Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share

resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications
protocols, to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.

A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections in a network.
Nodes usually include devices such as switches, routers and software with switch and router features.
Network topologies are often represented as a graph.

Network topology is the arrangement of the elements of a communication network. Network topology
can be used to define or describe the arrangement of various types of telecommunication networks,
including command and control radio networks, industrial fieldbusses and computer networks.

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality
to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another
across the globe.

is a reference framework that explains the process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided
into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a more
systematic approach to networking.

LAN(Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building,
office.

LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet
cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of 10
meters.

Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as Personal
Area Network.

Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.

Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.

Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.

In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.

The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.

It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

WAN(Wide Area Network)

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.

A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

The TCP/IP model refers to the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol Model. This model is a
part of the network domain designed specifically for overseeing efficient and error-free transmission of
data

How do you explain TCP?

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a communications standard that enables application programs
and computing devices to exchange messages over a network. It is designed to send packets across the
internet and ensure the successful delivery of data and messages over networks

difference between osi nad tcp model

Repeater is a type of network node that amplifies incoming signals and rebroadcasts them over a wider
area or higher network layer than the original signal. In computer networks, a repeater is used to
increase the network's reach, restore a damaged or weak signal, or provide access to inaccessible
nodes.

The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect multiple LANs to a
larger LAN. In computer networks, we have multiple networking devices such as bridges, hubs, routers,
switches, etc, each device has its own specification and is used for a particular purpose. The bridge is a
networking device that connects the larger LAN networks with the group of smaller LAN networks.

n networking, a hub is a device that links multiple computers and devices together. Hubs can also be
referred to as repeaters or concentrators, and they serve as the center of a local area network (LAN). In a
hub, each connected device is on the same subnet and receives all data sent to the hub

+What do you mean by gateway?

What is a Gateway? Definition from WhatIs.com

A gateway is a network node used in telecommunications that connects two networks with different
transmission protocols together. Gateways serve as an entry and exit point for a network as all data must
pass through or communicate with the gateway prior to being routed.

A router is a device that connects two or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks. It serves two
primary functions: managing traffic between these networks by forwarding data packets to their
intended IP addresses, and allowing multiple devices to use the same Internet connection.
There are several types of routers, but most routers pass data between LANs (local area networks) and
WANs (wide area networks). A LAN is a group of connected devices restricted to a specific geographic
area. A LAN usually requires a single router.

In computer networking, the User Datagram Protocol is one of the core communication protocols of the
Internet protocol suite used to send messages to other hosts on an Internet Protocol network. Within an
IP network, UDP does not require prior communication to set up communication channels or data paths.

What is UDP and why is it used?

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a communications protocol for time-sensitive applications like gaming,
playing videos, or Domain Name System (DNS) lookups. UDP results in speedier communication because
it does not spend time forming a firm connection with the destination before transferring the data.

Quality of service is the description or measurement of the overall performance of a service, such as a
telephony or computer network, or a cloud computing service, particularly the performance seen by the
users of the network

In computer networking, the Link Control Protocol (LCP) forms part of the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP),
within the family of Internet protocols. In setting up PPP communications, both the sending and
receiving devices send out LCP packets to determine the standards of the ensuing data transmission

The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is responsible for
opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing
them when communication ends

What is session layer in computer networks notes?

What is the session layer OSI communications model ...

The session layer is Layer 5 of the OSI communications model. It is the long-lived logical connection that
persists between endpoints over time. A single session is all the back-and-forth communication between
two endpoints. It helps a protocol to be more consistent and reliable.

The application layer is the one that users interact with and use. This layer allows users to send data,
access data and use networks. Other related layers also facilitate communication, like the application
layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides
protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users.
The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With the Internet,
it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much
more. You can do all of this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also called going online

Error detection is a method that can look at some data and detect if it has been corrupted while it was
stored or transmitted.

Error correction is a step better than error detection; when it detects an error it tries to put the data
back to how it should have been.

Error detection is the detection of errors caused by noise or other impairments during transmission from
the transmitter to the receiver. Error correction is the detection of errors and reconstruction of the
original, error-free data

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium.
The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing
is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to
generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving
end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can
say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

Transmission mode, also known as a communication mode, is the transfer of data between two devices
via a communication channel that includes an optical fiber, wireless channels, copper wires, and other
storage media . Data is transmitted between two devices in the form of electromagnetic waves.

The term “Data Communication” comprises two words: Data and Communication. Data can be any text,
image, audio, video, and multimedia files. Communication is an act of sending or receiving data. Thus,
data communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more networked or connected
devicesData Communication System Components :

There are mainly five components of a data communication system:

1. Message

2. Sender

3. Receiver

4. Transmission Medium

5. Set of rules (Protocol)