ponds in a series, each pond playing a different role in the removal

of pollutants. After treatment, the effluent may be returned to surface water or

reused as irrigation water (or reclaimed water) if the effluent meets the required

effluent standards (e.g. sufficiently low levels of pathogens) (Mansi et al., 2020)

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Fig 2.5: Waste stabilization ponds (Mansi et al., 2020)

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3.0 Role and dynamic of microorganisms

The microorganisms which inhabit the aerobic biological treatment systems

include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, rotifers, and other higher animals. The

growth of any or all types of microorganisms in a given industrial waste disposal

system will depend upon the chemical characteristics of the industrial waste, the

environmental limitations of the particular waste system and the biochemical

characteristics of the microorganisms (Ogwueleka, 2019). All of the

microorganisms which grow in a given industrial waste disposal system contribute

to its over-all characteristics, both good and bad. It is important to recognize the

contributions made by each type of organism to the over-all stabilization of the

organic wastes if the waste treatment system is to be properly designed and

operated for maximum efficiency (Satyanarayana et al., 2022).

3.1 Bacteria

The bacteria are the basic biological units in aerobic waste treatment systems. The

diverse biochemical nature of bacteria makes it possible for them to metabolize

most, if not all, organic compounds found in industrial wastes. Obligate aerobes.

and facultative bacteria are found in all aerobic waste treatment systems. Growth

of any particular species is dependent upon its competitive ability to obtain a share

of the available organic material in the system. Bacterial predomination will

normally divide itself into two major groups: the bacteria utilizing the organic
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compounds in the waste, and the bacteria utilizing the lysed products of the first

group of bacteria (McKinney, 2018). The bacteria utilizing the organic compounds

in the waste are the most important group and will determine the characteristics of

the treatment system. The species with the fastest growing rate and the ability to

utilize the majority of the organic matter will predominate, 2023) (Sridhar. The

extent of secondary predomination will depend upon the length of starvation.

Depletion of the organic substrate is followed-by death and lysis of the

predominate bacteria. Release of the cellular components of the bacteria permits

other bacteria to grow up. Since all biological treatment systems are normally

overdesigned as a safety factor, secondary predomination will occur. Aside from

the metabolic characteristics of the bacteria, the most important characteristic is

their ability to flocculate. All of the aerobic biological waste treatment systems

depend upon the flocculation of the microorganisms and their separation from the

liquid phase for complete stabilization (Ezeonu et al., 2022).

It was first thought that flocculation was caused by a single bacterial

species, Zoogloea ramigeria, but recent studies have shown that there are many

different bacteria which have the ability to flocculate (McKinney, 2018). It has

been postulated that all bacteria have the ability to flocculate under certain

environmental conditions. The prime factors affecting flocculation are the surface

charges of the bacteria and their energy level. The electrical surface charge on
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bacteria grown in dilute organic waste systems has been shown to be below the

critical charge for auto-agglutination, 0.020 volts. This means that Brownian

movement provides sufficient energy to overcome the repelling electrical forces

when two bacteria approach each other and to permit the Van der Waal forces of

attraction to predominate and hold the two bacteria together. Autoagglutination

does not take place if the energy level of the system is sufficiently high to permit

the bacteria to multiply and to be rapidly motile. Autoagglutination, or

flocculation, occurs only after the bacteria lack the energy of motility to overcome

the Van der Waal forces. Once floc has started to form, some of the bacteria die

and lyse. An insoluble fraction of the bacterial cell is left which is primarily

polysaccharide. The older the floc becomes, the more polysaccharide builds up and

the less active bacteria are entrained in it (Ezeonu et al., 2022).

3.2 Fungi

Fungi play an important role in the stabilization of organic wastes. Like the

bacteria, the fungi can metabolize almost every type of organic compound found in

industrial wastes. The fungi have the potential ability to predominate over the

bacteria but they do not except under unusual environmental conditions. The

filamentous nature of most of the fungi found in industrial wastes makes them

undesirable since they do not form a tight compact floc and settle easily. For this

latter reason, considerable efforts are expended to make the environmental

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conditions more favorable for bacteria predomination than for filamentous fungi

predomination. The filamentous fungi predominate over the bacteria at low oxygen

tensions, at low pH, and at low nitrogen. Low oxygen tension results from a low

oxygen supply or from a high organic load causing the demand to exceed the

supply. Under reduced oxygen levels, metabolism does not proceed to carbon

dioxide and water but stops with the formation of organic alcohols, aldehydes, and

acids. If the system lacks sufficient buffer, the organic acids depress the pH to the

more favorable range for fungi. Thus, it can be seen that low oxygen tension and

pH can be interrelated. Many of the fungi grow well at pH 4 to 5 while few

bacteria are able to grow well enough to compete. Fungi require less nitrogen than

bacteria per unit mass of protoplasm (McKinney, 2018). In nitrogen deficient

wastes, the fungi are able to synthesize more active masses of protoplasm from the

wastes than are the bacteria and predominate. Bacteria average approximately 10

to 12% nitrogen while fungi range from 5 to 6% nitrogen. Under normal

environmental conditions fungi will be present and will aid in the stabilization of

the organic matter. But the fungi are of secondary importance and will not

predominate (Barea et al., 2019).

3.3 Algae

The algae are the third form of biological plants which play a part in the over-all

stabilization of organic wastes. Since the algae obtain their energy for synthesis
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from sunlight, they do not have to metabolize the organic compounds like the

bacteria and the fungi. To form protoplasm the algae primarily utilize the inorganic

components of the wastes, for example, ammonia, carbon dioxide, phosphate,

magnesium, potassium, iron, calcium, sulfate, sodium and other ions. It is possible

to have algae and the bacteria predominate together since they do not utilize the

same waste components. The bacteria metabolize the organic components of the

waste and release some of the inorganic components utilized by the algae. During

protoplasm synthesis the algae release oxygen which is taken by the bacteria to

bring about complete aerobic stabilization of the organic matter. In the absence of

sunlight the algae must obtain the energy required to stay alive from the

metabolism of organic matter in the same manner as bacteria and fungi. This

organic matter normally comes from stored food within the cell but in some algal

species it can come from the organic material in the wastes (Barea et al., 2019).

3.4 Viruses

These are particles assembled from the biopolymers, which are capable of

multiplying and assembling as new virus particles inside living prokaryotic or

eukaryotic cells.33 In the environment, viruses are important for the following

reasons: pathogenic viruses must be removed, retained or destroyed during water

and wastewater treatment; viruses of bacteria (bacteriophages) can infect and

degrade the bacterial cultures in the environment; and bacteriophages can be used
21
for the detection of specific microbial pollution of waste in the environment

(Babayemi et al., 2019).

3.5 Protozoa

The protozoa are the simplest animals found in waste disposal systems. The role

that the protozoa play in stabilizing organic wastes has only recently been clarified

by combining a study of pure culture protozoa with the natural observations in

various biological treatment systems. This study showed that rather than being the

primary mechanism of purification, the protozoa were responsible for reducing the

number of free-swimming bacteria, thus aiding in producing a clarified effluent.

The succession of protozoa had long been observed in biological waste disposal

systems but there was no explanation of the reasons for this succession. The

succession of protozoa is affected by the same factors which affect the

predomination of any biological species (Babayemi et al., 2019). The type of food

and the competition for food are the major factors which determine the

predomination of the protozoa. The Sarcodina are only briefly found in aerobic

waste treatment systems since they do not find sufficient food to compete with the

bacteria and other biological forms. The Phyto-Mastigophora survive a little longer

than the Sarcodina as they take in soluble organics for their food but they are

unable to compete against the bacteria and are soon displaced. The Zoo-

Mastigophora predominates over the Phyto-Mastigophora in that they are able to

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utilize the bacteria for food rather than compete with the bacteria for food. But

the Zoo-Mastigophora give way to the free-swimming Ciliata which have a better

mechanism for obtaining the bacteria and other food components. As the system

becomes more stable, there are less and less free-swimming Ciliata. The low-

energy-requiring stalked Ciliata displace the high-energy-requiring free-

swimming Ciliata. But soon the system becomes so stable that the

stalked Ciliata cannot obtain enough energy and die out of the system (Ogwueleka,

2019).

The succession of protozoa offers a good index of stability of the biological waste

treatment system. Efforts have been made to relate the numbers of protozoa to the

degree of stabilization but they have not been successful since the same numerical

population exists at two separate and distinct levels of purification. Low numbers

of free-swimming Ciliata occur at both a low degree of purification, 20 to 40%,

and at high purification, 75 to 95%. The relative types of protozoa and relative

numbers can be used for any particular system to estimate the rough efficiency,

±10%, of any biological treatment system (McKinney, 2018). The protozoa have

more complex metabolic systems than do bacteria or fungi which make the

protozoa more sensitive to toxic organic compounds. In systems containing toxic

organic compounds, regular observations of the protozoa can be used as an

indicator of the toxic concentration and to warn of potential toxicity to the bacteria
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which are responsible for stabilization of the wastes. The protozoa can also be used

to indicate deficiencies of certain essential elements such as nitrogen or

phosphorus. Nutrient deficiencies will reduce both number of species and number

of any particular species (Satyanarayana et al., 2022).

3.6.1 Sewage treatment

Sewage treatment (or domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater

treatment) is a type of wastewater treatment which aims to remove contaminants

from sewage to produce an effluent that is suitable to discharge to the surrounding

environment or an intended reuse application, thereby preventing water pollution

from raw sewage discharges. Sewage contains wastewater from households and

businesses and possibly pre-treated industrial wastewater. There are a high number

of sewage treatment processes to choose from. These can range from decentralized

systems (including on-site treatment systems) to large centralized systems

involving a network of pipes and pump stations (called sewerage) which convey

the sewage to a treatment plant. For cities that have a combined sewer, the sewers

will also carry urban runoff (stormwater) to the sewage treatment plant. Sewage

treatment often involves two main stages, called primary and secondary treatment,

while advanced treatment also incorporates a tertiary treatment stage with

polishing processes and nutrient removal. Secondary treatment can reduce organic

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matter (measured as biological oxygen demand) from sewage, using aerobic or

anaerobic biological processes.

A large number of sewage treatment technologies have been developed, mostly

using biological treatment processes. Design engineers and decision makers need

to take into account technical and economical criteria of each alternative when

choosing a suitable technology. Often, the main criteria for selection are: desired

effluent quality, expected construction and operating costs, availability of land,

energy requirements and sustainability aspects. In developing countries and in rural

areas with low population densities, sewage is often treated by various on-site

sanitation systems and not conveyed in sewers. These systems include septic tanks

connected to drain fields, on-site sewage systems (OSS), vermifilter systems and

many more. On the other hand, advanced and relatively expensive sewage

treatment plants in cities that can afford them may include tertiary treatment with

disinfection and possibly even a fourth treatment stage to remove micropollutants.

At the global level, an estimated 52% of sewage is treated. However, sewage

treatment rates are highly unequal for different countries around the world. For

example, while high-income countries treat approximately 74% of their sewage,

developing countries treat an average of just 4.2%.

The treatment of sewage is part of the field of sanitation. Sanitation also includes

the management of human waste and solid waste as well as stormwater (drainage)
25
management. The term sewage treatment plant is often used interchangeably with

the term wastewater treatment plant.

3.6.2 Soil treatment

Soil treatment is a process to purify and revitalise soil by removing contaminants.

Soil contamination is often caused by various chemicals (petroleum hydrocarbons,

pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals), wastes such as alkali, oil, or some other

non-degradable material. The main concern behind soil treatment is the harm to

human health associated with direct contact with contaminated soil, vapours

released by contaminants, and secondary contamination of water supplies.

Contaminated soil can be treated using microbes, pH adjusters, organic

amendments, and soil treatment technologies (biological, physiochemical, and

thermal treatment).

The process of soil treatment is performed to make contaminated soil reusable for

agriculture and other purposes. Soil contamination is often caused by various

chemicals (petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals),

wastes such as alkali, oil, or some other non-degradable material.

These contaminants can be treated using microbes, pH adjusters, organic

amendments, etc. Soil contamination can also happen as a result of leaking in

underground storage tanks, leaching of waste or heavy metals from landfills,

mining, and an abundance of other environmental issues that can also cause
26
pollution of the soil. In polluted soil, moisture retention, aeration, and nutrients are

compromised.

The Indian government has taken initiatives to conserve soil, like improving food

cultivation techniques to satisfy the needs of a growing population. In many

countries, the importance of soil treatment is not well-understood, thereby limiting

their market. The introduction of new and sustainable technologies will lead to the

growth of the market and boost trade in these countries.

3.6.3 Electricity generation

Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of

primary energy. For utilities in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its

delivery (transmission, distribution, etc.) to end users or its storage (using, for

example, the pumped-storage method).

Usable electricity is not freely available in nature, so it must be "produced" (that is,

transforming other forms of energy to electricity). Production is carried out in

power stations (also called "power plants"). Electricity is most often generated at a

power plant by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines

fueled by combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic

energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar

photovoltaics and geothermal power. There are also exotic and speculative

methods to recover energy, such as proposed fusion reactor designs which aim to
27
directly extract energy from intense magnetic fields generated by fast-moving

charged particles generated by the fusion reaction (see magnetohydrodynamics).

Phasing out coal-fired power stations and eventually gas-fired power stations, or, if

practical, capturing their greenhouse gas emissions, is an important part of the

energy transformation required to limit climate change. Vastly more solar power

and wind power is forecast to be required, with electricity demand increasing

strongly with further electrification of transport, homes and industry. However, in

2023, it was reported that the global electricity supply was approaching peak CO2

emissions thanks to the growth of solar and wind power.

3.6.4 Oil spillage and radioactive contamination

Throughout the oil and gas development process, radioactive material can enter

the environment both accidentally and intentionally. During production,

equipment such as compressors, pumps, and pipes may be exposed to radioactive

material. The waste management process also presents many opportunities for

radiation to be accidentally released, such as in spillage or leakage of waste in

transit or from the pits, tanks, or landfills where it is stored. Additionally,

wastewater and equipment may be brought to facilities to be processed for reuse,

sometimes in other drilling or fracking operations. There are also reuse methods

that intentionally reintroduce radioactive material into the environment, such as

28
road spreading, in which wastewater is sprayed onto roads for dust suppression or

deicing. Another form of intentional reintroduction is the use of so-called land

farming, a waste-management approach in which industrial waste, such as oil and

gas drill cuttings, is mixed with microbes that help break down contaminants and

then mixed with soil. If these wastes are not properly managed, they can

potentially present unacceptably high human health risks.

Radium-226 and Radium-228 can cause health effects that depend on levels of

exposure. Most epidemiological data come from studies of radium watch dial

painters, radium chemists, and technicians exposed through medical procedures

in the early 1900s. These studies, as well as studies on experimental animals,

indicate that chronic exposure to radium can induce cancer.

Unnecessary exposure to Radium-226 and Radium-228, both present in many

forms of oil and gas waste, will increase the risk of cancer. Radium also decays

into radon isotopes and, when inhaled, deposit radiation in lungs, causing lung

cancer. In fact, radon is the second-leading cause of lung cancer in the U. S.

Radon decay products, including lead-210 and polonium-210, are also present in

high levels in gas handling equipment and can further contribute to cancer risk.

Improper disposal of oil and gas waste can spread unnecessary exposure to

radiation far beyond oil and gas site workers and into surrounding communities.

29
Without proper regulation of this waste, unsafe management and disposal

practices will persist, workers will continue to be unnecessarily exposed to

radiation, and communities living nearby will continue to face health risks from

unregulated radioactive materia

30
4.0 Advantages and disadvantages

4.0.1 Advantages

i. Microorganisms are small, increase quickly, and are simple to grow.

ii. Research on enzyme engineering, genetic engineering, fermentation

engineering, etc., can easily be done by cloning related genes.

iii. To boost the yield, it is simple to mutate and breed.

iv. It is inexpensive and simple to make, separate, and purify.

v. They may also be utilized in creating antibiotics, biofertilizers,

environmental cleaners, etc.

vi. They aid even the nitrogen cycle and nitrogen fixation.

vii. Numerous industrial processes use microbes to create ethanol, food, and

other enzymes. Some bacteria can also degrade plastics and treat wastewater

and waste gas, among other things.

viii. As organic microbial insecticides, the metabolites of microorganisms can be

extensively exploited in agricultural productivity.

ix. Using microorganisms in genetic breeding is crucial because of their quick

growth cycle and rapid reproduction.

x. In vaccines, dead or weakening germs are employed; these are identified by

the immune system, which recognizes them as diseases and eliminates them,

preventing infection forever.

31
 xi. By preventing the growth of spoilage bacteria, reducing the production of

biogas, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide, improving sewage quality, and

lowering sewage treatment costs, sewage treatment bacteria can hinder the

reproduction of pathogenic microorganisms and prevent the spread of

disease.

xii. Since they break down organic materials, most fungi are helpful to nature

because they create an environment suitable for the growth of other species

like plants.

xiii. Although some viruses are used in research to alter the genetic makeup of

bacteria or human cells, viruses are not a natural component of the human

body. They can increase their risk of developing cancer or lead to chronic

illness when they infect people.

Disadvantages

i. Infectious disease outbreaks are one of the most significant effects of

microorganisms on humans.

ii. Animals, plants, and humans can all get sick from microorganisms.

iii. Microbes can be utilized in bioterrorism and BioWare.

iv. Even worse, they taint food.

v. Plant diseases and numerous other skin conditions, like TB and ringworm,

are known to be brought on by microorganisms like fungi and bacteria.

32
 vi. Microorganisms can contaminate and ruin fermentation products, soil

fertility, and infected pharmaceuticals.

vii. There are many different types of microorganisms, some of which are

putrefactive or responsible for unfavorable changes in food odor and tissue

structure.

viii. Microorganisms can lead to illness and moldy and rotten food, clothing,

leather, and other materials.

ix. "Infections and other noninfectious disorders are brought on by microbes

(e.g., gastric ulcers and some cancers)

x. Genes for antibiotic resistance may be passed on or provided as a reservoir

by harmless organisms.

xi. Even when there is no infection, microorganisms can still elicit pyrogenic

responses (fever) when introduced into the body.

xii. Non-sterile and sterile medications can become contaminated and spoiled by

microorganisms, increasing the risk of illness."

33
5.0 Conclusion

Microbes can continue to exist in the extreme environmental conditions so there

are lots of possibilities to identification and classification of microbe’s whish can

solve various types of problems of mankind. Large amount of microbial produced

products are not identified yet. That’s why there is a great need to identify useful

microbial strain from various sources like municipal waste. It is universally known

that soil and waste materials contain a large number of antibiotics, enzyme

producing microorganisms which could make the human life healthier and easier.

34
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