Center for Southeast Asia Studies

UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Part I
Author:
Jaisser, Annie, University of California, Berkeley
Ratliff, Martha, University of California, Berkeley
Riddle, Elizabeth, University of California, Berkeley
Strecker, David, University of California, Berkeley
Vang, Lopao, University of California, Berkeley
Vang, Lyfu, University of California, Berkeley
Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley
Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9xp9r34j
Additional Info:
This book is no longer available in print format. Part 1 covers the table of contents, preface and
introduction to the Hmong. sound system
Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language
Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors from materials they
developed in the 1980s when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for
the Southeast Asian Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center
for Southeast Asia Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version
is intended to make the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with
limited access to print materials about the language.
Supporting material:
1. Hmong For Beginners Part 2[download]
Supporting Material
Hmong For Beginners Part 2
3. Hmong For Beginners Part 3[download]
Supporting Material
Hmong For Beginners Part 3

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
5. Hmong For Beginners Part 4[download]
Supporting Material
Hmong For Beginners Part 4

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
HMONG FOR BEGINNERS

-- Annie Jaisser
J7)J .
in collaboration with

. Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth Riddle,

David Strecker, Lopao Vang, and Lyfu Vang

Illustrations by Tria Xiong, David Strecker, and Halinka Luangpraseut

CENTERS FOR SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Pnblication Data

Jaisser, Annie, 1955-

Hmong for beginners I Annie Jaisser in collabomtion with Martha
Ratliff ... ret al.] ; illustrations by Tria Xiong, David Strecker,
and Halinka Luangpraseut.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical refereuces.
ISBN 0-944613-24-1
1. Hmong language-Textbooks for foreign speakers-English.
I. Ratliff, Martha Susan, 1946- . II. Title.
PlA072.2.J35 1995
495--dc20 95-22304
CIP

© 1995 by Annie Jaisser

Cover photograph by Eric Crystal: Dressing/or New Year, Merced, California, 1983.
Cover design by Mag Khoo.
 Annie Jaisser is a linguist and language instructor whose research interests include Hmong
descriptive linguistics, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, and French phonetics. She is
currently completing her doctorate in linguistics at the University of California at Berkeley.

Martha Ratliff is Associate Professor in the English Department and Director of the Linguistics
Program at Wayne State University. Her research interests are in the fields of Hmong-Mien
descriptive and comparative linguistics, language change, and the phonology of tone.

Elizabeth Riddle is Associate Professor at Ball State University where she teaches linguistics
and applied linguistics. Her research interests lie in the areas of functional syntax, pragmatics,
and semantics. She is the editor of the Journal ofSoutheast Asian Language Teaching.

David Strecker is a linguist and an anthropologist specializing in the description of Southeast

Asian languages and the genetic relationships among them. The Hmong-Mien and Tai-Kadai
families are among his areas of scholarly expertise.

Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang hail from Sam Neua Province, Laos, and are native speakers of
White Hmong. Lopao is a counselor for the Madison Metropolitan School District in Wisconsin.
He has taught Hmong at the Southeast Asian Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI) for five years.
In addition, he has taught Hmong language and culture at Hamline University in St. Paul,
Minnesota, and at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire as well as co-taught a course on
Hmong history and culture at the University of Wisconsin. His brother Lyfu is a teacher for the
Minneapolis Public School District in Minnesota. He taught Hmong at SEASSI for two years.

,
i
He has also taught Hmong language and culture at the University of Minnesota and for the
Minneapolis Public School District.
I

This book is dedicated to

the Hmong people

and

their sophisticated language

 vii

CONTENTS

Preface xv
About Hmong for Beginners xv
About the Hmong Language XVI

Acknowledgments xix
Abbreviations and Conventions xxi

INTRODUCTION: THE SOUND SYSTEM OF HMONG 1

Syllable Structure 1
Tones 1
Vowels 2
Consonanffi 2
Representing Hmong Sounds: The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA) Writing System 4
Pronunciation Guide to the Hmong RPA Writing System 4
1. Tones 4
II. Vowels and Consonanffi 6
A. Vowels 7
B. Consonanffi 8

COMPErENCY-BASED UNITS

FAMILYIKINSHIP 15
Npis tsev neeg 'Bee's family' 15
Nws muaj pes tsawg tus me nyuam? 'How many children does s/he have?' 16
Npe Hmoob 'Hmong given names' 17
I. Common Given Names for Girls 17
II. Common Given Names for Boys 18
III. Common Given Names for Either Girls or Boys 18
Xeem npe Hmoob 'Hmong clan mimes' 19
Cag ceg Hmoob 'Hmong lineage groups' 20
1. Kwv tij 'Patrilineal relatives and clan mates' 20
II. Neej tsa '(Loosely) relatives-in-law' 20

FOODS 21
Khoom noj 'Basic foods and meaffi' 21
Taum 'Beans, peas, legumes' 22
Zaub 'Vegetables (leafy green and other non-legumes), 22
Txiv hmab txiv ntoo 'Fruit' 24
viii I

THE HUMAN BODY 25 I

Tus txiv neej lub cev 'Male body parts' 25
Tus poj niam lub cev 'Female body parts' 26 I
The Metaphorical and Metonymic Roles of Body Parts 27
1. The Metaphorical Role of plawv 'Heart' 27
II. The Metaphorical Role of siab 'Liver' 27 I
III. The Metonymic Role of siab 28
IV. Conclusion 28 I
CLOTHING 29
29
I
Khaub ncaws Hmoob 'Traditional Hmong clothing'
Dialogue: Ua paj ntaub 'Doing traditional embroidery' 31
Khaub ncaws 'General clothing' 32 I
Dialogue: Maiv thiab Nplias mus muas khaub ncaws 'My and Blia go shopping' 34
I
ANIMALS 'TSIAJ' 35

WEATHER 'HUAB CUA' 39 I

Terminology 39
Hnub no, huab cua zoo Ii cas? 'How is the weather today?' 40 I
TIME 41
I
Lub hnub ua dab tsi? 'What is the sun doing?' 41
Thaum tav twg? 'What time of day is it?' 41
The Gregorian Calendar 43 I

ACTIVITIES 44 I
Nwsllawv ua dab tsi? 'What is [s]he/are they doing?' 44

I
ORAL COMPREHENSION UNITS
I
LISTENING COMPREHENSION 49
Cov naj npawb 'Numbers' 49 I
Tone Perception Exercise 50
Initial Consonant Perception Ex�rcise 50
Word Perception Exercise 51 I

STORIES FOR ORAL COMPREHENSION PRACTICE 52 I

Npis npaj mov noj 'Bee prepares a meal' 52
Tsov tsis naj tsheb 'Tigers don't eat cars' 53
Maiv Qhua 'Khoua' 54
I
Npis mus tom lub vaj tsiaj 'Bee goes to the zoo' 55
 ix

Npis thiab nws coy phooj ywg'Bee and his friends' 56

Saib daimduab: Npis thiabnws coyphooj ywg'Look at the picture: Bee and
his friends' 59
Kuy lub tsheb'My car' 60
Tusme nyuam dey tomNpisko taw'The puppy bites Bee's foot' 61
Tus tsOY losxyuas'Tiger shows up for a visit' 62
Txiv NraugNtsuag thiab coy uaskawm haisIusHmoob 'The orphan and the Hmong
students' 63

READING UNITS

Ib tsab ntawY'A letter' 67

Wb mus pem Chicago'Going up to Chicago' 68
Ntxhuakhaub ncaws'Washing clothes' 69
Muaskhaub ncaws'Buying clothes' 70
Kuy tseY neeg'My family' 71
Uancuav 'Making rice cakes' 73
Uapajntaub'Doing needlework' 74
Dab neegnab qatsiav 'The school lizard' 75
Tus Tsov thiab tusQay 'The Tiger and the Frog' 77
Medical History Form 79

GRAMMAR UNITS

NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 89

Structure of the Noun Phrase 89
I. Noun Phrase = Noun 89
II. Noun Phrase = Classifier + Noun 89
III. Noun Phrase = Quantifier + Classifier + Noun 90
IV. Noun Phrase = Possessive + Classifier + Noun 90
V. Noun Phrase = Classifier + Noun + Demonstrative 90
VI. Noun Phrase = Classifier + Noun + Adjective 90
VII. Noun Phrase = Pronoun 91
VIII. Noun Phrase = Classifer Used Pronominally 91
Noun Classifiers 92
I. Introduction 92
II. Daim or lub? 94
III. Hmong Classifier Exercise , 96
IV. Some Common Classifiers 99
A. A Note on the Classifiers tus and lub 99
B . Exercises 99
x 1

V. Discourse Functions of Classifiers 101 1

A. Functions of Classifiers in Word Formation 104
B. Classifiers as Pronouns 104 1
VI. A Technique for Teaching/Learning Noun Classifiers in Hmong 106
A. Teaching Goal 106
106
I
B. Object of the Game
C. Preparation 106
D. Play 107 I
E. Note 107
The General Plural Marker GOV 108
I
Quantifiers III
I. Numeral Quantifiers 111
A. Basic Numerals 111 I
B. Special Functions of the Numeral ib'One' 112
II. Non-Numeral Quantifiers 1 13 I
A. N/au 'Much, many, a lot of'; GOab 'Many, a lot of' 1 13
B. Tsawg 'Little, few' 114
C. Sawv daws 'All, every' 115
D. Txhiairxhua'All, every' 1 15
E. Niaj/nej'Each, every' 1 16
F. Tej 'A few, some, certain (people, things)' 1 16
Pronouns 118
I. Subject, Object, and Possessive Pronouns 1 18
II. Reflexive.Pronouns 1 19
III. Other Pronouns 1 19
A. The Indefinite Pronoun yus 119
B. The Pronouns lawv tej, luag, luag tej 'Others, other people, they/them' 120
IV. Pronoun Usage 120
Demonstratives 122
I. Demonstratives in Noun Phrases 122
II. The Pronominal Usage of Demonstratives 122
Functions of the Marginal -D Tone 124
I. The -D Tone in Demonstrative Nouns 124
II. Other Functions and Meanings of the -D Tone 126
A. The Definite Reference Function 126
B. The Vocative Function 126
C. The Socioli!1guistic and Stylistic Function 126
III. Conclusion 127
Tone Change 128
I. Examples of the Five Possible Tone Changes 128
II. Tone Change Environments 129
A. Constructions Involving Numerals 130
B. Constructions with sib'Each other' + Verb with a j, v, s, �, or m Tone 131
 xi

C. Certain Compounds 131

D. Tips to Familiarize Yourself with Tone Change Constructions 131
Compounds 132
I. (Non-) Transparent Compounds 132
II. Synonym Compounds 132
III. "Two-Halves" Compounds 133
IV. Shape Prefix Compounds 133
Possessive Noun Phrases, 135

VERB PHRASE STRUCTURE 136

Different Correspondences to English "To Be" 136
I. Yog 136
II. Nyob 136
III. Muaj 137
Questions and Answers 138
I. "Yes-No" Questions and Answers 138
II. "Or" Questions and Answers 139
III. Reporter's'''Wh'' Questions and Answers 139
Negation 142
I. The Certain Falsity Negative Marker tsis 142
II. The Uncertain Falsity Negative Marker (tsis) txhob 143
Verb Serialization 144
I. Motion + Direction Serial Verb Constructions 146
II. Causative Serial Verb Constructions 147
III. Disposal Serial Verb Constructions 148
IV. Instrumental Serial Verb Constructions 149
V. Purpose Serial Verb Constructions ISO
VI. Verb (Object) + Accomplishment Verb Serial Constructions ISO
VII. Elaboration Serial Verb Constructions 151
VIII. Tips to Familiarize Yourself with Serial Verb Constructions 152
Tense and Aspect Markers 153
I. Tense 153
II. Aspect 153
III. Tab tom + Verb = Situation in Progress 155
IV. Sentence/Clause + lawm = Completed Situation 156
V. Tau 158
A. Tauas a Main Verb = 'To Get, to Obtain' 158
i. TauUsed by Itself = 'To Get, to Obtain' 158
ii. Verb + tau'To get, to obtain' = Actual Accomplishment of Action 159
B. Tauas anAuxiliary Verb 160
i. Tau+ Verb = 'To Get to, to Manage to V' = Tauas an Attainment
Marker 160
ii. Verb + tau = 'Can, Be Able to V' = Tauas Potential Mode Marker 161
Xli

C. Tau + Time Phrase Constructions Duration, Past Time Reference

= 162
D. Tau in Other Constructions 162
i. Tseem tsis tau V or tseem V (Object) tsis tau Not... Yet·
= 162
ii. X ... puas tau? Polite Request
= 163
iii. X + los tau Consent, Agreement
= 163
iv. X + tas/awm los tsis tau? 'X + Finished or Not?'
= 164
VI. Yuav 164
A. Yuav + Verb IrreaJis Situation
= 164
B. Other Meanings of yuav 166
Modality Markers 167
I. The Modal Verbs "Must" and "Can" 167
A. "Must":
Yuav tsum, yuav tau 167
B. "Can": Txawj, taus, tau 167
II. Txawj vs. taus vs. tau 168
A. Txawj 168
B. Taus 169
C. Tau 170
D. Txawj, taus, and tau: Three Different Aspects of English "Can" 171
The Reciprocal Marker sib/sis 'Each other' 173
Spatial Deictics (Location Words) 174
I. Common Spatial Deictics 174
A. Traditional Meanings 174
i. Intensification of the Meaning of Deictics 176
B. Grammatical Functions 176
II. Metaphorical Uses of nram, pem, and tim in the United States 178
A. Nram 178
B. Pem 179
C. Tim 179
III. Use of Spatial Deictics in the Time Dimension 180
IV. Conclusion 181
Comparative and Superlative Constructions 182
I. Comparative Constructions 182
II. Superlative Constructions 183

SENTENCEIDISCOURSE STRUCTURE; HALLMARKS OF HMONG STYLE 185

The Topic Markers mas and ne 185
Expressives 186
Four-Word Phrases (Coordinative Constructions) 188
Concessive Constructions 190
Subordination and Parataxis 191
I. Subordination 191
A. The Complementizer (hais)tias 'That' 191
B. The Complementizer kom 'So that, in order to' 192
 xiii

C. The Relative Marker uas 'That, which, who(m), whose' 192

D. Conclusion 192
II. Parataxis 193
Conversation Particles 195
I. The Particle nawb 195
II. The Particle pob 196
III. Other Particles 196
"Rexible" Grammar: The Case Against Strict Part of Speech Categorization 197

APPENDICES

1. ANSWER KEYS TO EXERCISES 201

Listening Comprehension 201
COy naj npawb 201
Tone Perception Exercise 202
Initial Consonant Perception Exercise 202
Word Perception Exercise 202
Stories for Oral Comprehension Practice 203
Npis npaj nwv noj 203
Tsov tsis noj tsheb 203
MaivQhua 203
Npis mus tom lub vaj tsiaj 203
Npis thiab nws COy phooj ywg 204
Saib daim duab: Npis thiab nws coy phooj ywg 204
Kuv lub tsheb 204
Tus me nyuam dey tom Npis ko taw 204
Tus tsov los xyuas 205
Txiv Nraug Ntsuag thiab coy uas kawm hais Ius Hmoob 205
Noun Phrase Structure 206
Noun Classifiers 206
Daim or lub? Answer Key 206
Hmong Classifier Exercise Answer Sheet 206
Part A 206
PartB 208
Part C 209
Some Common Classifiers: Answer Key 210

2. TRANSLATIONS 211
Stories for Oral Comprehension Practice 211
Bee Prepares a Meal 211
Tigers Don't Eat Cars 211
Khoua 211
xiv

Bee Goes to the Zoo 211

Bee and His Friends 211
My Car 2 12
The Puppy Bites Bee's Foot 2 12
Tiger Shows up for a Visit 2 12
The Orphan and the Hmong Students 2 12
Reading Units 2 13
A Letter 2 13
Going up to Chicago 2 14
Washing Clothes 2 14
Buying Clothes 2 14
My Farnily 2 14
Doing Needlework 2 16
The School Lizard 2 16
The Tiger and the Frog 2 17
Grammar Units 2 18
Txawj, taus, and tau: Translation of Exarnple Sentences 2 18
Txawj 2 18
Taus 2 18
Tau 2 18

3. AUDIOTAPE TRANSCRIPT 2 19

4. SUMMARY OF MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WHITE AND GREEN HMONG 23 1

I. Differences in the Sound System 23 1
II. Differences in Vocabulary 232

Bibliography 233
Glossary 237
 xv

PREFACE

ABOUT HMONG FOR BEGINNERS

This book evolved from the 10-week intensive Hmong course offered at the Southeast
Asian Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI) during the summers of 1985-89. When Hmong was
first taught in 1985, there were no instructional materials available. During the five summers
Hmong was offered, the instructors-my collaborators and myself-had to create materials and
lessons on a daily basis to be able to teach. This was typically done overnight, by the skin of our
teeth and relying on illustrations from published sources. My goal in compiling Hmong jor
Beginners was to remedy this situation and to provide a textbook suitable for anyone interested
in acquiring basic Hmong language skills. Since this covers a broad range of people with very
diverse backgrounds and learning motivations, the instructional materials are presented in a
flexible format which allows for either group instruction in a classroom setting or individual
instruction with a tutor. The book begins with an introduction to the Hmong sound system and a
pronunciation guide to the Romanized Popular Alphabet writing system, which provides
pronunciation aids for consonants, vowels, and tones. Next, pedagogical materials are arranged
in sections that target the different skills involved in foreign language learning. These sections
are organized as follows:

Competency-Based Units: These units cover the basic vocabulary necessary to develop
survival skills in areas of everyday life (family/kinship, food, clothing, etc.) and include a few
practice dialogues.
Oral Comprehension Units: These units include original stories and exercises geared
toward developing listening skills and improving the understanding of spoken Hmong. They are
intended for use by a native speaker instructor/tutor.
Reading Units: These units include original stories which incorporate vocabulary
presented in the competency-based units and are geared toward developing reading skills.
Grammar Units: These units make up a mini-grammar of Hmong which explains the
most important and challenging aspects of Hmong grammar for students with varying
backgrounds in foreign language learning. The overall strategy I used was to move from the
familiar to the less familiar. Even though Hmong seems wildly exotic, it does share features
with English and other languages on a conceptual level, and an effort has been made to point
these out to facilitate'the learning process.

Lessons can be created by combining elements from the different sections listed above.
Using vocabulary and dialogues from the competency-based units as a starting point,
complementary materials covering the same topic can be added from other units, thus providing
practice in developing skills in all the necessary areas. These complementary materials are listed
in the bottom left-hand corner in each competency-based unit and are coded as follows:
OC=Oral Comprehension
R=Reading
CP=Conversation Practice
xvi

Appendices 1 and 2 provide answer keys to the exercises as well as translations of the
stories in the oral comprehension and reading sections. These are provided primarily for private
instruction with a tutor so students can verify their answers and double-check their
understanding. They should be consulted only as a last resort.
Appendix 3 is the transcript of an audiotape which provides listening practice in the
content areas found elsewhere in the book. The transcript should not be looked at while listening
to the tape, at least not at first. A good strategy would be to first listen to a section of the tape
several times, and then to transcribe it, using the transcript to verify comprehension and spelling.
Appendix 4 discusses the major differences between the White and Green Hmong
dialects (see below) so the book may be used by students interested in learning either or both.
The bibliography lists the resources used in the compilation of this book-incl uding
ordering information for several of them.
The glossary includes all the Hmong words contained in the textbook as well as other
common words beginners might find helpful in interacting with Hmong people or reading simple
texts.

ABOUT THE HMONG LANGUAGE

Hmong belongs to the Hmong-Mien (a.k.a. Miao-Yao) language family. This language
family is quite large and diverse, the Hmongic branch of it being as complex as the Germanic
branch of Indo-European and the Mienic branch being somewhat less complex. There is
controversy among linguists as to the wider genetic affiliation of the Hmong-Mien family: some
include it in the Sino-Tibetan language family while others place it within the Austro-Tai fll¥1ily.

The two major dialects of Hmong spoken in Thailand and Laos-and hence in the
Western countries where Hmong refugees have relocated-are:
1. Hmong Daw, typically referred to in English as White Hmong
2. Mong Leng, also referred to in English as Greeri or Blue * Hmong/Mong t
For simplicity's sake I will refer to the two dialects as White and Green Hmong in this book.
However, since there is variation within the Hmong community itself as to naming preferences,
care should be taken to ask the Hmong with whom one comes in contact what they wish to b e
called. Linguistically speaking, the differences between the two dialects are relatively minor and
the two varieties are mutually intelligible. This mutual intelligibility is enhanced by the fact that
White and Green Hmong s Peakers live either together or in close proximity and consider
themselves closely related enough to intermarry. A helpful analogy in characterizing the
differences between the two dialects is to think of them as being farther apart than American and
British English, but not as-far apart as Spanish and Portuguese. Since most linguists who started

*
Ntsuab in Hmong, which translates as either green or blue (i.e., the anthropologist's "grue', since it refers to the
greenish blue or bluish green portion of the color spectrum.
t The "hm" sound does not occur in Green Hmong; hence the frequently occurring "Mong" spelling for the name
of this dialect (see Appendix 4 for details). .
 XVll

to analyze Hmong in the United States happened to rely on White Hmong speakers as language
consultants for their research, White Hmong is the more investigated dialect, and hence the. one
used in this book. However, the major differences between the two varieties are discussed in the
"Pronunciation Guide to the RPA" and in Appendix 4; a literate Green Hmong instructor/tutor
will be able to make the necessary adjustments to use the book as a teaching tool, and a student
interested in learning basic Green Hmong will be able to do the same.

Hmong is presented in the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), the practical orthography
developed by missionaries in the early 1950s (see p. 4 for details). Words in Hmong are usually
monosyllabic (for example, qaib 'chicken,' tsev 'house,' etc.), but there are a number of high­
frequency words which are disyllabic compounds (for example, me nyuam 'child,' to taub 'to
understand,' hauj lwm 'work,' etc.). These compounds are spelled as two words by some
Hmong and as single words by others (i.e., the examples just given would be spelled menyuam,
totaub, and haujlwm). For lack of standardization and for consistency's sake, everything is
written in monosyllables in this book. This choice was further motivated by the fact that tone is
easier to deal with in monosyllables in the initial language learning stages. Finally, it is t he
preferred spelling convention of the main Hmong contributor, Lopao Yang.

For feedback on this book, write to:

Annie Jaisser
Linguistics Department
2337 Dwine1le Hall
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720-2650

e-mail: jaisser@garnet.berkeley.edu
 xix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For helping me get this project off the ground, I am deeply indebted to my remarkable
collaborators. We were all instructors involved in creating teaching materials for the Hmong
courses offered at the Southeast Asian Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI) during the summers of
1985-89. Hmong for Beginners includes samples of each person's creative efforts and expertise.
Lopao Yang made up the imaginative stories designed toward developing oral comprehension
ski1ls. Elizabeth Riddle, Lopao Yang, and Lyfu Yang contributed stories for reading practice as
indicated in the body of the book. I could not have compiled the mini-grammar of Hmong without
the contributions from my linguist colleagues, friends, and mentors: Martha Ratliff and Elizabeth
Riddle supplied several drafts which I used as starting points, and I relied on results of their
research to write about a number of topics; Nerida Jarkey lent her expert hand in revising my verb
serialization draft; Susan Herring provided helpful information and insights on the notions of tense
and aspect; Leanne Hinton gave me valuable feedback on my drafts based on her expertise in
developing instructional materials for Native Americans; Jim Matisoff inspired me to come to
Berkeley to pursue Hmong studies and continues to encourage me and to share his vast knowledge
of Southeast Asia as a linguistic area.

For providing original and culturally sensitive artwork, I am grateful to Halinka

Luangpraseut, David Strecker, and especially Tria Xiong. Their individual creative drawing styles
make this a uniquely i1lustrated book.

For compiling from scratch an English-Hmong glossary, I thank Elizabeth Riddle. This
glossary is a wonderful pedagogical tool and makes the book more complete.

For inspiration and ongoing support, I am forever indebted to my dear friends Ava-Dale
and Charles Johnson. Through their vision and dedication they have been among my muses.

For expert guidance in organizing my thoughts and for helping me bring this project to
fruition in more ways than I can express, I wish to thank Dorothy Duff Brown.

For providing support in various guises when I needed it most, I wish to express my deep
gratitude to the following relatives and friends: Natasha Beery, Jean and Lee Blinman, Julia
Elliott, Sandi Everlove, Mirjam Fried, Joelle Green, Louise and Zan Green, Susan Herring, Erik
Pearson, FriedaRickenbach, Susan Schaller, and Pascale Tooth.

For supporting some of my initial graduate study in Hmong linguistics I am grateful to the
Luce Foundation for· a Grant-in-Aid.

For her speedy and highly skilled editing work as well as help in the final production
stages, I am greatly indebted to BojanaRistich. I could not have asked for a better editor.

For his undying faith in me, I wish to thank my best friend and husband, Jeff Green; this
book would not have been completed without his support, love, and editing skills. I must also
extend boundless gratitude to our new daughter, Sarah Talia, who has been a good enough baby to
allow me to finish this project. Hmong for Beginners was supposed to be my first baby, but Sarah
decided otherwise by showing up a month ahead of schedule. Her smiles and twinkling eyes
carried me to the finish line.
A.J.
 xxi

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS

Below is a list of the abbreviations and conventions used in the book:

clf classifier
comp comparative marker
dir direction marker
e.o. each other
fut future marker
Imp imperative
int intensifier
irrls irrealis marker
loe locative marker
neg negation marker
neg uncert negation uncertain
perf perfective marker
pI. plural
prog progressive marker
prt particle
Q question marker
quant quantifier
recip reciprocal action marker
sg. singular
super! superlative marker
t.C. tone change
top topic marker
*X X is ungrammatical
'X' X is English translation of Hmong
<X from X
eX) X is optional
 1

INTRODUCTION: THE SOUND SYSTEM OF HMONG

The purpose of this section is for you to become familiar with the general sound structure
of Hmong (White and Green).

SYLLABLE STRUCTURE

Hmong is largely a monosyllabic language, meaning that most words appear in the shape
of a single syllable (but see section on compound nouns for two-syllable words, some of which
are used frequently in everyday speech). Each syllable is made up of an initial consonant or
consonant cluster, a vowel or a diphthong, and a simultaneous tone. There are no final
consonants, except for ng [g], as in English si[!g, which occurs only as part of the pronunciation of
the nasalized vowels of Hmong and hence is not considered a full-fledged final consonant (see
section on vowels below).

TONES

Hmong-like hundreds of languages in Asia (e.g., Lao, Thai, Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.),
Africa, and the Americas-is a tone language. This means that each syllable is pronounced with its
own distinctive tone.
There are different types of tones; the most common makes use of normal voice quality and
changes in pitch (e.g., low vs. high pitch, falling pitch, rising pitch). English-like other
European languages with which you may be familiar-is not a tone language, but it does make use
of pitch changes at the level of intonation (i.e., the melody/music of a phrase or sentence). For
instance, expressions such as Yes! Great! have a falling pitch and are interpreted as statements
expressing enthusiasm, whereas those such as Yes? Great? have a rising pitch and are interpreted
as questions. Pitch changes do not result in different words with different meanings; rather, they
indicate that a word is used as a statement, a question, and/or to express speaker attitude (e.g.,
enthusiasm, surprise, hesitation, etc.). By contrast, in Hmong. pitch changes do affect the
meaning of the word: dej with a falling pitch means 'water'; dey with a rising pitch means 'dog.'
To summarize, in Hmong, pitch changes are part of a phenomenon called tone and form an
intrinsic part of the syllable; in English, pitch changes are part of a phenomenon called intonation
and are superimposed on the syllable. Hence, even though pitch changes are used at a different
level of linguistic structure and for different purposes in the two languages, you do know how to
modulate your voice to produce different pitch patterns, and are thus already capable of producing
some of the Hmong tones without being aware of it. This should help you relax and give you
confidence-Hmong is less "exotic" than you think. Hmong has six such simple tones
characterized by normal voice quality and changes in pitch:
• High level

• High falling

• Mid rising

• Mid level

• Low level with slight fall

• Low rising, long

2

For the tones described above, the hearer relies on pitch alone to distinguish among them.
There are also more complex tones, whose salient characteristic is either a different type of voice
quality from the one we use for normal speech, or some additional sound feature. Hmong has two
such complex tones:
• Falling with breathy/whispery voice
• Low falling ending with a glottal stop (i.e., sharp catch in the throat) or creaky voice
In the "Pronunciation Guide to the Hmong Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA) Writing System"
(below), you will find more details on each one of these tones.

VOWELS

The White Hmong vowel system is relatively simple; it includes six simple vowels and
seven complex vowels: two nasalized ones, and five diphthongs.
Simple vowels (e.g., i [i] as in sgg) are sounds pronounced on airflow escaping through
the mouth alone. Nasalized vowels are more complex in that the air comes out not only through
the mouth, but also through the nose while they are being produced. Besides the nasalization, the
Hmong nasalized vowels are characterized by an additional feature: they end in the nasal consonant
ng [1]] (as in English silli), which is part of the nasalization of the vowel and serves to make it
more distinct. White Hmong has two such nasalized vowels, and Green Hmong has an additional
one (see th� "Pronunciation Guide" for more details).
Diphthongs are complex vowels in that they start with a particular vowel sound, but end in
another, as in English high or house. Hmong also has these two diphthongs, plus three additional
ones which do not occur in English (see the "Pronunciation Guide" for more details).

CONSONANTS

While the vowel system of Hmong is relatively simple, the consonant system is extremely
rich and complex. Hmong seems to make use of just about every place of articulation (lips, teeth,
front and back palate, uvula) and tongue position possible in the mouth to produce the fifty-seven
consonant/consonant-cluster sounds of the language (see the "Pronunciation Guide" for minor
differences in the consonant system of the two dialects). This means that you will have to listen
carefully to train your ear to hear the subtle differences between consonant sounds and to learn
how to position your tongue in the mouth to pronounce them properly (see the "Pronunciation
Guide" for more details).
While complex, the consonant system is also a marvel of symmetry in its structure. The
complexity is greatly reduced once you realize that a large number of these consonants actually boil
down to a series with four variants:
•Simple unaspirated consonants
•Aspirated consonants-Le., consonants which are pronounced with a puff of air coming
out of the mouth, as in English sl!.in, where the p is unaspirated, vs. l!.in, where the p is
aspirated. (You can test this by putting your hand in front of your mouth while saying the
two words out loud.) In the RPA, aspirated consonants are written with an h following
the consonant.
 3

• Pre-nasalized unaspirated consonants-i.e., consonants are pronounced with an m, n, or

ng nasal consonant sound right before them. In the RPA, pre-nasalized unaspirated
consonants are represented with an n right before the consonant
• Pre-nasalized aspirated consonants-i.e., consonants are pronounced with an m, n, or ng
nasal consonant sound right before them and a puff of air coming out of the mouth. In
the RPA, pre-nasalized aspirated consonants are represented with an n right before the
consonant and an h right after the consonant. Let us illustrate these four variants with p:
Qeb 1. 'three'; 2. 'we/us/our' simple unaspiratedp
Efl.em 'evil, bad' aspiratedp
!JI!.e 'name' pre-nasalized unaspiratedp
nphau 'to tip over, turbulent' pre-nasa1ized aspirated p

As seen in the Hmong Consonant Chart, the same four-way symmetrical pattern obtains
with the following consonants: pi, t, tx, r, c, ts, k, and q (see the "Pronunciation Guide" for
details on how to sound them out) and makes the system as a whole less daunting and more
manageable.

HMONG CONSONANT CHART

(Sounds in italics occur only in White Hmong; sounds in boldface are specific to Green Hmong.)

Lips Teeth Front Palate Back Uvu Vocal

Palate -Ia Cords
Unaspirated p pi t d tx r c ts k q
dl
Aspirated ph plh th dh txh rh ch tsh kh qh
dlh
Pre-nasalized unaspirated np npl nt ndl ntx nr nc nts nk nq
· r

Pre-nasalized aspirated nph nplh nth ndlh ntxh nrh nch ntsh nkh nqh

m nl n ny g

hm hnl hn hny
m nl n ny
f x s xy h
v I z y .

hI

To summarize, the sound inventory of White Hmong includes:

• Eight tones
• Thirteen vowel sounds
• Fifty-seven consonantlconsonant-cl uster sounds.
4

REPRESENTING HMONG SOUNDS:

THE ROMANIZED POPULAR ALPHABET (RPA) WRITING SYSTEM

The writing'system used in this book is the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA). The RPA
is a practical orthography based on the Roman alphabet and developed in Laos in the early 19508
by the missionary linguists Linwood Barney, Yves Bertrais, and William Smalley. There are other
writing systems- both older and more recent-for Hmong (see, e.g., Lemoine 1972 and Smalley
et al. 1990), but the RPA is used here because it is not only the orthography accepted by most
Hmong resettled in the Western world, but also the system most accessible to native speakers of
English. Linguistically speaking, it is a good, clear, and consistent orthography in most respects;
it is also quite phonetic, meaning that the relationship between the spoken language and the written
language is a close one (along the lines of spoken/written Spanish and much better than written
English or French). The next section will introduce you to the RPA in greater detail.

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE TO THE HMONG RPA WRITING SYSTEM

The purpose of this guide is to help you learn how to pronounce Hmong on the basis of the
RPA writing system. The first section deals with the tones, the second with the vowels, and the
third with the consonants.

I. TONES

In the chart below the first column gives the RPA symbol for each tone. Since Hmong
does not have final consonants, it was decided to use 8 arbitrary consonant letters and to attach
them at the end of syllables to represent tone in the writing system.

The second column indicates what each tone sounds like; tone values are given on a five­
point pitch scale, where 5 is the higher end of the pitch range and 1 the lower end- relative to each
speaker's voice range. The first digit indicates the starting point of the pitch and the second digit
the ending point.

The third column 'gives a description of each tone as well as helpful pronunciation
strategies.

The fourth column gives an example word for each tone; notice that all the words given
share the same consonant and vowel, and are differentiated by tone alone (except for the -d tone,
where the vowel is different since pod does not occur as a word). Each word lfirst appears with a
graphic representation of its tone, where the vertical line stands for the full spoken voice range
(going from high to low), and the line extending from it for the contour of the tone in relation to the
voice range. Then the word is given in RPA and translated into English.
NaTE: The graphic representation of each tone is a good visual memory aid for learning
tones and should help you remember that final consonants are not sounded out.
 5

R PA Tone Tone Description + Pronunciation Aid Example + Translation

Sviii"bol Value
-b 55 • High level; pol pob 'lump'

• Use high pitch in your voice range and

maintain level pitch throughout the syllable.

-j 52 • High falling; pof'. poj 'female'

• Start high in your voice range and drop

pitch throughout the syllable to below middle
of the range (pretending to be standing at the
edge of a cliff and falling down helps achieve
the desired effect);

• Similar to falling intonation in English "Yes!"

-v 24 • Mid rising; poV pov 'to throw'

• Start just below the middle of your range,

maintain level pitch first, and then raise your
voice at the end of the syllable;

• Similar to rising intonation in English yes/no

questions.

-(2) 33 • Mid level; por po 'pancreas,

(no symbol) spleen'
• Use mid-range pitch and maintain it throughout
the syllable.

-s 22 • Low level; po� pos 'thorn'

• Start just below the middle of your range,

maintain level pitch at first, and then drop
voice slightly at the end of the syllable.

NOTE: As you can see, the -(2) tone and the -s tone are very close in pitch, which makes it
sometimes difficult to distinguish between the two. Rather than relying on pitch alone, listen for
the fall at the end of the -s tone; this is what will help you differentiate it from the -(2) tone. Also,
the -(2) tone seems to have a slightly "chanted" quality to it.
6

-m 311 • Low falling with glottal stop/creaky voice at end; pok? pom 'to see'

Start mid-range and drop your voice to lower end

of your pitch range; end syllable abruptly with a
•

sharp catch in the throat (glottal stop-i.e., the

sound in the middle of "oh-oh") or a bit ofcreaky
voice (both are acceptable to native speakers);

Easy to recognize because of short duration and

truncated quality at the end.
•

-g 4:? Breathy/whispery falling; po� pog 'grand-

mother'
•

Use a sultry or spooky voice quality and a

falling pitch to produce this tone (I call it the
•
-

Marylin Monroe tone);

This tone starts at different points oCthe voice

range, depending on the speaker, but always
•

has a falling contour; salient feature is the

breathy, hollow voice quality.

*******************

-d 213 • Low rising, noticeably longer than other tones; poV ped 'up there'

Start just below the middle of your range, drop

voice slightly, and then raise it sharply (similar to
•

mid rising -v tone, but lower in pitch and longer).

N.B. This is a marginal tone, a variant ofthe -m tone,

which is used only under certain grammatical conditions
(see section on -d tone).

NOTE: These are auditory descriptions of tones in citation form; in rapid, connected speech tones
are influenced by neighboring sounds and syllables and are harder to make out But context
combined with knowledge of vocabulary and grammar will help you understand.

II. VOWELS AND CONSONANTS

The first column of the chart below shows the RPA symbols for vowels and consonants
(for ease of reference, consonant symbols appear in alphabetical order). They represent both
dialects, with sounds specific to Green Hmong in boldface characters (for a more detailed
discussion of the major pronunciation differences between the two dialects; see Appendix 4).
 7

The second column provides phonetic values for the benefit of those who are familiar with
phonetic transcription, but it may be safely ignored by others.

The third column exhibits comments about the pronunciation of the RPA symbols:

• "As in X" means that the sound exists in English as a distinctive sound unit and
hence will not present any learning difficulties;
• "No equivalent" means that the sound does not exist in English as a distinctive
sound unit and hence will require extra work on your part;
• "(Roughly) similar to X" means that for sounds which do not have an equivalent in
English, an example of an English sound sequence can be given which
approximates the sound.

Sounding out the English examples in this column focusing on the underlined sounds will
help you pronounce the Hmong sounds better.

The fourth column contains illustrative examples in RPA followed by their translation. It
includes many Hmong proper names since it is important to learn how to prounounce them well
right from the start. Try to sound the illustrative examples out with the help of a native speaker.

A. VOWELS

RP A Phonetic Pronunciation Aid Example(s) + Translation

symbol Symbol

Simple vowels

i [i] As in see; "the smiling vowel" ib 'one'

yim 'eight'

� [e] No equivalent; similar to pl!!y, but peb 1. 'three'; 2. 'we/us/our'

without diphthongization tes 'hand'

l!, [a] As in fl!,ther for many speakers; Yaj 'Yang (clan name)'
"the dentist vowel" Vaj 'Vang (clan name)'

Q [:>] No equivalent; similar to lawn Thoj 'Thao (clan name)'

mov'cooked rice'

l! [u] As in soon kub 1. 'hot'; 2. 'gold'; 3. 'Kou,

Ku (boy's name)'

w [� No equivalent; similar to hous�s, Vwj 'Vue, Vu (clan name)'

but with the lips rounded a little. twm 'water buffalo'
8

Nasalized vowels.

ee [EI]] No equivalent; roughly similar to sang nees 'horse'

LeeslLeeg '(Hmong) Leng'

00 [51]] No equivalent; roughly similar to song Hmoob 'Hmong'

khoom 'thing'

!!!! [1iI]] No equivalent; nasalized [a]; Yaaj 'Yang (clan name)'

only in Green Hmong Vaaj 'Vang (clan name)'
Diphthongs

ria] No equivalent; roughly similar to see a 1mb 'monkey'

(person) liaj 'rice paddy'

[ua] No equivalent; roughly similar to sue a ua 'to do, to make'

(person) npua 'pig'

raj] As in Hi and B� Maiv 'Mai,My (girl's name)'

qaib 'chicken'

[awl As in outhouse plaub 'four'

Lauj 'Lo, Lor, Lau (clan name)'

[� No equivalent. dawb 'white'

Hawj 'Her, Heu (clan name)'

NOTE: Notice how in the RPA writing system simple vowels are represented with a single vowel
symbol while complex ones appear as sequences of two vowel symbols. Nasalization is
represented by a doubling of the vowel, and diphthongization by a sequence of the two vowel
symbols involved in the diphthong-one of them always being the symbol!!.

B. CONSONANTS

£ m No equivalent; pronounced with blade of cev 'body'

tongue behind teeth and pressed against cuaj 'nine'
front part of the palate

ch [d'] No equivalent; same as above with cheb 'to sweep'

aspiration

g [d:] Roughly similar to go; dawb 'white'

=dl/tl [tl] in Green Hmong dev 'dog '

dh [d:h] No equivalent; rare; dhia 'to jump'

= dlh/tlh [tlh] in Green Hmong

dl/dlh See !!Idh above

 9

f [f] As in five Fqj 'Fang(clan name)'

laib 'to divide'

[1]] No equivalent; similar to sing; gig gog 'sound of tigers

very rare fighting'
g

gus 'goose'

h [h ] As in happy Ham 'Hang, Ha (clan name)'

hais 'to speak, to say'

W m No equivalent hli 1. 'moon'; 2. 'Hli (girl's

name)'
hlub 'to love/care for'

hm [!,l1] No equivalent; only in White Hmong Hmoob 'Hmong'

hmo 'night' .

hml [tnU No equivalent; only in White Hmong; rare hmlos 'to dent, to be dented'

hn [\,1] No equivalent hnov 'to hear'

"

hniav 'tooth'

hnl Alternate spelling for hml

hny [P] No equivalent; only in White Hmong hnyav 'heavy'

hnyuv 'intestine'

1\ [k ] No equivalent; similar to s!9n Koo 'Kong (clan name)'

Kwm 'Kue, Ku (clan name)'
�

kh [k h] As in£ake Khab 'Khang, Kha (clan name)'

! [I] As in!ife Lis 'Le(e), Ii, Ly (clan name)'

los 'to come'

m [m] As in map Muas 'Moua(clan name)'

mus 'to go'

ml [mlJ No equivalent; rare; similar to hamlet mloog 'to listen'

mluas'sad'

ml h Alternate spelling for hml

n [u.] As in near noj 'to eat'

niam 'mother'

nc [IVU No equivalent nco 'to remember'

ncauj 'mouth'

nch [11JI'] No equivalent nchuav 'to pour out, to spill'

10

!!!!! [lJ91] In Green Hrnong only; no equivalent; ndluav 'to throw out (liquid)'
similar to candl e

ndlh [lJUh] In Green Hrnong only; no equivalent; ndlhij ndlhuaj 'sound of walking
very rare; similar to mantle through mud'

nk [gg] No equivalent; similar to finger nkoj 'boat'

nkees 'tired, lazy'

nkh [gkh] No equivalent; similar to incomplete nkhaus 'crooked'

nl Alternate spelling for ml

ill! [mb] No equivalent; similar to combine npua 'pig'

Npis 'By (boy's name)'

nph [ mph] No equivalent; similar to computer nphau 'to tip over, turbulent'

npl [mbU No equivalent; similar to emblem . nplej 'unhulled rice'

ilplooj 'leaf'

nplh [mpU No equivalent; similar to complain nphlaib '(finger) ring'

llil [N&] No equivalent nqaij 'meat, flesh'

nqe/nqi 'price'

ngh [Nqh] No equivalent; rare nqhuab 'dried up'

nr [Il<K] No equivalent; similar to can drink nrarn 'down below, downhill'

nres 'to stop'

nrh [Iltth] No equivalent; similar to control nrhiav 'to look for'

nt [lJ9] No equivalent; similar to endanger ntaub 'cloth'

ntawv'paper'

nth [ lJth] No equivalent; similar to contend nthuav 'to open out, unfold'
nthab 'storage platform'

nts [nd�] No equivalent; similar to and Zaza ntsuab 'green, greenish blue,
(Gabor) color of vegetation'
ntses 'fish'

ntsh [ntJb] No equivalent; similar to can cheat ntshai 'to fear, be afraid of'

ntx [lJ�] No equivalent; similar to and Xerox ntxawm 'youngest daughter; Yer
(girl's name)'
ntxuav 'to wash (hands, body)'
 11

ntxh [\).t�h] No equivalent; similar to ants here ntxhw 'elephant'

ntxhua 'to wash (clothes), scrub'

!!Y [P] No equivalent; similar to canYon, onion nyob 'to reside'

nyiaj 'silver, money'

[p] No equivalent; similar to sQin paj 'flower'

paub 'to know'

!2h [ph] As in Qeace phem 'evil, bad'

Phob 'Phang, Pha (clan name)

ill [pi] No equivalent plaub 'four'

plig 'soul, spirit'

P1h [pIJ No equivalent; similar to play plhu 'cheek'

9. [q] No equivalent; similar to sb', but farther qaib 'chicken'

back in mouth; open mouth very wide, qub 'old (of things) '
pull tongue back until you feel sick

9.h [qh] No equivalent; same as above, but with qhia 'to tell, teach'
aspiration; similar to grr, but farther
back in mouth

r H{] No equivalent roob 'mountain'

Riam 'Tria, Tia (boy's name)'

rh H{h] No equivalent; roughly similar to ![ough rhiab 'to tickle'

§. [J] As in shoe sou 'to write'

slab 'liver'

t [t] No equivalent; similar to s!ay tub 'son'

twm 'water buffalo'

th [th] As in !ime them 'to pay'

Thoj 'Thao (clan name)'
tlItih See g/dh

ts [tJ] No equivalent; similar to ,!.une, Tsab 'Chang, Cha (clan name)'

but a little harder tsev 'house'

tsh [tJh] As in chair, church tsheb 'vehicle'

tshuaj 'medicine, herbs'

tx [t�] No equivalent; similar to beds, (lub) txiv 'fruit'

but a little harder txob 'pepper'
12

txh [t�h] No equivalent; similar to tsetse (fly), txhuv 'hulled, uncooked rice'
Tsongas txhiab 'thousand'

y [v] . As in yery, yisa Vaj 'Vang (clan name) '

Vwj 'Vue, Vu (clan name) '

! [�] As in §.ee xa 'to send'

xeem 'clan'

;u: [�] Roughly similar to mash your (potatoes) Xyooj 'Xiong (clan name) '
xyoob 'bamboo '

[j] Similar to'yes Yaj 'Yang (clan name)'

yeeb 'opium'

z; [a] Similar to plea§.ure, vi§.ion zaj'dragon'

lOS 'village'

In summary� White Hmong has fifty-seven consonant sounds while Green Hmong has
fifty-six (for more details on the major pronunciation differences between the two dialects, see
Appendix 4).
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Part 2
Author:
Annie Jaiser et al.

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/26q8c4kx

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
COMPETENCY-BASED UNITS
 15

NPIS TSEV NEEG

Npis

Npis: "Nyob zoo. Kuv yog Npis, xeem Vaj. Kuv poj niam lub npe hu ua Mos.
Wb muaj peb tug me nyuam, ob tug ntxhais thiab ib tug tub. Tus ntxhais
hlob lub npe hu ua Nplias, tus yau Maiv. Kuv tus tub lub npe hu ua
Ntxawg."

Mos: "Kuv lub npe hu ua Mos. Kuv tus txiv lub npe hu ua Npis. Wb tug
ntxhais yog hIuas nkauj (nkawd tsis tau yuav txiv). Wb tug tub yog
ib tug hluas nraug; nws muaj ob xyoos xwb!"

N pIias: "Kuv lub npe hu ua NpIias. Kuv txiv lub npe hu ua Npis; kuv niam lub
npe hu ua Mos. Kuv niam txiv muaj peb tug me nyuam; kuv yog tus
ntxhais hlob. Kuv tus niam hIuas lub npe hu ua NpIias; kuv tus nus lub npe
hu ua Ntxawg."

Maiv: "Kuv lub npe hu ua Maiv. Kuv tus niam laus lub npe hu ua Nplias.
Kuv tus nus lub npe hu ua Ntxawg."

Ntxawg: "Kuv lub npe hu ua Ntxawg. Tsis muaj tij laug, tsis muaj kwv, muaj ob
tug !lli!l!!ll xwb; ib tug lub npe hu ua Nplias, ib tug Maiv."

oc: Maiv Qhua

R: Ib tsab ntawv, Kuv tsev neeg
CP: Bring pictures to talk about your own family (e.g., wedding or holiday photos).
16

NWS MUAJ PES TSAWG TUS ME NYUAM?

1. 2.

Nws muaj peb tug me nyuam. . Nws muaj tsib tug me nyuam.

3. 4.

(-
f)
Nws muaj ob tug me nyuam. Nws muaj pJaub tug me nyuam.

rt"
5. 6.

� ji
"§i .�
Nws muaj ib tug me nyuam. Nws muaj xya tug me nyuam.

7. 8.

GJC: �
Nws muaj fau tus me nyuam.
j�1\
Nws tsis muaj; muaj ib tug dey xwb.

oc: Cov naj npawb

 17

NPE HMOOD
'Hmong given names'

Given names are usually monosyllabic; they are sometimes preceded by Maiv for
females-adding a "gentle, tender" connotation to the name-or Tub 'son, boy' for males.
Occasionally, a male name will be preceded by a clan-like name-e.g.,Lauj Pav 'Lopao' or Lis
Fwm'Lyfu.'

Typically,given names are either nouns referring to elements of the natural world or nouns
symbolizing worthy, sought-after personality traits. As in any other language, there are given
names with no such clear meaning. Traditionally,a child gets his/her given name at the end of the
hu pUg 'soul-calling' ceremony held on the third morning after birth.. Upon marriage a man is
given a npe laus 'honorary name' by his in-laws. This name comes first, followed by the name
given at birth,and then the clan name-e.g.,PajTsu Yaj 'Pa Chou Yang.'

Below is a list of the more common Hmong given names; for details on how to pronounce
the names,see the "Pronunciation Guide."

I. COMMON GIVEN NAMES FOR GIRLS

Name in RPA English Seelling Meaning

Cib Chee 'Basket'
Cua Chua 'Wind'
Dawb Der 'White'
Diav Dia 'Spoon'
Hli Hli 'Moon'
Hnub Nou, Nu 'Sun'
Hua Houa 'Cloud'
lab, Ab Ia,Ah 'Bitter, shiny'
Maiv Mai, My,May
Mas Mao,Mo 'Young, soft'
Npauj Bao, Bau 'Insect'
NpUas Blia 'Grasshopper'
Ntsuab Njua,Joua,Youa 'Green'
Ntxawm Yer,Ger,Geu 'Youngestllast daughter'
Ntxhaa Song
Nyiaj Ngia,Nhia 'Silver'
Paj,Paaj Pa,Pang 'Rower'
Rwm True, Tue,Treu
Tshaus Chao 'Basket'
Xis Xe,Xy, Se, See, Si 'Right (opposite of left)'
18 .

II. COMMON GIVEN NAMES FOR BOYS

Name in RPA English Seelling Meaning

em Chai 'Rule, custom'
Ceeb . Cheng 'Important'
Choj Chao,Xao 'Bridge'
Foom Fong 'Blessing'
Fwm Fu, Fue
Kaub Kao, Kau
Leej Leng 'Seam'
liab Lia 'Red'
Lwm Lue 'Next'
Mas Ma
Nuv Nou 'Fishing hook'
Npis Bee, By 'Stout, strong'
Nplooj Blong 'Leaf'
Nruas Ndrua 'Drum'
Ntaaj Dang 'Sword'
Ntxawg Yer, Ger 'Y oungest Ilast sori'
Pov Pao 'Protect'
Riam Tria, Chia 'Knife'
Teeb Teng 'Lamp'
Teev Teng 'Weigh-scale'
Thoob Tong 'Bucket'
Tsab Cha
Tsu Chu, Chou 'Rice steamer'
Tsuas Choua 'Rocky'
Tswb Chu, Cheu, Chue 'Bell'
Tub Tou,Tu 'Son'
Xauv Sao,Xao 'Neck-ring'
Xeeb Seng, Xeng 'Heart' « Chinese)

III. COMMON GIVEN NAMES FOR EITHER GIRLS OR BOYS

Name in RPA English Seelling Meaning

Ci Chee 'Shiny, bright'
Kub Kou, Ku 'Gold'
Neeb Neng 'Spirits'
Qhua Khoua
Tooj Tong 'Copper'
Tswb Chue 'Bell'
Txiaj Xia, Chia 'Valuable'
Txiab Chia,Xia 'Scissors'
Yeeb Ying, Yeng 'Opium'
Yeej Yeng 'Win'
Yias Yia 'Pan'
 19

XEEM NPE HMOOB

'Hmong elan names'

Like Chinese society, Hmong society is divided into a small, essentially finite number of
xeem 'clans'-Mottin (1978:157) identifies 14 in Thailand and Yang Dao (1992:288) 25 in Laos.
Hmong legend has it that clans originated from the union of a brother and a sister, the lone
survivors of a flood; their monster child was cut into pieces, each of which turned into a couple
who then started a given clan. The nature of Hmong clan genesis accounts for the taboo on
marriage between members of the same clan.* A clan includes a male ancestor, his sons and
unmarried daughters, and the children of his sons-going back 160 or more generations according
to Hmong lore.

Traditionally, a man identifies himself as Npis, xeem Vaj or Npis, Hmoob Vaj 'Bee, clan
Vang.' Although clan names are not identical to last names, Hmong refugees started using them as
such upon their arrival in the Western hemisphere in response to the demand for a last name. Since
the number of clans is restricted, many Hmong then share the same"last name."

Below is an alphabetical list of the most common Hmong clan names; the ones with the
. largest membership in Laos appear in boldface. Where there are pronunciation differences between
the two dialects, the Hmoob Dawb clan name appears first, followed by its Moob Ntsuab
equivalent. (For details on how to pronounce the names, see the"Pronunciation Guide.")

CLAN NAME IN RP A ENGLISH SPELLING COMMENTS

Fa} Fang
Ham, Haam Hang
Hawj Her, Heu
Khab, Khaab Kang
·Koo Kong < Chinese meaning"river"

Kwm Kue, Ku
Lauj Lo, Lor, Lau < Chinese meaning"poplar"
Lis Lee, Ly, Le, Li < Chinese meaning"plum"

Muas Moua < Chinese meaning"horse"

Thoj Thor, Thao

Tsab, Tsaab Chang
Vaj, Vaaj Yang < Chinese meaning"king"
V wj Vue, Vu
Yaj, Yaaj Yang < Chinese meaning"goat"
Xyooj Xiong < Chinese meaning "bear"

* For a full-length Hmolig-English version of this tale, see Johnson and Yang, eds. (1992); for versions in
beginning and iotennediate level Hmong, see Johnson (1981).
20

CAG CEG HMOOB

'Hmong lineage groups'

. I. Kwv TIJ 'PATRILINEAL RELATIVES AND CLAN MATES'

So far we have learned about two pillars of Hrnong society: the tsev neeg 'nuclear family'
and the xeem 'patrilineal clan.' The third pillar is the cag ceg 'lineage group (literally 'root' +
'branch'), which consists of all the males in an unbroken line of descent: brothers, their sons, and
male grandchildren-going back in time as far as memory allows. These patrilineal relatives are
known as kwv tij, which translates literally as 'younger brother' + 'older brother.' Within a cag
ceg, members of the same generation refer to each other as kwv 'younger brother' or tij 'older
brother'-depending on age-thus expanding the notion of "brother" beyond the nuclear family.
Their children refer to them as txiv 'father,' txiv hloh 'older father,' or txiv ntxawm 'younger
father'-again expanding the notion of "father" beyond the nuclear family.
Not only the members of a cag ceg, but also the members of a given clan with no direct
blood connection consider themselves as kwv tij since they are ultimately the offspring of one and
the same ancestral couple who arose from the monster child mentioned in the section on Hrnong
clans above.

II. NEEJ TSA '(LoOSELY) RELATIVES-IN-LAW'

In addition to the patrilineal relatives and clan mates known as kwv tij, a man also has a set
of relatives known as neej tsa . A neej tsa consists of the people related to him via a blood line
which connects all the people related to a woman who is linked to him; this woman may not only
be his wife, but also his mother or grandmother, the wife of his son or that of his son's son, or the
wife of his brother or that of his brother's brother, etc. There is no exact equivalent for the neej tsa
concept in Western kinship systems; 'relatives-in-law' is the closest translation available, but it is
not entirely accurate since it includes a man's sister-in-law, who, by Hmong standards, is an
integral part of her husband's family rather than an in-law. Inter-clan ties then stem from kwv tij­
neej tsa alliances.

To summarize, Hrnong society consists of groups rather than individuals; these groups
include the tsev neeg 'nuclear family,' the xeem 'patrilineal clan,' the kwv tij 'patrilineal relatives
and clan mates,' and the neej tsa '(loosely) relatives-in-law.' The kinship terminology outside of
the tsev neeg is rather complex and goes beyond the scope of a beginning text; for further details
the interested student may consult the kinship charts found in Heimbach (1979: Appendix 10).
 21

KHOOM NOJ

mov (Jub) nkaub qes daj

nqaij npuas (<npua)

nqaij qaib

ntsev

•
rt .
•
•..... ". �-
. • .• ..
•
� ..
J.wJ txob
nqaij nyug (<nyuj)
• •

oc: Npis npaj mov noj, Tsov tsis noj tsheb, Kuv lub tsheb, Tus tsov los xyuas
R: Wb mus pem Chicago, Ua ncuav
CP: Talk about foods you (dis)like and eat at different times of the day and in different countries.
22

TAUM

(tus) taum lag (lub) noob taum

cw � ® ....
�e G
(lub) taum pauv taum hwv « Chinese)

ZAUB

-.-::-=::�

=:;-;� �
(lub) zaub paj (lub) zaub paj ntsuab (lub) zaub xavlav

(lub) zaub qhwv (tus) zaub ntug daj (lub) zaub lauj pwm
 23

(lub) kua txob ntsim

(lub) pob kws (lub) dib

(lub) kua txob ntsuab

(lub) qos yaj ywm

(lub) huab xeeb (Heimbach 1979)
txiv laum fuab xeeb (Bertrais 1979)

(lub) qij/qej (lub) dos

qhiav

(lub) taubdag (tus) xyoob

(lub) taub
tauj qaib/tauj dub
24

TXIV HMAD TXIV NTOO

txiv plaws ploom (Mattin 1978)

txiv may paj (Heimbach 1979) txiv tsawb
txiv plab nyug

.
: of

..
, .. , .:� './;);'
. ...
,"

. ,";.: .:/:.:��;.:::.
..
"

@"" ' •.
.. "::;: �
.
�
� ; ..
. .�
� .��
.' .

txivqaub
txiv Iws zoov txiv kab ntxwv

txiv zuaj (Bertrais 1979, Mattin 1978) txiv Iws suav

txiv duaj
txiv ev paum « English)

txiv pas (liab)

txiv puv luj txiv quay rriiv txiv phiaj « English) txiv cawv
 25

TUS TXIV NEEJ LUB CEV

(tus) ntivtes

(txhais) les

ntsej muag
(lub) luj tshib

(cov) ntshav......
(nplooj )

[ .
(lub) Pl�lot:;;OO(Uf-
txOj ) hnyuv
(lxoj ) hnyuv
(tx0J) hnyuv 01
-'-ib#(""�� lr:::S
_..,
: ;;;:;;;].�=
"-

hauvcaug

(txhais) �-"!ll�..(tl:IS) ntiv taw

-==+- ( p�
7 \
(lub) dab tata�w:Ss _ '_"-".'--J luj taws I"b) �b 'w,
.
(txhais) ko taw O �b bq �

(thooj ) paj hlWb -"�fff.��-r5:,���� '

lub) pob/caj tw
u.
lub) otsag
(lub) qhov ntswg

(lub) qhovnClilUl-l
'-,

(iub) puab tsaig It

26

TUS POJ NIAM LUB CEV

(lub) taub hau

(lub) mis·--f-.--f'-
/---(lub) hauy siab

-T.:�-(lub) raum
(tus) tay --tt-::��

-.l,.,),--,(lullJ) tseY me nyuam

(lub) hauy pliaj--+-

pob ntseg
(COY) plaub muag

(tus) nplaig....,"""·-'

oc: Npis thiab nws COY phooj ywg, Saib daim duab: Npis thiab nws COY phooj ywg, Tus me
nyuam dey tom Npis ko taw
R: Hmong-English medical history form
CP: Express aches and pains via doctor/patient role-playing.
 27

THE METAPHORICAL AND METONYMIC ROLES OF BODY PARTS

In Western cultures the heart is considered to be the primary seat of the emotions; in
Hmong and other Southeast Asian cultures, the liver plays this role. Rather than being
"heartbroken," a person is tu siab 'break apart-(in) liver' or siab ntais 'liver-break off' -that is,
"liverbroken." Numerous other phrases involving siab 'liver' show that this is the physical organ
where not only emotions, but also mental or intellectual processes as well as physical sensations
are perceived to take place. The central role played by the liver is further reflected in the fact that
the language has a grammatical device for differentiating between the liver as physical organ and
the liver as seat of the affections: the classifier nplooj, which is used with nouns referring to leaf­
like entities, is associated with siab when it refers to the physical organ (this, of course, makes
good sense when one thinks of the lobes of the liver), and the classifier lub, which is the general­
purpose classifier used with numerous abstract nouns, is associated with siab when it refers to the
seat of the affections.
Below is a list of siab phrases arranged in sections which reflect their metaphorical
meanings. First, however, is a summary of the limited metaphorical role played by the heart.

I. THE METAPHORICAL ROLE OF PLA WV 'HEART'

1. plawv zoov 2. plawv lOS 3. plawv ntoo

heart jungle heart village heart tree
'the heart/middle of thejungle' 'the middle of the village' 'the heart of a tree'
As seen in (1-3), plawv 'heart' can be used metaphorically as literal center/core. This connection
between the heart and the central/innermost part is also found in Western languages (the heart of
Chinatown/of a rose, etc.), but while it includes both the physical and the abstract realms in
. Western cultures (the heart of the matter, etc.), it only extends to the physical in Hmong.

II. THE METAPHORICAL ROLE OF SlAB 'LIVER' *

a. Personality traits/moral characteristics

4. siab ntev 5. siab luv
liver long liver short
'patient, even-tempered' 'impatient, short-tempered'
6. siab ncaj 7. siab nkhaus
liver straight liver crooked
'morally honest and upright' 'dishonest, not straightforward'
b. Mental states and processes
8. nkag siab 9. siab nthuav
crawl (into) liver liver unfold, unroll, open out as a book
'to understand' 'to have reached the age of wisdom'
10. txiav siab 11. rau siab
cut liver put, place liver
'to decide, make a decision' 'to apply oneself to do something'

*
For a detailed analysis of this topic-including a comprehensive list of siab phrases -see Jaisser (1990).
28

c. Angel'
12. siabkub / siab ceev 13. siab npau
liver hot / liver fast liver boil, bubble up
'quick- or hot-tempered, prone to anger' 'to be angry'
d. Satisfaction
14. siab kaj 15. qab siab
. liver bright sweet liver
'satisfied with things, pleased, refreshed' 'happy, at ease, satisfied'
16. raug siab 17. xu siab
hit the mark liver miss the mark liver
'pleased, satisfied' 'displeased, dissatisfied'
e. Fear
18. siab nyias 19. siab tuab
liver thin liver thick
'fearful, timid' 'brave, courageous'
20. poob siab 21. siab Xob
*
fall liver liver Xob
'frightened, scared' 'scared, afraid of punishment'
f. Confusion
22. siab Jab 23. nphau siab
liver bushy, weedy, overgrown tip/turn over liver
'heart upset, confused, mind not clear' 'to lose one's mental or physical balance'

III. THE METONYMIC ROLE OF SlAB

There are also siab phrases with no metaphorical meaning. In these, siab merely plays a
metonymic role in that it stands for the place where a given emotion is perceived to take place.
This is part of a productive pattern in the language whereby the locus of an emotion is expressed
overtly, as seen in (26-27), where the stomach and the eye are involved.
24. chim siab 25. kho siab
angry (in) liver lonely (in) liver
,
'angry' 'lonely, homesick, sad (out bf loneliness)
26. tshaib plab 27. txaj muag
hungry (in) stomach ashamed (in) eye
'hungry' 'ashamed'

IV. CONCLUSION
While the liver is the metaphorical "organ substitute" for the heart in Hmong, its role
extends far beyond that. If we accept the notion that, to a certain extent, language reflects the
psychological make-up of the people who speak it, the plethora of siab phrases indicates that it is
the locus where emotions, mental activities, and physical sensations are perceived to take place in
Hmong culture. However, even though the expression of these states and processes is encoded
differently and more overtly in Hmong, some of the underlying conceptual metaphors are also
found in English and other languages-thus reflecting the cognitive make-up we share universally.

*
As seen in the weather tenninology section below, Xob is the mythical creature responsible for thunder and
lightning so that when the liver is 'XoIJ.ed" -i.e., struck by this mythical figure-one is scared.
 29

KHAUB NCA WS HMOOB

(daim) tiab Hmoob Dawb

(daim) tiab Hmoob NtsuablLees

. (lub) hnab nyiaj

(lub) hnab

(txoj) siv ceeb

(daim) sev
R: Ntxhua khaub ncaws, Muas khaubncaws, Ua paj ntaub
CP: Describe somebody in tenns of his/her clothing (in a classroom situation have your
classmates guess who it is).
30

(lub) kaus momHmoob

(claim) phuam

(txoj) blab nyiaj

.
(claim) nylas (ev me nyuam)
 31

UA PAJ NTAUB

Maiv: Koj ua dabtsi?

N plias: Kuv ua paj ntaub.

Maiv: Zoo nkauj kawg. Xaws puas nyuab?

Nplias: Tsis nyuab tiamsis siv sijhawm ntev.

Maiv: Koj puas xav tias kuv yuav kawm xaws tau thiab?
N plias: Tau kawg mas.

Maiv: Koj puas kam qhia kuv?

Nplias: Kam xwb.

H.UnUluln9P,ueut
32

KHAUB NCAWS

hnav
hnav hnav

(Iub) ris [ntev]

(lub) tsho
(lub) ris-tsho

hnav
hnav hnav

\} •

I} 0

\J ,

(Iub) ris luv

(lub) tsho loj
(Iub) tsho tiv nag

hna v
hnav

(lub) tiab/(Iub) cev tiab

(lub) tsho tiv no
 33

h nav hnav

(Iub) ris xiv liv (lub) tiab me me

(daim) tiab

Sla
rau

(nkawm) thorn khwm (txoj) siv

(nkawm) khau

nqa ntoo

(lub) kaus mom

(lub) hnab
34

MAIV TIDAB NPLIAS MUS MUAS KHAUB NCA WS

Maiv: Kuv nyiam cev tiab no.

Nplias: Knv nyiam thiab.

Maiv: Koj xav tias kuv yuav cev tiab no puas zoo?

Nplias: Rang nqi pes tsawg ?

Maiv: Kaum tsib doslas.

Nplias: Pheej yig thiab yuav los zoo kawg .

$7.59 $ .89 $11.99 $4.00

$13.25 $6.95 $4.79 $9.99

 35

TSIAJ

(tus) poj qaib (tus) lau qaib (tus) os

(tus) me nyuam qaib
.
." .
,

, ,
(tus) npua
(tus) twm

(tus) nees (tus) nyuj

(tus) luav (tus) yaj

oc: N pis mus tom tub vaj tsiaj, Kuv tub tsheb, Npis thiab nws cov phooj ywg, Saibdaim duab:
Npis thiab nws cov phooj ywg
R: Dab neeg nab qa tsiav, Tus tsov lhiab tus qav
CP: Talk about your pet(s) and the kinds of animals people treat as pets in different countries.
36

(tus) miv

�_.�=-, . \

(tus) ntses
\ V

(tus) noog (tus) npauj npaim

(tus) nkawj (tus) kab laug sab (tus) laum

(tus) muv

(tus) yoov tshaj cum (tus) yoov mas ntsuab (tus) dey mub
(tus) ntsaum
 37

(tus) nab (tus) eua nab

(tus) nas (tus) nas tsuag

(tus) nas neuav (tus) qwj

(tus) puav (tus) plas

38

(tus) tsov (tus) tsov ntxhuav

(tus) ntxhw

(tus) vaub kib �------..

-------

(tus) ntshuab

(tus) kbej (tus) hma

 39

HUAB eUA

..
---
\:R/ '-.....

(lub) hnub (lub) hli

I
(lub) hnub qub xoblaim*

. xob quaj eua daj eua dub (hib) kaus

ibtau huab t eovte (tus) nY sawv**

* According to Hmong cosmology, Xob is the creature in the heavens responsible for thunder and lightning. Kob
laim 'lightning' literally translates as "Kob flashes," and xob quaj 'thunder' as "Kob cries out."
t Tauv is the classifier for clouds (and clusters of fruit); note the tone change after ib. .
** Tus zajsawv 'rainbow'literally translates as "the dragon rises," which reflects the way rainbows are perceived in
Hmong cosmology.
40

HNVB NO, HUAB CVA ZOO LI CAS?

. .

los los nag thiab eua daj eua dub hlob hlob los te

nws SOY SOY

 41

LUB HNUB VA DAB TSI?

1. 2.

Hnubtuaj. Hnubpoob qho.

THAUM TAV TWG?

1.
Sawv ntxov (3 AM 12 PM) -

8 teev sawv ntxov = 8AM

2.
Tav 6U = 12 PM
12 teev hnubntseg = 1 2 PM
42

3.
Hnub qaij ( 1 P M 4 PM)
•

3 teev hnub qaij = 3PM

(3 teev tav su dua)
(3 teev yav tsaus ntuj )

4.
Yuav tsaus ntuj (4 PM 6 PM) •

6 teev yuav tsaus ntuj = 6. PM

tsaus ntuj zuag = 6 PM -7 PM (it's
getting dark, but you can still see people)

5.
Tsaus ntuj (7 PM 12 AM)
•

9 teev tsaus ntuj = 9 PM

6.
Ib tag hmo = 12 AM

(tsis muaj lub npe: 1 AM - 3 AM)

2 teev ib tag hmo dua = 2 AM
 43

THE GREGORIAN CALENDAR

1993 = tsaibub
1994 = 1. tsaibno; 2. xyoo tag los lawm
1995=xyoo no
1996 = lwm xyoo

The months of the Gregorian calendar are translated with the following construction: elf lub
+ # + hli ntuj 'month (literally 'moon' + 'sky')'; the days of the week are translated with the

following construction: hnub'day' + # (note that Sunday is considered to start the week). Some
Hmong also use the Lao names for the days of the week-as seen in the July 1994 monthly
calendar below-and some use the names for the days of the week of the country in which they
have been relocated. Sometimes the Lao word for 'week,' (lub) as thiv, is used instead of lim
piam or lim tiam.

lub ib hlis ntuj January lubxya hli ntuj July

lub ob hlis ntuj February lubyim hli ntuj August
lubpeb hlis ntuj March lubcuaj hlis ntuj September
lubplaub hlis ntuj April lubkaum hli ntuj October
lub tsib hlis ntuj May lubkaum ibhlis ntuj November
lub rau hli ntuj June lubkaum ob hlis ntuj December

Hnub chiv (= 'start') Sunday Hnubtsib Thursday

Hnub ob Monday Hnubrau Friday
Hnubpeb Tuesday Hnubxya Saturday
Hnubplaub Wednesday

(LUB) XYA HLI NTUJ 1994

Hnub Hnub Hnub Hnub Hnub Hnub Hnub

vas thiv vas cas vasasahas vas phuv vas phaj hay vas xuv vas xaum
1 2

:3 4 5 6 7 8 9
<------------ - --- -- --- -----
lublimpiam Ilublim tiam tag los lawml - ---- -- - ------------>
-- -- -

nramntei
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
<------------ - --- -- - -----
- -
lublimpiam Ilublim tiam no ----------- - -------- ------------>
--- -

17 18 19 20 21 22 23
<------------ -- --- -- --
- - ---
lwm lublim piam/lwm lublim tiam -
--- --- - - -
- -- ------------>

24 25 26 27 28 29 30

31
44

NWSILAWV UA DAB TSI?

1. 2.

Nws kawm ntawv. Nws pw tsaug zog.

3. 4.

Nws mus tsev. Nws haus dej.

5. 6.

Nws ntxhua khaub ncaws. Nws nrog nws tus me nyuam ua si.

7. 8.

-. -

-
--.

Nws ntxuav tes. Nws npaj mov noj; nws hlais nqaij npuas.
 45

9. 10.

Nws muas ib tug qaib. Nws ua liaj.

1 1. 12.

u
Nws tshov qeej. Nws so lub rooj.

13. 14.
;;
(':9
&J
Lawv da dej.
/ Nws cheb tsev.

IS. 16.

Nws txiav taws. Nws saibTV.

 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Part 3
Author:
Annie Jaiser et al.

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3mn4811t

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
ORAL COMPREHENSION UNITS
 49

LISTENING COMPREHENSION

COY NAJ NPAWB

Underline the num ber you hear in each row:

(a) 25 27 29 26 23

(b) 15 27 59 11 43

(c ) 25 57 79 26 32

(d ) 18 14 11 17 15

(e) 16 13 19 12 17

(f) 99 92 97 96 90

( g) 102. 120 100 110 120

(h) 77 70 79 76 78

(i ) 67 60 90 66 69

(j) 102 120 100 110 122

(k) 15 27 59 86 43

(1) 120 170 190 110 160

(m ) 87 70 77 72 78

(n ) 49 62 17 26 60

( 0) 142 176 193 180 169

.50

TONE PERCEPTION EXERCISE

Fill in the tone letters. (Leave blank ifmid "zero" tone).

Pua_ ta_ ko_ mu_ da_ tsi_ law_? Ku_ mu_ yua_ khoo_

to_ khw_ law_. Ko_ yua_ tau_ da_ tsi_? Ku_ yua_ tau_ i_

00_ qe-, nqai_ qai _, zau_ xa_ la_, zau_ pa_, pia_ tha_, thia __

txhu_.

INITIAL CONSONANT PERCEPTION EXERCISE

Fill in the consonant you hear. (Possible consonants: d, dh, k, kh, r, rh, q, qh, ts, tsh.)

1. __
· uaj
2. _ Cev

3. _0

4. _uab

5. _ uaj

6. _uav

7. _ub

8. -aj

9 . _0

10. _au

II. _0

12. _eem

13. _uv

14. _eeb

15. _aij
 51

WORD PERCEPTION EXERCISE

Underline the word that you hearfor each line.

1. ib yim
2. ruam cuaj

3. nres ntses

4. tam sim no tiam sis

5. neb neJ

6. ntxiv txiv

7. koj kov

8. txhiab thiab

9. caum rau

10. loj los

11. ntawm ntawd

12. nkoj koj

13. tus tug

14. thiab tiab

15. kuv kub

52

STORIES FOR ORAL COMPREHENSION PRACTICE

NPIS NPAJ MOV NOJ

Tag kis no Npis tshaib tshaib plab tiam sis nws tsis muaj dab tsi noj. Nws thiaj Ii mus taj laj
yuay tau ib co qe, zaub paj, thiab txhuy.

Npis roy qab los tsey los muab ib lub lauj kaub fau dej fau, npau lawm, nws mam Ii npaws
zaub paj fau. Nws cub moy thiab. Thaum tiay huy si lawm nws mam Ii noj. Tsis qab Ii, tiam sis
txaus noj.

TeebMeem:

1. Tag kis no, Npis mob mob plab, puas yog?

2. Npis tsis muaj dab tsi noj, puas yog?

3. Npis mus qhoy twg?

a. mus yuay khoom tom khw
b. mus tua nas nram hay dej
c. mlls xyuas phooj ywg pem zos

4. Npis yuay tau dab tsi?

a. ib co qe, zaub paj, thiab txhuy
b. nqaij qaib, nqaij npuas, thiab nqaij nyug
c. ib phau ntawy, ib tug cwj mem, thiab ntawy

5. Npis puas ua qe noj?

6. Npis muab ib lub lauj kaub fau dab tsi rau?

a. mis nyuj
b. dej
c. txhuy

7. Npis puas cub zaub paj?

8. Npis puas cub moY?

9. Npis puas noj zaub paj thiab moY ?

10. Npis ua zaub paJ thiab moy puas qab?

11. Thaum noj zaub paj thiab moy tas lawm, Npis puas tshaib plab?
 53

TSOV TSIS NOJ TSHEB

Nag hmo sawy ntxoy muaj ib tug tsOY tuaj hauy kuy lub tsey. Kuy hais tias, ''Nyob zoo.
Koj tuaj dab tsi?" Tus tsoy teb tias, "Kuy tuaj noj koj."
Kuy noog tias, "Aub! Tsoy noj tsheb, puas yog?" Tsoy hais tias, "rsis yogI Peb noj tib
neeg xwb!" Kuy hais tias, ''Yog Ii ces koj noj kuy tsis tau. Kuy yog ib lub tsheb. COY tib neeg
nyob tim ub." Tus tsOY thiaj Ii mus mhiay tib neeg noj lawm.

TeebMeem:

1. Kuy puas yog tsheb tiag?

2. Tus tsOY puas muaj tsWY yim?

3. Tus tSOY mus nrhiay dab tsi?

4. Tsheb puas noj tsOY?

5. Tus tSOY tuaj hauy kuy lub tsey los kuy lub tsheb?

6. Tus tsOY hais Ius Hmoob puas tau? .

7. Tsoy noj dab tsi?

8. Tus tSOY nyob hauy kuy lub tseY ob peb hnub, puas yog?

9. Nag hmo muaj tsib tug tsOY tuaj hauy kuy lub tsey, puas yog?

10. Tsiaj dab tsi noj tib neeg?

11. Thaum kuy hais rau tus tsOY, kuy puas muaj tsWY yim?
54

MAIV QHUA

Npis muaj ib tug tij laug. Nws lub npe hu ua Kaub. Kaub muaj ib tug me nyuam. Nws lub
npe hu ua Maiv Qhua. Maiv Qhua tseem hais Ius tsis tau, tiam sis nws txawj txawj luag.
Maiv Qhua tseem tsis muaj hniav. Nws thiaj Ii noj nqaij tsis taus. Kaub thiab Kaub tus poj
niam ho cub mov rau Maiv Qhua noj. .

TeebMeem:

1. Maiv Qhua tom Npis, puas taus?

2. Vim Ii cas tsis taus?

3. Maiv Qhua hais Ius Askiv, puas tau?

4. Maiv Qhua me los loj?

5. Maiv Qhua ua taus dab tsi?

a. hais Ius Hmoob
b. luag thiab noj mov
c. tsav lub tsheb

6. Kaub thiab Kaub tus poj niam muaj pes tsawg tus me nyuam?

7. Maiv Qhua muaj pes tsawg tus niam laus?

8. Maiv Qhua laus dua Kaub, puas yog?

9. Maiv Qhua tseem tsis tau muaj ib yam. Nws yog dab tsi?
a. tsis muaj niam thiab txiv .
b. tsis muaj pob ntseg
c. tsis muaj hniav

10. Qaib puas muaj hniav?

 55

NPIS MUS TOM LUB VAJ TSIAJ

Muaj ib hnub Npis mus tom yaj tsiaj. Npis zoo siab heey. Nws nyiam saib COY tsiaj.
Thaum Npis mus tom yaj tsiaj thawj zaug, nws pom ib tug dais dawb. Nws tsis paub tias muaj
dais xim dawb. Nws thiaj Ii hais tias,"rus dais ntawd mob mob puas yog?" Npis niam hais tias,
'Tsis yog. Tus dais ntawd tsis mob."

TeebMeem:

1. Hnub no Npis mus qhoy twg?

a. tom khw
b. pem zos Los Tsuas
c. tom yaj tsiaj

2. Npis yuay ua dab tsi?

a. xyuas nws tus phooj ywg
b. pub COY tsiaj
c. saib COY tsiaj

3. Npis puas nyiam saib COY tsiaj?

4. Thaum Npis mus tom yaj tsiaj thawj zaug nws pom ib tug dey dawb,puas yog?

5. Puas muaj dais xim dawb?

6. Tus dais dawb mob, puas yog?

7. Npis xay tias tus dais dawb mob,puas yog?

8. Npis txiy hais tias tus dais dawb tsis mob, puas yog?

9. Npis niam hais dab tsi?

a. kuy tsis mob
b. tus dais dawb tsis mob
c. tsis txhob noj moy

10. Vim Ii cas Npis nyiam mus tom yaj tsiaj?

a. nws nyiam noj coy tsiaj
b. nws nyiam saib coy tsiaj
c. nws nyiam mog coy tsiaj hais ius Askiy
56

'-Vii
TAu13 HAl..)

r LUa "US PWG-

'T'-kA IS TAW
los

TltHA IS I<D TAW

NPI5
iHIAB NWS COV PHOoJ ['WG-
 57

NPIS THIAD NWS COY PHOOJ YWG

Npis muaj phooj ywg ntau ntau. Koj saib daim duab. Koj thiaj Ii paub Npis COy phooj ywg
zoo Ii cas.
Ib tug phooj ywg yog ib tug me nyuam dey. Tus me nyuam dey nyiam nyiam zaum saum
Npis lub taub hau. Muaj ib hnub tus me nyuam dey poob. Nws poob mus rau saum tus npua lub
taub hau. Tus npua tu siab. Nws hais rau tus me nyuam dey hais tias: ''Ua cas koj yuay ruam ua
luaj!"

TeebMeem:

1. Npis muaj pes tsawg tus phooj ywg?

2. Ib tug phooj ywg yog ib tug nyuj , puas yog?
3. Ib tug phooj ywg loj. Yog leej twg?
a. tus nas
b. tus npua
c. tus me nyuam miy
4. Tus m e nyuam dey nyiam nyob qhoy twg?
a. Nws nyiam nyob hauy lub tsey dey.
b. Nws nyiam nyob saum Npis lub xub pwg.
c. Nws nyiam nyob saum Npis lub taub hau.
5. Npis lub taub hau tuaj ob tug kub,puas yog?
6. Tus m e nyuam dey poob mus qhoy twg?
a. saum Npis ob txhais ko taw
b. saum tus qaib lub taub hau
c. saum tus npua lub taub hau
7. Vim Ii cas tus npua tu siab?
a. Nws tshaib plab.
b. Tus me nyuam dey poob rau saum npua lub taub hau.
c. Tus me nyuam miy tom npua ko taw ua si.
S. Koj xay tias tus me nyuam dey ntse los ruam ?
9. Tus npua hais Ii cas rau tus me nyuam dey?
a. ''Leej Muad,kuy txom txom nyem Ii es!"
b. ''Y og li ces tsis cheem koj!"
c. ''Ua cas koj ruam ua luaj!"
10. Npis xay noj qe. Nws thoy ib tug phooj ywg muab pub rau nws. Koj xay tias nws thoy leej
twg?
a. tus nas los tus me nyuam miy
b. tus npua los tus me nyuam dey
c. tus qaib los tus noog
58

NPI5

THIAB NWS COV PHooJ '(We:-

 59

SAID DAIM DUAD:

NPIS THIAD NWS COY PHOOJ YWG

1. Npis muaj pes tsawg lub taub hau?

2. Npis muaj pes tsawg lub caj dab?

3. Npis muaj pes tsawg txhais caj npab?

4 . Npis muaj pes tsawg txhais tes?

5. Npis muaj pes tsawg txhais ceg?

6. Npis muaj pes tsawg txhais taw?

7. Muaj yam tsiaj dab tsi nyob saum Npis lub taub hau?

8. Muaj yam tsiaj dab tsi nyob saum Npis ib txhais caj npab?

9 . Muaj yam tsiaj dab tsi nyob saum Npis i b txhais tes?

10. Muaj yam tsiaj dab tsi nyob ze ntawm Npis ib txhais ceg?

11. Muaj yam tsiaj dab tsi nyob saum Npis ib txhais taw?

12. Koj puas xav tias Npis nyiam tsiaj?

13. Koj puas xav tias tsiaj nyiam Npis?

14. Npis puas muaj tsiaj nyob saum nws lub caj dab?

15. Npis puas muaj tsiaj nyob saum nws lub xub pwg?
60

KUV LUB TSHEB

Kuv Iub tsheb Iub npe hu uaNplias. Nws yog ib Iub tsheb vaub kib. Nws yog xim daj .
Kuv hlub kuv Iub tsheb. Tej zaug nws tshaib plab. Kuv thiaj Ii pub roj rau nws noj. Nws tsis
nyiam noj mov,zaub,thiab nqaij.
Kuv thiab kuv Iub tsheb tsis zoo ib yam. Kuv tsis nyiam noj roj. Kuv nyiam noj mov ,
zaub,thiab nqaij zoo.

TeebMeem:

1. Kuv thiab kuv Iub tsheb nyiam noj ib yam, puas yog?

2. Kuv Iub tsheb Ioj Ioj, puas yog?

3. Kuv Iub tsheb xim zoo Ii cas?

4. Koj puas nyiam noj tsheb?

5. Koj nyiam noj dab tsi?

 61

TUS ME NYUAM DEV TOM NPIS KO TAW

Muaj ib hnub, Npis mus xyuas nws ib tug phooj ywg. Tus phooj ywg lub npe hu ua NpJias.
Nplias muaj ib tug me nyuam dey me me. Nws lub npe hu uaDub fau qhoy nws coy plaub xim
dub dub.
Dub nyiam tom neeg ko taw ua si. Thaum Npis tuaj xyuas Nplias, Dub tom Npis ko taw.
Npis tsis nyiam Ii. Tiam sis nws tsis ua dab tsi vim NpJias yog nws tus phooj ywg.

TeebMeem:

1. Npis mus dab tsi?

a. xyuas ib tug phooj ywg
b. yuay khoom tom khw
c. pab nws niam ua hauj Iwm
2. Npis tus phooj ywg hu Ii cas?
a. Hu ua Npis.
b. Hu ua Nplias.
c. Hu uaDub.
3. Npis tus phooj ywg tus dey lub npe hu Ii cas?
a. Hu ua Npis.
b. Hu ua Nplias.
c. Hu uaDub.
4. Vim Ii cas tus me nyuam dey no lub npe hu uaDub?
a. Nws nyiam saib cua daj cua dub.
b. Nws ob lub qhoy muag xim dub dub.
c. Nws coy plaub xim dub dub.
5. Dub loj loj, puas yog?
6. Npis ntshaiDub vim Npis me duaDub, puas yog?
7. Dub nyiam nyiam uadab tsi?
a. tom neeg lub taub hau
b. tom neeg ko taw
c. tom neeg tuag
8. Npis ntaus tus me nyuam dey, puas yog?
9. Vim Ii cas Npis tsis ntaus tus me nyuam dey?
a. Nws nyiam tus me nyuam dey.
b. Nws nyiam Nplias.
c. Nws nkees nkees Ii.
10. Vim Ii cas tus me nyuam dey tom Npis ko taw?
a. Nws lam ua si xwb.
b. Nws tshaib plab.
c. Nws tsis nyiam Npis Ii.
11. Thaum tus me nyuam dey tom nws ko taw, Npis puas tu siab?
62

TUS TSOV LOS XYUAS

Muaj ib hnub, ib tug tsov tuaj hauv kuv lub tsev. Tus tsov hais tias, "Kuv yuav noj koj ."
Tiam sis kuv teb tias, ''Koj noj kuv tsis tau. Kuv twb noj koj lawm."
Tus tsov mam Ii quaj quaj. Kuv thiaj Ii hlub hlub nws. Kuv los npaj nqaij qaib pub nws
noj.

TeebMeem:

1. Tus tsov puas tau noj kuv?

2. Kuv _____ tus tsov.

a. ntaus
b. yuav
c. hlub

3. Tus tsov yuav noj:

a. kuv COy me nyuam
b. nqaij qai b
c. zaub xav lav

4. Tus tsov no muaj tswv yim, puas yog?

5. Thaum kuv hais fau tus tsov kuv dag, puas yog?
I 63

I TXIV NRAVG NTSVAG THIAD COV VAS KAWM HAIS LVS HMOOD

I Thaum ub, Txiv Nraug Ntsuag txom txom nyem. Tsis muaj niam tsis muaj txiv. Tsis muaj
liaj tsis muaj tsev. Tsis muaj me nyuam dey nrog nws ua si.
I Muaj ib hnub, tuaj ib tug poj niam zoo zoo nkauj. Tus poj niam hais rau Txiv Nraug Ntsuag
hais tias, ''Nyob zoo Kuv tuaj kawm hais Ius Hmoob. Koj puas kam qhia kuv?"
.

Txiv Nraug Ntsuag hais tias, "Leej Muad! Kuv txom txom nyem es. Koj lam hais xwb.
I
Kuv qhia koj tsis tau. "
Tam sim no, tuaj ib tug txiv neej zoo nraug. Tus txiv neej hais rau Txiv Nraug Ntsuag hais
I tias, ''Nyob zoo. Kuv tuaj kawm hais Ius Hmoob. Koj puas kam qhia kuv thiab?"
Txiv Nraug Ntsuag tsis teb. Tiam sis Huab Tais Qaum Ntuj hlub hlub ob leeg no uas xav
I kawm hais Ius Hmoob. Nws tso nws tus ntxhais thiab nws tus tub los qhia. Txiv Nraug Ntsuag
pab thiab nws sau duab zoo heev.

TeebMeem:
1. Muaj pes tsawg leej xav kawm hais Ius Hmoob?
2. Muaj ob tug poj niam kawm hais Ius Hmoob, puas yog?
3. Vim Ii cas Txiv Nraug Ntsuag tsis xav ua nais khus?
a. Nws nkees nkees Ii.
b. Nws txom txom nyem.
C. Nws hais Ius Hmoob tsis tau.
4. Txiv Nraug Ntsuag muaj ib tug dey xwb, puas yog?
5. Txiv Nraug Ntsuag ua tsis tau dab tsi Ii, puas yog?
6. Leej twg tso coy nais khus los?
a. Huab Tais Qaum Ntuj
b. Txiv Nraug Ntsuag
C. Huab tais Fab kis teb
7. Tam sim no, Fab kis teb puas muaj Huab tais?
8. Vim Ii cas Huab Tais Qaum Ntuj tso nais khus los?
a. Nws xav tau nyiaj.
b. Nws chim rau coy nais khus.
C. Nws hlub COy uas xav kawm hais Ius Hmoob.
9. COy nais khus yog leej twg?
a. Huab tais COy tub mab tub qhe
b. Huab tais COy me nyuam
C. Huab tais COy qaib thiab os
10. Txiv Nraug Ntsuag pab coy nais khus ua dab tsi?
a. sau duab
b. ntxuav qhov rais
C. npaj zaub noj
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Part 4
Author:
Annie Jaiser et al.

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7dp906mj

Additional Info:
Reading Units

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
I

I READING UNITS
I

I
 67

-
IB TSAB NTAWV
-
- -
-
-

Hnub tim 23 lub 6 Wi, 1 989

Nco txog Kaub,

Koj puas nyob zoo? Kuv txais tau koj tsab ntawv lawm. Kuv zoo siab

thiab ua koj tsaug. Kuv tsev neeg peb sawv daws puav leej noj qab nyob

zoo. Kuv nco txog koj thiab koj poj niam me nyuam huv tib si.

Sib ntsib dua,

68

WB MUS PEM CHICAGO

Tus sau: Elizabeth Riddle

Hnub vas xaum, kuv mog kuv tus txiv mus pem Chicago. Wb mus noj mov ntawm lub tsev

noj mov Nyab Laj. Wb noj nqaij npuas, mov, thiab kab yob ua hmo. Wb muab kaus taum, zaub

xav lay, pum hub, dib, thiab zaub txhwb qhwv rau hauv daim ntawv kab yob noj. Wb haus dej.

Ces wb noj txiv tsawb qab zib, tiam sis wb tsis haus kasfes vim tsis nyiam. Zaub mov Nyab Laj

qab heev thiab tsis kim. Kuv xav roy qab mus pem lub tsev noj mov Nyab Laj no dua.
I 69

I NTXHUA KHAUB NCAWS

I
Tus sau: Elizabeth Riddle

I
Tsev neeg no muaj tsib leeg. Muaj leej txiv, leej niam, thiab peb tug me nyuam. Lawv txiv

I
mus tom khw lawm, tiam sis lawv niam tab tom ntxhua khaub ncaws. Ob tug me nyuam hlob tab
I

I tom pab nkawd niam·ziab khaub ncaws. Tus me nyuam yau tab tom nrog nws tus dey ua si. Nws

I
10m zem kawg.

I
70

MUAS KHAUB NCAWS

Tus sau: Elizabeth Riddle

Niam xav muas tsho tiv no fau nws coy me nyuam. Nws xav yuav ib Iub me thiab ib Iub Ioj.

COy me nyuam nyiam tsho tiv no xiav. Niam xav muas coy tsho tiv no uas Iuv nqi Iawm.

t
ib Iub tsho tiv no me

ib Iub tsho tiv no Ioj

I 71

I KUV TSEV NEEG

I
Tus sau: Elizabeth Riddle

I
Kuv niam txiv muaj yim tus me nyuam. Nkawd muaj plaub tug tub thiab plaub tug ntxhais.
I
COy ntxhais yog COy hlob, COy tub yog COy yau. Kuv yog tus hlob. Kuv thiaj Ii muaj peb tug

I niam hluas thiab plaub tug nus yau.

Thaum peb tseem yau, peb nyob ua ke hauv ib lub tsev loj loj nyob hauv lub xeev
I
Connecticut. Tam sim no, peb tsis nyob ua ke lawm. Kuv niam txiv nyob mam lub xeev Florida.

I Kuv ib tug niam hluas thiab nws tus txiv nyob mam Florida thiab. Nkawd muaj ib tug ntxhais.

Nws muaj ob xyoos. Nws lub npe hu ua Nicole.

I
Kuv ib tug niam hluas thiab nws tus txiv nyob hauv lub xeev North Carolina ze ntuj hiav

I txwv. Nkawd muaj ib tug tub hu ua Christopher. Nws muaj plaub xyoos.

Kuv ib tug niam hluas thiab ob tug nus tseem nyob bauv Connecticut, tiam sis lawv tsis nyob
I
ua ib zos. Tus niam hluas nyob hauv Hartford. Nws tsis tau yuav txiv. Ib tug nus nyob hauv lub

I zas hu ua Orange. Nws muaj poj niam thiab ib tug tub hu ua Justin. Justin muaj yim xyoo. Kuv

ib tug nus uas nyob hauv Connecticut tsis tau muaj poj niam, tiam sis lwm xyoo nws yuav yuav
I
poj niam.

I Kuv ob tug nus nyob hauv lub zas New York, nkawd tsis tau muaj poj niam thiab. Ib tug ua

hauj lwm lawm tiam sis ib tug tseem kawm ntawv xwb. Lub rau hli ntuj thiab lub xya hli ntuj

nkawd mus mam Central America. Nkawd mus ncig xyuas teb chaws thiab mus kawm hais Ius

Spanish.

Kuv thiab kuv tus txiv nyob hauv Indiana. Ib xyoos wb mus xyuas kuv niam txiv ob peb

zaug mam Florida. Tej zaum nkawd tuaj xyuas wb pem Indiana thiab. Tej zaum wb mus tim

Connecticut, tim New York thiab mam North Carolina mus xyuas kuv COy niam hluas thiab kuv

coy nus.
Teeb Meem:

1 . Tus sau yog tus ntxhais yau, puas yog?

2. Tus sau, nws txiv thiab nws niam muaj pes tsawg tus me nyuam?

3. Thaum tus sau yog me nyuam hluas nws tsev neeg nyob qhov twg?

4. Tam sim no, nws txiv thiab nws niam nyob ze xeev Indiana, puas yog?

5. Tus sau coy niam hluas nyob qhov twg?

6. Tus sau nyob qhov twg?

7. COy nus uas nyob hauv New York tab tom ua dab tsi?

8. Koj puas xav tias tus sau nyiam mus xyuas nws tsev neeg?

9. Draw the author's family tree and label it with the appropriate kinship terms. .
 73

U A NCUAV

Hmoob key ua ncuay kuj yog ua Ii no. Thaurn yus cub moy siay lawm ces yus tsaws lub tsu

coj los hliy coy moy rau hauy lub dab ncuay ces yus mam Ii muab rab dauj los tuay. Yus yuay

tsum tuay kom coy moy mos mos thiaj Ii zoo coj los puab ua ncuay.

Ua ntej ntawm yus yuay muab coy ncuay no coj los tu thiab puab ua tej lub me me, yus yuay

tsum muab n kaub qes daj coj los pleey tes thiab pleey lub yab rau ncuay. Yus yuay tsum muab

n plooj tsawb coj los ntshi ua tej daim me me kom zoo cia qhwy ncuay thiab.

Thaum ntawd, yus mam Ii rub COy ncuay tawm hauy lub dab ncuay los rau hauy lub yab.

Yus mam Ii muab coy ncuay tu ua tej thooj me me coj los qhwy rau hauy coy nplooj tsawb.

Thaurn qhwy tau coy ncuay lawm, yus mam Ii muab coj los ci noj.

La Ius nyuaj:
(lub) tsu 'rice steamer'
tuav 'to pound'

puab 'to flatten'

pleev 'to smear'

ntshi 'to tear'

rub 'to pull'

tu 'to break, to twist off

d 'to roast/to toast (oyer or beside fire)'

74

VA PAJ NTAVB

COY poj niam npaj zam tseg rau hnub noj peb caug. COY poj niam rau rau siab ua paj ntaub

thiab xaws khaub ncaws. Thaum txog peb caug lawm sawy daws thiaj tau hnay tshiab.

COY poj niam tuay txhuy, tsOOY txhuy, ris dej, tuay ncuaY coj los ci rau sawy daws noj thiab

ua lwm yam hauj lwm.

Lo Ius nyuaj:

zam 'to dress up in fancy, colorful clothing'

tseg 'to set aside'

noj peb caug literally, to eat the thirtieth-i.e., 'to eat the New Year feast' (the New Year
celebration is traditionally held on the thirtieth day of the twelfth lunar month, hence the

use of peb caug to refer to it).

tuav 'to pound'

tsoov 'to winnow'

d 'to toast'

1 . Leej twg npaj zam?

2. COY poj niam ua hauj Iwm dab tsi?

3. Thaum txog peb caug lawm sawv daws thiaj yuay tau hnay dab tsi?
I 75

I DAB NEEG NAB QA TSIAV

I Tus sau: Lisfwm Vaj

I
#1

I Nab qa tsiav txawj khiav

I Tus xib fwb qhib nws lub rooj sau ntawv. Ib tug nab qa tsiav khiav tawm los. COy tub

ntxhais kawm ntawv luag luag. Maiv Tooj luag thiab hnoos. Tub Riam khob khob nws lub rooj
I sau ntawv. Tub Sawm sawv mus ntes tus nab qa tsiav tab sis tus nab qa tsiav khiav tawm tim lub
qhov rooj mus lawm. Tub Sawm thiaj Ii roy qab los zaum.
I
#2

I Tus xib fwb yug nab qa .tsiav

I Tus xib fwb lub npe hu ua Yawg Laum yug ib tug nab qa tsiav. Nws tus nab qa tsiav
nkag nkag nyob saum nws lub rooj sau ntawv. Nws tus nab qa tsiav ua rau tus ntxhais kawm

I ntawv lub npe hu ua Maiv Tooj luag luag. Maiv Tooj luag luag ua rau tus tub kawm ntawv lub npe
hu ua Tub Riam luag thiab hnoos. Tub Riam thiaj mus sawv ntsug tim lub qhov rais.
I
#3
I Tus x ib fwb tsaug zog

I Ib tug nab qa tsiav nkag tawm tim lub qhov rooj los. Nws maj mam nkag los nres ze ze

ntawm Maiv Tooj lub rooj zaum. Maiv Tooj thiaj taw taw tes rau tus nab qa tsiav, tus nab qa tsiav
I thiaj Ii khiav tawm tim lub qhov rooj roy qab mus.lawm.

Tub Sawm pom Maiv Tooj ua Ii ntawd, Tub Sawm thiaj Ii luag luag. Tub Riam tsis paub
I dab tsi, Tub Riam thiaj Ii tsis zoo siab. Tub Riam thiaj Ii khob nws lub rooj sau ntawv. Nws thiaj
Ii ua rau tus xib fwb tsaug tsaug zog tsim dheev. Tus xib fwb tsis paub dab tsi. Tus xib fwb
I thiaj Ii sawv mus qhib lub qhov rooj thiab hais tias: ''Nkag los!"
 ·
76

#4

Ntshai nab qa tsiav

Tub Riam yuav zaum. Tub Sawm ho yuav sawv. Maiv Tooj ho yuav nee mus saum nws
lub rooj zaum. COY tub ntxhais kawm ntawv ua Ii no vim yog muaj ib tug nab qa tsiav khiav los 'Z£

ze ntawm lawv coy rooj zaum.

Tus xib fwb tbiaj hais kom Maiv Tooj mus qhib lub qhov rooj. Maiv Tooj ho taw taw tes
thiab qw qw kom Tub Riam mus qbib Jub qhov rooj. Tub Riam ho tig mus hais kom Tub Sawm
mus qbib Jub qhov rooj.

Thaum Jawv sib qw sib qw, tus nab qa tsiav khiav tawm tim lub qhov rais mus lawm.
i
I

I 77

I TUS TSOV THIAB TUS QAV

I Tus sau: Lauj Pov Vaj

I
Puag thaum ub, muaj ib tug Qav thiab ib tug Tsov nkawd los sib ntsib. Tus Tsov tshaib

I tshaib plab Ii. Tus Tsov thiaj hais rau tus Qav tias, "Qav, wb sib twv dhia. Yog koj dhia yeej kuv

I no ces cia Ii, ho yog koj dhia tsis yeej kuv no ces kuv noj koj." Tus Qav xav xav ib pliag, tus Qav

I xav tau tswv yim ces nws thiaj Ii hais tias, "Ua Ii los ua Ii." Nkawd mus txog ntawm ib tug cay loj

5 loj nyob tav key ces tus Tsov txawm hais tias, "Qav, wb sib twv dhia hla tus caY no saib leej twg
I
dhia. tau. deb dua." Tus Qav ntsia ntsia tus cay tall ces tus Qav thiaj Ii hais tias, "Tsov, ua Ii koj
I
hais; koj dhia ua ntej." Lub caij no, tus Tsov xav xav noj tus Qav kawg Ii; ces tus Tsov thiaj Ii hais

I tias, "Ua Ii ntawd los tau." Thaurn tus Tsov tab torn yuav dhia, tus Qav txawm tuav kiag tus Tsov

I tus two Tus Tsov ib plhaw hla plaws tus cay rau sab tod. Thaum tus Tsov dhia ntawd, tus Tsov

I 10 tus t w ib xyob* tus Qav dhau plaws tus Tsov rau pem hauv ntej lawm. Thaum tus Tsov dhia mus

txog sab nraud, tus Tsov thiaj Ii hais tias, "Qav, koj ho dhia tuaj las." Tus Qav teb torn tus Tsov
I
hauv ntej tuaj tias, "Kuv nyob torn no os." Tus Tsov xav xav, tus Tsov tsis paub yog vim Ii cas
I
tus Qav thiaj Ii dhia tau deb dua tus Tsov lawm. Tus Tsov tsis ntseeg tus Qav ntawd Ii; tus Tsov

thiaj Ii hais dua tias, "Koj muaj zog diam,t wb roy qab dhia dua rau sab tod soj." Tus Qav roy qab

I 15 teb dua tias, "Ua Ii los tau." Thaum tus Tsov tab torn yuav dhia, tus Qav roy qab tuav dua tus

Tsov tus tw kiag. Tus Tsov ib plhaw hla plaws tus cay rau sab tod. Tus Tsov tus tw tib xyob tus

Qav dhau plaws tus Tsov rau pem hauv ntej lawm. Thaum tus Tsov dhia mus txog sab nraud

lawm, tus Tsov hais tias, "Qav, koj nyob qhov twg? Koj puas tau dhia tuaj?" Tus Qav teb pem

*
'Push in flight.'
t Diam is an intensifier which adds emphasis to the verb phrase "You are so strong."
 78

hauv ntej tuaj tias, "Kuv nyob pem no os." Lub caij no tus Tsov muaj ntsis npau taws* lawm vim

20 tias nws dhia tsis yeej tus Qav Ii. Tus Tsov hais dua chim tsawv fau tus Qav tias, "Qav, koj muaj

zog ua luaj, wb roy qab dhia dua ib zaugt saib leej twg yeej." Tus Qav teb dua tias, "Koj xav dhia

dua los tau, tsis ua Ii cas." Zaum no tus Tsov sib sib zog dhia kom tus Qav dhia tsis yeej kiag, tab

sis tus Qav roy qab tuav dua tus Tsov tus two TusTsov tib plhaw hla plaws tus cay, tus Tsov tus

tw tib xyob tus Qav ya plaws mus tsoo** tsob ntoo loj loj ces ntshav tawm tawm hauv tus Qav lub

25 qhov ncauj los. Tus Tsov hais dua tias, "Qav, koj nyob qhov twg?" Tus Qav mob mob nws twb

yuav tuag, tab sis nws tseem hais taus Ius thiab. Nws thiaj teb tus Tsov tias, "Kuv nyob pem no

os." Thaum no tus Tsov chim heev heev lawm, tus Tsov thiaj Ii los hais fau tus Qav tias, "Kuv

tshaib tshaib plab Ii kuv yuav noj koj." Tus Qav tsis paub yuav ua Ii cas Ii. Tus Qav txawm hais

tias, "Koj yuav noj kuv! Kuv twb tho koj lub siab noj tas lawm las as. Koj sim saib seb kuv lub

30 qhov ncauj twb 10 lott ntshav tiag." Tus Tsov los saib tus Qav lub qhov ncauj ua ciav 10 10 ntshav

tiag. Lub caij no tus Tsov ntshai tus Qav heev heev Ii, tus Tsov thiaj Ii khiav thiab dhia siab tshaj

qab nthab mus ploj ntais tom hay zoov lawm vim tias nws tsis xav kom tus Qav roy qab noj dua

nws ntxiv lawm. Tus Qav sab heev, ces nws txawm pw hauv tsob qab ntoos. Nws pw ib chim

nws mam Ii sawv los. Nws mloog nws lub cev nOOm Ii .cov pob txha tsis lov, ces nws mam Ii maj

35 mam dhia taug key lawm.

* 'Angry.'
t Ib zaug = 'one time, once.'
** 'Collision. '
tt 'To stick.'
I 79

I MEDICA L HISTORY FORM"

I Tus neeg txhais Ius: Martin Platt

I 1. GENERAL INFORMATION
a. Koj tuaj ntawm Refugee Clinic no (kem tsev kho mob no) thawj zaug yog thaum twg?
'When did you first come to the Refugee Clinic?'
I
b. Koj yug thaum twg?
I 'When were you born?'

I c. Koj tuaj teb chaws twg tuaj?

'What country are you from?'
I
d. Koj puas txawj hais lwm yam Ius?
I 'Do you speak other languages?'
Lus dab tsi?
I 'What language( s)?'

I e. Koj tuaj txog Asmesliskas Teb thaum twg?

'When did you come to the United States?'

I
f. Koj puas tau mus tim lub tsev kho mob kuam plaub theem (txy thaum uas koj tuaj txog Seattle
no)?
I 'Did you go to the Seattle Refugee Screening Clinic at Pacific Medical Center (when you first
arrived in Seattle)?
I
g. Lawv puas tau muab ib tug naj npawb kho mob rau koj?
I 'Did they give you a patient number/case number?'
Naj npawb dab tsi?
I 'What number?'

I 2. PAST MEDICAL HISTORY (= Kab mob kev nkeeg yav tag los)
a. TB (= mob ntsws)
Koj puas tau hna tsuaj sim kev mob ntsws los dua?
'Have you ever had a TB skin test?'

" This is a translation of a medical history fonn used at a Seattle refugee clinic. The translator (00 neeg txhais
Ius), Martin Platt, studied Hmong at SEASSI in 1988 and 1989. Tliis translation was his 1989 class project.
80

Thaum twg?
'When?'
Lawv hais lias koj mob los tsis mob?
'Was it positive or negative?' (Literally, 'Did they say you were sick or not?')
Koj puas tau siv tshuaj mob ntsws los dual
'Have you ever taken medicine for TB?'
Tshuaj dab tsi? Zoo Ii cas/yam twg?
'What medicine? What kind?'
Koj puas tau thaij (yees) daim duab es-xam-les (X-ray) ntawm lub hauv siab los dual
'Have you ever had a chest X-ray taken?'
Tus kws kho mob hais Ii cas txog daim duab ntawd?
'What did the doctor say about it?'
Thasmadas los tsis thasmadas? *
'Normal or abnormal?'

b. O b-Gyn
Koj muaj pes tsawg tus me nyuam?
'How many children do you have?'
Koj tau xeeb tub pes tsawg zaus lawm?
'How many times have you been pregnant?'
Koj puas tau rho me nyuam dual
'Have you ever had an abortion?'
Koj puas siv khoom ua kom tsis txhob xeeb tub/muaj me nyuam?
'Do you use contraceptives?'
Khoom dab tsilydm twg?
'What kindT
Koj puas tau mus tom kem tsev kho mob rau coy poj niam los dual
'Have you ever been to the women's clinic?'

c. Smoking
Koj puas haus luam yeeb?
'Do you smoke cigarettes?'
Ib hnub koj haus pes tsawg pob?
'How many packs per day?'
Koj haus luam yeeb tau pes tsawg xyoo lawm?
'How many years have you been smoking?'

*
Thasmadas is a loanword from Lao (and Thai).
I 81

I
d. Alco hol

I Koj puas haas cawv?

'Do you drink alcohol?'

I Ib hnub los tias ib lub lim piam (as thiv) koj haus npaum Ii cas?
'How much do you drink in one day or one week?'

I
e. Allergies
Puas muaj tej yam tshuaj los tias tej yam mov zaub uas tsis haum koj?
I
'Are there any medications or foods to which you are allergic?'
Yog dab tsi?
I 'What are they?'

I f. Medications
Niaj hnub no koj puas siv yam tshuaj dab tsi?
I 'Are you currently using any medications?'

I g. Surgeries (= Kev phais)

Koj puas tau raugphais los dua?
I 'Have you ever had surgery?'
Thaum twg?
I 'When?'
Nyob qhov twg?
I 'Where?'
Phais dab tsi?

I 'What kind of operation?'

Koj puas tau mas pw kho mob hauv coy tsev kho mob los dua?
'Have you ever been hospitalized?'
I
Thaum ntawd koj pw ntev Ii cas (pes tsawg hmo)?
'How long did you stay? (How many nights?)'
I Thaum twg?
'When?'
I Qhov twg?
'Where?'
I Vim Ii cas? (mob dab tsi?)
'Why? (For what illness?)'
I

I
82

h. Other conditions/Other medical care

Koj puas tau mus lwm lub tsev klw mob thiab?
'Have you gone to other hospitals?'
Thaumtwg?
'When?'
Qhovtwg?
'Where?'
Vim Ii cas? (mob dab tsi?)
'Why? (For what illness?)'

3 . FAMILY HISTORY
a. Koj niam nyob qhovtwg?
'Where does your motherlive?'
b. Koj txiv ne?
'What about your father?'
c. Koj COy kwv tij uas nyob hauv ib tse neeg nyob qhov twg?
'Where do your siblings live?'
d. Koj coy me nyuum nyob qhov twg?·
'Where do your children live?'
Koj muaj pes tsawg tus me nyuam tub?
'How many sons do you have?'
Nwslnkawd/lawv muaj pes tsawg xyoo lawm?
'How old is helare they?'
Koj muaj pes tsawg tus me nyuam ntxhais?
'How many daughters do you have?'
Nwslnkawdllawv muaj pes tsawg xyoo lawm?
'How old is she/are they?'

4. SOCIAL mSTORY

a. Thaum ub koj ua hauj lwm dab tsi nyob tim Teb Chaws Los Tsuas . . ua ntej key tsov rog?
.

'What work did you do in Laos . . . before the war?'

... tom qab key tsov rog?
, . " after the war?'
b. Lub caij no koj ua hauj lwm dab tsi?
'What work do you do now?'
I 5. CHffiF COMPLAINTS
Koj mob qhov /wg?

I 'What's the matter?' (Literally, 'Where does it hurt?')

Dab tsi ntxiv?
'What else?'
I
6. CONSTITUTIONAL
I Koj noj mov puas qab?
'How is your appetite?'
I Koj puas niaj hnub sem nqaij/yuag zuj zus?
'Are you losing weight?'
I Koj puas tsaug zog zoo?
'Do you sleep well?'
I Koj puas kub ib ce los tias ua npaws tshee tshee?
'Do you have a fever or chills?'

I Koj puas tawin hws (thaum tsaus ntuj los lwm lub sij hawm)?
'Do you sweat? (at night or at other times?)'
I
7. SKIN

I Koj puas muaj mob dab tsi ntawm koj tej tawv nqaij?
'Do you have any skin problems?'

I
8. HEENT

Koj puas mob taub haul

I 'Do you have headaches?'
Koj puas pom key tseeb?
I 'Do you see clearly?'
Koj puas hnov Ius zoo?
I 'Do you hear well?'
Koj puas mob caj dab los mob xub qwb?
I 'Do you have any neck pains?'
Koj puas mob pob ntseg?
I 'Do you have problems with your ears?'
Koj puas mob ntawm qhov ncauj los hauv lub qab?
I 'Do you have any problems with your mouth or throat?'
Koj puas mob ntawm qhov ntswg?
I 'Do you have any problems with your nose?'

I
84

9. RESPIRATORY

Koj puas hooos heev heev?

'Do you cough a lot?'
Thaum koj hnoos, koj puas hooos los ntshav?
'Do you cough up blood?'
Koj puils txog txog siav ... thaum koj ua hauj lwm?
'Do you have shortness of breath . . . when you do work?
... thaum ko j tsis ua dab tsi?
' . . . when you're not doing anything?'
Koj puas mob hauv siab thaum koj ua pa?
'Do you have chest pains when you breathe?'

10. CARDIAC
Koj puas mob hauv siab ... thaum koj ua hauj lwm?
'Do you have chest pains . . . when you do work?
...thaum koj tsis ua dab tsi?
' . . . when you're not doing anything?'
Koj puas nphob vog/Koj puas 0 tes 0 taw?
'Do you have edema I Do you have swollen hands and feet?'
Koj lub plawv puas dhia heev heev?
'Do you have palpitations?'

11. GI
Koj puas mob plab mog?
'Do you have abdominal pain?'
Koj puas xeev siab?
'Do you have nausea?'
Koj puas ntuav?
'Do you vomitT
Koj puas zawvplab?
'Do you have diarrhea?'
Koj puas kem quaY?
'Are you constipated?'
Ko] tso quay puas los ntshav?
'Is there blood in your stool?'
Koj puas daj ntseg?
'Do you have jaundice?'
I 85

I 12. GU
Koj puas mob dab tsi thoum koj tso zis?
I '00 you have any pain while urinating?'

Txhua txhua hnub, koj puas tso zis ·ntau ntau zaum?
I '00 you urinate very (too) frequently?'

Koj tso zis puas los ntshov?

I 'Is there blood in your urine?'
Koj puas mob raum?

I '00 you have kidney trouble?'

Koj puas tau ua rwj ntawm qhov chows mos los dua?

I 'Have you ever had genital ulcers?'

Koj puas tau mob kos cees/mob yees/mob uav?
'Have you ever had any venereal diseases?'
I Koj ua dab tsi rau, cov kab mob kos cees ntawd thiaj 2000 lawm/thiaj khees lawm?
'What did you do to cure that venereal disease?'
I
13. NEUROLOGICAL
I Koj puas tau qaug dab peg los dua?
'Have you ever had seizures?'
I Koj puas daj muag heev?
, Are you often dizzy?'

I Koj puas tau mob heev heev ua rau koj tsis nco qab tsheej tsam?
'Have you lost consciousness?'

I Koj pob ntseg puas quaj?

'Do your ears ring?'

I Koj puas hnov Ius tseeb?/Koj hnov Ius puas nyuaj?

'00 you hear c1early?/Do you have difficulty hearing?'

I Koj puas muaj tej qho loog loog?

'Do you feel numb (somewhere)?'
Koj puas mob rhiab nkuav?
I '00 you feel a tingling?'

Koj puas pom kev zoo?

I 'Do you see well?'
Koj ib ce puas tsaug tsaug?
I '00 you feel weak?'

Koj puas mob dab tsi ntxiv?

I 'Do you have any other problems?'

I
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Part 5 Nouns
Author:
Annie Jaiser et al.

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9038q1pt

Additional Info:
Nouns

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
II 89

II NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE

IJ STRUCTURE OF THE NOUN PHRASE

Hmong noun phrases can include the following constituents (parentheses indicate optional
elements):

(possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative)

Each of these constituents as well as rules governing the optionality or non-optionality of the .
various elements is discussed in detail in the appropriate sections below. To get started, though,
some general comments about each constituent along with illustrative examples will be helpful.

I. NOUN PHRASE = NOUN

Minimally, a noun phrase is made up of a noun, common as in (la) or proper as in (lb-c).

1. a. tsev
'house'

b. Nplias
'Blia (girl's name-literally, "grasshopper")'

c. Txiv ntxawm Xyooj

uncle Xiong
I 'Uncle Xiong (father's younger brother)
,

I II. NOUN PHRASE = CLASSIFIER + NOUN

I Hmong nouns are invariable; they are not marked for gender (masculine, feminine, or
neuter), number (singular vs. plural), or case (nominative, accusative, dative, etc.). What
characterizes them is the fact that they have a classifier associated with them which points to certain
I properties of the noun-natural kind (e.g., human, animal, animate vs. non-animate), shape,
function, etc. The classifier for 'house' is lub; it is one of the two most common classifiers in

I Hmong, comes before the noun, and should be learned at the same time as the noun. Noun
phrases with classifiers often, but not always, translate as definite noun phrases in English since
one of the grammatical functions of classifiers is to make definite reference (see "Discourse
I Functions of Classifiers" for details).

2. lub tsev
clf house
'(the) house'

NOTE: There can be only one classifier per noun phrase.

r
90

III. NOUN PHRASE = QUANTIFIER + CLASSIFIER + NOUN

Quantifiers come in two flavors: numeral quantifiers such as one, two, three, etc. as in
(3a), and non-numeral quantifiers such as much/many, few, little, etc. as in (3b). Quantifiers
come before the classifier + noun sequence (but see section on non-numeral quantifiers for other
possibilities).

3. a. t sib lub tsev

five elf house
'five houses'

b. ntau lub tsev

many elf house
'many houses'

IV. NOUN PHRASE = POSSESSIVE + CLASSIFIER + NOUN

Possessives take the form of simple personal pronouns and come before the classifier +
noun sequence.

4. kuv lub tsev

IImy elf house
'my house'

V. NOUN PHRASE = CLASSIFIER + NOUN + DEMONSTRATIVE

Demonstratives, on the other hand, come AFTER the classifier + noun sequence.

5. lub tsev no
elf house this
'this house'

VI. NOUN PHRASE = CLASSIFIER + NOUN + ADJECTIVE

There is no adjective class per se in Hmong, but stative verbs (e ..g., to be big/white/old!
full, etc.) can be used as adjectives. The great majority of them follow the noun they modify, as
seen in (6).
6. lub tsev loj
elf house big
'the big house'
I 91

I There are, however, a few common adjectives which occur before the noun, following the
Chinese pattern. These inelude niag 1. 2. 'old (denigrating)'; me nyuam
'large, great, major';
I 'little'; tuom 'great' (from the Chinese numeral "one"); and qub 'former, original.' Qub can also
occur in the canonical adjective slot; it then means 'old, worn (of things).' This contrast is

I illustrated in (7).

7. a. lub tsev qub

I elf house old
'the old house'

I
b. lub qub tsev

I
elf former house
'the former/original house'

I
Finally, noun phrases can be made up of pronouns or elassifiers standing in for nouns:

I
VII. NOUN PHRASE PRONOUN
I
=

The same set of pronouns can be used in subject and object noun phrase position, and there

I is no gender distinction in the third person singular.

I
8. Nag hmokuv pomnws.
last night 1 see himlher/it
'I saw him/her/it last night.'
I

I VIII. NOUN PHRASE = CLASSIFIER USED PRONOMINALLY

When the referent of a noun can be understood from the spoken or written context, the
I noun is typically omitted, leaving its elassifier standing in for it pronominally.

I 9. a. Lub tsev no yog kuv lub tsev.

elf house this be my elf house

I
'This house is my house.'

b. Lub no yog kuv lub.

I elf this be my elf
'This one is mine.'

I
 92

NOUN CLASSIFIERS

I. INTRODUCTION

Languages have different ways of grouping nouns into categories; for instance, European

languages such as French, Spanish, or German use gender (maSCUline, feminine, neuter) as an

organizing principle. In many languages of the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Southeast Asia, nouns

fall into different classes on the basis of criteria other than gender. All the nouns fitting into a

given category are used with a part of speech called a classifier.

There is a concept resembling classifiers in English: note that we talk of a grain ofsalt (not
asa/t), a bar ofsoap (not a soap), an ear or a kernel ofcorn (not acorn), a drop, body, or glass of
waler (not a water), etc. In other words, when we want to individuate and count mass nouns such

as salt, soap, com, water, we have to use special measure words such as grain, bar, ear, kernel,

. drop. body, glass, etc. These measure words are akin to classifiers. Their usage is limited to a

fairly small number of nouns in English, but in Hmong and other classifier languages, every noun
has a classifier associated with it. Hence, as it is best to learn the gender of a noun along with the

noun itself in languages such as French, Spanish, or German, it is best to learn the classifier along

with the noun when acquiring vocabulary in languages such as Hmong, Chinese, Vietnamese,

Lao, Thai, and Khmer.

In classifier system languages, nouns are divided into classes according to properties

shared by the nouns in a given category. In Hmong, for example, nouns referring to spoken
words (e.g., story, legend, song, prayer) are considered to fall into a natural category and thus

occur with the classifier zaj. The classification criteria range from universally recognized noun

attributes such as natural kind (human, animal, mineral), shape (long, flat, round), function (tool,

vehicle), material (wood, cloth, bamboo), etc. to more language/culture specific ones. (Thai has a

special classifier for monks, for instance.) Class membership is sometimes also motivated by

more abstract principles such as metaphor, metonymy, or mythology.

I
I 93

I By revealing how nouns are considered to be members of a natural class, and by exposing

I us to unfamiliar cognitive categories, classifiers give us insights not only into the Hmong world
view, but also into the human mind. Discovering how nouns are grouped together is a great deal

I of fun, and the best strategy to familiarize yourself with classifiers is to get your hands dirty.
Hence the section on classifiers starts out with two hands-on exercises which wiII help you figure
I out the principles underlying noun categorization. The first exercise introduces two common
classifiers, daim and tub, via pictures. The second exercise is an exercise in semantic
I categorization: you wiII look at several common classifiers and determine with which classes o f
nouns they occur; using your findings you will also be asked t o guess the classifier for certain
I nouns and to justify your choices.

I
Next comes a summary explanation of the most common classifiers in Hmong, followed

I by two exercises in which you are asked to fill in the correct classifier.

I So far classifiers have been discussed with respect to the meaning of the nouns with which
. they occur. To complete the picture it is necessary to know why and when classifiers are used; the
I next section focuses on the discourse functions of classifiers as well as the grammatical

I
constructions in which they occur.

I The section concludes with the description of a game activity designed to provide oral
practice in associating particular classifiers with particular nouns.

I
94

I I . DAIM OR LUB?

Daim and lub are two of the most common classifiers in Hmong. Look at the pictures in
. .
(1-8), .and try to figure out why daim is used in (1-4) and tub in (5-8). Hint: concentrate on the
daim examples first. What characteristic(s) do the nouns associated with daim share that the ones
with lub do not? Test out your hypotheses by filling in daim or lub in (9-16).
1. 2.
o
•

.!lilim. ntawv l1iIim teb

3. 4.

(� )

.!lilim. nplooj .!lilim. sev

5. 6.

hlhpob
7. 8.

hlhlauj kaub hihkausmom

I 95
Fill in the classifIer using either daim or tub. Iustify your choice with a short statement
I 10.
9. I, ,

I •

I �
,
I
__ duab
Why?
I
12.

I
__ nroog __ p huam so n�wg
Why?
I Why?

13. I IN�
' .�:::.;; 14.

I tiab
� _liaj __

Why? Why?

15. 16.

__ hnub
__ txiv pos liab
Why? Why?
96

III. HMoNG CLASSIFIER EXERCISE

As you have noticed, Hmong nouns appear in a single form: there are no plural suffixes,
no grammatical genders, no definite/indefinite articles, etc. What characterizes them is that they
have a classifier associated with them; the choice of which classifier goes with a particular noun is
determined by what the noun refers to. For instance, all nouns referring to words traditionally
considered spoken- i.e., shared and/or passed on via the long-standing oral tradition characteristic
of Hmong culture-are preceded by the classifier zaj ; this set of spoken words includes story,
legend, song, prayer, saying, etc. While as many as seventy-five classifiers have been recorded
for the language, we will look only at some of the most common ones in this exercise.

Part A: Carefully examine the data below and determine with which semantic categories
of nouns the following classifiers are associated.

l. rob :

2. daim:

3. txoj:

4. phau:

5. tawb:

6. tsab:

l. txoj hlua rope 17. daimpam blanket

2. daimtxiag (wooden) board 18. plulUntawv book
3. rab rauj hammer 19. rabciaj pliers
4. daim nplooj leaf of a tree 20. rab diav spoon
5. tawb qaub ncaug spit, spittle 21. daim teb field
6. rabphom rifle 22. tsab ntawv letter (mail)
7. daim tiab skirt 23. txoj xov string, twine
8. tsab xov (written) message 24. tawb quav dung
9. daim ntawv sheet of paper 25. txoj hmoov destiny, fate
10. rab hneev crossbow 26. rab kaw saw
11. phou nyiaj wad (of money) 27. daim liaj rice paddy
12. txoj hmab creeper (vine) 28. rabhlau hoe
13. rab koob needle 29. daim sev apron
14. txoj sia life 30. rabtxiab scissors
15. tawb zis unne 3l. txoj kev road, path
16. txoj houj lwm work
I

I Part B: Classifiers and body parts. Carefully examine the data below and determine with
which characteristics of body parts the following classifiers are associated.
I 1. txhais:

I 2. tus:

3. txoj:
I 4. lub:

I 1. lub siab liver 14. txhais res hand

I
2. tus nplaig tongue 15. txoj hnyuv intestines
3. lub cev body 16. tus tw tail

I
4. txoj leeg nerves 17. lub xub pwg shoulder
5. lub plawv heart 18. t;raj hlab ntsha velDS

I
6. tus qau pems 19. lub hauv caug knee
7. lub taub hau head 20. txhais ceg leg
arm
I
8. txhais caj npab 21. tus pob txha bone
9. lub mis breast 22. lub ntaws navel

I
10. txoj sawv tendons 23. txhais ko taw foot
11. txhais ncej puab thigh 24. lub qhov muag eye
ear
I
12. lub pob ntseg 25. tus ntiv tes finger
13. txoj hlab ntaws umbilical cord 26. lubpim vagina

I
Part C: Using your answers to Parts A and B, determine which classifier is associated

I
with the words listed below. Briefly justify your choice of classijier.

Classifier Why?
I 1. qhib ntsia screwdriver

I
2. plab stomach, abdomen

3. ntawv sau notebook

I 4. xov hlau iron wire

5. tav
I
rib

6. duab photograph, picture

I
98

7. cajhlaub lower leg

8. duav hlau shovel

9. hauv siab chest (body part)

10. ntaub (piece of) cloth

11. ntiv taw toe

12. diav rawg fork

13. raum kidney

14. kab das blackboard

15. quay twm cow dung

And what's your guess for #16?

16. cai law

I �

I IV. SOME COMMON CLASSIFIERS·

I Daim Flat things such as fields, pages, etc.

Lub Round or bulky objects, clothes (see also note below).
Nkawm Things that come in pairs such as earrings, socks, etc.
I Plum Books or things that come in volumes.
Rab Instruments, utensils.
I Tus People, animals, things that are long and cylindrical (see also note below).
Tsob Plants, bushes, foliage.

I Txoj
Txhais
Things that come in length such as threads, wire, rope, roads, etc.
Arms, hands, feet.

I A. A NOTE ON THE CLASSIFIERS r.J!..§. AND !d!.!!.

I Tus and lub are the most common classifiers in Hmong; tus is used with nouns referring to
human beings, animals, things that closely affect people (such as illness), and things that come in

I
"short" lengths (such as tree); lub is used with nouns referring not only to round and bulky things,
but also to buildings (such as house), places (such as village), and means of transportation (such
as car, boat, etc.), which all fall into the "container" category. To the best of our knowledge, lub
I is the most inclusive classifier in Hmong, and hence functions as a general purpose classifier; this
is supported by the fact that new loanwords from English or French often (possibly exclusively,

I but this is not yet known for a fact) appear with this classifier. If you do not know the classifier
for a noun, it is better to use the general purpose classifier lub than no classifier at all.
.
I B. EXERCISES

I Exercise 1: Match the following nouns with the appropriate classifier.

I 1. pam blanket 11. duab picture

2. tes hand 12. paj flower
3. diav spoon 13. paj plant
4. moo tree 14. tsev house
5. cwj mem pen 15. tsheb car

6. xov tooj telephone 16. Jdua rope

I 7. ntawv page of paper 17. khau shoe
8. miv cat 18. duab shadow
9. teb farm field 19. khob cup
10. ntawv book 20. ceg leg

* For a more comprehensive list of classifiers, see Heimbach (1969: Appendix 2, pp. 455-56).
 100

Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences by inselting the appropriate classifier.

l. Hnub no kuy noj ib __ qe.

2 . Maiy muaj ib __ tsho me me.
3 . Kab Npauj tsis nyiam __ miy xim dub.
4. Kuy tsis muaj ib __ diay noj moy.
.c 5 . Nyuj __ taub hau loj loj.
6. __ paj ntawd muaj cuaj __ paj.
.
...
7 . Nruas niaj hnub ntxuay nws __ tes.
8. __ hlua nyob qhoy twg?
9. __ pam ntawd loj heey.
10. Muaj xya __ cwj mem nyob ntawm __ rooj zaum.
 I 101

I V. DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS OF CLASSIFIERS

I So far we have discussed classifiers from a semantic point of view, paying close attention
to the meaning of the nouns with which they are associated. We saw that in this respect, the
I function of classifiers is to group nouns into categories according to certain semantic principles.
To complete the picture we must now turn to the grammatical functions of classifiers in order to

I
understand when to use them and when not As with some other aspects of Hmong grammar
(e.g., time reference), one must look beyond phrases and sentences in isolation and analyze
classifier usage in natural spoken and written discourse to fully understand the functions of
I classifiers and the types of grammatical constructions in which they occur. While it is true that a
noun accompanied by its classifier typically translates as a singular definite noun phrase (see

I Mottin 1978, p. 29: lub tsev 'the house' [translation mineD, this covers only part of the picture,
and classifiers should not be systematically equated with definite articles. Doing so would fail to
capture a broader generalization with respect to classifier usage and prevent you from grasping the
I motivations underlying classifier usage in connected speech and texts.

I In natural discourse, a typical scenario may go as follows: a speaker or a writer introduces

a topic of discussion-e.g., houses for sale; to make general reference to houses, the bare noun

I
tsev 'houses' is used. The speaker may start with a general statement such as ''Houses are
expensive," and then move on to introduce the idea of one particular house, ''I saw one/a house."
This would be expressed with ib 'one' followed by the classifier and the noun: ib lub tsev 'one/a
I house.' From this we see that one of the functions of classifiers is to individuate-i.e., to single
out one item, one instance from within a larger set (Folk tales typically start out this way: Puag

I thaum ub muaj ib tug zaj 'Long, long ago there was a dragon... . ')
. . .

After singling out a particular house, the speaker may make specific comments about it:
I
oj
"The house is nice and large; it has three bedrooms; ... the house is in a good neighborhood, etc."
To refer to the specific house for the first time, the classifier followed by the noun is used: lub tsev
'the house.' From this we see that another function of classifiers is to make specific, definite
reference after something has been singled out: from ib lub tsev 'one/a house' we move to tub tsev

I
'the house'; this is the area where classifier + noun typically translates as definite article + noun.
As the speaker goes on to say more things about the house, the classifier no longer needs to be
used because the house is now referentially salient-Le., stands out from the speaker's point of
I view. S/he can make further comments about the house by simply using the bare noun tsev. In
English though, ''the house" would continue to be used as the speaker goes on talking about tsev.

After making several remarks about the house using tsev, the speaker may mention that a
friend of his/hers also saw the house and liked it: "Tong liked the house too." Here tsev, even
though it has already been specifically discussed and is given information, would appear with the
classifier because we have shifted from the speaker's to the friend's point of view, and the noun
phrase is referentially salient vis-a-vis Tong. Hence yet another function of classifiers is to bring a
noun phrase to the forefront of attention when there has bee n a shift in point of view.
102

The speaker may continue by saying that slhe wants to buy lub tsev no 'this house' and
conclude by referring to it as kuv lub tsev 'my house. ' This establishes a new kind of relationship
between the speaker and the house and draws attention to the noun phrase, so it comes as no
surprise that the classifier is used with demonstratives and possessives.

To summarize, while bare nouns are used to make general initial reference as well as
ongoing reference once a referent has been established, nouns accompanied by classifiers are used
to make the referent stand out in some fashion. As pointed out by Riddle (1989a), classifiers
function to increase precision of reference and are indicators of relative referential salience.

Nouns take on a more precise reference when modifying elements are added to them; this
means that classifiers are used with nouns in the following gramm atical constructions:

L In noun phrases with numerals:

Lauj Pov muaj ib tug ntxhais.

Lopao have one clf daughter
'Lopao has onela daughter. '

Muaj tsib phllu ntawv liab nyob ntawd.

be . five clf book red located there .
'There are five red books over there. '

2. In noun phrases with demonstratives (pointing words):

Daim ntawv no yog kuv Ii.

clf paper this be mine
'This sheet of paper is mine. '

Lub tsev ntawd loj loj.

clf house that big big
'That house is very big. '

3. When specific, definite reference is being made after something has been singled out for
discussion:

Tus me nyuam nyiam tus dey.

clf child like clf dog
'The child likes the dog. '
(We have been previously introduced to both the child and the dog. )
I 103

I Tus tub pUllS nyiam rab hneev?

elf boy Q like elf crossbow
I 'Does the boy like the crossbow?'
(We have been previously introduced to both the boy and the crossbow.)

I
4. In noun phrases with possessives:

I N w s lub npe hu ua Lauj Pov.

his elf name is called Lopao
I 'His name is Lopao.'

I
Kuv nyiam ku v tus xib /Wb.
I like my elf teacher
'I like my teacher.'
I
NOTE: when the possessive relationship is obvious from a Hmong perspective, the classifier can
I be omitted:
kuv tsev 'my house'
kuv tes 'my hand'
I kuv poj niam 'my wife'

I 5. In possessive noun phrases before the possessor and before the possessed:

I
Tus me nyuam daim dab liab.
elf child elf skirt red
'The child's skirt is red.'
I
Tus tsov tus hniav loj loj.
I elf tiger elf teeth big big
'The tiger's teeth are very big.'

I 6. In noun phrases with non-numeral quantifiers:

I Peb pom ntau lub tsev.

we see many elf houses
'We see many houses.'

Neb muaj pes tsawg tus menyuam?

I you-two have how many elf child
'How many children do you(-two) have?'

I
104

Tshuav tlawg lUI ntoo.

remain few clf tree
'Few trees are left.'

Tus txiv neeb kho tau Ixhia lUI mob.

elf shaman cure can every elf illness
'The shaman can cure all illnesses. '

A. FUNCTIONS OF CLASSIFIERS IN WORD FORMATION

Classifiers not only play an important referential salience role in noun phrases, but also
crucial functions at the word formation level by narrowing down the reference of certain nouns. In
the elassifier exercise, we saw that a noun with a general meaning such as ntawv 'paper' gets its
specific meaning from the unit classifier (e.g., phau ntawv 'book,' daim ntawv 'sheet of paper,'
etc). The unit classifier also narrows down the reference of dej 'water,'
dej vs. tul dej
'water' 'river'

serves to remove the reference ambiguity of the homophones txiv 'fruit' and txiv 'husband,'
lub txiv vs. lUI txiv
clf fruit elf husband
'fruit' 'husband'

allows nouns to be derived from verbs,

lUI sau lUI tsav tsheb lUI saib lUI pab
elf write clf drive car elf look, observe clf help
'author' 'driver' 'supervisor' 'assistant'

and serves to distinguish among key kinship terms:

txiv 'father' vs. lUI txiv 'husband'
niam 'mother' vs. IUlniam 'sister' (female speaking)
IUlpoj niam 'wife'

B. CLASSIFIERS AS PRONOUNS

Classifiers can also function as pronouns, standing in for a noun that has been previously
mentioned and hence does not need to be repeated. In most of the noun phrase examples given
above, the classifiers can be used in this fashion, as seen below. In the left-hand column
examples, the classifiers occur in full noun phrases. In their right-hand column counterparts, the
head noun has been deleted to avoid repetition, thus iIlustrating the pronominal usage of classifiers.
Note that the classifiers do not stand completely alone; they are still accompanied by some type of
I 105

I modifier (numeral, demonstrative, possessive, quantifier, etc.), but the head noun is left oUt
because it can be understood from the discourse context.
I
Lauj Pov muaj ib tug ntxluzis. Lauj Pov muaj ib tug.
I 'Lopao has one/a daughter.' 'Lopao has one.'

Lub tsev ntawd loj loj. Lub ntawd loj loj.

I 'That house is very big. ' 'That one is very big. '

I Nws lub npe hu ua Lauj Pov. Nws lub hu ua Lauj Pov.

'His name is Lopao.' 'His is Lopao.'

I Lauj Pov lub tsev tsis liab. Lauj Pov lub tsis liab.
"'Lopao's house is not red. ' 'Lopao's is not red.'
I
Peb pam ntau lub tsev. Peb pam ntau lub.
I 'We see many houses.' 'We see many.'

Neb muajpes tsawg tus menyuam? Neb muaj pes tsawg tus?
I 'How many children do you(-two) have?' 'How many do you(-two) have?'

I Tshuav tsawg tus ntoo. Tshuav tsawg tus.

'Few trees are left.' 'Few are left. '

I
106

VI. A TECHNIQUE FOR TEACIDNG/LEARNING NOUN CLASSIFIERS IN HMONG*

Elizabeth M. Riddle

The "scavenger hunt" described here is an activity for Hmong language students to practice
the use of noun classifiers. This activity is simple to do in a class, but requires fairly careful
preparation on the part of the instructor beforehand (but see note at end).

A . TEACHING GOAL. To give students practice in associating particular classifiers with

particular nouns in the context of oral communication. It is important to clearly explain this goal to
the students in advance.

B. OBJECT OF THE GAME. To "scavenge" all the items on one's list from other students,
who have the items hidden in paper bags, by asking them questions using the appropriate
classifiers.

C . PREPARATION. Gather objects representing common nouns (at the appropriate

vocabulary level for your students) which take different classifiers. For example, in Hmong the
nouns translated as 'pencil' and 'cat' take the classifier tus; 'spoon' and 'scissors' take rab; 'chair,'
'car,' and 'shirt' take tub ; 'paper' and 'skirt' take daim, and so on. Use toys, miniatures, and
pictures of items as needed, and put together sets of four to six for each student, representing a
mixture of classifiers.

Make up a different list of items for each student to gather by drawing pictures on
numbered index cards, each with a different set of the four to six of the objects you have collected
and representing a variety of classifiers as well. It is better to draw pictures rather than write out
the words because this gives the students practice in recalling noun vocabulary as well as
classifiers, making the activity more challenging and more interesting.

. Now put each set of objects you have gathered into a large, numbered paper bag, one for
each student Since the students will be seeking the objects on their lists and handing out objects to
other students from their bags, it is important to make sure that they do not have anything in their
own bags that is on their own lists. Giving each student a card and bag with the same number will
help you to keep track of this. Also make sure that no one bag has all of the items for one list, and
inform the students of this in advance.

*
This is adapted from Riddle (1989/90).
I 107

I D . P LA Y. The game is played as follows. Each student is given a list of objects to find and a
bag with a different set of objects to give out. Instruct the students not to show their lists to each
I other. The students then walk around the room asking each other questions such as "Do you have
a book?," "Do you have a pen?," "Do you have a spoon?," according to their lists in order to

I
"scavenge" the items on their lists. In Hmong, the question calls for the use of the number one
plus a classifier, thus providing the desired practice. For example, one student would ask another,

I Koj puas muaj ib lub tsheb?

you Q have 1 c1f car

I 'Do you have a carT

I
The student asked monitors the choice of classifier. If it is correct, that student answers the
question, handing over any item requested which he or she has. If the classifier is incorrect, the
monitoring student says Nug dua 'Ask again' to give the requester a second chance to use the
I correct form. The total number of chances to be given should be stated in advance by the
instructor. If a student cannot come up with the correct classifier after several chances, slhe should

I look it up before proceeding further. Once the correct form has been used, if the student asked
does not have the item requested, he or she says so. The instructor can circulate around the room
to give assistance as needed, or else can play along with the students.
I
To increase interest and encourage concentration, the game can be played as a race, with the
I first student gathering all the items on his or her list the winner, but it is important that all students
be allowed to complete the game. It takes about 10-20 minutes to play, depending on the number

I
of objects to be collected and the number of participants.

This game forces students to think repeatedly about which classifier goes with which noun
I and to practice using them in the speech context of seeking information that they genuinely lack. It
is thus more effective than a rote activity such as a pattern practice because there are real

I consequences to using the correct classifiers.

I E. NOTE. Preparation for this activity can be done collectively. For instance, the instructor
can ask the students to bring objects representing nouns they have learned, collecting the objects
I after students state what they brought (Kuv muaj ib tug miv 'I have a cat'). The instructor can
also enroll the help of students who are good at drawing to draw the objects on index cards;

I
alternately, everybody can participate in the drawing activity via a Total Physical Response exercise
("Draw a car," "Draw a pencil," etc.), and the instructor can select the best drawings for the
scavenger hunt.
I

I
'I
I
108

THE GENERAL PLURAL MARKER COY

Compare the noun phrases in (1) with the noun phrases in (2):

l. a. ib lub tsev
one clf house
'one/a house'

b. lub tsev
clf house
'the house'

2. a. cov tsev d. cov mov

group house group nce

'the houses' 'cooked rice'

b. cov menyuam e. cov dej

group child group water
'the children' 'water'

c. cov ntoo f. cov nyiaj

group tree group silver
'the trees, the forest' 'silver'

The noun phrases in (1) appear in the singular and are characterized by the prescnce of the
unit classifier (lub) associated with the given noun (tsev) . As we saw in the section on "When
Must a Classifier Be Used?," the function of unit classifiers is to individuate-i.e., to mark a noun
as singular-and to make definite reference.

The noun phrases in (2), on the other hand, emphasize the plurality or collectivity of the
noun and are characterized by the presence of a group classifier, cov. Using cov before a noun is
a common way of marking the noun as plural. Cov can be used to pluralize any noun-human or
non-human, animate or inanimate, concrete or abstract, count (2 a-c) or mass (2 d-f)-and thus
functions as a general plural marker in Hmong. Note that when cov is used to pluralize a noun, the
unit classifier found in singular noun phrases is no longer used: while lub occurs in singular noun
phrases such as ib lub tsev lub tsev, cov *lub tsev is ungrammatical, as indicated by the
and
asterisk. This is because of the historical origin of cov: cov is derived from a classifier meaning
''bunches or clusters of fruit," and while its meaning has broadened to a general group classifier
used as a plural marker, grammatically it still fits into the classifier slot in the structure of the noun
phrase.t Since Hmong does not allow more than one classifier per noun phrase, the unit classifier
found in singular noun phrases gives way to the group classifier cov in the plural. The only

t For details on this, see Ratliff (1991).

I 109

I exception to this rule occurs with the nouns ntawv 'paper, with reference to writing' and Ius
'speech, words'; these nouns, being general and vague in reference, appear with more than one
I unit classifier and get their precise meaning from the unit classifier with which they are paired (see
answer sheet to Hmong classifier exercise for nouns that can select more than one classifier).

I Since it is the unit classifiers with which ntawv and Ius appear that give these underspecified nouns
their exact meaning, these unit classifiers are retained in plural noun phrases with COY, as seen
below:
I
3. a. ib daig ntawv daim = elf for flat things (note t.c. in ib daig)
I one elf paper
'one/a sheet of paper'

I
Plural: coy daim ntawv
'the sheets of paper'

I b. ib plulU ntawv phau = elf for piles of things

one elf paper

I 'one/a book'
Plural: coyphau ntawv
'the books'
I
c. ib tsab ntawv tsab = elf for written messages
I one elf paper
'one/a letter (piece of mail)'

I
Plural: cov tsab ntawv
'the letters (pieces of mail)'

I 4 . a. ib to Ius to = clf for mouthfuls

one elf speech

I 'one/a word'
Plural: coy 10 Ius
'the words'
I
b. ib kab Ius kab= 'line'
I one elf speech
'one/a line of writing'

I
Plural: coy kab Ius
'the lines of writing'

I c. ib zag Ius zaj = clf for spoken words such as sayings, songs, stories
one elf speech (note t.c. in ib zag)
'onela sentence'
Plural: coy zag Ius
'the sentences' .
110

Cov also frequently occurs preceded by the numeral ib 'one'; the collocation ib co (note
t.c.) is used for small indefinite quantities; it typically translates as 'a little, some' with mass nouns
as in (5a,b), and as 'a group of, a few, some' with count nouns as in (Sc-d):

5. a. ib co dej
one group water
'a littlelsome water'
b. ib co txhuv
one group hulled rice
'a littlelsome hulled rice'
c. ib co liab
one group monkey
'a group of/a few/some monkeys.'
d. ib co me nyaum
one group child
'a group of/a few/some children.'

As one would expect, plural noun phrases with cov also occur with demonstratives and
possessives, as seen in (6a-c):

6. a. cov ntoo no
group tree this
'these trees'

b. cov neeg ntawd

group man that
'those men'

c. koj cov me nyuam mloog Ius, kuv cov tsis mloog Ius
your group child listen speech my group neg listen speech
'Your children obey, mine don't.'
 I 111

I QUANTIFIERS

I. NUMERAL QUANTIFffiRS
I
A. BASIC NUMERALS
1 ib
I 2 ob
3 peb
4 plo.ub
I 5 tsib
6 rau
7 xya
I 8 yim
9 cuaj
10 kaum
I 11 kaum ib
12 kaum ob
13 kaumpeb
I 14 kaumplaub
15 kaum tsib
16 kaumrau
I 17 kaum xya
18 kaum yim
19 kaum cuaj
I 20 nees nkaum

For "1O's," 30 and above, caum is used (watch for tone change)
I 30 peb caug
40 plaubcaug
50 tsibcaug
i I 60 raucaum
70 xyacaum
80 yim caum
I 90 cuaj ca,um

For " 1 00's," pua is used (watch for tone change)

I 100 ibpuas
200 obpuas
300 pebpuas
I 400 plaubpuas
500 tsib puas
600 raupua
I 700 xyapua
800 yimpua
900 cuajpuas
I 1 ,000 ib IJchiab
2,000 ob IJchiab, etc.
10,000 ib vam
I 20,000 ob vam, etc.
1,000,000 ib plhom, ib lab

I 1994 ib IJchiah cuajpuas cuaj caum plaub

1 1,000 9 100 9 10 4

I
112

B. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE NUMERAL IB 'ONE'

Th� numeral ib 'one' serves as the equivalent of the indefinite article "a," as seen in (1):

1. Nplias muaj ib tub tsheb

Blia have one elf car
'Nplias has a car.'

When ib is foJlowed by a noun without an intervening classifier, the coJlocation expresses

the entirety of the noun (2a-e), or points to the fact that the noun is used as a measure word (3a-d):

2. a. ib tse (t.e. from tsev 'house')

one house
'a household-i.e., all the people who can live in the house'

b. ib ce (t.c. from cev 'body')

one body
'the entire body'

c. ib zog (t.c. from zos'village')

one village
'the whole viIIage'

3. a. ib davhlau
one plane
'one planeful (of goods)'

b. ib rooj
one table
'one tableful'

c. ib v og (t.c. from voj 'circle')

one moment
'one circle, a circular slice or flat section'

. d. ib teg (t.c. from tes 'hand')

one hand
'one blow of the hand'

Recall also the common coJlocation is ib co 'a little, a few, some, a group of' used for
small indefinite quantities. (See "The General Plural Marker cov" for details.)
I 113

I II. NON-NUMERAL QUANTIFIERS

I The most common non-numeral quantifiers-i.e., words such as much/many, some, few,
every, etc.-are listed and illustrated below.

I A. N TAU 'MUCH, MANY, A LOT OF'; COOB 'MANY, A LOT OF'

I Ntau and coob both refer to large quantities, but while nI.all can be used with animate as
well as inanimate nouns, coob can be used only with nouns referring to animate beings. Ntau and

I coob fit into either of the following slots in noun phrases:

ntaulcoob 'much, many'+ classifier + noun
or
I classifier + noun + ntau/coob 'much, many'

I 1 . Koj yuav ntsib nI.all Ius neeg.

you fut meet many elf people

I
'You'l1 meet a lot of people. '

2. Lawv kawm nI.all phau nlawv.

I they study many clf book
'They studied many books. '
I
3. Peb Isis muaj nplej ntau.
we neg have rice much
I 'We don't have a lot of/much rice.'

I 4. Coob Ius neeg mus ua leb.

many clf people go work in the fields

I
'Many people went to work in the fields.'

5. Muaj npua tuag coob.

I be pig dead many
'Many pigs died.'

I
When nI.all and coob come after the noun, they can be reduplicated for emphasis:

I 6. Lawv muaj nyiaj muaj kub ntau ntau.

they have silver have gold much much
I 'They are very rich. '

I
7. lib neeg coob coob.
individual many maily
'
a multitude, a crowd'

I
114

Ntau and coob can also function as adverbs, like "a lot" can in English:

8. Nws ua hauj lwm maumau.

s/he work a lot a lot
'S/he works a lot/very hard.'

9. Lawv tuaj coob.

they come many
'They came in great numbers.'

B. TSAWG 'UTTLE, FEW'

Tsawg refers to small quantities, and like ntau and coob, it can fit into either of the
following slots in noun phrases:
tsawg 'little, few' + classifier + noun
or
classifier + noun + tsawg 'little, few'

10. Tshuav tsawg tus ntoo.

remain few clf tree
'Few trees are left.'

11. Muaj tsawg lub tsev yug npua.

be few clf house raise pig
'There are few families who raise pigs.'

12. Muaj nqaij tsawg.

be meat little
'There is little meat.'

like ntau and coob, tsawg can both be reduplicated for emphasis when it follows the noun
(13), and function as an adverb, like "little" can in English (14):

13. Muaj nqaij tsawg tsawg.

be meat little little
'There is very little meat.'

14. Npis noj tsawg.

Bee eat little
'Bee eats little/Bee doesn't eat much. '
I 115

I C. SAWV DAWS 'ALL, EVERY'

I Sawv daws refers to all the members in a group and is used with nouns referring to human
beings only. · This quantifier is typically used in subject position and comes after the noun or
pronoun in the noun phrase, which can begin with an optional (as 'all':t
I
«(as 'all') + noun/pronoun + sawv daws 'all, every'
I
15. Peb sawv daws ua teb.

I we all work in the fields

'We all work in the fields/All of us work in the fields.'

I 16. Nej me nyuam sawv daws tuaj ntawm no!

you-pi child all come here
I 'You children all come here!'

I
Sawv daws can also be used by itself as a pronoun meaning 'everybody, everyone'

17. Sawv daws mus tsev lawm.

I everybody go house perf
'Everybody has gone home.'

I D. TXHIAITXHUA 'ALL, EVERY'

I Contrary to sawv daws, txhialtxluta can be used with any noun, and comes before the
elassifier and the noun in a noun phrase (which, again, can start with an optional (as 'all'):
I
(fils 'all') + txhialtxhua 'all, every' + classifier + noun

I 18. (Tas) txhia tus me nyuam mus.

all every cfl child go
I 'All the children went.'

I 19. Tus txiv neeb kho /au txhia tus mob.

elf shaman cure able every elf illness
'The shaman can cure all illnesses.'
I

I
•
It can also be used with reference to animals when they are personified. as in folk tales and storytelling.
t In natural spoken and writteu discourse. sawv daws and txhialtxhua 'all, every' (see section D) typically appear
in conjunction with tas, huv, tib si, andlor puav lee}, which all mean 'all, altogether,' as seen below:

I
Tas cov txiv neeb sawv daws puav lee} tuaj tas huy lib si.
all group shaman every all, altogether come all all.
all, altogether
'All the shamans came, each and every one of them. '
(See section on parataxis for details.)
I

I
116

20. Xyoo no mob txhua lub tsev.

year this be ill every elf house
'All the households are sick this yearffhere is illness in every household this year.'

At the present stage of research it is not dear what the difference between txhia and txhua
is, if there is any. In terms of usage though, the two often occur together sequentially as in (21),
or appear as the "A's" in the ABAC four-word phrases so frequently used in Hmong (see section
on four-word phrases), as in (22-23):

21. Peb nyob zoo txhua txhia tus.

we be well every every elf
'We are all well.'

22. Peb nco txog nej txhia leej txhia tus.

we remember reach you every elf every elf
'We think about all of you (literally, each and every one of you).'

23. Txhia hnub txhua hmo nws kawm ntawv.

every day every night s/he study
'S/he studies every day and every night.'

E. NIAlINE,l 'EACH, EVERY'

Niaj and nej are variants which can be used interchangeably; they point to single
instantiations of the noun they modify, rather than entirety (cf. niaj hnub 'each day' vs. tas hnub
'all day [long]'):

24. niaj tus neeg

each elf person
'each person'

25. niaj xyoo, hlis, hnub

each year, month, day
'each year, month, day'

26. niaj zaus

each time
'each time, occasion'

F. TEl 'A FEW, SOME, CERTAIN (PEOPLE, THINGS)'

Tej is a quantifier which can be used to pluralize noun phrases (27-28); in this respect it is
similar to the pluralizercov, but used less frequently. As is the case with cov, tej can appear only
I 117

I before the noun and cannot be reduplicated for emphasis (i.e., noun + tej and noun + tej tej are
ungrammatical). But contrary to COy, it can be followed by a classifier in a noun phrase (29);
I hence it fits into the quantifier slot (rather than the classifier slot like coy) in the structure of the
noun phrase. It can also be followed by a classifier used pronominally and by a demonstrative

I (30-31). In terms of meaning, it refers to an indefinite quantity and can translate as 'a few, some,
a group, certain (people, things).' Used by itself, it refers to "people", "things" in general (32-
33). Finally, recall from the section on pronouns that tej also appears in the pronominal phrases
I lawv tej and luag tej 'others; other people; they/them.' (See section on pronouns for details.)

I . 27. Peb Hmoob nyiam nyob pem tej roob.

we Hmong like live up quant mountain
'We Hmong like to live up in the mountains.'
I
28. Nws mus xyuas tej kwv tij.
I s/he go VISit quant relatives
'S/he went to visit (her) relatives.'

I 29. Kuv pam tej tus me nyuam.

1 see quant c1f child

I
'I saw a few children.'

30. a. tej tus 'some people, certain people'

I b . tejyam 'some things, certain kinds of things'
c. tej no 'these'

I 31. Tej tus 1m zoo, tej tus 1m phem.

quant c1f do good quant c1f do evil
I 'Some people do good, some people do evil.'

32. a. nyob tom tej

I be loe quant
'at their place'
I b . mus tom tej
go loe quant
I 'go to their place'

I
33. a. zoo dua tej
good comp quant
'better than those or them'
I
b . zoo tshaj tej

I
good super! quant
'the best of all/better than everything else'

I
 118

PRONOUNS

I. SUBJECT, OBJECT, AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

One area of the Hmong language which is relatively easy to acquire is the pronoun system.
The same set of pronouns is used in subject, object, and possessive positions; this means that you
have only one pronoun to learn for English "I," "me," and "my" for the first person singular
pronoun. As you can see in (1-3) below, the grammatical function of the pronoun is clear from its
position in the sentence: subject pronouns occur before the verb, object pronouns after the verb,
and possessive ones before the classifier + noun sequences in possessive noun phrases.
A further simplification in the system is the fact that there is no gender distinction in the
third person singular as there is in English, meaning that you have only one pronoun to learn for
"he," "she," and "it."
However, there is one area where the Hmong system is richer than the English system:
when referring to two people in the first, second, and third person plural-"we (two)," "you
(two)," ''they (two)"-special dual pronouns are used. The other plural pronouns are used for
three or more.

The full set of pronouns is given below, with illustrative examples following.

Singular Dual Plural

1st kuv 1 wb we (two) peb we

person me us (two) us
my our (two) our

2nd koj you neb you (two) nej you (all)

person you you (two) you (all)
your your (two) your

3rd nws he/she/it nkawd* they (two) lawv they

person hirnlher/it ( nkawv) them (two) them
his/hers/its their (two) their

1. K u v mus lawm.
I go perf
'I went.'

* This pronoun is derived from nkawm 'pair; couple,' and many 1Im0ng speakers have regula rized the marginal
low rising -d tone to the more common mid rising -v tone.
I 119

I 2. Npis pom k uv.

Bee see me
I 'Bee saw me.'

I
3. k u v tub tsev
my elf house
'my house'
I
4. Nag luno peb pom neb.
I last night I see you (two)
'We saw you (two) last night.'

I 5. N w s daim tiab zoo nkauj kawg.

her elf skirt beautiful very
I 'Her skirt is very beautiful. '

I II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

I The pronouns given above also serve as reflexive pronouns, as seen in (6) and (7):

I 6. K u v yuav ua kuv.
I fut do myself
'I'll do it myself.'
I
7. Koj puas pom koj?
I you Q see yourself
'Did you see it yourself?'

I
III. OTHER PRONOUNS
I
In addition to the pronouns given above, there are a few other pronouns which are used

I frequently:

r.!£..§.
I
A. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN

Yus is a pronoun with an indefinite meaning-equivalent to the English indefinite pronouns

I "one" or "you," as in "One/you can't do that here." This usage is illustrated in (8):

I
8. Y u s Isis paub J U s !sis txhob Mis.
one neg know one neg neg imp say
'When one doesn' t know, one doesn't say anything. '
I

I
120

As pointed out by Heimbach (p.430), yus can also be used "in place of the first person
pronoun kuv when politely speaking of one's self (similar to the English use of 'one')." This is
illustrated in (9):
9. Nej hnub yus ua hauj lwm las zag.
each day one do work all strength
'Every day I work as hard as I can. '

NOfE: Yus also appears in the phrase y u s tua yus 'suicide (literally, one kill oneself). '

B. THE PRONOUNS L AW V TE.l, LUAG, LUAG TEJ 'OTHERS, OTHER PEOPLE;

THEY/THEM'

In the third person plural, lawv tej, luag, or luag tej 'others, other people; they/them ' are
often used as alternatives to lawv 'they. ' This is especially the case when the referent is vague and
does not include oneself and one's own group-i.e., when one is talking about "them," "the
others." This is illustrated in ( 10):

10. Luag hais Ii.

they speak like that
'They say that. '

II. Yuav tsum pab luag lej.

must help others
' One must help others.'

NOTE: The usage of the pronouns discussed in sections (A) and (B) above is difficult to il)ustrate
in isolated sentences. The best strategy to develop a feel for them is to make a note of their usage
in real conversations and texts.

IV. PRONOUN USAGE

In natural spoken and written discourse (rather than in isolated sentences as in the examples
given aboveJor illustrative purposes), pronouns are typically omitted when their referent can be
understood from the context. Once who or what is being talked about has been established, it is
redundant from the Hmong point of view to keep repeating the same referent.' Hence, (12b)
below is not only a perfectly grammatical Hmong sentence, but also the most idiomatic way to
answer the question in (12a); it is clear from the question that the subject in the answer is "I" and
the object "him [Bee]," so there is no need to express the pronouns overtly:

,
The same is true of time reference: once the time frame of an event (e.g., yesterday, a long time ago, etc.) has
beeneSlabliohed, there is no need to repeat it by marking the verb also (oee section on tense).
 121

12a. Koj puas pom Npis?

I you Q see Bee
'Did you see Bee?'
I
b. Pom xwb.
see indeed
'1 did.lYes, 1 saw him.'

I It is difficult to illustrate this phenomenon out of context with isolated sentences; the best
way to familiarize yourself with it is to pay attention when listening to Hmong speakers and when

I reading stories, and to notice that pronouns are not repeated as long as the referent is clear and
recoverable from the context.

I
 122

DEMONSTRATIVES

I. DEMONSTRATIVES IN NOUN PHRASES

Demonstratives (pointing words) come AFTER the noun in Hmong, and since they give a
noun definite reference, the noun must be preceded by its classifier. Hence the sequence is:

CLASSIFIER + NOUN + DEMONSTRATIVE

tub tsev no
clf house this
'this house'

The most common demonstratives are listed and illustrated in the table below.

Demonstrative Translation Example

1W 'this' (near me, the speaker) Lub tsev no loj loj

elf house this big big ,

'This house (near me) is very big.'

ko 'that' (near you, the hearer) Lub tsev ko loj loj

elf house that big big
'That house (near you) is very big. '

ntawd 'that' (nearby) Lub tsev ntawd loj loj

elf house that big big
'That house (nearby) is very big.'

Notice that English does not have an equivalent for the second demonstrative, ko 'that (near the
hearer). ' Hence, you will have to make a conscious effort to remember using ko instead of ntawd
when referring to something close to your interlocutor.

II. THE PRONOMINAL USAGE OF DEMONSTRATIVES

The demonstratives listed above can be used as pronouns-i.e., without the noun- when
the referent of this noun is clear from the context. When used pronominally, the demonstratives
still occur with the classifier of the noun referred to, as illustrated in the (b) versions of the
sentences below:
I 123

I 1 . a. Lub tsev no /oj /oj b. Lub no /oj /oj

elf house this big big elf this big big

I 'This house is very big. ' 'This one is very big. '

2 . a. Tus menyuam ko b. Tut ko me me

I
me me
elf child that small small elf that small small
'That child (near you) is very small.' 'That one (near you) is very small.'

I
3. a. Peb pom ob lub tsev ntawd b. Peb pom ob lub ntawd

I we see two elf house that we see two elf that

'We saw those two houses.' 'We saw those two. '

I When the referent is vague, qhov is used in lieu of the elassifier:

qhov no 'this'

I qhov ko 'that near you'

qhov ntawd 'that nearby'

I NaTE: qhov no, qhov ko, and qhov ntawd can also mean 'here,' 'there (near you),' and 'there
(nearby),' respectively.
I

I
124

FUNCTIONS OF THE MARGINAL D TONE -

In addition to the seven basic tones of Hmong there is an eighth, more marginal tone which
is characterized by a low fall-rise contour (213 on a five-point pitch scale) and a slightly longer
duration than the basic tones, and which is represented by a final -d in the RPA. As pointed out in
the section on pronouns, the -d tone occurs in the third-person plural dual pronoun nkawd 'they
(two), ' which developed out of the corresponding -m tone noun nkawm 'pair, couple.' As you
will see below, -d tone words are related to -m tone words in the majority of cases.

I. THE -D TONE IN DEMONSTRATIVE NOUNS

COllSider these examples from Bertrais's dictionary, paying close attention to the -m and -d
tone words:

1 . nram / nrad 'down'

a. nyob nram teb b. nyob nrad
be down field be down there
'down below in the field' 'down there'

2. nr(lJlm/nr(lJld 'outside'
a. nyob nr(lJlm zoov b. nyob sab nraud
be outside forest be side outside
'outside' 'outside, on the other side'

3. ntawm / ntawd 'here, there (nearby) ,

a. nyob ntawm kev b. nyob ntawd
be here trail be there
'on the trail ' 'there (a small distance away) '

4. pem /ped 'up'

a. nyob pem roob b. nyob ped
be up mountain be up there
'up on the mountain' 'up there'

5. saam / saud 'above'

a. nyob s(lJlm nthob h. nyob saud
be above platform be above there
'on the storage platform' 'above there'

6. tim / tid 'opposite'

a. nyob tim nej b . nyob tid
be opposite you be over there
'at your place' 'over there'
I 125

I
7. tom / tod 'there'
I a. mus tom khw b. mus lawm tod
go there market go distance there

I 'go to the market' 'go over there'

8. thaum /thaud 'time when'

I a. thaum ntawd b. puag txheej thaud
time there many generation time

I 'at that time' 'in the old days'

The -m tone words in the (a) sentences are high-frequency space and time reference words
I which function as the first element of a prepositional phrase. As you can see, they have -d tone
counterparts in the (b) sentences. These -d tone words point to a place or time familiar to the
I speakers involved, either because they have talked about it before, or because it is clear from the
speech context. Notice that the -d tone words behave differently from the -m tone words in terms
I of their granunatical function: they are not followed by a noun; instead they occur as independent
elements at the end of a phrase. Because of their pointing function and because they occur as
independent elements, a good way of referring to them is to call them "demonstrative nouns. "
I There are a few more tonal doublets such as the ones in (1-8):

I 9. qaum / qaud 'back, top part of'

a. qaum tes b. nyob nraum kuv sab nraub qaud

I
back hand be outside my side middle back
'the back of the hand' 'behind my back'

I 10. sim / sid 'time'

a. tam sim no b. tam sid
I time this 'right away'
'right away'

I 1 1. chim / chid 'moment'

a. ib chim kuv tuaj b. thawj chid
I one moment I come first moment
'I'm coming in a minute.' 'at the beginning'

I 12. npaum / npaud 'measure'

a. Koj yuav npaum Ii cas? b. Kuv yuav tsis tas npaud
you take measure like how I take ' not all measure
'How much are you taking?' 'I'm not taking as much as that. '

I
126

II. OTHER FUNCTIONS AND MEANINGS OF THE - D TONE

In addition to the demonstrative noun function of the -d tone discussed above, there are at
least three other areas where the -d tone is used.

A. THE DEFINITE REFERENCE FUNCTION

The -d tone can be substituted for the -m tone to make definite reference to an animate -m
tone noun which has just been introduced. This usage of the -d tone as a definite reference marker
is illustrated with me nyuam 'child' in (13):

13. Nws muaj ob tug me nyuam. Ces ob tug me nyuad chis chis.
s/he have two elf child then two elf child angry angry
'She had two children. Then those two children were very angry.'

B. THE VOCATIVE FUNCTION

The -d tone can also be used with animate -m tone words as a vocative marker, meaning
that it can be used to call out to someone, as seen in (14):

14. Me nyuad!
'Children! '

C. THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC AND STYLISTIC FUNCTION

Finally, the -d tone can be used as a variant of the -m tone in certain words for
sociolinguistic and stylistic reasons. This is an area of the language which needs further
investigation to be better understood. Pending further refinements, we can say that using the -d
tone instead of the -m tone either reveals something about the speaker's attitude toward what s/he is
saying (this is similar to different nuances being conveyed via intonation in English), or that the -d
tone is a marker for a more literary or formal level of language use:

15. a. niam mother

b. niad! mother!

16. a. tejzaum maybe (60% likely according to some speakers)

b. tejzaud maybe (40% likely according to the same speakers)

17. a. muam sister (man speaking)

b. leejmuad Miss
person sister

[
I 127

I
According to Dr. Yang Dao, ( ISb) is rude, and "one would not call one's own mother that
I way"; this judgment is conveyed via the -d tone. In ( 17b), however, the -d tone is considered to
be a marker of polite and respectful language as used in courtship or in folk tales.

I
III. CONCLUSION
I
As you can see from the above, the -d tone is not an independent tone which serves to
I differentiate words like the seven other tones. It is clearly related to the -m tone, and its functions
are limited to the areas discussed above.

I
 128

'
TONE CHANGE

As if eight tones were not hard enough to master, there are also some instances when the
basic tone of a word changes, as you may have noticed. For the basic tone of a word to change,
there are some necessary preconditions:

(1) The affected word must be preceded by a "trigger" word with a i tone or a b tone;

(2) The "trigger" word and the affected word must have a elose grammatical relationship
(numeral-elassifier sequences and compounds are two examples; see "Tone Change
Environments" below); and

(3) The affected word Ipust have aj tone, a v tone, an s tone, a ¢ tone, or an m tone (note:
not a b tone, a g tone, or a d tone) .

I . EXAMPLES OF THE FIVE POSSIBLE TONE CHANGES

s changes to g:

tus me nyuam ib tug me nyuam

elf child one elf child
I 'the child' 'a child'

tus npua peb tug npua

elf pig three elf pig
' the pig' 'three pigs' :
(Note: peb tus npua would be 'our pigs' instead of 'three pigs')
m changes to g:

j
daim ntawv cuajdaig ntawv
elf paper nine elf paper
.--1 'the sheet of paper' 'nine sheets of paper'

rau caum pebcaug

six tens three tens
'sixty' 'thirty'

j changes to g:

lub ntuj nrab ntug

elf sky midle sky
'the sky' 'in the heavens'

dej pajdeg
'water' flower water
'bubbles' ,

* For a detailed discussion oftbis topic. 8ee Rlitliff (1992).

I 129

I ntsej muag tub pob ntseg

ear face elf elumpear
'face' 'the ear'
I
¢ changes to s:

I ib tsob ntoo pob ntoos

one elf tree elump tree
'a tree' 'stump'
I
raupua cuajpuas
6 100 9 100
I 'six hundred' 'nine hundred'

tus npua zaubnpuas

I elf pig vegetable pig
'the pig' 'pig-food'

I v changes to ¢:

tus qav tus nabqa

I elf frog elf snake frog
'the frog' 'the lizard'

I tub qhov poob qho

elf hole to fall hole
'the hole' 'of the sun setting'
I
tub tsev ib tse neeg
elf house one house people
I 'the house' 'a household'

I Remember, though, that these changes are not automatic. Even if the right preconditions
exist, the change may not occur. Historically speaking, there was a time when the tone changes
described above occurred like elockwork and could be considered rules. Now, however, the tone
I change system of the language is in the process of disappearing, so that the changes may or may
not occur. Thus, they can no longer be considered as rules, and you will find a great deal of
I variation not only from speaker to speaker, but also within a single speaker. Like all languages,
Hmong changes over time, and the gradual loss of the tone change system is one manifestation of
this.
I

I II. TONE CHANGE ENVIRONMENTS

I The most common grammatical constructions in which the tone changes discussed above
can occur are the following :

I
130

A . CONSTRUCTIONS INVOLVING NUMERALS

Since the numerals 1-5 and 9 are words with tones which can trigger tone change (i.e., -b
and -j), and since they are frequently used in everyday language, you will find numerous examples
of the type of constructions given below.

a. Numeral-elassifier:

ib tug « tus) me nyuam ib co « cov) me nyuam

one elf child one group/pI elf child
'one/a child' '(a group of) children'

tsib daig « daim) ntawv cuaj nkawg « nkawm) khau

five elf paper nine elf shoe
'five sheets of paper' 'nine pairs of shoes'

b. Numeral-numeral constructions:
• Numerals 3-5 + caum ' 1O's' (30 and above)
peb caug « caum) plaubcaug « caum) tsib caug « caum)
3 1O's 4 10's 5 1O's
'thirty' 'forty' 'fifty'
Note: In cuajcaum (9 + 1O's, 'ninety') caum does not undergo the expected tone
change.

• Numeral 1-5 or 9 + pua ' 100'

ibpua6 « pua) obpuas « pua) Cuajpua6 « pua)
1 100 2 100 9 100
'one hundred' 'two hundred' 'nine hundred'

ib txhiab cuajpua6 cuaj caum ib

1 1,000 9 100 9 1O's 1
' 1 99 1 '

Note: vam ' 10,000, ' a fairly recent loanword from Chinese, does not undergo tone
change after the numerals 1-5 and 9, as exemplified below.
ib vam ' 1 0,000'
plaub vam '40,000'
cuajvam '90,000'

c. Ib 'one' + nouns used as measure words, or nouns the entirety of which is being
expressed:
ib hmos « hmo) ibzaug « zaus) ib xy006 « xyoo)
one night one time, occasion, tum one year
'one night' 'once, one occasion' 'one year'

ib ce « cev) ib'zog « zos)

one body one village
'the entire body' 'the whole village'
 I 131

I B. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH g[! 'EACH OTHER' + VERB WITH A J., L � f!, OR M

TONE

I
sib ceg « cern) sib tog « tom) sib tuas « tua)
e.o. scold e.o. bite e.o. kill
I 'to scold each other' 'to bite each other' 'to kill each other'

sib zeg « zes) sib tw « twv) sib qawg « qawm)

I e.o. tease e.o. compete e.o. show affection
'to tease each other' 'to compete with each other' 'to show affection for each

I other'

Again, remember that tone change does not have to occur after sib, and that you will come
I across the phrases listed above with no tone change about as often as with tone change. Also, as

far as we know, the sib + verb constructions with tone change do not exhibit any differences in
*
I meaning from their counterparts with no tone change.

I
C. CERTAIN COMPOUNDS

nab qa « qav) nqaij npuas « npua) nqaij nyug « nyuj)

I
snake frog meat pig meat cow
'lizard' 'pig meat' 'cow meat'

I
teb chaws « chaw) nyiaj txiag « txiaj) ciab mu « muv)
land place silver money wax bee
'country' '(silver) money' 'bee wax'

I (dab) noj hlis « hli) kaj ntug « ntuj) poob phlus « phlu)
spirit eat moon bright sky fall cheek

I
'an eclipse of the moon' 'morning' 'lose face't

D . TIPS TO FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH TONE CHANGE CONSTRUCTIONS

I
'1 1) Since there is a great deal ofvariation in this area of the language, the best strategy is to follow
I the practices of the native speaker(s) with whom you are in contact. Listen carefully to the way
they speak and imitate them.
2) A good way to learn the compounds listed in section C above is to make a list of them as you
progress in your Hmong studies.
3) As a learning strategy, you may consider putting a hyphen between the two words involved in
I a tone change construction to remind yourself of the change.

* Sib can also be pronounced sis. This variant is frequently used by Hmong from Laos, and does not trigger tone
change in the following verb since it bears a low tone.
t As you know, poob is typically used as an intransitive verb meaning 'to fall,' but it can also be used
metaphorically as a transitive verb meaning
. 'to lose' -e,g., poob-nyiag (fall-money) = 'to lose money' or poob­
phlus (fall-cheek) = 'to lose face.'

I
 132

COMPOUND S

I. (NON- )TRANSPARENT COMPOUNDS

One mechanism on which languages rely to form new words is compounding-i.e.,

creating words which have at least two component parts. A type of compounding shared by many
of the world's languages involves the juxtaposition of two clearly recognizable elements and
results in a compound whose meaning is transparent if you consider the meaning of its
components-e.g., English houseboat, coffee cake, teapot, or blackboard. As is to be expected,
compounds of this type are also common in Hmong, except that the modifier follows its head:

Compound Meaning of Head + Modifier Meaning of Compound

chaw pw 'place, region' + 'to lie down' 'sleeping place, bed(room)'
chaw noj mov 'place, region' + 'to eat rice' 'eating room, kitchen'
rojnpua 'oil, fat' + 'pig' 'pig fat'
roj av 'oil, fat' + 'earth' 'gas, oil'
paj kws 'flower' + 'corn' 'popcorn '
pajntaub 'flower' + 'cloth' 'embroidery'

In a few compounds one of the components does not have an independent meaning in
modern Hmong (cf. English "cranberry") ; there are also a few cases where neither element has an
independent meaning:
nim no (no meaning) + 'this' 'now'
tag kis 'finish(ed) ' + (no meaning) 'tomorrow'
twj ywm (no meaning) + (no meaning) '(be) quiet'

In the compounds described above the component parts are not related in meaning. Hmong
is also characterized by a type of compounding not found in English in which the two component
words are closely related in meaning. These compounds constitute yet another hallmark of Hmong
style and fall into two categories: synonym compounds and ''two-halves'' compounds (see the
following two sections below). Finally, there are two-syllable compounds in which the first
syllable is a shape prefix which picks out an aspect of the physical shape of the head noun (see the
third section below).

II. S YNONYM COMPOUNDS

Synonym compounds are made up of two words which are identical or very close in
meaning (note that the effect is one of amplitude rather than redundancy):
me nyuam 'small' + 'small' 'child, small'
poj niam 'female' + 'female' 'woman, wife'
nyiaj txiag 'silver' + 'coins' (note tone change) 'money'
I 133

I teb clwws 'land' + 'place' (note tone change) 'country'

kwj ha 'gulley' + 'valley'(note tone change) 'valley'

I tes taw 'hand' + 'foot' 'animal limbs'

kab ntsaum 'bug' + 'ant' 'bugs'
'hills, mountains'
I
tojroob 'hill' + 'mountain'
txhij txhua 'complete' + 'all' 'all, every'
nruabnrab 'middle' + 'middle' 'middle'
I

I III. ''TwO-HALVES'' COMPOUNDS

"Two-halves" compounds are made up of two words with complementary meanings.

I kwv tij 'younger brother' + 'older brother' 'kin, brothers'
·
viv ncaus 'younger sister' + 'older sister' ' sister(s)'

I niam txiv 'mother' + 'father' 'parents'

nkaujnraug t 'girl' + 'boy' (note tone change) 'young couple'

I
ris tsho 'pants' + 'shirt' 'suit (of clothing)'
ntsejmuag 'ears' + 'eyes' 'face'

IV. S HAPE PREFIX COMPOUNDS

I
Shape prefix compounds are two-syllable compounds in which the first syllable is a shape
noun, which can be thought of as a shape prefix. A good way to illustrate what a shape prefix is is
I to take the noun tes, which is typically translated as 'hand. ' This noun should actually be
understood as "the protuberance at the end of the forearm" since it includes the wrist, which we do

I not include in our notion of ''hand.'' Hence, tes is found in two-syllable compounds where the
first part is a shape prefix which picks out an aspect of the shape of the head noun tes and

I
describes a component of ''the protuberance at the end of the forearm." Consider the following '
examples (for the tone change in the head noun tes, see next paragraph):

I Coml!ound Translation = Shal!e Prefix + Head Noun

dab teg 'wrist' = dab 'narrowing' + tes 'hand'
I pob teg 'wrist bone' = pob 'round object' + tes 'hand'
taub teg 'fingertip' = taub 'gourd-shaped' + tes 'hand'

I
Shape prefixes are not classifiers because the whole compound (shape prefix-head noun)
I can be preceded by a classifier-e.g., lubdab-teg 'wrist. ' In addition, given the proper conditions

I
•
This compound is no longer separable.

I
t Poetic.

I
134

(see section on tone change), shape prefixes can induce tone change in the following noun while
classifiers as a rule do not have the power to do that.
*

Shape prefix compounds represent a resource of the language for expanding its lexicon;
additional, high-frequency examples (arranged by shape prefix) are given below. Where it occurs,
tone change (t.c.) is indicated in parentheses.

Shape Prefix Compound Translation

pob lub pob ntoos (t.c.) 'tree stump'

'round object, clump, blob' lub pob ntseg (t.c.) 'ear' (the whole thing)
lubpob zeb 'rock'
lub pob a (t.c.) 'clod of earth'
lub pob taws (t.c.) 'ankle bone'

taub lub taubhau 'head'

' gourd-shaped object' lub taub teg (t.c.) 'fingertip'
lub taub ntseg (t.c.) 'ear lobe'
lub taub nkawg (t.c.) 'mass of hornets'
(nest or swarm)

qhov lub qhov rooj 'door'

'hole' lub qhov rais 'window'
lub qhov muag 'eye'
lub qhov ncauj 'mouth'

ko txhais ko taw 'foot'

'handle' tus ko tw 'tail'

f!!i tus cajdab 'neck'

'ridge' tus caj ntswm 'nose ridge'

With regard to meaning, shape prefixes do the same job as some classifiers do: they
indicate the shape (or an aspect of the shape) of the noun under consideration; classifiers such as
daim (flat), lub (round, bulky) , tus (short length), and txoj (long length) also pick out the shape (or
one aspect of the shape) of the noun with which they are paired. With regard to grammatical
structure, however, shape prefixes occur in two-syllable compounds which are learned as a single
vocabulary item, while classifiers occur orily in the grammatical constructions described in the
"When Must a Classifier Be Used?" section.

*
For !be few exceptions to" Ibis rule, see Ratliff (1992: Chapter II, Section 4.2).
 I 135

I POSSESSIVE NOUN PHRASES

I
In English possessive noun phrases such as the teacher's house, the boy' s crossbow, and

I
the pig's tail, the possessor comes first and the item possessed comes second. The same is true in
Hmong, with both possessor and possessed preceded by their respective classifier (except with
proper nouns as well as txiv 'father' and niam 'mother,' which do not take a elassifier):
I
classifier + possessor + classifier + possessed
I
Possessive noun phrases are illustrated below.

I 1 . tus xib fwb lub tsev

elf teacher elf house

I 'the teacher's house'

I
2. tus tub rab hneev
elf boy elf crossbow
'the boy's crossbow'
I
3 . tus npua tus tw
I elf pIg elf tail
'the pig's tail'

I 4. tus qaib lub qe

elf chicken elf egg
I 'the chicken's egg'

I
5. Neeb lub tsev
Neng elf house
'Neng's house'
I
6. tus me nyuam niam
I elf child mother
'the child's mother'

I
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Part 6 Verbs
Author:
Annie Jaiser et al.

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3rv7j06v

Additional Info:
Verbs

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
 136

VERB PHRASE STRUCTURE

DIFFERENT CORRESPONDENCES TO ENGLISH "TO BE"

The verb "to be" has several equivalents in Hmong. To help you choose the correct one,
think about what the verb "to be" means in a given English sentence and how it could be
paraphrased. For instance, in the sentence "The house is in the mountains," "is" could be
paraphrased as "is located" (hence nyob would be used in Hmong), whereas in "There is a book
on the table," "is" refers to the existence of something (hence muaj would be used in Hmong).
Below are the most common Hmong equivalents of English "to be" along with an exercise to help
you practice their usages.

I. YOG 'to be' in the sense of "to be equal" or "to be true"

1. No yog when the predicate is an adjective in English:

Nws mluas. 'S/he is very sad.' (!!2! *Nws yog mluas mluas.)

Koj siab. 'You are tall.' (!!2! *Koj yog siab.)

2. Yog is used when the predicate is a noun phrase:

Nws yog ib tug xib fwb. 'He is a teacher.'

Tus no yog tus hlob. 'This one is the oldest.'

3 . Yog can also be used to introduce the equivalent of an English 'if' clause (yog =
literally, 'be it the case'):

Yog Ii ces Isis cheem koj. 'If that's the case, I won't keep you then. '

Yog koj mus mas kuv mus thiab. 'If you're going, I'm going too.'

4. As we shall see in the section on Questions and Answers below, yog can also show up
in the tag question puas yog? (literally, is that the case?):

Maiv muaj ob tug nus, puas yog? 'My has two brothers, doesn't she/right?'

II. NYOB 'to be' in the sense of "to be located, to be situated," hence also 'to live'

Me lub tsev nyob Isis deb tsis ze cov roob loj /oj. 'Marilyn's house is neither far nor
close to the mountains.'
 I 137

I Kuv nrog kuv tus txiv thiab kuv tus ntxhais nyob. 'I live with my husband and my
daughter.'

I
III. MUAJ 'to be' in the sense of "to exist"
I
1. In constructions equivalent to English existential "there is/are":
I
Muaj xya leej nyob hauv·no. 'There are seven people living here.'

I Puas muaj neeg nyob tsev? 'Is there anybody horneT

2. In age expressions:
I
Kuv tus ntxhais muaj yim xyoo xwb. 'My daughter is only eight years old.'

I
I *********

I Practice exercise: Insert yog, muaj, nyob, or leave blank if appropriate.

i
{

I 1. Ntxawm ____ plaub caug rau xyoo. 'Ntxawm is forty six years old.'

2. Mas ____ nkees vim tias nws tsaug zog tsis txaus. 'Mas is tired because he did not
I
get enough sleep.'

I 3. Kuv ib tug ntxhais kawm ntawv. 'I'm a (female) student.'

4. Tsis dab tsi noj. 'There is nothing to eat.'

I
5. Maiv tshaib tshaib plab. 'Maiv is very hungry.'

I 6. Neeb ib tug ntxhais Ziv Poom. 'Neeb is a Japanese girl.'

7. Nws tsis ____ hauv tsev. 'She's not at home.'

I 8. Peb sawv daws ____ hauv teb chaws As mes lis kas. 'We all live in the United States.'

I 9. Lawv ____ zoo siab. 'They're happy.'

10. Kab Npauj lub tsev ___ ze lub pas dej. 'Kab Npauj's house is near the lake.'
I

I
138

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

I. "YEs-NO" QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. The main way to ask a yes-no question is to insert puas before the verb you are questioning:

Nej puas nyiam txiv puv luj? 'Do you (pI.) like pineapple?'
Koj puas muaj koj phau ntawv Hmoob? 'Do you (sg.) have your Hmong book?'

The way to answer these questions is to repeat the verb with or without the negative tsis,
depending on whether you want to give an affirmative or a negative answer:

Affirmative answer: Nej puas nyiam txiv puv luj? Nyiam.

'Do you (pI.) like pineapple?' 'Yes, we do. '

Negative answer: Koj puas muaj koj phau ntawv Hmoob? Tsis muaj.
'Do you (sg.) have your Hmong book?' 'No, I don't.'

2. Another way to ask a yes-no question is to add puas yog (literally, 'Is that the case?'; equivalent
to French "n' est-ce pas?") at the end of a statement. Puas yog can be added to any statement to tum
it into a yes-no question. Typically, this pattern is used when the speaker is seeking confirmation
of what s/he is saying.

Lauj Pov muaj ob tug muam, puas yog?

'Lopao has two sisters, doesn't he/right?'

AnsWer: y o g (confirms what the speaker said) or Isis yog (contradicts what the speaker said).

3. Polite requests can appear in the form of a yes-no question by adding puas tau? - which is
equivalent to 'could you please/would you please?' -at the end of the request:

Hais dua, puas tau?

'Could you please say that again?'

Thov koj mus qhib lub qhov rooj, puas tau?

'Would you please go and open the door?'

Answer: tau (listener agrees to request) or Isis lau (listener turns down request)
I 139

I 4. Adding the particle los at the end of a sentence will tum it into a type of yes-no question which
expects a positive answer. The sentence is typically formulaic or states the obvious, and the
I speaker is merely seeking confirmation as a way of making "small talk." S/he is not seeking a
true/false type of answer as is the case with the yes-no questions discussed in (1) and (2):

I
Kojtuaj los? Hi! (literally, something like 'So, you've come/arrived,
have you?')
I
Koj cheblzov tsev lo s? (conversational opener: 'So, you're sweeping/taking care of
I the house, are you?')

I Answer: Verb + particle os-e.g., Tuajos.

I II. "OR" QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

I 1. Insert los (meaning 'or' here, not 'come') between the two options:
Tus no yog ib tug menyuam tub los ib tug menyuam ntxhais?
'Is it a baby boy or a baby girl?'
I
Answer with one option, or with the whole sentence:
I (Tus no yog) ib tug menyuam tub.
'(It's) a baby boy.'

I 2. The tag question tas lawm los tsis tau? 'finished or not?' often appears at the end of a statement
as a way of asking somebody whether s/he has finished doing what is expressed in the statement.
I This construction is frequently used in spoken Hmong. Notice that while it appears in the form of
an or question in Hmong, it typically translates as a yes-no question with 'yet' in English:

I
Koj no j mov tas lawm los Isis tau? Have you finished eating yet or not?

I Answer: las lawm (positive answer: 'Yes, I have') or (Iseem) Isis lau (negative answer: 'Not
yet').
I

I III. REPORTER'S/"WH" QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

In Hmong, the question word (what, who, where, when, why, etc.) occurs in the same
I slot as the answer to the question-i.e., not at the beginning of the question as in English:

I
 140

1. What?: dab tsi (also spelled dabtS'l)?*

Koj ooj dab tsi? 'What are you eating?'

Kuv noj pob kws. 'I'm eating com.'

Xim dab tsi? 'What colorT

Xim dub. 'Black.'

2. Who?: leej twg?/twg twg?

Leej twg/Twg twg xav mus ua si? 'Who wants to go and have funT
Lauj Pov xav mus ua si. 'Lopao wants to go and have fun.'

3. Which?: twg?

Koj yuav mus tom khw hnub t w g? 'Which day are you going to the marketT
Mus hnub vas Xaum. 'I'm going on Saturday.'

4. Why?: Vim Ii cas?/Ua (Ii. cas.?

Because: Vim tias/Tau qhov/vim yog

Vim Ii cas koj nkees nkees Ii? 'Why are you so tiredT
Vim tias/ Vim yog kuv mus ua si 'Because I stayed out too late/had too
ntauntau! much fun!'

Va cas koj zoo zoo siab? 'Why are you so happy?'

Rau qhov kuv txais tau ib tsab ntawv 'Because I received a letter.'
lawm.

5. How much/many?: pes tsawg

Nws muaj pes tsawg tus menyuam? 'How many children does s/he haveT
Nws muaj 0 b tug menyuam. 'S/he has two children.'

.1 6. Where?: qhov twg?

Lauj Pov tuaj qhov

twg tuaj? 'Where does Lopao come from?'
Nws tuaj tim Minnesota tuaj. 'He comes from Minnesota.'

*
In spoken Hmong this is often pronounced atsi.
I 141

I 7. How?: licas?

I Nws tub npe hu Ii cas? 'What's her name?'

Nws tub npe hu ua Maiv. 'Her name is My.'

I Koj mus tod Ii cas? 'How are you going there?'

Kuv yuav mus taw. 'I'm going on footlI'm walking.'
I
Hnub no huab cua zoo Ii cas? 'How's the weather today?'

I Hnub no tshav ntuj. 'It's bright and sunny today.'

8. What kind?: yam Ii cas?

I
Muaj tsiajyam Ii cas nyob saum Npis 'What kind of animal is sitting on

I tub taub hau? Npi's head?'

Muaj ib tug dey nyob saum Npis 'A dog is sitting on Npi's head.'

I tub taub hau.

I
 142

NEGATION

I. THE CERTAIN FALSITY NEGATIVE MARKER TSIS

While turning a positive statement into a negative one is a fairly complex matter in English, *
the same is not true of Hmong: when the falsity of the proposition expressed by the clause is
certain, the proposition is negated simply by inserting the negative marker tsis in front of the verb:

1 a. Kuv paub b . Kuv tliili paub.

I know I neg know
'I know.' 'I don't know.'

When there is more than one verb-a frequent occurrence in Hmong-the negative marker
. is placed before the verb which is being negated semantically:

2 a. Kuv tsaug zog txaus. b. Kuv tsaug zog tliili txauli.

1 sleep suffice 1 sleep neg suffice
'I got enough sleep.' 'I didn't get enough sleep.'

In comparative constructionst tsis occurs before the stative verb modified by dua:

3. Tus noog 1UJ tliili loj dua tus noog ntawd.

elf bird this big neg comp elf bird that
'This bird is not bigger than that bird.'

In superlative constructions, tsis occurs either before the first verb or before tshaj:

4 a. Tus noog 1UJ tliiii loj tshaj.

elf bird this neg big surpass
'This bird is not the biggest.'

b. Tus noog 1UJ loj tliili tshaj.

elf bird this big neg surpass
'This bird is not the biggest.'

*
The main complexity stems from the fact that sentences with auxiliaries are negated by adding "not" (or its
contracted form, "n't'') after the auxiliary while sentences with ordinary verbs need the auxiliary "do" before
''notu/''n'l'', cf. "She can't go" vs. "She didn't go."
t For details see ''Comparative and Superlative Constructions" section.

I
 I 143

I II. THE UNCERTAIN FALSITY NEGATIVE MARKER (TSlS) TXHOB

I As seen in the examples in the section above, the negative marker tsis is used when the 'falsity
of the proposition expressed by the clause is certain. On the other hand, when the falsity of the

I proposition is not certain, the special negative marker txhob-optionally preceded by tsis with no
apparent difference in meaning-is used. Uncertain falsity is characteristic of negative imperative
constructions' (as in 5), since issuing a negative command does not guarantee success, and of
I constructions involving speculation (as in 6) or hope (as in 7). The ,contrast between the two
negative markers is clearly illustrated in 6: (tsis) txhob appears in the if-clause, which refers to a
I specUlative state of affairs, while tsis is found in the main clause, which refers to an actual state of
affairs.

I 5 . (Koj) (tsis) txhob hais l i ntawd!

you neg neg uncert speak like that
I 'Don't speak like that!'

I 6 . Yog kuv (tsis) txhob ua, peb twb tsis swb lawm.
if I neg neg uncert do we sure neg lose perf
'If! hadn't done this, we would not have lost.'
I
7. (Tsis) txhob mus los mas.
I neg neg uncert go prt prt
'Don't go (please).'

I
I I
I
I

I
•
Imperative constructions typically have ,the same grammatical structure as basic declarative constructions, as
I seen below (note that the second·person prononn is optional):
(Koj) mus.
you go

I 'Go!'

I
144

VERB SERIALIZATION

Paying close attention to the verbs, consider the following sentences from "Dab neeg nab
qatsiav" 'The school lizard,' by Lyfu Vang, found in the reading section.

From "Dab neeg nabga tsiav" #1

1. Ib tug nab qa tsiav khiav tawm 10s.

run come oUt ·come
'A lizard escaped-literally, came rbAfting out.'
, .

2. Tub Sawm s a w v mus ntei"t:us nab qa tsiav

rise, get up go catch

tab sis nws khiav tawm tim lub qhovrooj mus lawm.
run come out go
'Sawm got up to catch the lizard, but it ran out the door.'

3. Tub Sawm thiaj li ro v qab los zaum.

return come sit
'So Sawm sat down again.' [rov ( qab) + Verb = 'to do Verb again/to re-Verb']

From "Dabneeg nabgatsiav" #2

4. Nws tus nab qa tsiav nkag nkag nyob saum nws lubrooj sau ntawv.
crawl crawl be located
'His lizard crawled around on top of his desk.'

5 . · TubRiam thiaj m us s a w v ntsug tim lub qhovrais.

go stand upright
'So Riam went and stood by the window.'

From "Dabneeg nabgatsiav" #3

6. Ib tug nabqa tsiav nkag tawm tim lub qhovrooj los.

crawl come out come
'A lizard crawled in through the door.'

7. Nws maj mam nkag 101 nrel ze ze ntawm Maiv Tooj lubrooj zaum.
crawl come stop
'It slowly crawled very close to Maiv Tooj's chair.'
 I 145

I 8. tus nabqa tsiav thiaj li kh iav tawm tim lub qhovrooj ro v q ab mu:r lawm.
run come out return go

I ' ... the lizard went running out the door again. '

9. Tus xibfwb thiaj Ii :r a w v mus qh ib lub qhovrooj.

I get up, rise go open
'The teacher (got up and) opened the door.'
I
From "Dabneeg nabqatsiav" #4

I 10. Maiv Tooj ho yuav nee mu:r saum nws lubrooj zaum.
climb go
I 'Maiv Tooj climbed on top of her chair.'

11. lb tug nab qa tsiav khiav 10 s ze ze ntawm lawv covrooj zaum.

I
run come
A lizard was running around very close to their chairs. '
I
•

12. Maiv Tooj q w q w kom Tub Riam mus qh ib lub qhovrooj.

I shout shout order go open
'Maiv Tooj shouted at Riam to go and open the door.'

I 13. Tus nab qa tsiav twb khiav tawm tim lub qhov rais mus lawm.
run come out go
I 'The lizard ran out through the window.'

I
,
.'

As you can see in all of these examples, Hmong likes to string verbs together without any
coordination and/or subordination markers. It is not uncommon to find strings of up to four or .
I five verbs sharing the same subject, as illustrated in the following example:

I 14. Yam zoo tshaj plaws mas, nej yuav tsum mus nrhiav n ug xyuas saib
thing good most top you must go look for ask visit see

I luag muaj kev pab hom dab tsi nyob ncig ib cheeb tsam ntawm nej
others have way help kind what be-at around environs at you
I
'The best thing to do is for you to find people who live in your neighborhood who can help
I you with different things.'

This phenomenon of stringing verbs together is referred to as verb serialization and is a feature
I characteristic of many languages of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Typically, verb serialization
involves:
I
I
I
I I
1___ _
 146

a. A concatenation of two or more verbs sharing the same subject (and sometimes an object)
b. No overt marking of subordination or coordination
c. Taking what is conceived of as a single, unitary action/activity/event in English, breaking it
down into its different component parts, and stating all the subparts explictly via a string of
verbs. These verbs can occur side by side or can have elements sandwiched in between
them-elements such as a direct object after a transitive verb or a location phrase after an
intransitive verb.

A good way to begin studying verb serializatjO,nin Hmong is to look at constructions in which it is
typically used. ,

I. MOTION + DIRECTION SERIAL VERB,CONSTRUCTIONS

In this type of verb serialization, the string of verbs starts with one or more action verbs
. involving motion (e.g., khiav ' run,' nee 'climb,' lUla 'pick up and carry in the hand(s),' nkag
'crawl,' etc.) and ends with a verb describing the direction of movement in relation to the speaker
and hearer. The most common directional verbs aremus 'go' and los 'come'; los indicates motion
toward the speaker or point of reference, while mus refers to motion away from the speaker or
point of reference. Examples 1, 2 (second clause), 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 13 from "Dab neeg nab
qatsiav" above, as well as the examples below, illustrate this very common type of serialization.
Typically, these strings of verbs correspond to a single verb or a verb followed by a preposition in
En glish.

15. Lawv nee nkag mus vs. Lawv nee nkag los
they climb crawl go they climb crawl come
'They climbed out. ' 'They climbed in. '

16. Nqa taws mus vs. Nqa taws los

carry wood go carry wood come
'Take the wood.' 'Bring the wood.'

17. ... peb yawg hlob Vaj Pov tau khiav tawm teb chaws
our grandfather elder Vaj P ov attain run come out country
'. . . our leader Vang Pao fled the country'

18 a. Nws nqa nws rab hneev 101 tsev.

s/he carry herlhis clf crossbow come home
' S/he brought his/her crossbow home.'

b. Nws nqa nws rab hneev mus.

s/he carry herlhis clf crossbow go
'S/he too k his/her crossbow. '
I 147

I 19 . Ntshav tawm tawm hauv tus qav lub qlwv neauj los.
blood come out come out inside elf frog elf mouth come
'Blood was streaming out of the frog's mouth. '
I
Looking over all these examples and others following the same pattern, you should begin to feel
I that motion verbs such as khiav, nee, nqa, and nkag are not complete without a directional verb
*
such as mus or los.
I
II. CAUSATIVE SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS
I
These serial verb constructions describe direct causation: the first verb describes the direct
I action of the subject on the object, which causes the change described by the second verb, as seen
in (20-25) below. Note that while all the verbs in the motion + direction type of serial verb
construction shared the same subject, in the causative type the object of the first verb in the series is
I interpreted as the subject of the second.

I 20. Nws ntaus tus dev khiav kiag.

s/he hit elf dog run int
I 'S/he hit the dog so that it ran away.'

21. Lawv tua tus txiv neej tuag.

I they shoot elf man die
'They shot the man dead.lThe man was shot to death. '
I
22. Lawv ua lub tsev siab siab.
they make elf house high high
I 'They built the house very high. '

I 23. Peb khawb lub qhov tob tob. t

we dig elf hole deep deep
I 'We dug the hole very deep. '

24. Po v pob l o s rau kuv.

I throw ball come to me
'Throw the ball (so that it comes) to me. '
I

I
*
Another common directional verb is tuqj, which, although it translates as 'come' like los, has a different shade

I of meaning: whereas los means 'come (back) to a place where one resides or belongs: tuaj means 'come to a place
where one does not reside or belong (i.e., temporarily).' See example (36) for an illustration of the meaning of tuqj.
t Recall that while tob 'deep' and siab 'high, tall' are considered to be adjectives in English, they are treated as
I verbs in Hmong. (See "Different Correspondences to English 'To Be'" for details.)

I
148

25. Npis xa ib tsab ntawv mUll rau nws niam.

Bee send elf letter go to his mother
·
'Bee sent a letter (so that it went) to his mother.'

III. DISPOSAL SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS

A s suggested by their name, disposal serial verb constructions generally describe situations
in which the subject of the first verb disposes of, destroys, or relinquishes the object in some way,
as seen in (26-30). As is the case with the causative constructions discussed above, there is a noun
phrase between the two verbs involved in the series. However, while in the causative type this
noun phrase is interpreted as being both the objectof the first verb and the subject of the. second
verb, in the disposal type the shared noun phrase is the object of both the first and the second
verbs.

26. Tus tub po v nws rab �ev tlleg.

elf boy throw his elf crossbow leave, abandon
'The boy threw his crossbow down.'

27. Lawv xa ib q/w khoom p ub kuy.

they send some thing give present me
'They sent some things to me (as a present).'

28 . . . . koj thiaj li tom kuy noj

. . . you so bite me eat
' . . . so you can gobble me up'

29. Nws m uab pojniam nrauj lawm.

he take wife divorce perf
'He divorced his wife. '

30. Ces txawm m uab po v rau tshay ntuj. t

and then take throw put in sunlight
'So then they took it and threw it into the sunlight. '

NaTE: There are a lot of sentences which follow the grammatical pattern found in (29-30) but
which do not have a "disposal" meaning: while the first verb is also muab 'take,' the second verb

*
It is interesting to compare the causative serial verb constructions in (24-25) with a motion + direction
construction such as (15) Lawv nee nkag mus/los 'They climbed infout.' Both types of constructions include the
directional verbs mus and los. However. there is a difference between the two types of constructions in terms of who
does the moving: in the motion + direction type, it is the subject of the first verb (which is the subject of all the
verbs in tbe series) which does the moving; in the causative type it is the object of the first verb which moves as a
result of what tbe subject does.
t The subject "tbey" and the object "it" are both derived from the larger context of the story.
 I 149

I does not necessarily describe how the object is "disposed of," but simply how it is dealt with or
what happens to it. This is illustrated in (3 1-32):
I
3 1 . M uab lawv cais ws Ii
ra lawv lub cev thiOO lawv qhov teem.
take them separate from according to their elf body and their type
I 'Classify them according to their shape and type.'

I 32. Pog Xeev Laus thiab Yawg Xeev Laus nkawd yug tau ib tug ntxhais;
Mrs. Seng Lor and Mr. Seng Lor they-two give birth get one elf daughter

I
nkawm m uab h u ua Muam Nkauj Liag, no.
pair take call Mua Ngao Lia this
I
'Mr. and Mrs. Seng Lor gave birth to a daughter; they named her Mua Ngao Lia.'
I
IV. INSTRUMENTAL SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS
I
Instrumental serial verb constructions are equivalent to English "to do X with Y." The
I most common verbs to occur as the first element of these constructions are xuas 'grasp, hold,
grope,' muab 'take (in hand),' and siv 'use.' They are folIowed by the instrument used to carry

I out the action, after which comes the verb describing the purpose to which the instrument is put­
e.g., 'to take-key-to-open', 'to use-knife-to-cut,' etc. In sentences with xuas or muab the handling
of the instrument is emphasized, whereas in sentences with siv the notion of utilization is stressed.
I These points are illustrated in the examples below:

I 33 a. Nws tau xuas yuam sij qh ib qhov rooj lawm.

s/he attain grasp key open door perf
'S/he opened the door with a key.'
I
b . Nws tau muab yuam sij qh ib qhov rooj lawm.
I s/he attain take key open door perf
'S/he opened the door with a key.'

I
c . Nws tau s i v yuam sij qh ib qhov rooj lawm.
s/he attain use key open door perf
I 'S/he opened the door with a key.'

I 34 a. Tus neeg caum nqaij tau

xuas phom tua tus noog.
elf person chase meat attain grasp gun kill elf bird
'The hunter killed the bird with a gun.'
I
b . Tus eg
ne caum nqaij tau muab phom tua tus noog.
I

I
150

elf person chase meat attain take gun kill elf bird
'The hunter killed the bird with a gun. '

c. Tus neeg caum nqaij tau sill phom tua tus noog.
elf person chase meat attain use gun kill elf bird
'The hunter killed the bird with a gun/used a gun to kill the bird.'

NOfE: When siv is used, the implication is that the instrument is already in the agent's hand(s).
When xuas or muab are used, the agent may or may not already have the instrument in hand,
depending on the context. For example, in 33, if the key needed to open the door is in full sight on
top of a table-i.e., no groping is necessary to access it-it is preferrable to use muab (a neutral
'take (in hand)' over xuas. A good way to get a sense of the subtle differences among these three
verbs is to ask a Hmong person to act these sentences out for you.

V. PURPOSE SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS

Purpose serial verb constructions involve a motion verb such as mus 'go,' los 'come,' tuaj
'come (to a place where one does not reside or belong),' sawv 'get up, rise,' etc. and an action
verb such as ntes 'catch,' qhib 'open,' nrhiav 'look for.' Examples 2, 9, 12, and 14 from "Dab
neeg nab qa tsiav " above, as wel1 as the examples below, illustrate this type of serial verb
construction.

3 5 . Kuv nrog kuv tus txiv mus pem Chicago; wb mus noj mov ntawm lub
I with my elf husband go up Chicago we go eatrice at elf

tsev noj mov Nyab Laj.

restaurant Vietnamese

'My husband and I went up to Chicago; we went [there] to eat at a Vietnamese restaurant.'

36. Tej zaum nkawd tuaj xyuas wb pem Indiana thiab.

sometimes they come VISit us up Indiana too
'Sometimes they come to visit us up in Indiana too .'

VI. VERB (OBJECT) + ACCOMPLISHMENT VERB SERIAL CONSTRUCTIONS

In these serial constructions, the second verb is a verb of accomplishment such as tau 'get,
obtain,' raug 'hit the target,' or txaus 'suffice, be enough.' The presence or absence of the
negative marker tsis 'not' before the second verb indicates whether the action expressed by the first
verb has been accomplished successful1y or not, as seen in the contrast between the (a) and (b)
sentences in examples 37-39:
I 151

I
37 a. Tooj tua ( phom) raug. b. Tooj tua ( plwm) tsis raug.
I Tooj fire gun hit the target Tooj fire gun neg hit the mark
'Tooj fired and hit his target' 'Tooj missed.'

I 38 a. Kuv tsaug zog txaus. b. Kuv tsaug zog tsis txalts.

I sleep suffice I sleep neg suffice
I 'I got enough sleep.' 'I didn't get enough sleep.'

I 39 a. Kuv nrhiav tau txiv neej. b. Kuv nrhiav tsis tau txiv neej.
I look for get man I look for neg get man
'I found a man.' 'I can't find a man.'
I
Hence,
I nrhiav = 'to look for, search'
nrhiavtau = 'to find'

I nrhiav tsis tau = 'to not be able to find'

I VII. ELAB ORATION SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS

I These are cases of verb serialization whose primary function seems to be a stylistic one­
namely, to overtly specify all the subparts of an event/situation to an extent that is not found in a
language like English. In all of the examples below (and in serial verb constructions in general),
I the translations show that English has a much higher tolerance for vagueness In this area than
Hrnong does.
I
4 0 . Nws nyeem ntawv rau kuv niam mloog.
s/he
I read book to my mother listen
'S/he's reading to my mother.'

Contrary to English, the action performed by the person being read to-namely, listening-has to
be stated explicitly in Hmong.

4 1 . Kuv mam zov ntsia koj mus.

I so then guard watch you go
'I'll watch you go.'

This sentence is said by a father to his young son, who is afraid of leaving the area where his
father is plowing to go to the edge of the field to play. The sentence would be correct
grammatically speaking without zov 'guard, care for, look after,' but it would not be good,
idiomatic Hrnong. The sentence is better with zov, which states explicitly the component of the
situation whereby the father is taking care of the son by watching.
152

42. ... tso kwv tso tij tso txiv tseg

relinquish younger brother relinquish older brother relinquish father abandon
' .. .leave one's relatives behind.'

Here again it is stylistically better Hmong to elaborate on the abandoning of specific relatives.

VIII. TIPs TO FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS

1. Expose yourself to many instances of verb serialization by reading Hmong (the Johnson folk
tales are a good way to start). This will help you develop a feel for verb serialization.

2. Think of all the different components of an action or an event, and state them explicitly.

3. Bear in mind that los has to be used to express motion toward the speaker or point of reference,
while mus has to be used to express motion away from the speaker or point of reference.

4. If all else fails, ask a native speaker to act out sentences with multiple verbs for you.
 I 153

I TENSE AND ASPECT MARKERS

I I. TENSE

Tense refers to the grammatical means a language uses to express the location in time of a
I situation (event, activity, or state). In languages such as English, French, German, or Spanish,
we speak of the past, present, and future tenses; these languages encode the differences between
I tenses in the verb forms, which change depending on the tense. In English, for instance, the past
tense of a verb is formed by adding the suffix "-ed" to the verb stem (e.g., They cooked dinner last
night). In addition, there are a finite number of verbs which have an irregular past tense (e.g.,
I go/went, buy/bought, sleep/slept, etc.). In Asian languages, verb forms typically stay the same
regardless of the location in time of a situation. This does not mean that these languages do not
I have tense, however. While they do not mark time reference by altering verb forms, they do locate
situations along the time line via temporal adverb phrases such as "last year," "twenty years ago,"

I "in 1900," etc. Let us compare a prototypical English and Hmong past tense sentence to illustrate
this point:

I
I 1 . Nag hmo kuv mus tom khw.
yesterday I go loc market
I 'I went to the market yesterday.'

In the· English sentence the location in time of the action is indicated twice, once via the adverb
I yesterday and once via the change in the verb form from "go" to "went"; in Hmong (and other
Asian languages), tense is simply indicated once, via the adverb nag hmo 'yesterday.' Hmong
I (along with other Asian languages) is thus easier and more economical in this respect: in natural
written and spoken discourse, the time frame of a situation is established at the beginning of a story
I or conversation and is not referred to again unless it changes. From an Asian language point of
view, having to conjugate verbs in addition to using temporal adverb phrases to mark tense seems
redundant and is the source of great learning difficulties in acquiring a language such as English.
I

I II. ASPECT

Besides being described in terms of their location on a time line via tense, situations can
I also be described in terms of the ways they unfold and are profiled by the speaker. To illustrate
this point, let us compare and contrast the following English sentences:
I
2. I eat rice every day.
I 3 . Don't bother me now; I'm eating.

In sentence (2) "I eat" refers to a habitual situation, occurring on a regular basis; in sentence (3), on
I the other hand, "I'm eating" refers to an ongoing situation, unfolding at the time it is being uttered.
The difference between these two sentences is not a difference in tense, but rather in what is called
I

I
 154

"aspect." Aspect refers to the grammatical means a language uses to profile a situation in terms of
concepts such as "durativity" (ongoing situation), "completion" (completed situation), "iteration"
(repeated situation), etc. Thus, in English, the simple present tense can be used as a grammatical
device to express a habitual situation such as the one in (2), while the present progressive ["to be"
+ main verb + "-ing"] can serve to encode an ongoing situation such as the one in (3).

A further way of clarifying the distinction between tense and aspect is to use the following
test: something is considered to be aspect rather than tense if it can co-occur with tense (or other
forms of time specification such as temporal adverbs). Thus the English progressive and perfect
are aspects because they can be used with any tense (present, past, or future), as seen below:

TENSE -+ PRESENT PAST FUTURE

� ASPECT
PROGRESSNE I am eating (today) I was eating (yesterday) I will be eating (tomorrow)

PERFECT I have eaten (today) I had eaten (yesterday) I will have eaten (tomorrow)

Cross-linguistically, the most common aspect distinction is between perfective and

imperfective. A helpful metaphor for illustrating this contrast is to think of a camera lens whose
focus can be adjusted to allow a situation to be viewed from different perspectives and angles.
With this metaphor in mind, perfective aspect refers to situations viewed synthetically "from the
outside," as completed wholes with clear results or endpoints; since their terminal boundary is in
sharp focus, these situations typically occur in the past and are fully realized. Imperfective aspect
refers to situations viewed analytically "from the inside," with explicit reference to their internal
development and leaving their endpoints out of focus. Thus imperfective aspect puts the emphasis
on the situation as process and includes the progressive and the habitual aspects discussed above.

While tense is an easy area of Hmong grammar to deal with since time specification is
achieved solely via temporal adverb phrases, aspect is a more challenging domain. As is the case
with tense, verb forms themselves do not change in order to reflect aspect contrasts, but there are a
number of verbal modifiers which are used as grammatical devices to encode aspectual differences.
Most of these verbal modifiers are elements which occur before the verb;' a good case in point is
the pre-verbal marker tab tom, Which Hmong uses as the grammatical means of encoding ongoing
situations, as seen in (4):

4. Lawv tab tom noj mov.

they prog eat rice
'They're eating.'f

* The major exception to this is the perfective aspect marker lawm, which occurs at the end of a sentence or clause
(see section on sentence/clause + lawm below for details).
f Since there is no timespecification in Hmong, the sentence could also translate as 'They were/will be eating.'
I 155

I Sentence (4) illustrates the fact that Hmong and English share the progressive aspect on a
conceptual level, but encode it differently in the grammar: while English uses the progressive

I
*
made up of "to be" + main verb + "-ing," Hmong uses the pre-verbal element tab tom.

The next four sections discuss the major aspect markers of Hmong in detail.
I

I III. TAB TOM + VERB = SITUATION IN PROGRESS

I Tab tom is an aspect marker which can appear in pre-verbal position to indicate that a
(5-8) illustrate this usage of tab tom as an indicator
situation (activity, event, state) is in progress.
that a situation is in the process of unfolding:
I
5 . Lawv txiv mus tom khw lawm, tiam sis lawv niam tab tom ntxhua
I their father go loc market perf but/and their mother prog wash
khaub ncaws.
clothes
I 'Their father has gone to the market, and their mother is washing clothes.'

I 6. Nws tab tom ua hauj lwm tim khw.

she prog work at market

I 'S/he's working at the market.'

7 . Thaum kuv tus phooj ywg tuaj ( kuv) tab tom noj mov.
I when my clf friend come (I) prog eat rice
'When my friend arrived I was eating.'
I
8 . Tam sim no Npis tab tom kawm ntawv tiam sis ( nws) xav saib this vis.
I right now Bee prog study
'Right now Bee is studying, but he wants to watch TV.'
but (he) want watch TV

I The pre-verbal modifier tab tom can also indicate that a situation is about to start, as seen in
(9). This is especially clear when tab tom appears in conjunction with the irrealis
. markeryuav , as
I illustrated in ( 10).t

9. Npis tab tom nto hluasnraug;Maiv tab tom nto hluas nkauj thiab.
I Bee prog reach puberty My prog reach pUberty too
'Bee is about to reach puberty; My is about to reach puberty too.' (I.e., they're about to be of
I marriageable age in Hmong culture.)

I *
The tab tom +verb construction, however, is not used as f�uently as the English progressive (see next section
for details).
t
I For a definition of realis and irrealis, see footnote in Tau section and discussion in Yuav section below.

I
 156

10. Thaum tus Tsov tab to m yuav dhia, tus Qav txawm tuav kiag tus Tsov tus two
when elf Tiger prog irrls jump elf Frog then grab int elf Tiger clf tail
'When the Tiger was about to jump, the Frog grabbed tightly onto the Tiger's tail.'

From this we can see that tab tom is typically the equivalent of the English progressive
aspect made up of the auxiliary "to be" followed by a verb in the gerundive "-ing" form (e.g., 'Bee
is studYing'). In terms of usage though, there is a crucial difference between the two languages:
while the progressive is used profusely in English, this is not the case in Hmong. The tab tom
construction is used only when it is not elear from the context that a situation is in progress or

about to happen. Hence, you must be careful not to fall into one of the beginner's learning traps­
i.e., resorting to translation: the English progressive very rarely translates as tab tom + verb; most
of the time, the simple verb form is used (e.g., Nws ua hauj lwm 'S/he's working'). This is
further illustrated in the dialogues, readings, and oral comprehension stories found in this book:
while tab tom is hardly ever used in Hmong, the progressive forms are common in the English
translations of these materials. A good strategy, then, is to look at natural Hmong discourse and to
notice how infrequent this construction is. Paying close attention to its actual occurrences will help
you figure out when it is necessary to use it.

IV. SENTENCE/CLAUSE + LA WM = COMPLETED SITUATION

The word lawm has three different grammatical functions with a common semantic thread
running through them. First, lawm can be used as a main verb meaning 'to leave, depart, go,' as
seen in (11) below. This is the least common usage of lawm; mus 'to go' is much more common.

11. Lawv lawm lauj.

they leave prt
'They have gone.'

. Second, lawm can be used as a location word referring to a place a certain distance away from the
speaker when it is followed by a locative phrase as seen in (12-13):

12. Cia peb mus lawm tom lawv.

let we go distance there they
'Let's go to their place.'

13. Nws khiav lawm pem Tsheej Maim.

slhe run distance up Chiang Mai
'S/he escaped to Chiang Mai.'

Third (and this is the most common usage), when lawm is found at the end of a sentence or clause,
it functions as the perfective marker in Hmong. This means that lawm signals the completion of a
given situation (event, activity, or state), as seen in (14):
I

157

14. Kuv noj mov lawm.

I eat rice perl"
'I am finished/I am done eating. '

..

To illustrate the usage of lawm in a richer context, let's look at two instances of its occurrence in an
excerpt of the oral comprehension story "Npis npaj mov noj" 'Bee prepares a meal (to eat)':

15. Npis rov qab los tsev los muab ib lub lauj lamb rau dej rau, npau lawm,
"
Bee return home dir take one clf pot put water into boil perl
nws mamli npaws zaubpaj rau. Nws cub mov thiab. Thaum tiav huv si
he then break cauliflower into he stearn rice too when ready all
lawm n ws mam Ii noj.
perl" he then eat
'After he returns home, he puts water in a pot. After the water boils, he breaks the
cauliflower into it. He also steams the rice. When everything is ready, he proceeds to eat.'

In both instances lawm signals the completion of a situation: in the first one the boiling of the
water, and in the second one the readiness of the meal.

Since lawm is a completion marker, it comes as no surprise that it is used with the pre­
' verbal marker twb 'already, really', as seen in this excerpt of "Tus tsov los xyuas" 'Tiger shows
up for a visit':

16. Tus tsov hais tias, "Kuv yuav noj koj. " Tiam sis kuv teb tias, "Koj noj kuv
clf tiger say I fut eat you but I answer you eat me
tsis tau. Kuv twb noj koj lawm. "
neg can I ,already eat you perl"
'The tiger said, "I'm going to eat you." But I answered, "You can't eat me. I've already
eaten you.'"

As Ratliff (1992) has pointed out, the common semantic thread that runs through the three
grammatical functions of lawm discussed above has to do with a line between the home center and
a certain distant point:
• with the main verb lawm 'to leave,' the focus is on the beginning of movement along the line;
• with the locative lawm, the focus is on the point at the end of the line-i.e., "there";. and
• with the perfective aspect marker lawm, the focus is on the completion of the movement.

When lawm occurs at the end of a clause or sentence it sometimes indicates that the action
is merely underway-i.e., has left the starting point, but has not been completed yet, as seen in
(17). A good way to think about this is to consider it as the completion of the outset of the action
rather than the entire action. In (17), while the playing is not completed, the taking off to do so is.
Context will help you catch this nuance.
 158

17. Tus tub tau rab hneev; nws thiaj mus ua si lawm.
clf boy get clf crossbow he then go play perf
'The boy got the crossbow and went off to play.'

lawm is most commonly used as a perfective aspect marker to signal the

As noted earlier,
completion of a situation (event, activity, state). As such, lawm is independent of tense: the
situation can be viewed as completed not only in the past, but also in the present and future, as
seen in ( 18):

18. Thaum txog peb caug lawm sawv daws thiaj tau hnav khaub ncaws tshiab .
when arrive New Year perf everybody then attain wear clothes new
'So when the New Year arrives, everybody gets to wear new clothes.'

As a perfective marker, lawm is often preceded by tas 'done, finished, completed,' which
further underlines the completion of a situation. As discussed in the Parataxis section, one of the
characteristics of Hmong style is to conjoin elements with similar meanings, and tas lawm can be
analyzed as one such stylistic variant. The usage of tas lawm is illustrated in ( 19), an excerpt from
"The Tiger and the Frog":

19 . "Koj yuav noj kuv! Kuv twb tho koj lub siab noj tas lawm las as. "
you irrls eat me I already pierce your clf liver eat finished perf prt
'You're going to eat me! But I've already eaten your liver.'

V. TAU

Tau is one of the most frequently occurring elements in the Hmong verb phrase as well as
one of the most challenging to interpret since it has several functions. An understanding of its core
meaning combined with a look at its position vis-a-vis other elements in the verb phrase will help
you come to grips with its mUltiple usages.

A. UlL AS A MAIN VERB = 'TO GET, TO OBTAIN'

i. 'l!!H: used by itself = 'to get, to obtain'

When tau is used by itself in a verb phrase, it functions as a transitive verb meaning 'to get,
to obtain,' as illustrated in (20-21):

"

20 . Koj yuav tsum cog zaub coj mus muag. koj tau nyiaj. koj mam Ii
you must plant vegetables take go sell you get money you then
yuav nplhaib.
buy ring
'You must plant vegetables for sale. and you'll get money to buy the ring.'
I 159

I
21. Tus tub tau rab lmeev; nws thiaj mus uasi lawm.
I elf boy get elf crossbow he then go play perf
'The boy got his crossbow and went off to play.'

I As a transitive verb, tau shares the grammatical properties of other transitive verbs: it can be
preceded by the question marker puas, the negative marker tsis, or the progressive aspect marker
I tab tom. It can also be used in conjunction with the completion aspect marker lawm (see section on
aspect marker combinations); finally, like all verbs, it can be be reduplicated to convey the iterative
I aspect-i.e., tau tau = 'keep getting.'

ii. Verb + t!!!! 'to get, to obtain' actual accompUshment of action

I
=

When tau follows another verb, it indicates the actual accomplishment of the purpose of an
I action and points to the yield of the action expressed by the verb. This is elearly illustrated in the
contrast between xav and xav tau in (22): in the first part of the sentence, xav simply refers to the
act of thinking (hard, since xav is reduplicated) about something, whereas in the second part, the
I occurrence of tau after xav means that the thinking has actually yielded a result-namely, getting
an idea:

22. Tus qav xav xav ib pliag, tus qav xav tau tswv yim.
I elf frog think think awhile elf frog think get idea
'The frog thought it over for awhile and got an idea.'

This verb + tau construction falls into the broader category of serial verb constructions made up of
a verb followed by an accomplishment verb (see section on verb serialization for details). The
notion of tau confirming the result/yield of an action is further illustrated below. Note the
following helpful translations:
'to find' = nrhiav tau i.e., 'to look for' + 'to get, obtain'
-

'to chase' = caum ta u-i.e. 'to chase' + 'to get, obtain'

,

23. Nws yug tau ib tug tub tag.

she give birth get one elf son finish
'She gave birth to a boy.'

24. A: Koj yuav tau dabtsi?

you buy get what
'What did you buy?'
8: Kuv yuav tau ib co qe, nqaijqaib, zaub.
I , buy get some egg chicken greens
'r bought some eggs, chicken, greens.'
 160

25. Kuv nrhiav tau phau ntawv.

I look for get elf book
'I found the book .'

26. Me nyuam caum tau ib tug npauj npaim zoo nkauj.

child chase get one elf butterfly beautiful
'The child caught a beautiful butterfly.'

B. L4.!L AS AN A UXILIARY VERB

Over time, tau evolved into an auxiliary (helping) verb in addition to being a main verb. As
an auxiliary verb, tau can occur both in pre-verbal position and in post-verbal position, with
correspondingly different shades of meaning, as discussed below. *

i. Tau + verb = 'to get to, to manage to V' = !!!!! as attainment marker

When tau occurs before a main verb, it functions as an aspect markert conveying the
attainment or fulfillment of the situation (activity, event, state) described by the verb. The situation
can take place in the past, present, or future, as seen in the examples below. In Hmong, the time

frame of a situation is given at the discourse level (i.e., entire conversation, story, etc.) rather than
the isolated sentence level, so you will need to look at the larger context of a sentence to figure out
the time reference if it is not explicitly stated. If you know from context that a sentence refers to
the past, tau + verb translates as a past tense in English.

27. Lawv tau noj nqaij nyug.

they attain eat meat beef
'They ate beef. '

But if there is an explicit past time marker such as an adverb referring to the past, tau is optional
and is typically left out entirely, as seen in (28) and (29) respectively:

28. Nag hmo niam tais (tau) Jwis ib zag dab neeg
last night grandmother (attain) tell one elf story
'Grandmother told us a story last night.'

29. Nag hmo sawv ntxov muaj ib tug tsov tuaj hauv kuv lub tsev.
yesterday morning be one elf tiger come to my elf house
'Yesterday morning, a tiger came to my house. '

* The pattern whereby a main verb meaning 'to get, to obtain' has developed into both a pre-verbal and a post­
verbal auxiliary with the same meaning differences as in Hmong is found in other Asian languages (e.g., Chinese,
Thai, Mien, Vietnamese, Khmer, Lahu, and other Hmong dialects).
t See sections on tense and aspect above for details on the notion of aspect.
 I 161

I In much of the literature on Hmong grammar, tau + verb has been described as the
equivalent of the English past tense. While it is true that an attained situation is often a past

I situation and that tau + verb typically translates as a past tense in this case, this description covers
only part of the picture and is misleading in gaining an understanding of the tau + verb
construction. Rather than fish for a one-word translation for tau, it is better to think of it as a word
I referring to a state of affairs that has been successfully reached or that is going to be reached. Tau
should definitely not be equated with the past tense in English. Tau is not a tense marker; it
I functions as an aspect marker, and the fulfillment of the situation can take place not only in the
past, but also in the present and in the future, as seen in (30-32). Hence, a more accurate way of
describing the tau + verb construction would be to analyze i t as meaning 'to get to/to manage to V,
I to reach the state described by V, to have the opportunity to V' (where V = main verb): *

I 30. Thaum txog peb caug lawm sawv daws thiaj tau hnav khaub ncaws tshiab.
when arrive New Year perf everybody then attain wear clothes new

I 'So when the New Year arrives, everybody gets to wear new clothes. '

3 1 . Kuv niam hluas nyob hauv Oregon; nws tsis tau yuav txiv.
I my younger sister live in Oregon she neg attain get married
'My younger sister lives i n Oregon; she's not married (yet).'
I
32. Tus Tsov hais tias, "Qav, koj nyob qhov twg? Koj puas tau dhill?

I elf Tiger say Frog you be where

'The Tiger said, "Frog, where are you? Have you jumped over yet?'"
you Q attain jump

I ii. Verb + !!!.!! = 'can, be able to V' = !!!.!! as potential mode marker

I When tau occurs after a main verb, it functions as a potential mode marker expressing
possibility, permissibility, ability .. A s such, it translates as 'can, be able to'; the verb + tau
construction is illustrated in (33):

3 3 . Qav, wb sib twv dhia hJa tus cav no saib leej twg dhill tau
I Frog we-two recip compete jump go across elf log this see who Jump can
deb dua
far compo
'Frog, let's have a race jumping over this log to see who can jump farther.'

A s will be seen in the section on modality markers, "can, be able to" covers a large
meaning territory in English that is broken down into at least three separate words i n Hmong: tau,
taus, andtxawj. For further details on tau as a potential mode marker and on the distinction
between tau, taus, and txawj, see below.
'I
* Another way of describing this construction is to label it "realis," a term used to refer to situations which
actually occur, regardless of time reference. Its " irrealis" counterpart is the yuav + V construction. which points to
unrealized. hypothetical situations (see section on Yuav for details).
 162

NarE: Both the potential mode tau (section B.ii) and the accomplishment tau (section A.ii) occur
. in the same order in the verb phrase-i.e., verb + tau-and you may wonder how to distinguish
between them. A good strategy is to see if tau occurs after a transitive action verb potentially
resulting in something real or good, if it is followed by a direct object, and if it can be analyzed as
meaning "to get, to obtain"; if so, you are dealing with the accomplishment tau. While there is
always a direct object in the verb + accomplishment tau construction, this is not necessarily the
case with the potential mode tau ; the verbs involved in that construction can be either transitive or
intransitive. And, as usual, context will help you in distinguishing between the two as well.

c. LiQ + TIME PHRASE CONSTRUCTIONS = DURATION, PAST TIME REFERENCE

When tau is followed by a time phrase (e.g. , two years, five months, etc.), the
construction as a whole expresses either duration from a point in time in the past up to the present,
or a past time reference. This usage of tau is illustrated in (34-37); note how the tau + time phrase
construction can occur either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

34. Tau xya Itli los 1W Npis tsis tau sau tuaj rau peb.
attain seven month come here Bee neg attain write come to us
'It's been seven months that Bee hasn't written to us/Bee hasn't written to us for seven
months;'

35. Tau pkmb xyoos los los lawm Npis nyob Fab Ids teb.
attain four years finish come perf Bee be France
'Bee was in France four years ago. '

36. Npis nyob Fab kis teb tau plaub xyoos los lawm.
Bee be France attain four years come perf
'Bee has been in France for four years. '

37. Npis tau nyob Fab kis teb tau pkmb xyoos los lawm.
Bee attain be France land attain four years come perf
'Bee was in France for four years.'

D. LiQ IN OTHER CO NSTRUCTIO NS

i. Tseem tsis tau V or tseem V (object) tsis tau = 'not ... yet'

When tseem 'still' is used by itself in a verb phrase, it occurs before the verb, and the
tseem + verb construction refers to an action or an event which is still going on, as seen below:
I 163

I 38. Niam txiv tseem nyob hauv Los Tsuas teb.

parents still be in Laos country

I 'My parents still live in Laos. '

When tseem 'still' is used in conjunction with the negative phrase Isis tau, the construction as a
I whole refers to something which has not happened yet. This applies both with the pre-verbal
aspect marker tau and the post-verbiU potential mode tau, as seen in (39-40) and (41) respectively:
I
39. Npis tseem tsis tau noj mov.
Bee still not attain eat
I 'Bee hasn't eaten yet.'

I 40. Mus hnub vas xuv los hnub vas xaum, kuv tseem tsis tau paub
go day Friday or day Saturday I still neg attain know
I 'I don't know yet whether to go on Friday or on Saturday. '

41. Maiv Qhua tseem hais Ius Isis tau.

I Maiv Qhua still say words neg can
'Maiv Qhua can't tiUk yet. '
I
ii. X puas tau? polite request
I ... =

As discussed in the "Questions and Answers" section, tau is found in the tag puas tau?,
I which can be appended to any imperative statement to turn it into a polite request equivalent to
English "Could you/Would you please (do X)?" This is illustrated below:
I
42. Hais dua, puas tau?
say again Q can
I 'Could you/Would you please say that again?'

I 43. Thov koj mus qhib lub qhov TOOj, puas tau?
ask you go open elf door Q can
'Could you/Would you please go and open the door?'
I

I iii. X + los tau - consent, agreement

I Tau is also found in the phrase los tau, which can be added to a statement to express
consent! agreement with what your interlocutor is saying. In conversation, 10 s tau occurs in the
high-frequency phrase Va Ii 10 s tau, which is used to express agreement with what has just been
I said or suggested and translates as 'as you wish/okay, let's do it/sure. '

I
 164

44. Tus qav hais tias, "Koj dhia uantej. "

elf Frog say you jump first
'The Frog said, "You jump first.'"

Tus tsov teb hais lias.' "Ua Ii ntawd los tau."

elf Tiger answer saying do like that consent
'The Tiger answered, "Okay, let's do it. '"

45. Tus Qav teb dua lias: "Koj xav dhia dua los tau, tsis ua li cas. "
elf . Frog answer again saying you want jump again consent no problem
'Again, the Frog said, "You're willing to jump again? That's fine with me.'"

iv. X + tas lawm los tsis tau? = 'X + finished or not?'

As can be seen in the "Questions and Answers" section, tau appears as the last element of
the high-frequency tag question tas lawm los tsis tau? 'finished or not?' This tag quesion occurs at
the end of a statement as a way of asking somebody whether s/he has finished doing what is
expressed in the statement, as seen in (46):

46. Koj noj mov tas lawm lo s tsis tau?

you eatrice finish perf or neg attain
'Have you finished eating yet?'

Positive answer: Tas lawm 'Yes, I have. '

Negative answer: (Tseem) tsis tau 'No, not yet. '

Note also the usage of los tau in the following:

tus twg los tau 'anyone'
qhov twg los tau 'anywhere'

VI. YUAV

A. Y U A V + VERB = IRREALIS SITUATION

When it is used before a main verb, yuav indicates that a situation (activity, event, state)
has not happened. Quite often, it points to the fact that a situation is going to unfold, and hence
translates as a future in English, as seen in (47):

47. Tus tsov hais tias, "Kuv yuav noj koj. "
elf tiger say I irrls eat you
'The tiger said, "I'm going to eat you.'"
 I 165

I
However, just as it is misleading to analyze tau as a past tense marker (see above), it is misleading

I to consider yuav as a future tense marker in Hmong. We saw that when there is an explicit past
time reference in the discourse (e.g., last year, yesterday), tau is optional and typically left out.
The same is true of yuav when it is used to refer to a situation that is going to unfold: when there
I is a temporal adverb with future time reference at the discourse level (e.g., tomorrow, next week,
etc.), yuav is typically omitted.

I
A more accurate way of describing the yuav + verb construction is to analyze it as
describing situations which belong to the realm of the unfulfilled or unrealized, not just situations
I which will happen at some future point-hence its irrealis marker label. lrrealis is a term used to
refer to situations which have not (yet) happened; this ineludes hypothetical or non-occurring
I situations with past, present, future time reference. In Hmong the yuav+ verb construction is
or
*
used to describe such irrealis situations; the fact that it is used to refer not only to future situations,
but also to hypothetical and non-occurring ones is elearly illustrated in (48-50) below. In (48) the
I first yuav+ verb construction points to an intended future action on the Tiger's part, and the second
one to a state of speculation as to what to do on the Frog's part; in (49) the yuav+ verb
I construction refers to the Frog's hypothetical death, and in (50) it is preceded by the progressive
marker tab tom to point to a situation which is about to happen but has not quite done so yet.

I
48. Tus Tsov hais tias, "Kuv tshaib tshaib plab Ii kuv yuav noj koj. "
elf Tiger say I hungry hungry stomach int I irrls eat you
I
I
I Tus Qav tsis paub yua v ua li cas Ii.
I elf Frog neg know irrls do what int

I 'The Tiger said, ''I'm very hungry and I'm going to eat you." The Frog didn't know what to
do.'

I 49. Tus Qav mob mob nws twb yuav tuag, tab sis nws tseem hais taus Ius.
elf Frog hurt hurt he really irrls die but he still speak can words
I 'The Frog was hurting so badly that he thought he was going to die for sure, but he could
still talk.'

I 50. Thaum tus Tsov tab tom yuav dhia, tus Qav txawm tuav kiag tus Tsov tus two
when elf Tiger prog irrls jump elf Frog then grab int elf Tiger elf tail
I 'When the Tiger was about to jump, the Frog grabbed tightly onto the Tiger's tail. '

I
*
Its realis counterpart would be the tau + verb construction discussed under B.i in the section on Tau.
I

I
 166

B. OTHER MEANINGS OF YUA V

Yuav can also be a main verb with different meanings (see below), So you will have to pay
close attention to its position in the verb phrase and to the context in which it is used to determine
the intended meaning. As a main verb, yuav can have the following meanings:

• yuav = 'to. take, to obtain'; 'to buy' (when money is involved)

Note also these common phrases:

yuav poj niam = 'to take a wife, to get married'
yuav txiv = 'to take a husband, to get married'

• yuav = 'to want, to desire'

These meanings are illustrated in (51-53):

5 1 . Koj yuav tsum cog zaub coj mus muag, koj tau nyiaj, koj mam Ii
you must plant vegetables take go sell you get money you then

yuay nplhaib.
buy ring

'You must plant vegetables for sale, and you'll get money to buy the ring. '

5 1 . Kuv niam hluas nyob hauv Oregon; nws tsis tau yuay txiv.
my younger sister live in Oregon she neg attain get married
. 'My younger sister lives in Oregon; she's not married (yet).'

53. Tub Riam yuay zaum. Tub Sawm ho yuay sawv.

son Tria want sit down son Sher then want get up
'Tria wants to sit down. Then Sher wants to get up. '

NOI'E: Yuav also occurs as the first element in the yuav tsum/yuav tau + verb construction, which
expresses obligation (e.g., Kuv yuav tsumlyuav tau mus. 'I must go. '). See section on "Modality
Markers" for details.
I 167

I MODALITY MARKERS

I I. THE MODAL VERBS "MUST" AND "CAN"

A. "MUST": YUAV TSUM, YUAV TAU

I
The notion of obligation is conveyed by inserting either yuav tsum or yuav tau before the
I verb (yuav tsum being the more common form of the two), as seen in the examples below:

I a. Koj mus. Koj yuav Isum mus.

you go you must go
'You go.' 'You must go.'
I
b. Lub ntiajteb no me hwv. Peb yuav lau muab ua kom !oj day.
I elf world this small in!. we must take make so that big wide
'The world is so small. We have to make it bigger and wider. '

I B. "CAN": TXA W.{, TA US, LiQ

I "Can" covers a large meaning territory in English that is broken down into at least three
separate words in Hmong: txawj, taus and fllu. All three are typically translated as "can" in
,

English, as seen in the examples below (note that txawj occurs before the main verb while taus and
I
fllu occur after the main verb):

I a. Nws Ixawj hais Ius Fab kis

slhe can speak words French
I 'Slhe can speak French.'

b. Nws khiav laus

I slhe run can
'S/he can run. '
I
c. Nws mus lau
I slhe go can
'Slhe can go. '

I Although txawj, taJ1S, and fllu all translate as "can" each of them covers a different portion of the
large meaning territory covered by "can" in English; hence txawj, taus and fllu cannot be used
, ·

I interchangeably. To help you figure out which shade of meaning each expresses, look at the
illustrated example sentences on the next three pages. The illustrations, along with the contrast
between the positive and the negative versions of each sentence, should help you figure out the
I meaning of each example sentence (if not, translations are provided in the appendix). Hint: to
determine the meaning differences between txawj, taus and fllu, try to find a way of paraphrasing
I
,

"can" in each case and to think about in what sense "can" is used.

I
 168

II. TXAWJ V S. T A US V S. TAU

A. TXA WJ

1. (b) -

Nws txawj ua luam dej. Nws tsis txawj ua luam dej.

2. (a) (b)
:I ,;11... Shc.t«iny

�)
El'ljJ,�h.

Nws txawj hais Ius As kiv. Nws tsis txawj hais Ius As kiv.

3. (a) (b )

Nws txawj ua mov noj. Nws tsis txawj ua mov noj.

4. (a) (b)

Miv txawj nee ntoo. Dev tsis txawj nee ntoo.

 169

B. T A US

1. (a) (b)

----

Nws khiav taus. Nws khiav tsis taus.

I
I 2. (a) (b)

•
I

Nws nqa taus. Nws nqa tsis taus.

I
 170

c. L1!!.

1. (a) (b)

Jj i
Nws pov npas tau. Nws pov npas tsis tau.

/
2. (a) (b)

Nws mus tau. Nws mus tsis tau.

3. (a) (b)

Nws muas tus me nyuam dey tau Nws muas dab tsi los tsis tau
(vim tias nws muaj nyiaj). (vim tias nws tsis muaj nyiaj).
I 171

I D. TXAW.T. TA US, AND �: THREE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF ENGLISH "CAN"

I From the illustrated example sentences with txawj, we can see that txawj means "can" in
the sense of "know how to," and hence expresses an acquired ability-e. g. ,
Nws txawj ua luam dej.
I Nws txawj hais Ius As kiv.
'He can swim. '
'She can speak English. '

I To understand the difference between taus and 1llU, it is best to start looking at the contexts in
which taus is used and to contrast them with contexts in which IllU is used. From the illustrated
I example sentences we can see that taus is used when one is asserting one's (or someone else's)
physical ability or inability to do something:

I Nws khiav taUf. 'He can run. '

Nws nqa taUf. 'He can lift it. '
I Tus poj niam Taus sawv tsis taUf. 'The old woman can't get up.'
Kuv haus cawv tsis taUf. 'I can't drink alcohol.'

I Taus is also used to indicate that one has or does not have the resources to do something:

I Kuv pab koj tsis taus. 'I can't (don't have the means) to help you. '

I Nej muas lub tog zaum ntawd tsis taUf. 'You can't afford to buy that sofa.'
[as opposed to:]
Nej muas kuv tus cwj mem tsis tau. 'You can't buy my pen (because I won't
I let you). '

I The renowned Hmong scholar Yang Dao has given the following explanation of the difference:

I external hindrance or lack of hindrance: IllU

Kuv nyob ntawm no tsis tau Ii. 'I can't stay here any longer. '
I
.

(perhaps because I have another appointment)

versus
I
internal hindrance or lack of hindrance, whether physical or psychological: taus

I Kuv nyob ntawm no tsis tauf Ii. ' I can't stay here any longer.'
(perhaps because I can't stand your cigarette
I smoke, or perhaps becauseI can't stand you)

I To summarize the difference between taus and 1llU, we can say that taus is to be used when there is
a personal hindrance or lack of hindrance; that hindrance can be physical, psychological, or due to
the extent or nature of one's holdings. Elsewhere IllU is used.
I

I
 172

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TXA WJ, TAUS, AND TA U:

SUMMARY TABLE

MEANING ExAMPLE

TxAWJ "Can" in the sense of "know how to"; l. Poj niam Hmoob txawj uapaj ntaub; kuv
acguired ability. tsis txawj.
'Hmong women can do embroidery; 1
can't. '

2. La wv txawj ua luam dej.

'They can swim. '

TAUS Personal, internal hindrnnce or lack l. Nws khiav tsis taus.

thereof; hindrnnce can be physical as 'He can't run.'
in ( 1), psychological as in (2), or due (because he has a broken leg)
to the extent or nature of one's
resources as in (3). Often used in the 2. Kuv nyob ntawm no tsis taus Ii.
negative. 'I can't stay here any longer.'
(because 1 can't stand you)

3. Kuv pab koj tsis taus.

'I can't help you. '
(because I don't have the means to)

TAU External hindrnnce or lack thereof, l. Nws mus tau.

permission, possibility, right to, etc.; 'He can go (in).'
least restricted in meaning and usage. [the store is open]

2. Nws mus tsis tau.

'He can't go (in).'
[the store is closed]

3. Kuv nyob ntawm no tsis tau Ii.

'I can't stay here any longer.'
(because 1 have another aDoointment)
.

From all this we can see that txawj and taus are more restricted in meaning than /au. Hence
a good strategy for making the proper choice among the three words is to think about what "can"
means in English, and to go through a process of elimination: if "can" cannot be paraphrased with
"know how to," or if there is no personal hindrance (as described above) involved, use /au.
[NOTE: The story "Khoua" above illustrates the difference between the three in a clear fashion.]
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Part 7
Author:
Annie Jaiser et al.

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/5xv2v9kg

Additional Info:
Covers markers, particles and other constructions for Hmong grammar

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
 I 173

I THE RECIPROCAL MARKER SIB/SIS 'EACH OTHER'

I
Among the elements which can modify the meaning of a main verb is the pre-verbal
modifier sib, which indicates reciprocal action and translates as 'Verb
I each other' in English.
You are probably already familiar with this construction since it is found in the high-frequency
leave-taking formulaic phraseS ib ntsib dua, as illustrated in (1):
1
1. Sib ntsib dua
·...
1 recip meet again
'See you later/Goodbye/Bye-literally, meet each other again.'

1 The reci procal action sib + ill ustrated in the following excerpts from
Verb construction is further
"Tus Tsov thiab tus Qav" 'The Tiger and the Frog' (2-3) and "Dab Neeg Nab Qa Tsiav" 'The
1 School Lizard' (4):

2. Puag thaum ub, muaj ib thiab ib tug Tsov nkawd los ntsib.
1 a long time ago be
tug Qav
one elf Frog and one elf
sib
Tiger they-two come reclp meet
'A long time ago, a Tiger met a Frog.'
1 [A more literal translation would read' ... a Frog and a Tiger met each other.'J

I 3. Tus Tsov thiaj hais Tau tus Qav lias: "Qav, wb sib twv dhia."
elf Tiger so say to elf Frog that Frog we-two recip compete jump
'So he said to the Frog, "Frog, let's have a jumping contest.'"
1
4. Thaum lawv sib qw sib q w, tus nabqa tsiav khiav tawm lim lub qhov rais
1 while they reclP shout recip shout elf lizard run out loe elf door
mus lawm.

I go perf
'While they're all screaming at each other, the lizard runs out through the window.'

1
Since it has a high-level tone, sib can trigger a tone change in the following verb if this verb

I bears aj, v, s, ¢, or m tone; see section on· "Tone Change" for details and examples. As pointed
out in that section as well, sib can also be pronounced sis, with no meaning difference between the
two. The sis variant is frequently used by Hmong from Laos and does not trigger tone change in
1 the following verb since it bears a low tone.

I
174

SPATIAL DEICTICS
(Location Words)

Spatial deictics are words used to point or refer to different locations in space relative to the
speaker and to the hearer (when present). Three of these types of words, the demonstratives no
'this (near me, the speaker),'· ko 'that (near you, the hearer),' and ntawd 'that (nearby),' occur at
the end of a noun phrase and are discussed in detail in the section on demonstratives. Other
deictics function like location nouns or like prepositions (see I.B for details); the most common
ones are discussed below.

I. COMMON SPATIAL DEICTICS

A. TRADITIONAL MEANINGS

The table below lists the most common spatial reference words along with their traditional
meanings and some interpretative comments. Since the Hmong are by tradition mountain dwellers,
it comes as no surprise that many of the deictics refer to locations along the vertical axis, and that
they are used with reference to features of the native landscape such as mountains, slopes, and
valleys. You should be aware that while the translations given are the best approximations we can

come up with in English, deictics can only be characterized accurately with reference to real world
speech situations and to three-dimensional topography. In addition, since the Hmong now living
in Western hemisphere countries can no longer use their native topography as a reference point, a
few of the deictics below have acquired new metaphorical extensions in these communities to
accommodate new language needs; these changes are discussed in section II.

DEICTIC TRANSLATION COMMENTS

1. pem 'Uphill (from), above, on the uphill • Used for the vertical dimension going
side, up' upward with reference to the mountain;
opposite of nrom (see #2)
• Has new metaphorical extensions in the
U.S. (see section II)
2. Mom a) 'Downhill (from), down below, • Used for the vertical dimension going
down, towards the valley' downward with reference to the valley;
opposite of pem (see #1)
b) 'Below' (as in a text) • This metaphorical extension is on the rise
in the U.S. (see section II); opposite of
saum (see #6b)
3. ntawm 'Here/there (nearby)' • Refers to a location relatively close to the

speaker (the location being a point-in

contrast with hauv 'in, inside, within,'
where the location is a surface, area,
stretch, expanse)
I 175

I 4. tom '(Over) there, at a certain distance' • Refers to a location farther than ntawm
• Most frequently used default deictic
I 5. tim 'Opposite (from), on the other side, • Stands in contrast with tom (see #4)
across from, facing' • Used to refer to a location opposite the

I speaker, with reference to a feature of the

landscape such as a mountain, river, road,
boundary, obstacle, etc.-regardless of
I distance
• Even though not just mountains are

I involved, tim seems to refer to a spatial

relationship pertinent to mountain dwelling
6. saum a) 'On, above, on top of' Not used relative to mountains; contrasts
I •

with hauv (see #'8) or nraum (see #7a),

depending on the context
I b) 'Above' (as in a text) • This metaphorical extension is on the rise
in the U.S. (see section II); opposite of

I nram (see #2)

7. nraum a) 'Outside' • Contrasts with hauv (see #'8) or nruab (see
#10)
I b) 'In back of, on the reverse/other • Typically used in relation to the mountains
side of, behind'
'I 8. hauv 'In, inside, within' • Contrasts with nraum (see #7a) or saum
(see #6a), depending on the context

I 9. qaum 'Top part or top side of, upper side • Typically used in phrases such as qaum
of, back of' tes 'back of the hand,' qaum taw 'top of the
foot,' qaum nplooj 'upper side of a leaf,'
I lub nraub qaum 'the back (of a person),'
etc.
I 10. nruab 'In the middle/midst/center of' • When nruab is followed by nrab '(one)
half, mid (horizontal),' it can mean either

I '(in the) middle/midst/center' or 'between X

andY'

1
Some of the deictics listed above can be used in combination with other elements; the most
I common of these elements are:

I a. qab 'under side of, at the bottom/base/foot of, lower side of':
hauvqab 'under, underneath'
tom qab 'behind, in the back'
I nramqab 'down below'

I
II
I
, 176

b. ntej ' in front of, before':

hauv ntej 'in front of, ahead of'
Nram ntej, however, is used in the time dimension since it means 'ago, previously, the
period up till now' (see section III for details on the use of spatial deictics in the temporal
dimension).

c. sab 'side, direction':

sab tid 'on the opposite side'
sab nraud 'on the back side'
sab tim roob or sab roob tid 'on the side of the opposite mountain'
sab nraum roob or sab 700b nraud 'on the back side of the mountain'

i. Intensification of the meaning of deictics

The meaning of some of the deictics discussed above can be intensified in the following
ways:
a. By adding puag before the deictic:
puag pem 'far up(hill), far up there, far up the mountain'
puag nram 'far down(hill), far down there, far down the valley'
puag tom 'far over there'
puag tim 'far over there across the valley'

b. By adding ub after the deictic:

pem ub 'far up(hill), far up there, far up the mountain'
nram ub ' far down(hill), far down there, far down the valley'
tom ub 'far over there'
tim ub 'far over there across the valley'

c. B y using both puag and ub to express the greatest degree o f intensification:

puag pem ub 'way up(hill), way up there, way up the mountain'
puag nram ub 'way down(hill), way down there, way down the valley'
puag tom ub 'way over there'
puag tim ub 'way over there across the valley'

B. GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS

The deictics discussed above typically function as prepositions found at the head of a
prepositional phrase describing a location. T�is is illustrated below:

1. Muaj ib hnub Npis mus tom vaj tsiaj.

be one day Bee go to garden animal
'One day Bee went to the zoo. '
I 177

I 2. Nkawd mus txog ntawm ib tug cav /oj /oj nyob key.
tav
they-two go arrive at one elf log big big be at across road

I 'They of them went over to a big log which was lying across the path.'

3. Ntshav tawm tawm hauv tus Qav lub qhov ncauj los.
I blood come out come out within elf Frog elf mouth come
'Blood was streaming out of the Frog's mouth.'
I
4. Tus me nyuam dey nyiam nyiam zaum saum Npis lub taub hau.
elf
I child
'The puppy loves
dog like like sit
to sit on top of Bee's head.'
on top of Bee elf head

I Sometimes the deictics are also used on their own as location nouns; when used as such
they can be followed by the demonstrative no 'this (place)':

I 5. Los ntawm no.

come here this
'Come here.'
I
6. Kuv nyob tom no os.
I I be at there this prt
'I'm over here.'

I Also, recall from the section on demonstratives that when deictics #1-7 in the table above are used
independently as demonstrative nouns at the end of a phrase, they bear the -d tone. The contrast
I between the prepositional function and the demonstrative noun function with the concomitant tone
change is illustrated below:

I
7. a. nyob pem roob b. nyob ped
be up mountain be up there
I 'up on the mountain' 'up there'

I See "Functions of the Marginal -d Tone" for further details.

I To summarize, deictics can function as prepositions heading prepositional phrases and as

independent location or demonstrative nouns. Since strict part-of-speech categorization is difficult
and elusive at best in Hmong (see section on flexible grammar for more on this), spending a lot of
I time wondering-let alone worrying about-to which Western-style part of speech an element
belongs is counterproductive. Making a note of the various grammatical functions of a given

I element is enough. Your time will be better spent focusing on the meanings of deictics, moving
beyond the limitations of two-dimensional pen and paper explanations, and studying them from a
three-dimensional perspective, as well as developing a good jlIlderstanding of their usage in real
I world speech situations�

I
 178

II. METAPHORICAL USES OF NRAM, PEM, AND TlMIN THE UNITED STATES

Since some of the Hmong spatial deictics evolved from geographical features such as the
mountains, slopes, valleys, and the uphill and downhill sides of things, it makes sense that these
deictics would undergo a shift in meaning and be reinterpreted to accommodate new language
needs now that the Hmong can no longer use the mountains as their main reference point.
·
Preliminary research on this topic has revealed new metaphorical extensions for nrom 'downhill,'
pem 'uphill, ' and tim 'opposite'; the reinterpretations of the original meaning of these deictics is
discussed below. Note that some of these metaphorical extensions seem to have their roots in
Southeast Asia (see the second footnote below, for example) but have gained momentum in the
Western hemisphere, and others seem to be entirely innovative.

A. NRAM 'DOWNHILL' HAS BEEN REINTERPRETED AS A) "SOUTH,"t AND B)

"BELOW (IN TEXT)":

a. Nram - 'downhill' as " south"

8. Peb phauj Nkaj uas tuaj nyob nram Indiana muaI ib tus ntxhais.
our aunt Nkaj who come live downhill Indiana have one elf daughter
'Our aunt Nkaj, who lives down in Indiana, has a daughter.' [speaker is north of Indiana]

b. Nram- 'downhill' as "below (in text)"

9 . Daim ntawv muaj ntsiab Ius raws Ii nram no.

elf paper have content word according to downhill this
'On the paper were the words below. '

NOTE: This metaphorical extension of nrom in a text seems to have started in Southeast Asia
(Mottin has an example in his grammar), but its usage has become more widespread in the United
States-no doubt correlating with a rise in usage of the written language.

*
See Ratliff (1990) for details.
t Without using cardinaI point nomenclature per se, north and south have traditionally been defmed with respect to
altitude. Since for the Hmong the north corresponds to the mountainous regions of Asia, it has been called "the
high part of the country/the higblands," and since the south corresponds to the plains of the delta it has been referred
. to as "the low part of the country/the lowlands":
pem qaum teb upbill-top part-country = 'high part of the country/highlands' -i.e., 'north'

nrom qab teb downbill-bottom part-country = 'low part of the country/lOWlands' -i.e., 'south'
East and west, on the other hand, have traditionally been defmed with respect to the rising and setting of the sun:
sab hnub tawm side-SUD-come out = 'side where the sun rises' -i.e., 'east'
sab hnub poob side-SUD-fall = 'side where the sun sets' -i.e., 'west.'
I 179

I B. f!iM. 'UPHILL' HAS BEEN REINTERPRETED AS A) "NORTH", AND B) "HIGHER

UP ON X, WHERlJ X IS NOT A MOUNTAIN":

I
a. Pem-'uphill' as "north"
10. Hnub vas xaum, kuv nrog kuv tus txiv mus pem Chicago.
I day Saturday I be with my elf husband go uphill Chicago
'On Saturday my husband and I went up to Chicago.' [Chicago is located north of speaker.]
I
11. [rOf} txawm rau phab hnub poob sab ped.
I Iraq then place side sun fall side uphill
'And Iraq lies to the northwest.'

I b . Pem-'uphill' as "higher up on X, where X is not a mountain"

12. Nkawd rhais ruam los pem lub tsheb thiab tsav tsheb los tsev lawm.
I they-two tuck up step return uphill elf car and drive car return home perf
'The two of them got back into the car and drove home. '

I 13. Nws muab ob lub ceg Tis qaws txog pem qab hauv caug kom
he grasp two elf let pants roll amve uphill back inside knee cause
I txias zog tuaj.
cold breeze come

I 'He rolled up his pant legs up above the knee to stay cool.'

NOTE: Pem in (b) seems to be a novel usage in the United States.

I

I C. 'llM. 'OPPOSITE (A NATURAL OBSTACLE SUCH AS A MOUNTAIN, RIVER,

,
ROAD, ETC.) HAS BEEN INTERPRETED AS "OPPOSITE" WITH NO FEATURE OF

I THE LANDSCAPE INVOLVED:

14. Nplias ntsia nws tus duab tim drum iav.

I Nplias regard herself elf image opposite elf glass
'Nplias looked at herself in the mirror.'

I
15 . . . .koj thiab kuv /au ua ke tim ntsej tim muag.
you and I get together opposite ear opposite eye
I ' ...you and I get together face-to-face.'

I 16. . . .thiab zaum lub sofa sab tid uas ntsia ntsoov Nplooj.
and sit elf sofa side opposite in order regard fixedly Nplooj

I ' ...and she sat on the other side of the sofa and looked intently at Nplooj.'

NOTE: This broadening of the meaning of tim seems also to have started in the United States.
I

I
I
I 180

Some observations are necessary:

• These findings regarding the meaning shifts of nram, pem, and tim are preliminary and
should be considered tentative in light of their short history.

• Since these are incipient changes, you will encounter a high degree of uncertainty among
native speakers when it comes to defining the exact meaning and usage of the deictics currently
being reinterpreted. For example,the difference between tim and tom is extremely difficult to pin
down now that the meaning of tim has broadened (see above). While it appears that tom is still the
default deictic and tim the "opposite" deictic, actual usage reveals that the difference between the
two is subtle and hard to characterize-akin to the difference between "there" and "over there" in
English. The following explanations have been advanced by various native speakers to account for
the difference between tim and tom:

TIM + LOCATION TOM + LOCATION

- Location known and capable of being visualized vs. Location unknown and not visualized
- Location definite,with clear boundaries v s. Location indefinite, with fuzzy boundaries
- Clear mental picture of location v s. Unclear mental picture of location
- Vast and/or distant location vs. Location liot as vast and/or distant
- Specific, familiar location vs. General,vague location

One person also suggested that the choice between the two was conditioned by the
speaker's position relative to what s/he was talking about,but was not more specific than that.
These explanations are helpful, but do not account for all actual usage cases since the
meaning of tim is in a state of flux. Be prepared for native speaker uncertainty and for creative
suggestions to account for the meaning shifts of the deictics discussed above; this is part of the fun
of witnessing language change in progress!
I
I • Idiomatic usage has begun to develop and will probably increase. For example, there are
cases wherepem means "on ground level" and even "down."

III. USE OF SPATIAL DEICTICS IN THE TIME DIMENSION

Some of the spatial deictics discussed above can also be used in the time dimension (notice
that this is also the case in other languages-e.g., in English "before" can mean before in either
space or time; the same is true of "ahead"). These include:

Space dimension Time dimension

nram'downhill' -+ 'ago'
saum 'above/on top of' -+ 'from now'
nruab 'in the middle/midst of' -+ 'during'
 I
i

I 181

I as well as the following combinations:

nram ntej 'previously, the period up till now'
tom qab 1. 'in the past'; 2. 'in the future, later' (depending on the context)
I tom ntej 1. 'before (in time)'; 2. 'in the future' (depending on the context)*

I The usage of spatial deictics in the time dimension is illustrated in the examples below:

I 17. Lawv twb mus las nram ntej nram ntxov.

they already go finish downhill first downhill early
'They already went a long time ago.'
I
18. Db peb hnub saum no kuv nrog koj tham.
I two three day above this I with you talk
'I'll talk to you in a couple of days.'

I 19. nruab hnub

middle day
I 'daytime, in the day, during the day'

I 20. Lawv tsis paub nruab hnub tsis paub hmo ntuj, lawv ua tsis tseg
they neg know daytime neg know nighttime they do neg abandon, leave
'They don't know night from day; they work all the time.'
I
I
;

I IV. CONCLUSION

I The Hmong spatial deictic system is characterized by a high degree of specificity and
precise detail with respect to the vertical dimension. In the United States and other parts of the
Western hemisphere where the Hmong have resettled, this system is moving to a vaguer, more
I abstract one due to the loss of the native topography, the exposure to a different one, and the need
to meet new linguistic needs. Independently of where in the world the Hmong are, however,
I spatial deictics are best studied from a three-dimensional perspective using concrete objects and
features from your environment and relying on native speaker demonstrations. Also helpful are
visualization and demonstration exercises using the spatial settings and changes found in stories
I such as "Dabneeg nabqatsiav" 'The school lizard' and "Tus Tsov thiab tus Qav" 'The Tiger and
the Frog.'
I

I
* If this seems confusing, it is. Context will help you distinguish between the two meanings, though. Time
reference phrases have not been the object of systematic study in Hmong; hence for the time being you will have to
I start with the introductory material found in this book and in Moutin's grammar, and learn more about them as they
come up in your Hmong studies. Also, see "TOll + Time Phrase Constructions" above for ways of expressing
duration and past time reference.
I

I
182

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Comparative constructions are used for comparisons between two elements while
superlative ones are used where more than two elements are involved. These constructions are
discussed in turn below.

I. COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

A. The comparative construction equivalent to the English "adjective + -er/more + adjective

+ than" (as in "This book is cheaper/more expensive than that one") is typically formed by
adding dua* after the "adjective": t

1. Tus noog no /oj dua tus noog ntawd.

elf bird this big comp elf bird that
'This bird is bigger than that bird. '

2. Lawv noj nrawm dua peb.

they eat fast comp we
'They eat faster than we do. '

3. Qav, wb sib twv dhia hla tus cav no saib leej twg dhia tau deb dua.
Frog we ree compete jump across elf log this see who jump can far comp
'Frog, let's jump over this log to see who can jump farther.'

B. The comparative construction equivalent to the English construction "as + adjective + as"
(as in "This book is as expensive as that one") is formed by adding either cuag 'equal (to), same
as' or luaj 'equal (to), same as, like' after the stative verb in Hmong:

4a. Tus noog no /oj cuag tus noog ntawd.

elf bird this big equal elf bird that
'This bird is as big as that one.'

b. Tus noog no /oj luaj tus noog ntawd.

elf bird this big equal elf bird that
'This bird is as big as that one.'

* Thisdua is different from !he du:z which signals !he repetition of an action at ano!her point in time and typically
translates as 'again,' as illustrated in the high-frequency leave-taking formulaic phrase Sib ntsib dUD 'See you
later/Goodbye/Bye-literally, meet each o!her again.' The du:z used in comparative constructions is derived from a
verb meaning "to (sur)pass. to go beyond. to top somelhing." To help you distinguish between !he two. look at
!heir distribution: !he comparative du:z typically follows stative verbs (see note below). whereas the "again" du:z
OCCUIS after action verbs.
t Recall from the "Structure of the Noun Phrase" that English adjectives such as big. white. old. full. etc. are
actually considered to be s!ative verbs (i.e to be big. to be white. to be old. to be full. etc.) in HJnong. and hence
.•

are not preceded by yog 'to be.'

I 183

I
When a noun rather than a stative verb is involved in the comparison of equals (e.g., as
much money as/as many children as), Hmong uses npaum (Ii) 'equal (to), as much/as many as'
I after the noun:

I 5. Lawv muaj me nyuam npaum (Ii) peb.

they have child equal we

I 'They have as many children as we do.'

Npaum is also used for comparing multiple amounts in equality comparison constructions:
I
6 . Npis lub tsev Ioj plaub npaug peb lub.
I Bee elf house big four equal our elf
'Bee's house is four times as big as ours.'

I
II. SUPERLATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
I
The superlative construction equivalent to the English "the + adjective + -est/the most +

I adjective" (as in "This book is the cheapest/the most expensive") is typically formed by adding
tshaj after the "adjective." Tshaj is actually a main verb which means "to surpass, to be surplus or
more than enough, to be better" and translates as a superlative in English when it follows a stative
I verb in Hmong:

I 7. Tus noog no Ioj Isha}.

elf bird this big surpass

I 'This bird is the biggest. '

8. Lub tsev ntawd zoo tsha}.

I elf house that good surpass
'That house is the best. '

I
9. Npis me tsha} cov.
Bee small surpass grouP.
I 'Bee is the smallest (among them/in the group.)'

I The construction "stative verb tshaf' translates as a superlative when the entity being
+

described is singled out in a group of similar entities, either implicitly as in (7-8) or explicitly as in

I (9). The same construction can also be used to compare two entities to each other, with the second
element following tshaj, as seen in (10). In that case, the construction translates as a comparative
and is equivalent to the "stative verb + dua" construction described above.
I

I
184

10. Npis me tshaj kuv.

Bee small surpass I
.

'Bee is smaller than me.'

Since tsluJj is a main verb meaning "to surpass," it can also follow an action verb in a serial
verb construction,which translates as a comparative construction in English as well:

11. Npis kawm ntawv tshaj kuv ob xyoos.

Bee study surpass I two year
'Bee studied two years more than I did. '
I
I

I 185

I SENTENCE/DISCOURSE STRUCTURE;
HALLMARKS OF HMONG STYLE
I
THE TOPIC MARKERS MAS AND NE*

I Many Hmong sentences have the same subject-predicate structure as English sentences do:
Npis pom ib tug noog 'Bee saw a bird.' Others, however, have a sentence structure commonly
I found in Asian languages: instead of starting with a subject, they start with a topic. Topics are not
the same as subjects. You can have both in a sentence, as in "Beans, I like" in the following
interchange:
I Jane to visiting cousin: Let's see; what vegetable should we have with dinner? I've
got peas, spinach . . . (voice trails off while she looks in freezer).

I Cousin: I'm not too fond of spinach .. .

Jane (breaks in): Oh, and I've got beans.
Cousin: Beans, I like. Let's have beans.
I
In the sentence "Beans, I like," "beans" is the topic, "I" is the subject, and "like" is the

I comment or new infonnation conveyed about the topic of the sentence. This type of sentence·

II structure occurs frequently in Hmong.

Two mid-sentence particles serve the function of marking the topic of the sentence-i.e.,
I whatever comes before these particles is what the sentence is about. Whatever comes after these
particles is the comment or new information-i.e., what is being asserted about the topic that
precedes the particles. These particles are mas and fie.
I If it helps, think of mas and fie as words that follow the language equivalent of a set up in
volleyball. They "set up" the topic so that the rest of the sentence can get the message across the
I net. Or you may think of these particles as colons when they occur· mid-sentence. Or, with some
mental word order switching, you can translate them as "as to (topic)" or "as far as (topic) is/are
concerned. "
I
In general, fie seems to follow shorter topics than mas, as in the abbreviated question Koj
I fie? 'And (What/how about) you?' It also seems to be limited to the function of questioning the
topic (what precedes) and might be translated as 'How about X?'

I Mas is more complex in its usage. Here are some examples:

I 1. Nyob Teb Chaws Nplog, lub caij hlawv teb no masjaj suab sawv laum ntuj heev.
'In Laos, at the time of burning the fields [which we have been discussing], a smoke fills
the skies [new infonnation].'
I
2. Mi tsiaj txhu, mi nas mi noog thiab mi kab mi ntsaum mas tuag tag Ii.
I 'Little animals, little rats and birds, little bugs and ants, as for all these, they were dead.'

When mas occurs at the beginning of a sentence, the entire preceding sentence is
I considered the topic.

I * For more infonnation on mas and fie, see Fuller (1985).

I
 186

*
EXPRESSIVES

One of the hallmarks of Hmong style is the use of expressives. Expressives are two-word
phrases which "capture the speaker's perception of the essence of the thing described, not only its
sound but also its movement, its persistence, its visibility, and other innate characteristics, through
his/her determination of the resemblance between sound and meaning" (Ratliff 1992: 139). Below
are some typical examples.

nkij nkawj of gnawing on bones

mij mej of mosquitos or other insects flying around your ear

vig vwg 1. strong wind; 2. fast traffic; 3. small airplane motor

nplhib nplheeb 1. silverware or other metal rattling; 2. pin coming out of hand grenade

dig dug boiling of thick liquid like com mash (thick, ponderous bubbles)

nkij nkuaj of bones cracking

duj duam of walking as though one's leg were broken

cuj coos of movement of a sick chicken or of a mad person

luj les sound of a vacuum cleaner, bees, or an airplane

rhuj rhuav 1. sound of cutting vegetation;

2. sound of a bird shuffling through leaves looking for insects

pliv ploov 1. of ducks diving underwater;

2. the sound of an empty bottle submerged in water filling up;
I 3. the sound of one's stomach after one has had a lot to drink and then
I goes runmng

I zib zeb of a big pig fighting

To help you grasp the essence of expressives, think of them as descriptive capsule "sound
pictures" of the passing scene-of things that are perceived by one of the five senses, such as
sounds and movements. They are real Hmong words and are used with great frequency in
everyday language, but they do not fit into any of the classic (Western) word classes, such as
noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. Instead, they constitute a part of speech of their own which does
not have a counterpart in English. Phrases such as razzle-dazzle, wishy-washy, namby-pamby,
shilly-shally, ding-dong, and sing-song come closest to reflecting what expressives are, but these

* Ratliff (1992) has an entire chapter devoted to this topic as well as a twenty-page appendix that lists and gives
associations for a large number of these two-word expressive phrases.
I 187

I phrases do not constitute a separate part of speech like in Hmong, are considered colloquial, and
have limited usage in English-contrary to Hmong, where expressives abound and are used
I frequently in both the spoken and the written language. Expressives are found in a few other
Asian languages-e.g., Korean.
I
The majority of these two-word expressive phrases have a predictable shape:
I 1. The two words must begin with the same consonant;

2. The two words must have different vowels;

I
3. If the tones of the two words are the same, the vowel of the first word will be i; and
I . 4. If the tones of the two words are different, the tone of the first word will be j
and the vowel of the first word will be u.
I
The "meanings" of these expressive phrases are always hard to pin down. Rather than give
you a "meaning," a Hmong speaker will give you only a situation in which it would be appropriate
I
to use the phrase (such as "You put a lizard in a jar and add a few drops of red pepper sauce"), but

I you can count on the fact that there will be many other appropriate situations for the phrase. While
the meanings of expressives are elusive from a Westempoint of view, it is important to remember

I that from a Hmong perspective expressives have precise meanings which are shared by the
community and do not vary significantly from one speaker to another.

I
Finally, some connections can be drawn between the tones, consonants, and vowels
chosen to fill the six positions in these phrases (Cl V1 TJ - Cl V2Tl or T2 ) and the core meaning
I
(which is often quite abstract). In other words, sound symbolism is involved. For example, Clij­
CIV2j expressives refer to energetic, fast, short sounds, and Clis-CIV2S expressives refer to
I
flat, continuous, unending sights and sounds.

I
188

FOUR-WORD PHRASES
(Coordinative Constructions)

Another hallmark of Hmong style is the four-word phrase. Four-word phrases typically

follow an ABAC pattern where the A's are identical (or synonymous), and where B and C are

closely related in meaning-e.g., npaj mov npaj zaub 'prepare-rice-prepare-vegetables,' meaning

"to prepare food." You will encounter many of these four-word phrases in both spoken and

written Hmong. They arelWt "Jancy"; they are part of the regular language. The goal is to feel so
comfortable hearing and seeing these that one day you will find yourself using them.

Below are some examples of four-word phrases either found in this book or in common

use in everyday language. Notice that there are a few four-word phrases in which one of the

components no longer has a literal meaning in modem Hmong.

Four-Word Phrase Literal Translation Meaning

npaj mov npaj zaub prepare-rice-prepare-vegetables 'to prepare food'

npaj nqaij npaj mov prepare-meat-prepare-rice 'to prepare food'

tu mov tu zaub look-after-rice-look-after-vegetables 'to prepare food'

key lWj kev haus way-eat-way-drink 'subsistence'

ualWj uahaUS . do-eat-do-drink 'earn a living'

kev tshaib kev nqhis way-hunger-way-thirst 'famine'

tuag tshaib tuag nqhis die-hunger-die-thirst 'die of famine'

cua daj cua dub wind-yellow-wind-black 'storm, bad wind'

tua nas tua noog kill-rodents-kill-birds 'to hunt small animals'

siab loj siab day liver-big-Iiver-wide 'generous, big-hearted'

txaij liab txaij ntsuab striped-red-striped-green 'with red and green stripes'

ya musya los fly-go-fly-come 'to fly around, to hover'

tsis deb tsis ze not-far-not-close 'at a reasonable distance'

ua ub ualW do-this-do-that 'to do this and that'

yam ub yamlW kind-this-kind-that 'of different kinds, various'

ua liajuateb do-paddy-do-field 'to farm'

I 189

I tu vaj tu tsev look-after-garden-look-after-house ' to take care of one's home'

tu liaj tu teb look-after-paddy-look-after-field 'to take care of the fields'

I
tu tub tu Idv look-after-son-look-after-? 'to take care of the children'

I kev tsav kev rag way-?-way-war 'war, fighting'

khiav tsov khiav rag run-?-run-war 'f1ee from war'

I
txhia hnub txhua hmo every-day-every-night 'every day and night'

II

II

II

II

I
190

CONCESSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Concessive constructions are constructions made up of a subordinate clause beginning with

conjunctions such as even if, even though, although, though, followed (or preceded) by a main

clause-e.g., 'Even if it rains, I'll go'; 'Although it's expensive, I'll buy it.' In Hmong any of the

following can be used as equivalents:

Tab
Tab yog + subordinate clause + los + main clause

Tab txawm (tias)

Txawm yog

Examples:

Txawm yog rab hneev me me xwb lo.s, kuv tus tub kuj zoo siab kawg.
'Although the crossbow is tiny, my son is very happy.'

Tab yog nws hu los, kuv tsis mus.

'Even if s/he calls me, I'm not going.'

Tab yog kuv tuag 10s, kuv tsis hais.

'Even if I were to die, I would not speak/say a word.'

Tab yog nws tuaj 101, txhob hu kuv.

'Even if slhe comes, don't call me.'

Tab nag los 10 s, kuv yuav mus.

'Even if it rains, I'll go.'

Tab yog ntuj los nag 10 I, kuv mus.

'Even though it's raining, I'm going.'
 I 191

I SUBORDINATION AND PARATAXIS

I
When looking at Hmong sentences and texts, one is struck by the lack of coordinating and
subordinating elements among words, phrases, and clauses. One is faced with a seemingly
I endless juxtaposition of grammatical units strung together without the use of any overt
conjunction. This phenomenon is known as parataxis and is characteristic of Hmong at different
I levels of grammatical structure, as discussed in section II below. However, in light of our
familiarity with subordination as a mechanism for creating hierarchy within sentences, let us start
with an overview of the main subordinating conjunctions found in Hmong.
I
I. SUBORDINATION
I
A. THE COMPLEMENTlZER* (HAlS) TIAS 'THAT'

I This complementizer is made up of lias preceded by the optional element (hais), which is
historically derived from the still existing main verb of saying hais 'to say, to speak' but has been
grammaticized over time to serve as an optional part of the conjunction. It comes as no surprise
I then that one of the functions of (hais) tias is quotative rather than subordinating: (hais) tiils is
used to introduce direct speech quotations following main verbs involving speech such as hais 'to
I say, to speak,' dag 'to lie,' hu 'to call,' cern 'to scold,' nug'to ask,' teb 'to answer,' xav 'to
think,' qhia 'to teach, to inform,' nco 'to remember,' etc. This quotative function of (hais) tias is

I illustrated below:

I
I 1. Tus Tsov hais rau tus Qav (hais)tias: 'Qav, wb sib twv dhia.'
I . clf Tiger say to elf Frog quotative Frog we-two recJp compete jump
'The Tiger said to the Frog, "Frog, let's have a jumping contest.'"
I
The other function of (hais) tias is a subordinating one: (hais) tias serves to introduce
subordinate clauses reporting a proposition after main clause verbs involving perception such as
I porn 'to see,' paub 'to know,' ntshai 'to fear, to be afraid of,' hnov 'to hear,' ntseeg 'to believe,'
xav 'to think,' nco 'to remember,' etc. (Hais) tias can also follow hais to report a direct speech
I quotation. t The subordinating function of (hais) tias 'that' is illustrated below:

I 2. Npis tsis paub (hais)tias muaj dais xim dawb.

Bee neg know that exist bear color white
'Bee didn't know that white bears existed. '
I

I
*
I use "(subordinating) conjunction," "subordinator," and "complementizer" interchangeably to refer to words
I which introduce a subordinate/embedded clause (for example, that, when, so that, etc.)
t In a more marginal function (hais) lias can also optionally occur after yog 'to be' when yog introduces the
equivalent of an English if-clause (see section on yog above) as well as after vim 'because.'
I

I
 192

B. THE COMPLEMENTIZER K O M 'SO THAT, IN ORIiER TO' .

This complementizer is transparently related to the main verb kom 'to tell, to order
(somebody to do something),' as in Kuv kom Npis mus 'I told/ordered Bee to go.' As a
subordinator, kom is used to introduce embedded clauses expressing a desired action following
volition verbs such as xav 'to want,' nyiam 'to like,' thov 'to ask, to beg,' txwv 'to forbid,' etc.:

3. Tus Tsov tsis xav kom tus Qav rov qab noj dua nws ntxiv lawm.
clf Tiger neg want that elf Frog again eat again him more perf
'The Tiger didn't want the Frog to eat more of him.'

Kom can also introduce subordinate clauses expressing a purpose or an intention:

4. mum no tus Tsov sib sib zog dhia kom tus Qav dhia tsis yeej.
time this clf Tiger recip recip strength jump so that clf Frog jump neg possible
'This time, the Tiger mustered all the strength he could to jump so that the Frog wouldn't
beat him.'

C. THE RELATIVE MARKER !!..4.§. 'THAT, WHICH, WHO(M), WHOSE'

There is only one relative marker in Hmong, uas. It serves the grammatical function of
introducing any tyjJe of relative clause:

5. Nws nyiam noj cov khoom uas tsis ntsim txob.

she like eat group things that neg spicy pepper
'She likes to eat things that are not spicy.'

6. Niam xav muas cov tsho tiv no uas luv nqi lawm.
mother want buy group coat that lower price perf
'Mother wants to buy coats that have been reduced in price (i.e., on sale).'

7 . . . . cov hluas uas niamtxiv muajmuaj nyiaj. ..

group young that parents have have silver
, ... young people whose parents are rich...'

D. CONCLUSION
Hmong has few words which function as subordinating conjunctions, and the ones it does
have are restricted in usage. The use of (hais) lias as a subordinator is more limited than its
English equivalent "that" and (hais) lias also has a separate, quotative function. Kom, which is
used to indicate causation in its subordinating function, is still clearly related to the main verb kom
'to tell, to order (somebody to do something).'* As to the relative marker uas, there are many

*
For more details on complementation. see Jaisser (1984a and 1984b).
I
I 193

I cases where it is optional; it is used to narrow down the degree of specificity and/or definiteness of
the head noun, and its occurrence is conditioned by discourse factors such as the speech context,
pragmatic knowledge of the world, etc. so that one must look at entire chunks of discourse to
I understand its usage.*

II. PARA TAXISt

I
Verb serialization as discussed above is a form of parataxis: verbs are concatenated without
any overt marking of coordination or subordination. Also as seen above, possessive noun phrases
are formed by merely juxtaposing the relevant noun phrases: the possessor and the item possessed
appear without any intervening element alluding to the hierachy in the relationship.

There are several other forms of parataxis. The most basic involves stringing together two
identical elements; this phenomenon is known as reduplication and is common with verbs and non­
numeral quantifiers such as ntau 'much, many, a lot (of),' coob 'many, a lot (of),'. and tsawg
'little, few' (see above for examples with these quantifiers). Reduplication is typically used for
emphasis, as seen in (7) above and in (8) below:

I 8. Rau Tau siab kawm ntawv.

put put liver study paper
'Really put your heart into your studies.'

On a larger scale, entire clauses can be joined together paratactically, as illustrated in (9)
I below-a revealing example from Riddle 1991. The first clause, which ends with los, is directly
attached to the next part of the sentence, which in turn is juxtaposed to the last part of the sentence
starting with tsis tau noj. Sentences like these are typical.

9. Leej twg txawj txuag tau me ntsis nyiaj los nws coj mus muas
someone can preserve get a little money come slhe take go buy
tsis tau noj tsis tau hnav.
neg get eat neg get wear
'If anyone manages to save a little money and goes to buy something, slhe won't get
anything to eat or wear.'

(10) are another example of parataxis: they are typically

Time clauses such as the one in
translated as starting with "when" or "while" in English, but thaum- the word which introduces
them in Hmong-is actually a noun meaning "time" so that there is no conjunction involved here
either.

*
For more details on the relative marker uas, see Riddle (1993).
t For more details on parataxis. see Riddle (1991).
194

10. Thallm. lawv sib qw sib qw, tus nabqa tsiav khiav tawm tim lub qhov rais
time they recip shout recip shout elf lizard run out loe elf door
mus lawm.
go perf
'While they're all screaming at each other, the lizard runs out through the window.'

This tendency to string together elements without any overt marking of coordination or
subordination is reminiscent of another stylistic norm in Hmong-namely, the use of paratactically
conjoined words that are either synonymous or related in meaning. The fixed four-word phrases
discussed above are a case in point, in both casual and elegant speech. Without following the
formula involved in four-word phrases, it is also a common rhetorical device to string together
synonymous phrases. This is illustrated in (11) with huv 'all, altogether,' tas 'all, in its entirety,'
tib si 'all, altogether,' and puav leej 'all, altogether'; using all of these may seem redundant and
repetitive to us but is not in Hmong.

11. Tas cov txiv neeb sawv daws puav leej tuaj tas . huv tib si.
all group shaman every all, altogether one come all all all, altogether
'All the shamans came (each and every one of them). '

All these paratactica1ly conjoined structures present a decoding challenge when studying
Hmong. Reading a lot to become familiar with them and asking a native speaker to explain the
situations described are helpful strategies.
I 195

I CONVERSATION PARTICLES

Hmong conversational exchanges are characterized by the presence of what dictionaries

I label "emphatic particles" -words such as os, naj, los mas, as, Iouj, etc. These conversational
particles are also found in other languages of Asia and Southeast Asia (for example, in Thai,
I Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, Japanese, etc.). They are a phenomenon of the spoken language
and as such do not occur in written prose. They are, however, found in written dialogues since

I these emulate speech. Conversational particles typically occur at the end of utterances and are
elusive in nature: they cannot be translated or elicited like other words can, and native speakers are
at a loss to characterize them and explain their usage. Yet they are omnipresent in everyday
I conversation and not using them instantly reveals one as a non-native speaker-thus testifying to
their crucial role in oiling the wheels of fluid and fluent conversation. These particles are the topic
I of my dissertation research, and some preliminary findings are listed below.

I. THE PARTICLE N A WB
I
Analysis of a story largely made up of dialogue revealed that utterances ending with nawb
I appeared at the end of conversations when talk was winding down. Furthermore, nawb was used
at the end of highly formulaic phrases such as expressions of gratitude and leave-taking:
I
1. Ua tsaug ntau kawg nawb.
give thanks a lot extremely prt
I 'Thank you so much.'

I 2. Mus zoo koj nawb.

go be well you prt

I '(Good) bye, take care.'

When asked what nawb conjured up in his mind, a native speaker gave me the following
I example situation: two friends who have just been spending a little time together decide to go
somewhere together (home, to a movie). One of them says to the other:
I 3. Peb mus nawb.
we go prt
'Come on, let's go.'
I
What the English translation fails to reveal is that nawb implies that the speaker is beckoning his
I interlocutor, and indeed he made a beckoning gesture while uttering (3). Using nawb adds a
"please listen to what I'm. saying" note to the utterance and requires a certain degree of intimacy

I between the two conversation partners. Hence, if nawb functions as a device for beckoning an
interlocutor's attention, it comes as no surprise that it occurs at the end of highly formulaic phrases
such as expressions of gratitude and leave-taking when the conversation is winding down: nawb
I may serve to counteract the tendency on the listener's part to stop paying close attention to what is
being said and to keep the channels of communication alive between the speaker and the hearer.
I

I
 196

II. THE PARTICLE POB

Analysis of utterances ending with pob revealed that its presence implied that the speaker
was not sure about the information s/he was conveying in response to a wh- question (what?
where? how? how long? how far? when? etc.). This is illustrated in (4), which is said in response
to "How long have you lived in this neighborhood?," and in (5), which is uttered in response to
"What are you going to do over the summer 'break?" Note how the uncertainty built into pob is
further reinforced by the presence of elements overtly conveying doubt, elements such as kwv yees
'probably, 1 guess,' tej zau/md 'maybe,' ntshai 'maybe, I 'm afraid,' xyov 'I don't know,' etc.
4. Peb nyob tau kwv yees ob xyoos no lawm pob.
we live attain probably two years this perf prt
'We've lived here for probably two years.'

5. Xyov, tejzaud ntshlIi tsuas yog kawm ntawv summer xwb pob.
uncertainty maybe maybe only be the case study letters summer only prt
'I don't know; maybe I'm just going to go to summer school. '

There are also instances where this particle bears the high falling rather than the high level
tone. The element of uncertainty is also present in these cases, but the utterances have the
grammatical structure of yes-no questions rather than statements in answer to a wh-question. This
seems to point to an intonational difference between pob and poj. The latter is illustrated below:
6. Muaj zog me ntsis lawm poj?
have strength alittle perf prt
'Has your strength come back a little (I wonder)?'

III. OTHER PARTICLES

It is important to bear in mind that the information I have reported here on the particles
nawb and pob represents preliminary findings and that additional research is needed to describe
them fully. The same is true of the other conversation particles, the most important of which are as
follows:
as ntag, ntad
lauj oj, ov, os, og
maj, mas sas, sad
los mas sob, soj
nab, naj, nav, na, nas yom

It is interesting to note that the tones which involve more than changes in pitch play only a
marginal role: the breathy tone is found in only two of the particles listed above and the -m tone in
only one. Pending further research, 1 conclude by reiterating the vital role particles play in making
conversational exchanges flow smoothly. They convey intonational differences as well as
speaker/listener attitudes and feelings.
I 197

I "FLEXIBLE" GRAMMAR:
THE CASE AGAINST STRICT PART OF SPEECH CATEGORIZATION

I One of the interesting and challenging features of Hmong grammar is the fact that a given
word can belong to more than one part of speech. Rau and tuaj are a good case in point: they can
I be interpreted in English as either verbs or prepositions. As a main verb rau means "to put, to
place," as seen in (1) and (3); as a preposition it means "to" in the benefactive sense, as seen in (2-
I 3). As to tuaj, as a main verb it means "to come (to a place where one does not reside or belong),"
as seen in (4-5), and as a preposition it means "from," as illustrated in (5).

I 1. Rau rau siab kawm ntawv.

put put liver study paper
I 'Really put your heart into your studies.'

2. Npis hais rau kuv tias. . . .

I Bee say to me that
'Bee said to me/told me that. . . . '
I
3. Muah rau rau hauv.
I grasp place to inside
'Put it inside. '

I 4. Koj tuaj los? Kuv tuaj as.

you come prt I come prt
I 'So, you've come?' 'Yes, indeed, I have. '

5 . Kuv tuaj tim Michigan tuaj.

I I come loe Michigan from
'I come from Michigan.'
I
I have discussed other multiple word class membership cases elsewhere in this book. As

I seen above, the word lawm can function as a main verb meaning "to leave," as a location word
referring to a place a certain distance away from the speaker, and as a perfective marker signaling
the completion of a given situation. The word tsev can be used as a noun meaning "house" and as
I a measure word after the numeral ib 'one,' yielding ib tse (t.c.) 'a household'; additional words
functioning in the same manner are found in "Special Functions of the Numeral Ib 'One. ", In the
I section on deictics we saw that deictics can function as prepositions heading prepositional phrases
and as independent location or demonstrative nouns. In the section on subordination we saw that
kom can be a main verb and.a complementizer.
I
Furthermore, words may not be in the same part of speech in English and in Hmong: for
I example, adjectives in English such as big, beautiful, taIl, etc. are stative verbs in Hmong, and the
English preposition "with" functions as a main verb in Hmong, as seen in (6):
I
ft

I
j 198
'I

6. Kuv nrog kuv tus txiv mus tsev.

1 be with my clf husband go home
'I went home with my husband.' ,

'I
When studying the Hmong language, one of the traps to avoid is strict part of speech
categorization; it is simply counterproductive. The best strategy in becoming comfortable with
multiple part of speech membership is to refrain from matching up Hmong and English parts of
speech, and to focus on keeping track of the different functions a given Hmong word can have.
Relax and let your mind expand to allow two or more functions to be associated with one word.
Adopting a broader view based on the semantic thread that runs through the multiple usages of a
word is far more revealing than fitting it into a word class.
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Appendices
Author:
Annie Jaiser et al.

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2fx6c5r6

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
I
I 201

I APPENDIX 1: ANSWER KEYS TO EXERCISES

I LISTENING COMPREHENSION

I tOY NAJ NPAWB

I Sample answerkey:

(a) 25 27 29 26 23 nees nkaum cuaj

I
(b) 15 27 59 11 43 kaum tsib
I
(c) 25 57 79 26 32 peb caug ob
I
(d) 18 14 11 17 15 kaum ib
I
(e) 16 13 19 12 17 kaumrau
I
(f) 99 92 97 96 90 cuaj caum xya
I
(g) 102 120 100 110 120 ib puas ob
I
(h) 77 70 79 76 78 xya caum yim
I
(i) '67 60 90 66 69 rau caum cuaj
I
G) 102 120 100 110 122 ib puas nees nkaum
I
(k) 15 27 59 86 43 tsi b caug cuaj
I
(I) 120 170 190 110 160 ib puas cuaj caum
I
(m) 87 70 77 72 78 xya caum xya
I
(n) 49 62 17 26 60 plaub caug cuaj
I
(0) 142 176 193 180 169 ib puas cuaj caum peb
I

I
202

TONE PERCEPTION EXERCISE

Fill in the tone letters. (Leave blankifmid "zero" Lone).

Pua....g_ ta_ ko..j_ mu_s_ da_b_ tsi_ law_m_? Ku_v_ mu_s_ yua_v_ khoo_m_
to_m_ khw_ law_m_. Ko ...L yua_v_ tau_ da_b_ tsi_? Ku_v_ yua_v_ tau_
Cb_ co_ qe_, nqai..j_ qai_b_, zau_b_ xa_v_ la_v_, zau_b_ pa..j_, pia_m_
tha..j_, thia_b_ txhu_v_.

INITIAL CONSONANT PERCEPTION EXERCISE

Fill in the consonant you hear. (Possible consonants: d, dh, k, kh, r, rh, q, qh, (s, tsh.)

1. _q_uaj 9. _tsh_o
2. _rh_eey 10. _dlLau
3. _kh_o 11. _k_o
4. _d_uab 12. _ts3em
5. _tsh_uaj 13. _f_UY
6. _qh_uay 14. _q_eeb
7. _r_ub 15. _q_31J
8. _k_aj

WORD PERCEPTION EXERCISE

Underline the word that you hear for each line.

1. ib vim
2. ruam cuaj
3. � ntses
4. tamsis no tiaIn sis
5. neb 00
6. ntxiv txiy
7. koj koy
8. txhiab thiab
9. caum tau
10. loj los
11. ntawm ntawd
12. nkoj koj
13. tus tug
14. thiab tiab
15. kuy kub
 203

STORIES FOR ORAL COMPREHENSION PRACTICE

NPIS NPAJ MOV NOJ

1. Tsis yog.
2. Yog.
3. a.
4. a.
5. Tsis ua.
6. b.·
7. Tsis cub.
8. Cub.
9. Noj.
10. Tsis qab.
1 1. Tsis tshaib plab.

TsOV TSIS NOJ TSHEB

1. Tsis yog.
2. Tsis muaj.
3. Mus nrhiav tib neeg noj lawm.
4. Tsis noj.
5. (Tuaj hauv) kuv lub tsev.
6. Tau.
7. Noj tsiaj.
8. Tsis yog.
9. Tsis yog.
10. Dais, kheb, tsov, tsov txaij (Jeopard), tsov ntxhuav, tsov dub (black panther), hma, etc.
1 1. Muaj.

MAIV QHUA

1. Tsis taus.
2. Nws tseem tsis muaj hniav.
3. Tsis tau.
4. Me.
5. b.
6. . Muaj ib tug me nyuam xwb.
I 7. Tsis muaj.
8. Tsis yog.
9. c.
I 10. Tsis muaj.

I NPIS MUS TOM LUB VAJ TSIAJ

1.
I
c.
2. c.
3. Nyiam.
4. Tsis yog. (Nws porn ib tug dais dawb.)
I

I
204

5. Muaj.
6. Tsis yog.
7. Yog.
8. Tsis yog.
9. b.
10. b.

NPIS THIAB NWS COY PHOOJ YWG

1. Muaj phooj ywg ntau ntau'/Muaj rau tus phooj ywg.

2. Tsis yog.
3. b.
4. c.
5. Tsis yog.
6. c.
7. b.
8. Ruarn{me me xwb).
9. c.
10. c.

SAIB DAIM DUAB: NPIS THIAB NWS COY PHOOJ YWG

1. Muaj ib lub xwb.

2. Muaj ib lub xwb.
3. Muaj ob txhais.
4. Muaj ob txhais.
5. Muaj ob txhais.
6. Muaj ob txhais.
7. Muaj ib tug dey nyob saum Npis lubtaub hau.
8. Muaj ib tug nas nyob saum Npis ib txhais caj npab.
9. Muaj ibtug noog nyob saum Npis ib txhais tes.
10. Muaj ib tug npua nyob ze ntawm Npis ib txhais ceg.
11. Muaj ib tug miv nyob saum Npis ib txhais taw.
12. Kuv xav tias Npis nyiam tsiaj heev.
13. Kuv xav tias tsiaj nyiam Npis heev thiab.
14. Tsis muaj.
15. . Muaj. (Muaj ib tug qaib nyob saum nws lub xub pwg.)

KUV LUB TSHEB

1. Tsis yog.
2. Tsis yog.
3. Xim daj.
4. Tsis nyiam.
5. (Kuv) Nyiam noj nqaij qaib, ntses, mov, zaub ntsuab, thiab txiv.

TUs ME NYUAM DEV TOM NPIS KO TAW

1. a.
2. b.
 I
;!

I 205

I 3. c.
4. c.
5. Tsis yog.
I 6. Tsis yog.
7. b.
8. Tsis yog.
I 9. b.
10. a.
11. Tsis tu siab.
I
TUS TSOV LOS XYUAS
I
1. Tsis tau.
2. c.
I 3. b.
4. Tsis yog.
5. Yog.
I
TXIV NRAUG NTSUAG THIAD COV UAS KAWM HAIS LUS HMOOD
I
1. Muaj ob leeg.
2. Tsis yog.
I 3. b.
4. Tsis yog.
5. Tsis yog. (Nws sau duab zoo heev.)
I 6. a.
7. Tsis muaj.
8. c.
I 9. b.
10. a.

I
 206

NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE

N DUN CLASSIFIERS

DAIM OR Y!.!l.? ANSWER KEY

Daim is the classifier used with nouns referring to objects considered to be flat: a sheet of
paper (1), a field (2), a leaf (3), an apron (4). Lub , on the other hand, occurs with nouns referring
to objects characterized by roundness and/or bulkiness: a ball (5), a flower (6), a cooking pot (7),
a hat (8). Hence,

9. daim duah picture, photograph flat

10. lub qe egg round, bulky
11. lub nroog cityc bulky
12. daim phuam so ntswg handkerchief flat
13. daimliaj rice paddy flat
14. daimtiab skirt flat*
15. lub hnub sun round
16. lub txiv pos [jab strawberrry round, bulky

HMONG CLASSIFIER EXERCISE: ANSWER SHEET

While comparing your answers with the ones given below, bear in mind that the purpose of
this exercise is to get a glimpse of the Hmong world view, not to get "correct" answers. You may
discover that your answers, while "correct" from your (Western) point of view, are not "correct"
from the Hmong perspective. The best thing to do in this case is to talk to Hmong people about
this topic, and to have them explain how they view classifier-noun associations which are puzzling
to you.

Part A
A good strategy to figure out the semantic categories of the nouns with which the given
classifiers are associated is to group together the nouns which share the same classifier. This
yields the following:

1. rab
3. rabrauj hammer 20. rabdiav spoon
6. rab phom rifle 26. rab kaw saw
10. rab hneev crossbow 28. rabhlau hoe
13. rab koob needle 30. rabtxiab scissors
19. rabciaj pliers

*
Hmong skirts are of the wrap-around style and hence lie out flat.
 207

2. daim
2. daimtxiag (wooden) board 17. daim pam blanket
4. daim nplooj leaf of a tree 21. daim teb field
7. daimtiab skirt 27. daimliaj rice paddy
9. daim ntawv sheet of paper 29. daim sev apron

3. txoj
1. txoj hlua rope 23. txoj xov string, twine
12. txoj hmab creeper (vine) 25. txoj hmoov destiny, fate
14. txoj sia life 31. txoj key road, path
16. txoj hauj lwm work

4. phau
11. phau nyiaj wad (of money) 18. phau ntawv book

s. tawb
5. tawb qaub ncauj spit, spittle 24. tawb quay dung
15. tawb zis unne
I
6. tsab
(written) message 22. tsab ntawv letter (mail)
I 8. tsab xov

I The next step is to determine what semantic properties the nouns associated with each of
the classifiers have in common. This yields the following:
I
1. rab: used with nouns referring to implements (tools, kitchen utensils) and weapons.

I 2. daim : used with nouns referring to flat things and surfaces.

r 3. txoj: used with nouns referring to long and thin things. It is also used with abstract nouns,
which are metaphorically considered to be long: life(time), destiny, work (the latter may require a
stretch of the imagination, but this is a different culture, after all).
I
4. phau: used with nouns referring to stacks of things, things piled up on each other.
I
S. tawb: used with nouns referring to bodily excretions.
I
6. tsab: used with nouns referring to written messages. (Recall from the introduction to this
exercise that there is a separate classifier for spoken words, mi..)
I

I
 208

While, as seen above, a given classifier typically categorizes various nouns according to a
particular semantic principle, the reverse can also be true. A given noun can select more than one
classifier, and hence have a different meaning depending on the classifier. As you may have
noticed, the noun ntawv is a case in point: daim ntawv (#9) means "sheet of paper" since claim
categorizes flat things;phau ntawv (#18) means "book" since pilau is used for stacks of things;
and fsab ntawv (#22) means "letter (piece of mail)" since tsabis associated with written messages.
A good way to think of this is to remember that the noun ntawv has the general meaning of "paper"
and that the classifier picks out which aspect of the paper is emphasized. Another example of a
noun which can occur with more than one classifier is the noun xov: fsab xov (#8) means
"(written) message," while fxoj xov (#23) means "string/twine." This reinforces the necessity to
learn nouns together with their classifier, since classifiers can affect meaning.

Part B
Again, a good strategy is to start by grouping together the nouns that share the same
classifier. This yields the following:

1. txhais
8. txhais caj npab arm 20. txhais ceg leg
11. txhais ncej puab thigh 23. txhais ko taw foot
14. txhais tes . hand

2. tus
2. tus nplaig tongue 2 1. tus pobtxha bone
6. tusqau penis 25. tus ntiv tes finger
16. tus tw tail

3. txoj
4. txojleeg nerves 15. txoj hnyuv intestines
10. txoj sawv tendons 18. txoj hlabntsha veins
13. txoj hlabntaws umbilical cord
·'
b

4. lub
1. lubsiab liver 17. lubxubpwg shoulder
3. lubcev body 19. lubhauv caug knee
5. lubplawv heart 22. lubntaws navel
7. lubtaubhau head 24. lubqhov muag eye
9. lubmis breast 26. lubpim vagtna
12. lubpob ntseg ear

As in Part A, the next step is to determine what semantic properties are shared by the body
parts associated with each of the classifiers. This yields the following:
 I
.1

I 209

I 1. txhais: used for arms, legs, hands, and feet-i.e., limbs and their extremities.

I 2. tus: used with body parts that come in "short" lengths. (Compare and contrast with txoj
below.)

I 3. txoj: used with body parts that come in "long" lengths and are thin and flexible. (Reca1l from
Part A that txoj is also used with non-body-part nouns referring to long and thin things.)
I
4. lub: used with round and/or bulky body parts (a kind of "elsewhere" category).

I
Part C
I By referring to the findings of Parts A and B, we can match the given words with the
following classifiers:
I
1. qhib ntsia screwdriver rab
2. plab stomach, abdomen lub
I 3. ntawv sau notebook phau
4. xov hlau iron wire txo;
I 5. tav rib tus
6. duab photograph, picture daim
7. cajhlaub lower leg txhais
I 8. duavhlau shovel rab
9. hauvsiab chest (as body part) lub
I 10. ntaub (piece) of cloth daim
11. ntiv taw toe tus
I 12. diav rawg fork rab
13. raum kidney lub
14. kab das blackboard daim
I 15. quay twm cow-dung tawb
16. cai law txo;
I
(Recall from Part A that txo; is used with abstract nouns which are metaphorically considered to be

I long; also consider "the long arm of the law" in English.)

I NOTE: Should you have chosen tsab for #3 (notebook) and/or #14 (blackboard), the following
will help clarify the "proper" choice of classifier: some classifiers preempt others; in this case,
I although notebooks and blackboards are used for writing, they do not directly refer to written
messages. For "notebook" the salient feature in the Hmong world view is·that it is made up of a
stack of sheets of paper (hence phau), and for "blackboard" the salient feature is that it is a flat
I surface (hence daim).

I
I
210

'
SOME COMMON CLASSIFIERS: ANSWER KEY

Daim Flat things such as fields, pages, etc.

Lub Round or bulky objects, clothes.
Nkawm Things that come in pairs such as earrings, socks, etc.
Plum Books or things that come in volumes.
Rab Instruments, utensils.
Tus People, animals, things that are long and cylindrical.
Tsob Plants, bushes, foliage.
Txoj Things that come in length such as threads, wire, rope, roads, etc.
Txhais Arms, hands, feet.

Exercise 1: Match the following nouns with the appropriate classifier.

1. daim pam blanket 1 1. daim duab picture

2. txhais tes hand 12. lub paj flower
3. rab diav spoon 13. tsob paj plant
4. tsob ntoo tree 14. lub tsev house
5. tus cwj mem pen 15. lub tsheb car

6. lub xov tooj telephone 16. txoj hlua rope

7. daim ntawv page of paper 17. nkawm khau shoe
8. tus miv cat 18. tus duab shadow
9. daim teb farmfie1d 19. lub khob cup
10. phau ntawv book 20. txhais ceg leg

Exercise 2: Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate classifier.

1. Hnub no kuv noj ib lub qe.

2. Maiv muaj ib lub tsho me me.
3. Kab Npauj tsis nyiam tus miv xim dub.
4. Kuv tsis muaj ib rab diav noj mov.
5. Nyuj lub taub hau loj loj.
6. Tsob paj ntawd muaj cuaj lub paj.
7. Nruas niaj hnub ntxuav nws txhais tes.
8. Txoj hlua nyob qhov twg?
9. Daim pam ntawd loj heev.
10. Muaj xya tus cwj mem nyob ntawm lub rooj zaum.

* For a more comprehensive list of classifiers, see Heimbach (1969: Appendix 2, pp. 455-56).
I 211

I APPENDIX 2: TRANSLATIONS

I STORIES FOR ORAL COMPREHENSION PRACTICE

BEE PREPARES A MEAL

I
Today Bee is very hungry, but he doesn't have anything to eat. So he goes to the store and
I buys some eggs, cauliflower, and rice.
After he returns home, he puts water in a pot. After the water boils, he breaks the cauliflower
into it. He also steams the rice. When everything is ready, he proceeds to eat. The food does not
I taste good, but he gets enough to eat.

I
TIGERS DON'T EAT CARS
I
Yesterday morning a tiger came to my house. I said, "Hello. What brings you here?" The
tiger replied, "I've come to eat you."
I I asked, "Oh! Tigers eat cars, don't they?" The tiger said, "No, they don't. We only eat
people!" I said, "If that's the case, you can't eat me. I'm a car. People live way over there." So
I the tiger took off to look for people to eat.

I KHOUA

I Bee has an older brother. His name is Kao. Kao has a child. Her name is Khoua. Kboua
can't talk yet, but she sure can laugh.
I Kboua doesn't have teeth yet, so she can't eat meat. Consequently Kao and his wife steam
rice for her (to eat).

I
BEE GOES TO THE ZOO
I
One day Bee went to the zoo. He was very happy. He likes to look at animals. When he
I went to the zoo for the first time, he saw a white bear. He didn't know that white bears existed.
So he said, "That bear is very sick, isn't it?" Bee's mother said, "No, that bear is not sick."

I
BEE AND HIS FRIENDS
I
Bee has a lot of friends. Look at the picture and you'll find out what Bee's friends are like.
One friend is a puppy. The puppy likes to sit on top of Bee's head. One day the puppy fell
I down. He landed on top of the pig's head. The pig was offended. He said to the puppy,
"How can you be so stupid!"
I

I
212

My CAR

My car's name is Blia. It's a "Bug" (literally, a turtle-shaped car). It's yellow.
I like my car. Sometimes it's hungry. So I feed it gas. It doesn't like to eat rice, vegetables,
and meat.
My car and I are not alike. I don't like to eat gas. I like to eat rice, vegetables, and meat.

THE PUPPY BITES BEE'S FOOT

One day Bee went to visit one of his friends. Her name is Blia. Blia has a little puppy; Its
name is Blackie because its hair is black.
Blackie likes to bite people's feet for fun. When Bee came to visit Blia, Blackie bit his foot.
Bee didn't like it at all. But he didn't do anything because Blia is his friend.

TIGER SHOWS UP FOR A VISIT

One day a tiger came to my house. The tiger said, "I'm going to eat you." But I answered,
"You can't eat me. I've already eaten you."
This made the tiger cry very hard. So I took pity on him and fixed some chicken for him to
eat.

THE ORPHAN AND THE HMONG STUDENTS

Once upon a time there was a poor orphan. He didn't have a mother and he didn't have a
father. He didn't have fields and he didn't have a house. He didn't have a puppy to play with.
One day a very beautiful woman showed up. The woman said to the orphan, "Hello. I've
come to study Hmong. Would you be willing to teach me?"
The orphan said, "Oh woman! I am so wretched. You must be joking. I can't teach you."
At that moment a very handsome young man showed up. The man said to the orphan,
"Hello. I've come to study Hmong. Would you be willing to teach me too?"
The orphan didn't answer anything. But the king in the heavens took mercy on these two
people who wanted to study Hmong. He sent his daughter and his son to instruct them. The
orphan helped out too, and he drew beautiful pictures.
 I 213

I READING UNITS

I
A LETTER

I
June 23, 1989
I

I
Dear Kaub,
I

I How are you? I received your letter. I am happy and I thank

you (for it). Everybody in my family is fine. I'm thinking about

I
you and your wife and children, all of you.

I
I
,
I
I Love (literally, "See you later"),
1
I
t]3ee

I
-

I
214

GOING UP TO CHICAGO

On Saturday my husband and I went up to Chicago. We went to eat at a Vietnamese

restaurant. We ate pork, rice, and spring rolls for dinner. Inside the spring rolls we wrapped up
bean sprouts, lettuce, mint, cucumber, and Chinese parsley. We drank water. Then we ate a
sweet banana dessert, but we didn't drink coffee because we don't like it. Vietnamese food is very
tasty and inexpensive. We want to go back to this Vietnamese restaurant again.

WASHING CLOTHES

There are five people in this family. There is a father, a mother, and three children. The
children's father has gone to the market, and their mother is washing clothes. The two older
children are helping their mother dry clothes. The younger child is playing with her dog. She's
having a lot of fun.

BUYING CLOTHES

Mother wants to buy winter coats for her children. She needs to get a small coat and a large
coat. The children would like blue coats. Mother wants to buy the coats on sale (literally, "coats
that have been reduced in price").

My FAMILY

My mother and father have eight children. They have four sons and four daughters. The
daughters are the older children, the sons the younger. I am the oldest. So I have three younger
sisters and four younger brothers.
When we were still little, we all lived together in a large house in the state of Connecticut.
Now we don't live together anymore. My parents live in Rorida. One of my sisters and her
husband also live in Rorida. They have a daughter. She's two years old. Her name is Nicole.
One of my sisters and her husband live in North Carolina near the ocean. They have a son
named Christopher. He is four.
One of my sisters and two of my brothers still live in Connecticut, but they don't live in the
same city. My sister lives in Hartford and she is not married. One of my brothers lives in a city
called Orange. He's married and has a son named Justin. Justin is eight. One of my brothers
who lives in Connecticut is not married yet, but he's going to get married next year.
My two brothers who live in New York are not married either. One of them has a job, but
the other one is still a student. In June and in July they are going down to Central America.
They're going there to visit several countries and study Spanish.
My husband and I live in Indiana. We go to visit my parents down in Rorida a couple of
times a year. Sometimes they come to visit us up in Indiana too. Sometimes we go to
Connecticut, to New York and down to North Carolina to visit my sisters and my brothers.
I 215

I 1. Tus sau yog tus ntxhais yau, puas yog?

Tsis yog; yog tus (ntxhais) hlob.
I
2. Tus sau, nws txiv thiab nws niam muaj pes tsawg tus me nyuam?
Muaj yim tus (me nyuam).
I
3. Thaum tus sau yog me nyuam hluas nws tsev neeg nyob qhov twg?
I Nyob hauv lub xeev Connecticut.

I 4. Tam sim no, nws txiv thiab nws niam nyob ze xeev Indiana, puas yog?
Tsis yog; nyob nram lub xeev Florida.

I 5. Tus sau coy niam hluas nyob qhov twg?

Ib tug nyob nram lub xeev Florida, ib tug hauv lub xeev North Carolina, ib tug hauv lub
I xeev Connecticut.

6. Tus sau nyob qhov twg?

I Nyob hauv lub xeev Indiana.

I 7. COy nus uas nyob hauv New York tab tom ua dab tsi?
Ib tug ua hauj lwm, ib tug tseem kawm ntawv.
I
8. Koj puas xav tias tus sau nyiam mus xyuas nws tsev neeg?
Xav xav!
I
9. Draw the author's family tree and label it with the appropriate kinship terms.
I

I
.�. .�. .�. •
I
.-- • • •
I
Liz tus niam. niam. ni.arn poj
n1l3 n1l3 n1l3 n1l3
I txiv hluas hluas hluas yau niam yau yau }'au

I
• • •
ntxhais 1ub 1ub
I

I
216

DOING NEEDLEWORK

The women prepare fancy clothing and set it aside for the New Year celebration. They put
all their heart into doing embroidery and sewing clothes. So when the New Year arrives
everybody gets to wear something new.
The women pound the rice in the footmill, winnow the rice, carry water, pound cooked rice
into rice cakes which they toast (for everybody to eat), and do other kinds of chores.

1. Leej twg npaj zam? COy poj niam npaj zam.

2. COy poj niam ua hauj lwm dab tsi? Ua yam ntau hauj lwm: ua paj ntaub, xaws khaub ncaws,
tuav txhuv, tsoov txhuv, ris dej, ua ncuav rau sawv daws noj.

3. Thaum txog peb caug lawm sawv daws thiaj yuav tau hnav dab tsi? Sawv daws lhiaj yuav tau
hnav khaub ncaws tshiab.

THE SCHOOL LIZARD

# 1: THE LIZARD CAN RUN

The teacher opened his desk. A lizard escaped. The students laughed. Maiv Tooj laughed
and coughed. Riam knocked on his desk. Sawm got up to catch the lizard, but it ran out the door.
So Sawm sat down again.

# 2: THE TEACHER KEEPS A LIZARD

The teacher, whose name was Yawg Laum, was raising a lizard. His lizard crawled
around on top of his desk. His lizard made a student by the name of Maiv Tooj laugh. Maiv
Tooj's laughing made a student by the name of Riam laugh and cough. So Riam went and stood by
the window.

# 3: WHILE THE TEACHER SLEEPS...

A lizard crawled in through the door. It slowly crawled very close to Maiv Tooj's chair.
When Maiv Tooj pointed her finger at the lizard, it went running out the door again.
Sawm saw Maiv Tooj do that, and it made him laugh. Riam had no idea as to what was
going on, so he was not very happy. Consequently he knocked on his desk. This caused the
teacher, who was sound asleep, to suddenly wake up. The teacher did not know what was going
on. So he got up, opened the door, and said, "Come in!"

# 4: AFRAID OF THE LIZARD

Riam wanted to sit down. Then Sawm wanted to get up. Then Maiv Tooj climbed on top
of her chair. All the students behaved this way because there was a lizard running around very
close to their chairs. The teacher then told Maiv Tooj to open the door. Maiv Tooj pointed her
finger and shouted at Riam to go and open the door. Riam turned around and told Sawm to open
the door. While they were all screaming at each other, the lizard ran out through the window.
 2 17

THE TIGER AND THE FROG

A long time ago, a Tiger met a Frog. The Tiger was very hungry. So he said to the Frog,
"Frog, let's have ajumping contest. If you win, we'll leave it at that, but if you don't win I'll get
to eat you." The Frog thought about the proposition for a few minutes and got an idea. So he
replied to the Tiger, "I'll do as you said." They went over to a big log which was lying across the
5 path, and the Tiger said, "Frog, let's have a race jumping over this log to see who can jump
farther." After contemplating the log, the Frog said, "Tiger, let's do as you said. You jump first."
At that moment the Tiger wanted to eat the Frog very badly, so he said, "Okay, let's do it." When
the Tiger was about tojump, the Frog grabbed tightly onto the Tiger's tail. The Tiger leaped over
the log to the other side in one bound. When the Tiger jumped, his tail flung the Frog ahead of
10 him. When the Tiger reached the other side he said, "Frog, you canjump now." The Frog replied
from ahead of the Tiger, "I am over here." The Tiger was puzzled; he couldn't figure out how the
Frog had managed to jump ahead of him. The Tiger just couldn't believe the Frog, so he said
again, "You are so strong. Let'sjump over to the other side again." The Frog, again, said, "I'll
do as you said." When the Tiger was about tojump, the Frog grabbed onto the Tiger's tail again.
15 The Tiger leaped over the log to the other side in one bound. His tail flung the Frog ahead of him
il again. When the Tiger reached the other side, he said, "Frog, where are you? Have you jumped
over yet?" The Frog answered from ahead of the Tiger, "I am over here." Now the Tiger was
I angry at the Frog because he could not jump farther than him. So the Tiger again said in anger to
the Frog, "Since you are so strong, let'sjump over one more time to find out who won." Again,
I 20 the Frog said, "You're willing tojump again? That's fine with me." This time the Tiger mustered
all the strength he could tojump so that the Frog wouldn't beat him, but the Frog held onto his tail
I again. When the Tiger leaped across the log, his tail sent the Frog flying into a huge tree. Blood
was streaming out of the Frog's mouth because he hit the tree so hard. The Tiger called again,
I "Frog, where are you?" The Frog was hurting so badly that he thought he was going to die for
25 sure, but he could still talk. So he replied to the Tiger, "I'm over here." This time the Tiger flew
I into a rage and said to the Frog, "I'm very hungry and I'm going to eat you." The Frog didn't
know what to do. So he said, "You're going to eat me! ButI've already eaten your liver. Look at

I me, my mouth is bloody all over." The Tiger walked over to look at the Frog's mouth, and saw
that it was true. Now the Tiger was very afraid of the Frog, so he ran away in great leaps and
bounds* until he disappeared into the forest because he didn't want the Frog to eat more of him.
I 30
The Frog was seriously hurt, so he went to rest under the shade of a tree. After sleeping for
awhile he got up. He listened to his body to make sure that there were no broken bones, and
I
slowly startedjumping along the path.

I
* literally, '�umping higher than the ceiling." (Lub) nthab refers to the storage platfonn overhead in a traditional
Hmong home, and qabnthab refers to the area right underneath it-i.e., the "ceiling."
I

I
218

GRAMMAR UNITS

TXAWJ, TAUS, AND TAU: TRANSLATION OF EXAMPLE SENTENCES

TXAWJ

1. a. Nws txawj ua l u am dej. 'He can swim. '

b. Nws tsistxawjualuamdej. 'She can't swim.'

2. a. Nws txawj hais Ius Askiv. 'She can speak English.'

b. Nws tsis txawj hais Ius Askiv. 'She can't speak English.'

3. a. Nws txawj ua mov noj. 'She can cook.'

b. Nws tsis txawj ua mov noj. 'She can't cook.'

4. a. Miv txawj nee ntoo. 'The cat can climb the tree.'
b. Dev tsis txawj nee ntoo. 'The dog can't climb the tree.'

TAUS

1. a. Nws khiav taus. 'He can run.'

b. Nws khiav tsistaus. 'He can't 'run.'

2. a. Nws nqa taus. 'He can lift it. '

b. Nws nqa tsis taus. 'He can't lift it.'

TAU

1. a. Nws pov npas tau. 'He can throw the ball. '
b. Nws pov npas tsis tau. 'She can't throw the ball.'

2. a. Nws mus tau. 'He can go (in).'

b. Nws mus tsis tau. 'He can't go (in).'

3. a. Nws muas tus me nyuam dey tau 'He can buy the puppy
(vim tias nws muaj nyiaj). (because he has money).'
b. Nws muas dab tsi los tsis tau 'He can't buy anything
(vim tias nws tsis muaj nyiaj). (because he doesn't have any money).'
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Glossary Part 1
Author:
Riddle, Elizabeth, University of California, Berkeley

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/28h03416

Additional Info:
Glossary covering A-N words

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

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 237

individual classifier (i.e. other than the plural or

English.Hmong Glossary
group word cov).
by Elizabeth Riddle Items within parentheses in the Hmong
translations are optional, ultimately depending on
context. lines indicate where in a phrase an item
This is a brief glossary rather than a full appears. A slash indicates alternate forms, such as
dictionary and is not meant to be comprehensive. In .
alternate pronunciations for the same meamng. For
addition to including all the Hmong words contained items where there is a commouly used translation
in the text, other common words are included such as
borrowed from Lao, this is labelled (L), and from
beginners in the language might find useful in a English, (E). No attempt has been made to provide
variety of circumstances when interacting with consistent etymological information. This labelling
Hmong people or reading simple texts such as folk is done simply to help indicate the generally pen:eived
tales. As in any language, usage varies across regions status of an item in everyday usage.
I and individuals. The items included here represent the
usage of many, but not necessarily all, speakers of
Following one common convention and that
used in the textbook, a space is left between each
White Hmong. syllable of a word, which has the effect of making the
I The following conventions are'used. Parts of
speech are labeled for most individual words (but not
tone letter salient. It should be noted, however, that
others prefer to omit spaces between syllables inside
complex phrases containing more than one part of words.
speech except where useful for disambiguation) in
I order to help distinguish senses and usage. It must be
The following abbreviations are used: ADV -
adverb, CLF - classifier, CONJ - conjunction, DEM -
kept in mind that Hmong parts of speech demonstrative, esp.- especially, \NT interjection, L­
classification is more flexible than that of English
-

Lao, lit. - literally, NEG - negative, N - noun, OBJ -

I and there is often no simple correspondence or single object (to indicate a form used as a grammatical
classification. Where the part of speech of the English object of a verb, used here ouly in those cases where
and Hmong words is the same, it is given before any ambiguity would otherwise result), PREP -
I parentheses. Where the part of speech is different, or
where there is more than one classification for a given
preposition, POSS - possessive modifier, PRO -
pronoun, Q - quantifier, V - verb.
English entry in Hmong, it is given within Special thanks are due to my Hmong consultants
parentheses, where additional meanings or other
I explanatory material are also given. In some cases the
and teachers Lopao Vang, WaIm Her, Pheng Thao,
Lee Thao, Yi Yang, and Leng Xiong, and to Ann
part of speech classification is not clearcut or is Delwiche and Marilyn Dabney for sharing their word
difficult to explain fully in a brief entry. In those
I cases the decision was made according to what might
lists from Hmong language courses at two Southeast
Asian Studies Summer Institutes. All errors are my
most help a beginner whose point of departure is own responsibility.
English to get a sense of the basic Hmong usage.
I An entry is repeated within the parentheses along
with any other possible senses when it i s a
reasonably close translation of the Hmong item or A
I items. The entry is not repeated within the
parentheses when there is no true Hmong eqnivalent AM ADV (_AM)_(teev/moos) thaum sawv
and the translation is ouly an approximate paraphrase ntxov
which may be used in some situations. In many cases
I a number of possible English senses, but not abandon V (abandon, cast away, discard, leave
necessarily all, are given in parentheses in order to behind, reject) tseg
give a sense of the range of meaning of a Hmong
I item. In any given case the Hmong trasnslation(s)
abdomen N (stomach) pub] plab
• N (lower abdominal area) pub] plab mog
do(es) not necessarily correspond to all senses or all
uses of the English items given in the parentheses. able V (able, can as acquired ability, know how to)
I Context must always be taken into consideration. txawj
• V(able, can as situational, external possibility)
Classifiers for nouns which generally take them
are given in square brackets immediately before the tau
I Hmong nouus. When the classifier is an integral part
of the Hmong noun and forms a compound with it, it
• V (able, can as physical, internal

ability/resources) taus
is not put in square brackets, but simply included as
abnormal (V be abnormal, as for a medical test,
part of the word. It still performs the classifier
I functions. Other nouns for which no classifiers are
unusual) (L) tsis thas ma das
given either self-classify or do not normally �se an abortion (V abfJrt, have an abortion) rho me nynam

I
238

about (ADV about, approximately, ADV probably, affection (V show affection)qawm

V guess) kwv yees afflict (V be afflicted with,affect,suffer,encounter)
• ADV (about, iu vicinity of, around) ib ucig raug
• (PREP about, coucerning, V arrive at) txog
• (talk about) hais txog afford (V be able to buy) yuav tau
• (how about_?) -.ne
afraid (V be afraid,frightened,fear) ntshai
• (V be fearful, startled, suddeuly afraid) siab poob
above PREP (higher than, on top of) saum nthav
• ADV (in a higher position) saud
after PREP (after, afterward, behind) tom qab
• PREP (up, uphill, [up] above) pem
• (V aft<:r the passing of a particular time ) dhau
absent (V has not come) tsis tuaj
• (after a day/days, another day) lwm hnub tso
absolutely ADV lriag (Ii) • (after finishing an action) V + tag
accept V (accept,catch something thrown,receive) • (after midnight) ib tag hmo dua
txais • (CONJ after that, [and] then,so then) ces
• (the day after tomorrow) nag nag lris/nas Iris
accident (V collide,as of cars) sib tsoo
afternoon N yav tav su dua , tav su dua, caij tav su
according to PREP raws Ii • (from 1-4 PM) hnub qaib
account N (bank account) naj nbawb cia nyiaj • (late afternoon, 4-6PM) yuav tsaus ntuj, yav
tsaus ntuj
accustomed (V be accustomed to, be willing,
agreeable)kam afterward ADV tom qab no,rov yav zaum tom qab
• (V be familiar) swm again (ADV again, more than,used to form
ache V (ache, hurt, be sick) mob comparative, V surpass) dua
• N (pain, sickness) [IUS] mob • ADV (again, V add to) ntxiv (dua)
• (V have an earache) mob ntsej rag against (V turn against) fav xeeb
• (V have a headache) dias tanb hau • (V turn against, change the mind, have a change
• (V have a toothache) mob huiav of heart ) ntxeev siab
• (V have a stomachache) mob plab
age N (length of time, period,epoch, season
across PREP (opposite,facing,across the valley,
[lub] caij
[over] to [laterally, east-west]) tim • (time, years, a person's age) hnub nyoog
• ADV (over there) tid
• (V go across,cross) hla agency N (place) [lub] tsev kab xwm
• (PREP across, through, after [time], V go
ago ADV (long ago) thaum ub
across,cross over,pass through/by) dhau
• ADV (a very long time ago) puag thaum, puag
act V (act,do, make,produce) ua fa
• ADV (just, a moment ago) nyuam qhuav
add V (add,added to,join to,make an increment to) • ADV (previously, period up till now) mam ntej
ntxiv
• (V added to,CONJ plus in math) ntxiv ran agree V (agree to, consent, give permission) tso Ius,
• (V put extra, surpass) tshaj pluam Ius
• V (agree, be willing) nyoo
address N [lub/IUS] chaw nyob, qhov chaw nyob • V (agree to,be willing, admit) yeem
adult N [IUS] neeg laus • V (concm in an opinion, agree with) raug
• V (approve of, agree with) pom zoo
advice N [lo] lus ntuas,Ius qhuab ntuas • V (think the same) xav Ii nws thiab
advise V (advise against an intended comse of • V (agree with the heart) dhos siab,hum siab
action,seek to dissuade ) txw agreeable (V be agreeable to, willing) kam, nyoo
• V (advise,recommeud,admonish)qhuab qhia
• V (exhort,rebuke) ntuas agreement N (written agreement) [daim] ntawv cog
• V (advise,explain,inform,instruct,show,teach, Ius
tell)qhia
ahead PREP (ahead of, in front of) tom ntej
affect V (be affected,aftlicted with,suffer, • ADV (ahead,before in time or location,
encounter)raug previous) ntej
 239

I aid V (aid, help) pab

• (always,from the beginning,originally) ib
txwm
• N [txoj] key pab • (always, repeatedly) pheej
I aim V (a gun) tsom (phom ) am V (all forms of be) yog
air N (air as gaseous substance,breath,gas) pa ambulance N [lub] tsheb thauj neeg mob
• N (atmosphere, the air) hay cua
• N (air�onditioning) cua txias America N (America,the United States) (feb
chaws) As mes lis kas, As mes lis kas teb, As
airplane N [lub] day hlau, (L) nyooj hoom mes liv kas, A me Ii kas, Mi Ii kas, Mi kas, Mis
I kuj
airport N [lub] tshav day hlau,(L) tshav nyooj American (V be American) As mes liv kas, etc.
hoom • N (person) [tus] neeg As mes liv kas, etc.

I alcohol N (for drinking) (dej) cawv among PREP txij Ii

alike ADV (same,same as) ib yam,tib yam Ii • (within) hauv

I ali ve (V be alive, living) ciaj (siav), ua ciaj, muaj and (CONI and, ADV also) thiab
sia • (ADV and then,and so, then) ces
• (be alive,dwell,live at,stay at, be at) nyob • (ADV and then,thereupon) ntxawm

• (ADV and then,therefore) thiaj Ii, mam Ii

all Q (all, every) txbia, txhua (txbia) • (ADV and so, and then, so, therefore) ho
• (ADV all,completely, finished) las/g mho,tas • (ADV and so,also, moreover,consequently) kuj
• (ADV all, completely) txhua mho
I • (ADV all,altogether) huv (si), huv tib si, tib si
• (and [how about]_ ?)_ ne?

• (PRO all of people, everybody) pnav leej angry (V be angry) chim, chim siab, npau taws
• (V be angry,lose one's balance) npau siab,siab
I allergic (V something doesu't agree with one, not
fit) tsis haum
npau
• (V be prone to anger, hot tempered) siab kub,

allow V (allow,abandon,free,leave,let,permit, siabceev

I place,release, relinquish) tso
• V (allow, permit,let, put aside, store) cia
animal N [tus] tsiaj
• N (animals of all types) tsiaj txhu
• V (allow, permit, let, give as a gift) pub • N (wild animal) [tus] tsiaj qus
I almost ADV yuav luag • N (domestic animal) [tus] tsiaj nyeg

alone ADV ib leeg animism N (native Hmong religion) key cai dab
qhuas
I along (V go along,by the side of) raws, taug
ankle N [lub] dab taws
• (V follow along a route) lam
• (ankle bone) [lub] pob taws
aloud (V be loud,make a noise,sound,ring) nrov
I alphabet N tsiaj ntawv
another Q (another,other,a second,next) Iwm
COY • (additional one) ib __ ntxiv
already ADV (already,marker of perfective aspect) • (another time) ib zaug ntxiv,lwm zaug,lwm lub
I lawm caij
• (ADV again) dna
• ADV (already,really,even,indeed) twb
• (V be finished) las, tag answer V teb (Ius)
I also (ADV also,CONI and) thiab • N [lo] lus teb
• ADV (also,moreover,consequently,therefore) ant N [tus] ntsaum
kuj
I • ADV (also,the same) ib yam anns N [lub] qhov qhuav

althongh ADV (although, though, even if/though) anyone PRO (used in statements, questions:
anyone/body [+ NEG on V for NEG meaning],
I tab (yog), tab txawm (tias), txawm yog/tias +
subordinate clause + los + main clause someone/body, no one/body [+ NEG on V],
• ADV (although, even if,if only) tab (yog) who) leej twg
• PRO (anyone/body at all) tus twg los tau
I altogetber ADV (altogether,
si)
. all) huv (si),huv (tib

always ADV (always, all the time) txhua lub caij

I

I
I
I 240

I
I
anything PRO (used in statements. questions: ashamed (V be ashamed. embarrassed. shy)txaj
anything [+NEG on V for NEG meaning]. muag
something. what) dab tsi. ab tsi
Asia N [lub] Es xias
o PRO (anything at all) ib yam dab tsi

ask V (a question)nug/noog
anyway ADV txawm Ii cas los
o V (ask or order someone to do something) kom
anywhere ADV (used in statements. questions: o V (ask for. beg)thov
anywhere [+ NEG on V for NEG meaning].
asleep (V be asleep)tsaug zog
nowhere [+ NEG on V]. somewhere. where)qhov
twg assistant N IUs pab
• ADV (anywhere at all) qhov twg los tau
associatiou N (association. organization) [lub] tsev
apartment N [lub] chav tsev. tsev kem khoom haum
apologize V thov zam txim at PREP (at. to (nearby» ntawm
o V (apologize. "excuse me/I'm sorry") thov!xim o PREP (over at. over to) tom
o PREP (over at. over to. esp, laterally. east-west.
appear V (appear. be like. be similar. be the same.
across the valley. farther than tom)tim
seem) zoo Ii
o PREP (up at. up to [geographic elevation]. up in
o V (appear. emerge. show up) tshwm
the north) pem
apple N [lub] (E) !xiv ev paum.!xiv zuaj o PREP (down at. down to [geographic elevation].

down in the south)nram

apply V (apply oneself to something) rau siab
o (ADV at the same time) ib txbij
o V (apply for. make an application. sign up for)
sau npe attach V (be attached. stuck to)txuas
appointment N kev teem caij sib ntsib attack V (kill each other) sib tua
o(V make an appointment for a meeting. doctor) o V (attack. beat. fight. hit. play piano. strike.
teem caij type)ntaus
• (V appoint to a position) tsa
attempt V sim
appreciate V nuj nqis. nco !xiaj ntsis
attention N [txoj] kev xyaum xim
approve V (approve of. agree with) pom zoo
attic N (attic. loft. storage platform) [lub] nthab
April N [lub] plaub hlis ntuj
August N [lub] yim hli ntuj
apron N [daim] sev
aunt N [IUs] (father's older or younger sister) phauj
argue V (argne. quarrel) sib ceg. sib cav. sib cam o N (mother's older sister)niam !ais hlob
o V (argue a price. bargain)nyom nqi/nqe o N (mother's younger sister)niam !ais yau
o N (mother's older/younger brother's wife)niarn
arm N (body) [txhais] caj npab
dablang
army N pawg tub rog. pab tub rog oN (father'S older brother's wife)niam hlob
oN (father's younger brother's wife)niarn ntxawm
around ADV (as in going around. about. looking
around someplace)ib ncig Australia N [lub] Au ta Ii as
o (V tum around. revolve) tig
author N IUs sau
arrest V (arrest. catch)nles
autumn N [lub] caij nplooj (ntoos) zeeg
o V (arrest, be closed. close. close up. shut in) kaw
available (V for a person to be available. free. at
arrive V (arrive at. until. to a certain point. about)
leisure)khoom
txog
o V (arrive at. come to) los txog awaken V (for a person to awaken)tsim
o V (to awaken someone)tsa
arrow N [xib] xub
away (V cast away. discard. leave. abandon) tseg
as (ADV. CONJ as. like. V be like. similar. the
o (V throw away)pov tseg
sarne) xws Ii
o (V be far away)deb
o CONJ(as _as)_xws li

o (V be as much/many as. equal to)npaum (Ii) ax N [rab] taus

o(V,be as. be in the sarne way. be according to.
follow after) raws Ii
 241

B bean N (beans, legumes, peas) [IUs, pJuav]taum

• N (long beans) [IUs]taum lag
baby N [IUs]mos liab, me nyuam mos liab • N (bean curd) taum hwv
• N (bean sprouts) [tus]taum pauv
• N (baby carrier) [daim]nyias (ev me nyuam)

babysit V (guard, watch over) zov bear N (animal) [IUs]dais

• V (bear, endure, as pain) nyiaj
• N (babysitter) [tus]neeg zov me nyuam

back N [lub](body) nraub qaum beard N [cov]fwj/hwj txwv

• N (back, top side of something) [lub] qaum beat V (beat, slap, whip) nplawm
• (V [go] back, return; ADV again) roy qab • V (beat, attack, fight, hit, play piano, strike,
• (V put back) coj mns cia type) ntaus
• (PREP in back of; behind, after; ADV in the • V (beat, collide) tsoo
back ) tom qab • V (beat, pound, grasp) tuav
• (pREP in the back of) tom sab rau qaum • V (beat someone in a game, win) yeej
• (PREP in back of, on the other side of, behind,
I outside) nraum beautiful (V be beautiful) zoo nkauj
• (V dress up beautifully) ua zam
bad (V be bad) tsis' zoo
• (V be bad, evil, ugly) phem because CON] vim (tias/yog), rau qhov
I bag N (bag, pocket, purse, sack) [lub]huab become V (become, change into) txia, h100v (los)
ua
bake V (bake, barbecue, roast, toast) ci • V (become/be a kind of worker or have a
balJ N [lub]pob, npas particular profession, do) ua _
• N (Hmong cloth New Year's ball) mov pob bed N (bed, bedroom) [lub] txaj
• (V to toss balls at Hmong New Year) pov pob
bedroom N [lub]kem tsev pw, chav pw, txaj (pw)
ballad N (traditional Hmong ballad) [zaj]kwv txhiaj
bee N [IUs]muv
bamboo N [IUs for single length]xyoob
• N (bamboo shoot) [IUs]ntsuag xyoob beef N nqaij nyug
• N (bamboo tray) [lub]vab • N (ground beef) nqaij nyug zom

banana N [lub]txiv tsawb beer N npias

barbecue V (barbecue, bake, roast, toast) ci before PREP (before in time or location) tom ntej
• ADV (before, ahead, first, preceding) ua ntej
bargain V hias nqi/nqe • ADV (before, some time ago) thaum ub
• V (bargain, argue a price) nyom nqi/nqe
beg V (beg, ask for, 'please') thov
bark N (tree) [daim] tawv ntoo
• V (dog) tsem begin V pib, chiv, chiv keeb
• N (beginner) [tus]nyuam qhuav pib
basin N (basin, trough, tub) [lub]dab • N (beginning) chiv thawj, chiv keeb
basket N [lub]tawb behind PREP (behind, after, in back of) tom qab
• N (round basket) [lub]pOb tawb • PREP (behind, in the back of) tum sab rau qaum
• N (basket for back) [lub]kawm • PREP (behind, in back of, on the other side,
bat N (animal) [IUs]puav outside) nraum
• ADV (behind, on the other side, outside) nraud
bathe V da dej • N (one's behind, buttocks) [lub]pob/caj tw,
bathroom N [lub]tsev dej, chav da dej, (L) hoob ntsag
nab belief N (beliefs, customs, ways, laws) [txoj]key
em
bathtub N (bathtub, sink, tub) [lub]dab dej
believe V ntseeg
be V (aJI forms of be) yog
• V (be at, stay, live) nyob belJ N [lub] tswb
• V (be/become a kind of worker or have a
particular profession) ua_ belong,V (lit be_ 's ) yog_1i
,
• V (there is/are) muaj
• V (be _ years old) muaj _ xyoo lawm
 242

• (V blow on a leaf to call to people over a long

below PREP (below, under)bauv qab, nram qab distance) tshuab nplooj
• PREP (down below, below in a text) nram
• ADV (downbelow)nrad blue (V be blue) (xim) xiav
• (V be blue, used only of sky; otherwise = green)
belt N [txoj] siv ntsuab
• N (variegated band around Hmong women's head • (Blue/Green Hmong) Hmoob ntsuab, Hmoob
wrap) [txoj] siv ceeb leeg
• N (Hmong belt of silver money) [txoj] hlab • N (the color blue) xim xiav
nyiaj
• (V wear, put on, wrap around waist for belt, sash board N (woodeu board) [daim] txiag
) sia
boat N (boat, sbip) [lub] ukoj
bench N(bench, seat, chair) [lub] rooj zaum
body N [lub] cev
best (V be the best) zoo tsbaj (plaws), zoo kawg,
boil V (be boiling, bubble up) npau
zoo kawg nkaus
• (boil something in liquid) bau
better (V be better) zoo dua, zoo tshaj
bone N [!Us] pob txha
between PREP (between, in the middle, in the
bookNpbau ntawv
center) (bauv) nruab nrab
bookcase N [lub] txee rau ntawv
bicycle N [lub] nees zab, tsheb kauj
. vab, (L) luv
I tees, Inv thij boot N (boot, shoe) [txhais] khau

I
• (a pair of shoes) nkawm khau
big (V be big) loj
• (V wear, put on boots, gloves, leg wrappings,
,
bird N [IUs] noog shoes, socks) rau
I

I
birth (V for humans to give birth, raise, feed and border N (country) [!Us] (ciaj) ciam te
care for) yug
born (V be born) xeeb, yug (los/ua)
• (V for anim3ls to give birth) xya
borrow V qev/qiv
birthday N [lub] hnub yug
• V (borro w, receive) txais
bit Q (a little bit, small amount) nisis
boss N !Us saib xyuas bauj Iwm
• (ADV a little bit) me ntsis
• Q (a little bit of something) ib nyag qhov both Q (of things) ob yam
• ADV (a little bit of time, a moment) ib pliag • Q (of people) ob leeg
• ADV (not a bit, not at all) hlo Ii • (pRO they two) ukawd
bite V tom bother V (bother, make trouble for someone) thab
• (bother, annoy, cause trouble for) siv
bitter (V be bitter) iab
bottle N [lub] fwj/hwj
black (V be black) (xim) dub
• N (the color black) xim dnb bottomN (of things) qhov bauv qab
• N (body) [lub] pob/caj tw, n�ag
blackboard N [daim] (L) kab das
blanket N [daim] pam, pam vov bow N (cross bow) [rab] hneev

bleed V ntshav los, ntsbav tawm bowl N [lub]!ais

• N (small rice bowl) [lub] ntim
blind (V be hJind) dig muag
box N [lub] thawv
block N (city block) [lub] (E) nplov • N (cardboard [paper] box) [lub] thawv ntawv
• (V block street, way) tav key
boy N (boy, son) [!Us] tub
blond (V be blond/e, yellow) (xim) daj • N(boyfriend, young man) hluas nraug
blood N ntsbav bra N [lub] kbiab mis
blouse N [lub] tsho poj niam bracelet N [txoj] saw caj npab (tes), xauv tes
• N (solid Hmong bracelet) [lub] kauj toog npab,
blow V (blow air from mouth, play a wind
tooj npab
instrument) tshuab
• (V wear, put on bracelet, earrings, eyeglasses,
necklace, watch) eoj
 243

brain N [thooj] paj blwb buffalo N (water buffalo) [!us] twm

branch N (of a tree) [!us] ceg bug N [!us] kab
oN (different kinds of bugs) kab utsaum
brave (V be brave, be strong) siab loj, siab tawv,
siab loj siab tawv, siab tuab build V (construct, make) txua
o V (make, do) ua
bread N mov ci, mov mog, (L) qhaub cib
o V (build something between two points) tuam
break V (break, break up, shatter) tawg o V (build cities, roads) rhawv
o V (break in two, break off) lov o V (build a fire) rauv
• V (be broken in two, broken off) dam
building N [lub] tsev (loj)
• V (break apart, to part) tu
o V (break down, be broken down, not working) bull N (bull, cow) [!us] nyuj
puas o N (older male) [tus] txiv nyuj

o V (break off, broken off) nlais oN (younger male) [tus] heev nyuj, phaw nyuj
o V (break/pinch off) npaws
bunch (CLF bunch, cluster of fruit) tauv, ib tau
o V (break a law) txhaum
o (CLF group, some, plural marker) coy
o V (break a promise, tear down) rhuav
o (Q bunch, some) ib co
o (V be broken, ruined, useless) piam .
o (CLF bunch for bananas) thij
o V (take a break, rest, relax) so
o (CLFbunch, bundle) re

breakfast N pluas tshais o (CLF one bunch, bundle) ib res

o V noj tshais
Burma N Phaj mab teb
breast N [lub] mis
Burmese (V be Burmese) Phaj mab
breath N (breath, air, gas) pa oN (Burmese language) Ius Phaj mab
o (a deep breath) ib pa loj loj oN (Burmese person) [!us] neeg Phaj mab
o (take a breath) ua ib pa
burn V (be burning, burned, hot) kub
o (hold the breath) pem pa
o V·(burn something) blawv
o (be outl short of breath) txog txog siav
bury V (bury a body) los
breathe V ua pa
o V (bury a person, tum over earth, cultivate) faus
bride N (girl) [!us] ntxhais o V (bury something in the ground) log
oN (daughter-in-law) nyab
bus N [lub] tsheb ntiav loj, (E) npav
bridegroom N (bridegroom, groom) nraug vauv oN (bus station) [lub] chaw nres tsheb ntiav loj
• N (son-in-law) [!us] vauv • N (bus stop) [lub] chaw tos luv npav, chaw tos
tsheb ntiav loj
bridge N [!us] choj
business N [txoj] key ua lag (ua) luam
bright (V be bright, shine) ci
o (V do business, do trade) ua lag ua luam
• (Y be smart) ntse
busy (Y be busy, not be free, not at leisure) tsis
bring V nqa + los/tuaj/mus
(tau) khoom, muaj num ntau
o V (bring along) coj los
but CON] tiam sis, tab sis
broccoli N [lub] zaub paj ntsuab
butcher V (kill _ to eat) tua _ noj
broom N [rab] khaub ruab
• N [tus] neeg tua tsiaj
brother N [!us] (male's older brother) tij laug
butterfly N [tus] npauj npaim
• N (male's younger brother) kwv
oN (female's older or younger brother) nus buttocks N [lub] pob/caj tw, ntsag
oN (brother-in-law, uncle = mother's brother) dab
button N [lub] (me nyuam) khawm
laug
o VkhaWS
brown (YIN be brown, the color brown) xim kas fes
buy V muas
brush V txhuam o V (buy, get) yuav

o (brush teeth) txhuam hniav

by PREP (by, near) ze ntawd, los utawm
oN [rab] txhuam
o PREP (by doing) los ntawm
bucket N [lub] thoob
 244

c cause V (cause, bring into effect,teWaskiorder to do)

kom,ua kom
cab N (taxicab)[lub] tsheb tav xis celebrate V (idiom: celebrate Hmong New Year) noj
(tsiab)peb caug
cabbage N [lub] zaub qhwv
cent N (cent, penny) [lub] xees
cake N (Hmong New Year's rice cake ) [lub] ncuav
center N (center,heart of) [lub] (hauv) plawv
call V hu
• (N middle,PREP in the middle) nruab nrab
• V (be called,name, to name) hu ua
• V (calion the phone) hu xov tooj,hu tes les century N [lub] tiam neej
foos
ceremony N [txoj] kab ke
camera N [lub] yees duab,(L)khoob thais duab
chair N [lub] rooj zaum
can V (can, able as acquired ability, know how to) .
txawj chalk N [tus] hmoov sib,cwj mem av dawb
• V (can, able as situational,external possibility) chalkboard N [daim] (L)kab das
tau
• V (can,able as physical,internal ability, chance N (time) [lub] sij hawm
resources)taus • N (fate,fortune) [txoj] hmoov (hmoo when used
with txoj)
can N (container) [lub] kos poos
• (N canned foods) kaub poom zaub change V (change, exchange, trade) pauv, hloov
• V (change one's mind,.change of heart) hloov
candle N [los] roj ntses, tswm ciab, roj ntses siab
car N [lub] tsheb, (L) luv (fais) • N (money returned to customer) nyiaj ntxiv

card N [daim] menyuam ntawv txhav chapter N tshooj, toom

• N (playing card)[daim] phaib . chase V (chase, catch)caum
care V (care for, take care of)to • V (chase after) raws,raws khiav
• (don't care about) tsis quav ntsej chat V !ham
careful (V be careful,ADV carefully) ceev faj,maj • V (chat together,converse, discuss)sib !ham
mam cheap (V be cheap) pheej yig
careless 01 be careless) luam thuam,tsis saib cheat V tsis ncaj,(L) khib lav
xyuas, tsis to
cheek N [lub] plhu
carpenter N [los] kws ua vaj tse
cheerful V (be cheerful)ua kom zoo siab
carpet N [daim] ntaub pua tsev
chest N (body) [lub] hauv siab
carrot N [los] ntug �j, zaub ntug hauv pans
chick N [tus] me nyuam qaib.
carry V (carry in hand)nqa
• (carry on back,usually children)ev chicken N (animal)[los] qaib
• (carry on back, usually things)ris • N (meat) nqaij qaib
• (carry over shoulder) kwv • N (hen) [los] poj qaib
• N (chicken coop/roost) cooj
case (CONI in that case)mam Ii
child N [los] me nyuam
casb N (money) nyiaj
chin N [lub] puab tsaig
cashier N [los] neeg sau nyiaj, neeg khaws nyiaj
China N [lub] Suav teb, Teb chaws Suav,Tuam
cat N [IUs] miv tshoj teb, Tsoob kuj
catch V (catch,chase)caum Chinese (V be Chinese)Suav
• V (catch, capture,arrest)ntes • (N Chinese language)Ius Suav
• V (catch a ball,receive)txais
• (N Chinese person) [los] neeg Suav
cattle N [cov] nyuj twm chocolate N tshas kos las
. cauliflower N [lub] zaub paj choice N [txoj] kev xaiv
 245

choose N xaiv coconut N [lub] Wv plaws poom

• [lub] (L)Wv may poj
chop V (chop up, cut fine) tsuav
• V (chop, cut as firewood, hair) Wav coffee N kay fes, (dej)kas fes

chopstick N [rab]rawg coin N [lub] (nyiaj) npib, npib nyiaj

• (CLF pair ot) txwm
cold (Vbe cold for weather, person)no
church N (place) [lub] tsev teev ntuj • (V be cold for liquids, meat, wind)Was
• (V bave a cold) mob khaub thoas
cigarette N [tus] luam yeeb
• (V light _ ) hlawv collar N [lub]caj daj tshos
• (V put out _ ) tua
collect V(gather)san
• (V smoke , drink) baus
• V(collect somethiug flowing) cug
_

cilantro N (cilantro, coriander leaves, Chinese

college N [lub] tsev kawm ntawv theem siab
parsley) zaub txhwb
collide V(sib) tsoo
circle N. [lub] voj
color N (L) xim, kob
citizenship N (citizenship, nationality, etbnicity,
of another surname)haiv neeg comb V(hair) ntsis
• N (for hair) [lub] zuag
city N (large city) [lub] moog
• N (small city, town, village) [lub] zos come V(come back to where one belongs or is
from)tuaj
clan N [lub] (clan, surname)xeem
• V(come to place not where one is from) los
classroom N [lub] cbav kawm ntawv • V(invitation to come into one's home) los tsev
os
I clean (V be clean, not dirty) huv
• V (to clean) tu kom huv
• V(come into, enter) nkag los
• V(come/be from _ ) tuaj _ tuaj
• (V be clear of extraneous matter, smooth. level) • V(come out) tawm los
d!
I clear (V be clear, as of ideas, hearing, sight) meej
• V(come out from) tawm bauv los

• V(come back) roy qab los

• (Vbe clear, fresh, as water) ntshiab
comfort V(comfort, console) nplij
I clerk N (salesperson) [tus] neeg muag khoom comfortable (Vbe comfortable to body) zoo nyob
clever (V be clever, sharp)ntse • (for a person to be comfortable, feel well) xis
nyob
I climb Vnce
common (V be common) zoo sib xws, hom niaj
clock N [lub] teev, (L) moos hnub ua
I close V (close, close up, arrest, be closed, shut in)
kaw
Commnnlsm N (txoj) key cai koom tshas/pheej
Commnnist (V be Communist) koom tshas
close (Vbe close to, near) ze • (V be Red)liab
I closet N [lub]txee dai khaub ncaws company N (business) [lub] tsev ua khoom ub no
cloth N [daim] ntaub compare V (sib) piv, ua piv txwv
I • N (traditional Hmong "flower cloth," pandau)paj
ntaub comparison N [zaj]piv txwv

clothes N [cev]khaub ncaws, ris tsho compete V(with someone) sib twv
I cloud N [tauv] huab complain V(complain, murmur, scold)yws

cloudy (Vbe cloudy)pos huab

I coast N [lub] ntug dej hiav txwv
coat N (winter coat) [lub] tsho tiv no
• N (raincoat) tsho tiv nag
• N (sport coat) tsho loj
cockroach N [tus]laum
I

I
246

o V(correct/fix something)kho kom raug, pab

complete V(fInish action _ , do/be done kho
completely)_ las (Iawm)
o V(fInish with result that something is ready) ua cost V (cost a price) raug nqi/nqe
tiav o (How much does it cost?)Raug nqi/nqe pes
o V(can't complete something) ua tsis tsheej tsawg
o (V be completed) (ua ) las, tas lawm, tag, tiav, oN(price)[1Us]nqi/nqe
ua tsheej lawm
cotton N (substance) paj, rwb
o (V be whole) txhij, (txhij) txhua
o N (cloth) ntaub pag
o (ADVcompleted, fInished) lawm
o (V pre-verbal auxiliary expresses couch N [lub] rooj (zaum) ntev
completionlattaimnent of the action of the verb)
tau cough V hnoos
o (ADV completely, intensely, all) Ias/g mho could V (can _ in future) yuav _tau
o (ADV completely) thoob plaws, yam puv txaus o (ADVas in something CQuld/will happen soon if

nkaus something is not done soon) nyob tsam

o (ADVas in something could happen, maybe) tej
concern (Vbe concerned, regret) khuv xim
zaum + SUBJECT ho + V
concerning (pREP about) hais txog
count V snav
confused (Vbe confused, mind not clear) siab fab
country N (nation) [lub] teb chaws
connect V(connect, join together, be physically o N (rural, fIeld)[daim] teb, tiaj

connected to something)txuas
couple N (pair)nkawm
conquer V(conquer, win)yeej o N (poetic: young couple) nkauj maug

consequently ADV(consequently, also, moreover, court N (of law)[lub] tsev hais plaub (ntug)
therefore)kuj
o ADV(consequently, thereupon, therefore, then,
cousin N [IUs](male cousin of different surname)
npawg
after that) txawm
o N (fernale cousin of differeut surname, as called
o ADV (consequently, so, so then, therefore, thus,

thereby)thiaj (Ii) by male) muam npaws

o N (male cousin as called by female) yaum dab
constipated (V be constipated)cam quay o N (female cousin as called by female, sister) viv
neaus
contain V(have)muaj
cover V (cover as to hide) npog
continually ADV (constantly, always) pheej
o V (cover up/over, as with a hand) khwb
o (neverending) las mus Ii
o V(cover an openiug with a fInger, hand) pos
o (all the time) txhia hnub txhua hmo
o V(cover from above as shelter) roos
continue V ntxiv mus o V(cover [over], roof over) vov

o V(cover with a blanket) vov pam

contraceptives N khoom ua kom tsis txhob xeeb
o N [daim]npog
tub, khoom ua kom Isis txhob muaj me nyuam
cow N [IUs] nyuj
cook V ua mov noj, ua _noj, ua noj ua haus
• (V be cooked, ripe) siav crab N (animal) [IUs] raub ris, roob ris
o N (meat) nqaij raub ris, nqaij roob ris
cool (V be cool, cold, as for liqnids, meat, wind)
txias craftsman N (craftsperson, expert)[IUs] kws
cooperate V (do with, do together)mog ua, sib crash V(crash from a collision) 1800 ua kom tawg
koom na o V(airplane falling)poob
copy V (copy, photocopy, press, print, xerox) luam crawl V(crawl, go underneath, enter)nkag
• V(copy a cassette tape) theej
crazy (Vbe crazy)vwm
corn N [lub] pob kws
create V tsim, kwv yees 'ua
corner N [lub] (ceg)kaum, kaum ke y
crocodile N [IUs] khej
correct (V be correct, be, exist) yog
o (V be correct) yog lawm lauj, thwj
crop(s) N qoob 100
I 247

I cross V bIa deaf (V be deaf) lag ntseg

• V (cross over, pass [through/by], surpass,
dear (V salutation in a letter) nco qab, nco txog,
I exceed)dhau
nyobzoo
crossbow N [rab] bneev • (N loved one) tusbIub
crossroad N (txoj) key tshuam death N [txoj] kev/qhov tuag, key ploj (kev) tuag
I crowd N neeg nyob coob ua ke deceive V (deceive, lie, cheat) dag
• V (deceive, entice) ntxias
cruel (V be cruel) siab phem, siab txia ntshav
I cry V quaj
December N [lub] kaum ob bIis ntuj
• V (cry out) qw decide V txiav txim (siab), txiav siab
I • V (cry out, call, sing) hu • V (choose) xaiv
cucumber N [lub] dib decision N [txoj] key txiav (txim) siab
cultivate V (tum over soil, bury) faus decrease V tsawg zus
I • V (farm) ua teb
deep (V be deep) tob
cup N [lub] khob
deer N [tus] muas Iwj
I cure V (cure, heal someone, fix, repair) kho • N (barking deer) [tus] kauv
currently (ADV now/still happening) sam sim defecate V tso quay

I curtain N [daim] ntaub (npog) qhov rai defend V (defend, obscllre the view, protect, shelter)
thaiv
custom N (law, rule, custom) [txoj] cai, key cai
delay V (lit. inconvenience) say tsam
I cut V (cut open, do surgery, operate) phais
• V (cut with slicing motion, slice) suam, bIais
• V (lit. make slow) ua kom qeeb

• V (cut hair, wood into pieces) txiav delicious (V be delicious) qab

I • V (cut into pieces) txhoov
• V (cut up, chop) tsuav dentist N [tus] kws kho hniav
• V (cut/chop down a tree, wood) ntov deny V tsis kam txais

I departnre N [txoj] key tawm mus taug key

D depend V (for a situation to depend on someone, be
up to) nyob ntawm, xij peem
I • V (be dependent on, rely on) Yam khom
daily ADV (every day) niajbnub
deposit N (bank) nyiaj tso ua ntej
damage N [txoj] key puas
I • V ua puas depressed (V be depressed, sad, worried) tu siab
dance V (L) ua las voos descendant N (progeny) xeeb ntxwv, xeeb leej

I dark (V be dark) tsaus describe V piav (qhia txog)

• (V be nighttime) tsaus ntuj • (N description) [txoj] key piav qhia txog

• (V be darker, blacker) dub dua

deserve V ntxim
I date N (calendar) [lub]bnub tim, (L) vas nthib
desk N (furniture) [lub] rooj sau ntawv
daughter N [tus] (me nyuam) ntxhais
dessert N (sweets) khoom qab zib
I • N (daughter-in-law) [tus] nyab
destroy V (ruin) ua kom puas
dawn N (daylight) [lub] kaj ntug
• V (dismantle and throw away) rhuav pov tseg
• N (early dawn) [lub] kaj ntug txoog
(tas)
I day N (day, sun) [lub]bnub
develop V (photography) ntxuav duab
• (ADV day before yesterday) bnubbnub
• (ADV day after tomorrow) nag kis, neeg kis diarrhea N (mob) zawv plab, thoj plab, raws plab
I • (ADV daytime, during the day, middle of the day)
dictionary N phau ntawv txhais Ius
nruabbnub
die V tuag
dead (V be dead) tuag (lawm)
I

I
248

different (V bedifferent) txawv do V (do, act, make, produce) ua

• Q (lit. other, another, a second, next) Iwm
doctor N [lus] kws kho mob
difficult (V be difficult) nyuaj
dog N [lus] dev, aub
dig V (dig, scratch out, hoc) khawb
dollar N dos las, daus las
• V (dig out, hoc out) nthua
domestic (V be domestic, of animals) nyeg
dime N [lub] npib kaum xee
done (V bedone, ftnished, completed) tag
dinner N pluas hmo
don't (ADV general NEG) tsis
direction N (side) sab
• (ADV NEG for commands, uucertainty) (tsis)
directly (ADV straight) ncaj nraim txhob

dirt N (dirt, earth, floor, grouud, soil) av door N [lub] qhov rooj
• N (dirt on uuwashed skin) kauv
down PREP (down, down to, downhill) nram
dirty (V be dirty) 10 10 av, 10 phem • (ADV down, down to)nrad
• (PREP down below, uuder) hauv qab
disagree V tsis sib xeem
downstairs ADV theem hauv qab
disappear V ploj
·( PREP downstairs from) sab hauv

disappointed (V be disappointed) poob siab

downtown N [lub] plawv zos/nroog
discount N [txoj] key luv nqi/nqe
drag V luag
• V (lower a price) luv nqi/nqe
dragon N [lus] zaj
discourage V tsus
• (V bediscouraged) tsis muaj siab draw V (a picture) sau duab
• (V bediscouraged, distressed) poob siab
drawer N [daim] rub tawm
discover V nrhiav pam
dream (N) [zaj] npau suaV
discuss V (sib) sab laj •V ua npau suav
• V (discuss, chat, converse) sib !ham
dress N [lub] cev tiab
disease N [lus] kab mob, [txoj] key mob key nkees • N (dress, skirt) [daim] tiab
• V(dress up, dress beautifully) ua zam
disgusting (V bedisgusting) qias neeg, vuab
• V (get dressed, wear clothes) hnav khaub ncaws,
tshuab
hnav ris tsho
dish N (plate) [lub] phaj
drink V (drink, smoke, as cigarettes) hans
• (N dishes including all eating uteusi1s) tais diav
• (N dish towel) [daim] ntaub so tais diav drive V (vehicle) tsav
·N (driver) lus tsav
dishonest (V bedishonest) siab nkhaus
drop V (let drop) ua poob
dislike V tsis nyiam
• V (for someone, something to drop, fall) poob
disobedient (V bedisobedient) tawv ncauj, tsis ris • (Ndrop of liquid) tee
siab
drug N (drug, medicine) tshuaj
dissatisfied (V be displeased) xu siab
drugstore N [lub] tsev thov tshuaj
.(V dislike) tsis nyiam
drunk (V bedruuk) qaug cawv
distant (V befar) deb
dry V (be dry, arid) qhuav
divide V (distribute) faib
• V (dry by the ftre) txhiab
• V (divide, separate from, divorce) ncaim
• V (cause to dry in the sun, in a clothes dryer)
• V (put a portion aside) qee
ziab
divorce N [txoj] key sib nrauj
• V nrauj, ncaim
dryer N (clothes) [lub] tshuab ziab khaub ncaws
duck N [lus] os
dizzy (V bedizzy) daj muag, nraug zeeg muag, qhov
muag kiv dull (V be dull, not sharp) npub
 249

dumb (V be unintelligent, stupid) ruam, siab ruam eggplant N l1ub] Iws

during ADV (during, [time] when) thaum eight Q yim
dusk N tsaus ntuj zuag, tsans zem zuag eighteen Q kaum yim
• N (4-6 PM) yuav/yav!sans ntuj
eighteenth (V be eighteenth) thib kawn ib
I dust N plua tshuav, hmoov
eighth (V be eighth) thib yim
dusty (V be dusty, dirty) paug plua tshauv (cho cho),
eightieth (V be eightieth) thib yim caum
cho pa av, muaj plua plav
I eighty Q yim caum
elbow N l1ub] luj tshib
E
I elder (V be older/oldest in a family) hlob
• (N elders) tej laus
each Q (each, every) niaj
• Q (each, every, all) txhua, txhia elect V xaiv tsa
I • (eachlevery day) niaj hnub • V (lit. choose) xaiv
• (eachlevery time) txhiazaus electricity N (L) fais fab, hluav taws xob
• (eachlevery year) txhuaib xyoo

I • (each other, reciprocal sense) sib/sis elementary (N elementary school) l1ub] tsev kawm
• (each _ own) nyias_nyias ntawv theem pib

eager (V be eager, want to do) xav ua elephant N [tus] ntxhw

I eagle N [tus] day eleven Q kaum ib
ear N l1ub] pob ntseg eleventh (V be eleventh) thib kaum ib
I • N (ear drops) tshuaj mob pob ntseg
elope V kbiav raws Iwm IUs mns
• N (ear of com) lub pob kws
• (V have an earache) mob ntseg embarrassed (V be embarrassed, shy, ashamed) txaj
I early ADV ntxov
muag
embrace V puag
earn V (money) tau nyiaj
I earring N l1ub] qhws ntsej, qhws pob ntseg, kauj
embroider V ua paj ntaub
plua embroidery N (piece of embroidery, lImong "flower
• V (wear, put on earrings, bracelet, eyeglasses, cloth,"pandau) [daim] paj ntaub
I necklace, watch) coj
emergency N (affair, matter, things, business) xwm
earth N (world) l1ub] ntiaj teb
• N (earth, dirt, floor, ground, soil) av employ V (hire) ntiav
I east N (name of direction) sab huub tuaj,. sab huub empty V (pour out) nchuav
tawm • (V be empty, dry, having nothing) qhuav nquas
• (V be fmished, gone) las
I easy (V be easy) yooj yim
encourage V (encourage, urge, persuade) yawn
eat V noj
end (N end of, extremity, V finish, be final) kawg
I
• (eat a meal) noj mov
• (N time) yay kawg/las
eclipse N (moon) dab noj hlis • (V be ended) tag/kawg lawm, tas,

• (ADV ended, complete, superlative degree) kawg

edema (V have edema) nphob vog
I edge N (shore of a body of water) ntug
nkaus
• (ADV at/in the end, finally) thaum kawg
• N (edge of a clift) npoo
enemy N [IUs] yeeb ncuab
I • N (edge of a bladed instnunent, tooth) hniav
energetic (V be not tired) nquag
effective (V be effective, meet the need) ntxim
energetically (V use/have strength) siv zog, muaj
egg N l1ub] qe
I • (N egg shell) [daim] plhaub qe/qes
zog(qees)(zis)
• (N egg yolk ) l1ub] nkaub qes daj, nkaub qe energy N l1ub] zog
• (N egg white) l1ub] hli qe
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engine N [lub] tshWlb tsheb everywhere ADVtxhua (txhua) qhov, txhua chaw,
qhov txhia qhov chaw
English (Vbe English) As kiv
• N (English langWlge) Ius As kiv evil N [txoj] key phem
• N (American English langWlge) Ius Mis kas • (Vbe evil) siab phem, phem
• (N English person) [lus] neeg As kiv
exact (Vbe exact) haum nkaus, txaus nkaus
enjoy V(have fun) yam 10m zem,lom zem
exactly ADV zoo tib yam nkaus,(zoo) nkaus Ii
enough V(be enough) txaus (lawm)
examine V xam
enroll V(emoll, register) saunpe cia
example N (example) [lus] piv txwv
• V(emoll, register, sign one's name) sau ope
• (for example) piv txwv
enter V nkag mus/los
exceed V(exceed, surpass, pass through/by, cross
entire Q (whole, complete, all, each, every) txhua over)dhau
• V(surpass, be more/surplus, add to) tshaj
entrance N [lub] qhov rooj nkag
excellent (Vbe excellent) zoo las zog
envelope N [lub] hnab ntawv
except (CON] but) tiam sis, tab sis
envious (Vbe envious) kbib siab
• (ADVexcept for, excepting) tsuas yog

environs N (neighborhood) (ib) cheebtsam • (Vexcepting, be lacking) tshuav

envy Vkhib exchange V sib pauv, sib hloov

• V(exchange, change, trade) pauv
equal (Vbe equal to each other) sib npaug (Ii)
• (Vbe equal to, as much/many as) npaum (Ii) excuse N [txoj] key tso siab
• (V'excuse me') thov txim
erase V(erase, brush, scrub) txhuam
• V(erase, wipe) so exist V(exist, be) yog
• (Vthere is/are) muaj
error N qhov yuam key
exit N [lub] qhov rooj tawm
escape V(escape, run out of/away from) kbiav tawm • Vtawm mus/los/tuaj
• V(escape,release, be released,be saved) dim,
kbiav dim expect V(want that) xav kom
Europe N Sab Aws lauv expensive (Vbe expensive) kim
even (Vbe smooth, level, clear of extraneous matter) expert N (expert, craftsperson) [Ius] kws
<h
explain V(explain, translate) txhais
• (ADVto express unexpected fact) twb
• V(explain,advise, inform, show,teach, tell)
• (CON] even if) tab (yog), tab txawm (tias) + .
subordinate clause + los qhia
• V(explain,describe, tell a story,narrate) piav
• (CON] even though) txawm (yog/tias), txawm
yog li ntawd los explanation N [zaj] Ius piav
evening N (6-7 PM) tsaus ntuj zuag explode V(explode, shatter, break) tawg
• N (approximately 7 PM to 12 AM )
explore V(explore, look for, try to fmd) mhiav
(yav/thaumlcaij) tsaus ntuj
• V(explore,hunt for, search out) tshawb
.. N (night, nighttime) hmo ntuj, tav hmo
ever (Vto have ever done_) tau_ extend V(extend to, reach to) cuag

every Q (every,each)niaj extinguish V(a fue) tua hluav taws

• Q (every, all, each) txhua,txhia extra (Vbe extra,more,add to,make up what is
• (every/each day) niaj hnob lacking) noov
• (every/each time) txhiazaus • (Vbe remaining,left over) seem

• (every/each year) txhuaib xyoo

extract V(extract, pull out, as teeth) rho
everybody PRO (everyone) sawv daws,txhua leej
txhua lus eye N (body) [lub] qhov muag

everything PRO ib puas tsav yam, txhua tsav eyebrow N (eyebrow,eyelash) [cov] plaub muag
txhua yam
I 251

II eyeglasses N [lub] tsom qhov muag

• N (father-in-law)txiv, yawm txiv
• N (priest) [IUs] txiv plig
• (V put on, wear eyeglasses, bracelet, earrings,
II necklace,watch)coj fault N qhov yuam key
eyelashes N (eyelash,eyebrow) [coy] plaub muag favor N [lub] txiaj ntsim, txiaj ntsha txiaj ntsim
eyelid N [daim] tawv muag fear V(be afraid. be fearful of something)ntshai
fearful (Vbe fearful, timid)siab nyias

F feather N [IUs] plaub noog

February N [lub] ob h1is ntuj
face N (person) [lub] ntsej muag feed V pub (rau)
I • N (mountain) phab toj
• (V lose face) poob phlus, poob ntsej muag feel V(feel with hands,handle,touch)kov
• (V have face, respect, honor)muaj phlus,poob • V(feel, grope,take hold of,use)xuas
• V(feel,sense,hear)hnov
I ntsej muag
• V (think) xav tias
factory N [lub] tsev ua khoom
feeling N [!xoj] key xav
fail V (fail, fall) poob
I • (not able to compete,guess) twv tsis tau female N (human) [IUs] poj niarn
• N (for humaus,birds)poj
fair N (market) tsev khw teem caij • N (for animals)maum
I • (V be fair,just) ua ncaj
fence N (!xoj)laj kab
fake (Vbe fake,false,counterfeit)cuav
fever N [IUs] npaws
fall V (fall, fail)poob
I • V (be shed,shaken off, leaves falling)zeeg
• (V have a fever)ua npaws,lub cev kub, kub ib
O!
• V (fall down,stumble)ntog
• (V rain falling,rain) los nag few Q (a few,some)ib co
I • N (autumn) [lub] caij (ntuj)nplooj (ntoos)zeeg • Q (a few,a couple)ob peb
• Q (few, a little, not muchlmany) tsawg
false (Vbe false,fake, counterfeit)cuav • Q (very fewllittle)tsawg tsawg Ii
• (V be untrue) tsis yog
I • (V be false,be a lie)dag field N (flat) [lub] tiaj
• N (rolling,hilly) [daim] teb
family N (family,household)tsev neeg • N (field of rice paddies)[daim] liaj
I famous (V be famous) muaj koob npe • N (fields,farm)liaj teb
• N (broad level area as for playing field, airfield)
fan N (electric) [lub] (tshuab)kiv cua [lub] !shav

I • N (non-mechanical hand fan)[rab] ntxuam

fifteen Q kaum tsib
far (Vbe far)deb
• (ADVfar down)puagmad I
fifteenth (V be fifteenth) thib kaum tsib
I • (ADVfar over)pnag saud
• (ADV far over there) tom ub
fifth (V be fifth)thib !sib

• (ADV way far over there)puag tom ub fiftieth (V be fIftieth) thib tsib caug

I farm N liaj teb fifty Q tsib caug

• V ua liaj ua teb fight V (for animals do)sib tog
farmer N [tus] neeg ua liaj teb • V (for people, physically) sib ntaus
I farther ADVdeb dua
• V (fight in resistance,resist)tiv
• V (fight in war)sib ntaus sib tua
fastADV ceev • V(make war)ua rog
I fat N (fat,gas, gasoline, grease,oil) roj
• (argue)sib ceg

• (V be obese [impolite])rog fill V (add until full)ntxiv rau kom puv

• (fill in a hole)txhub
fate N (destiny, luck) [txoj] hmoov • (fill up a vehicle with gas)sam roj
father N [usually used without eLF or with leej] • (fill, plug up, strangle, as smoke ftlling the sky)
laum
txiv
252

film N (camera) duab ua zog flee V (run away. escape) khiav tawm
• V(flee from war) khiav tsov khiav rog
final rv be final. ended. finish. N end of. extremity)
kawg float V ntab (saum dej)
.
• ADV (fmally. at/in the end) thaum kawg
floor N (floor surface in a house) npoo tsev
find V ([try to] fmd. look for) nrhiav • N (floor. dirt, earth. ground. soil) av
• V (succeed in fmding) nrhiav tau • (PREP on the floor. ground) hauv av
• V (fmd out) nrhiav. saib • (N story of a building. layer. level. part) theem
fine rv be soft and delicate) mos flour N hmoov nplej
.
• rv be thin) nyias fl ow V ntws
• V (impose a fine) nplua
flower N [lub] paj
finger N [tus] ntiv tes
• N (fingernail) [tus] rau tes flu rv have the flu) ua daus no
• N (fmgertip) [lub] taub teg fI�te N [lub] raj
finish V (finish off. deal with completely) khees
fly V (bird. aiIplane) ya
• V (finish. be final. ended. N end of. extremity)
• V (fly around. hover) ya mus ya los
kawg
• V (passenger in an airplane) caij day hlau
• rv be finished. completed. done) tas (lawm). tag
• rv be fmished. completed. ready) tiav • V (to pilot a plane. drive) tsav
• N (insect) [IUs] yoov
fire N [cub] hluav taws • N (housefly) [tus] yoov mos ntsuab
• V (set fire to) hlawv
• V (fire a gun. shoot a gun. bow and arrow. kill) fog N huab
tua • N (cloud. fog) pos huab
• V (fue from ajob. release. relinqnish) txo • (V be foggy) pos pos huab

fireplace N [lub] qhov �ub fold V tais

firewood N taws folk (N folk tale) [zajldab neeg

• N (bundle nf fttewood) tsuam taws follow V (follow somebody) lawv_qab
first rv be fust) thib/qhov ib • V (follow after) raws. raws _ qab
• (Q fmt. original) thawj • V (follow a path. follow along a stream) taug
• (ADV fmt of all) thawj qhov • V (follow a path. follow rules. practice) xyaum
• (ADV fust time) thawj zaug food N mov noj. zaub mov. khoom noj
• (ADV do something first. before) uas ntej
foot N [txhais] (ko) taw
fish N (animal) [tus] ntses
• N (meat) nqaij ntses for PREP (for someone. to) rau
• rv) nuv ntses • (V be for a period of time. get) tau ---
• (N fish sauce) (L) nab(m) pas. txuj 10m ntses forbid V txwv (txiv)
fit V (fit. be snitable) haum force N (force. energy. strength) [lub] zog
• V (fit. fit together) dhos • V (force someone to do) yuam
five Q tsib forehead N [lub] hauv pliaj
fi x V (fix. repair. cure. heal someone) kho foreign rv be foreign) pej kum. txawv teb chaws
• rv be fixed in place. steady; ADV fixedly.
intently) ntsoov forest N (forest, jungle) [lub] hay zoov
• N (forest. emphasis on trees) [lub] hay ntoo
flag N [tus for flag + pole. daim for flag itself] chij
forever ADV ib sim neej. ib txhis tsis kawg. tag ib
flashlight N [lub] teeb nyem sim
flat rv be flat. even. level. peaceful. still) tus forget V (not remember) tsis nco (qab)
• rv be flat. even. level. smooth) tiaj (tus)
forgive V zam txim
flatten V (flatten. shape with hands.
. form. mold)
puab fork N [rab] (diav) rawg

flea N [tus] dey mub

 253

• (ADV inlto/at the front) pem hauv ntej, tom ntej

form V (fonn, shape with hands, mold, flatten) puab
• V (create) tsim frost N (fro�t, ice, snow) te
former (V be fonner, old [tbings], original) qub frown V hnya
formerly ADV Ii qub fruit N [lub] txiv (ntoo)
fortunate (V be fortunate, happy, glad) zoo siab fry V (fry with or without fat, stir fry) kib
• (V have luck) muaj bmoo .V (toss and fry, scramble with fat) nthee
fortnne N (fortune, luck, fate, destiny) [txoj] bmoov fuel N roj (ej xas)
fortieth (V be fortieth) tbib plaub caug full (V be full, filled) puv
• (V be full, satisfied when eating) tsau (plab)
forty Q plaub caug
fnn N [txoj] key 10m zem
forward ADV (forward, ahead, before) tom ntej • (V be/have fun) 10m zem
four Q plaub
funeral N [txoj] key pam tuag
fourteen Q kaum plaub • (N funeral songs) [zaj] txiv xaiv

fourteenth (V be fourteenth) tbib kaum plaub fnnny (V be funny) txaus luag, zoo luag

fourth (V be fourth) thib plaub fur N (fur, hair, feather) plaub

fox N [tus] bma furnitnre N (a piece of furuiture) [lub] rooj

• (N household furuiture) [lub] rooj tog txaj chaws
France N (lub) Fab kis teb, Teb chaws Fab kis
further (ADV more, extra, V add to) ntxiv
free (V be free from capture) dim
• (V be free of charge) dawb fnrthermore ADV tsis tas Ii ntawd
• (V be free, not busy, at leisure) kboom
future N [lub] neej yay tom ntej
• (V to free, let go) daws
• (V to free, abandon, allow, leave, let, permit,
place, put, release, relinquish) 180
G
freeze (freeze something) ua kom kbov
French (V be French) Fab kis gaiu V (get, attain) tau
• (N French language) Ius Fab kis • V (win) yeej
• (N French person) [tus] neeg Fab kis
game N (abstract sense) [txoj] key ua si
fresh (V be fresh, as fish, new) tshiab
• (V be fresh, clear, as water) ntshiab garage N (place to keep cars) [lub] chaw rau tsheb

Friday N [lub] Hnub rau, Hnub vas xuv garbage N (something to be thrown away) yam pov
tseg
friend N [tus] phooj ywg • (food-type garhage) qub zaub qub mov
friendly (V be friendly) raug (sib) zoo garden N [lub] vaj
frighten V ua kom poob siab ntshai garlic N [lub] qij
• V (frighten purposely, scare, intimidate) hem • (one clove) ib nplais qij
frightened (V be frightened, scared, worried) poob gas N (gas, fat, gasoline, grease, oil) roj
siab • N (natural gas) roj zeb ntsuam
frog N [tus] qav • N (gas station) [lub] chaw muag roj tsheb
• V (pass gas) 180 paus
from PREP los ntawm • V (have gas) nchi
• PREP (from, at) ntawm
• (V belcome from a place) tuaj _ tuaj gasoline N roj av, roj tsheb
• N (gasoline, fat, gas, grease, oil) roj
• (V come from a place as on a trip) los _ los
• (ADV from the beginning) txwm, thaum pib los gather V (gather, bring together) puav
• (ADV from now on) txij no mus • (V gather together/up, collect, harvest) sau
• (ADV _ from now) _ saum no
. _
• (V gather, pick up) khaws
front N (front surface) [lub] ntiag
 254

generous (V be generous) siab dawb, (siab loj) siab god N [tus] hnab tais ntuj
dav • N (Christian God) Vaj tswv

genital (N euphemism formalelfemale genital area, gold N (substance) (thooj) kub

genitals, groin) qhov chaw mos • (N color gold, V be gold in color) xim kub
gentle (V be gentle) mnag nteev gong N (gong, drum) [lub] nruas
• N (gong used in spirit rites) nruas neeb
get V (get, attaio) tau
• N (gong beaten at death) nruas tusg
• V (get, receive) txais
• V (get, obtaio, buy, marry) yuav good (V be good, ADV well) zoo
• V (get off/down, descend) nqis/nqes • (V be good-hearted, generous) siab zoo
• V (get on, board, ascend, go up, climb) nce . • (good buy, good deal) zoo nqi, zoo yuav
• V (get out, go out, go away, leave) tawm mus • (good luck) hmoov zoo
• V (get up, stand up, arise) sawv • (good news) xov zoo
• (good-byelsee you again) sib ntsib dna
ghost N (ghost, spirit of a dead person who returns
•• (good-bye to one leaving one's home and come
to trouble the living) xyw
again) mus ho tnaj os
gift N [lub] khoom pub cia saib dab mnag, khoom • (good-bye and take care) mus zoo
pub dawb, (txiaj ntsha) txiaj ntsim • (good-bye to one leaving one's home [and take
care]) mus (zoo) koj nawj
ginger N qhiav
goose N [tus] os gus
girl N [tus] ntxhais
• (N girlfriend of a male, young unmarried woman) gourd N [lub] (plbnaj) taub
hlnas nkauj
govern V (govern, rule [a country]) kay (teb chaws)
give V (take in hand, give, give with the hand, • V (govem, control, restrain, subdue) tswj
hand over) mnab
government N [tus] tseem fwv, (L) [lub] lay ihab
• V (give to) mnab rau
npas
• V (give expecting nothing in return, feed) pub
• V (give a ride to, transport) thauj governor N [tus] tswv xeev
• V (give birth) yug (tau/me nynam), tau me
nynam grade N (school grade, level) [lub] nqe
• (L) (school grade, room) [lub] hoob

glad (V be glad, happy, fortunate) zoo siab

gradually ADV zuj zus
glass N (drinking glass) [lub] khob
• N (glass substance, mirror) iav graduate V kawm (ntawv) tiav

glasses N (eyeglasses) [lub] tsom iav (qhov mnag), grain N (a grain, kerna1) ntsiav
• N (grain, seed) [lub] noob
tsom qhov mnag
• (V wear, put on eyeglasses, earrings, bracelet.
• N (grain as crop) noob qoob/loo, noob qoob
watch, necklace) coj (noob) 100

glove N[lub] hnab looj tes grammar N txuj ci xeem Ius, key cai ntawv
• (N a pair of) nkawm grandchild N [tus] xeeb ntxwv
• (V wear, put on gloves, boots, leg wrappings,
' granddaughter N [tus] ntxhais xeeb ntxwv
shoes, socks) rau
glutinous (N glutinous/sticky rice) mov nplaum grandfather N (father's father) [tus] yawg
• N (mother's father) [tus] yawm txiv
gnat N [tus] yoov qaib
grandmother N (father'S mother) [tus] pog
g o V mus, (L) pais • N (mother's mother) [tus] niam tais
• V (go around, encircle) ncig

• V (go away, go out, get out, leave) tawm mus

grandson N [tus] tub xeeb ntxwv
• V (go back) roy qab mus grape N [lub] txiv cawv
• V (go down, get dowU/off, descend) nqis/nqes
• (CLF for bunch, cluster of fruit) tauv
• V (go up, ascend, climb, get on, board) nee

grapefruit N [lub] txiv lws zoov

goal N (work) lnag hauj lwm
goat N [tus] tshis
I 255

I grasp V (grasp, hold in hand) tuav gunN [rab] phom

o V (take hold of, grasp, grope, feel) xuas
Guyana N Nkws yas teb
I o V (hold in the arms, embrace}puag
grass N [tsob] nyom
grasshopper N [tus] kooj H
I grateful (V for _ to be grateful to _ ) _ ris
_ txiaj hail N (hailstone) [lub] lawg
o V los lawg
I grave N [lub] (qhov) ntxa
hair N [txawj for a single hair, COY for mass of hair]
gray (N gray color; V be gray in color) xim txbo, plaub hau
I
xim dub dawb muag lias
halfQ (one) (ib) mab
grease N (grease, fat, gas, gasoline, oil) roj o Q (half of a piece of food, fruit) ib sab

o Q ([one] half of a vertical measurement) ntav, (ib

great (V be good, ADV well) zoo
I o (V be important) tseem ceeb heev nta)
o ADV (halfway) ib nta to
o (V be big) loj
ham N nqaij ncej qab, nqaij las ntsev
I green 0 (V be green, also used for sky) ntsuab
o N xim ntsuab hammer N [rab] rauj
o (Green/Blue Hmong) Hmoob Nstuab, Hmoob

Leeg hand N [txhais] tes

I o N (vegetable greens) zaub ntsuab o V (hand, lift, raise) cev

o V (hand out, distribute, divide) faib

grind (V) zom
handful N ib teg, ib (tau) tes
I grocery N (grocery store) [lub] tsev muag zaub mov
handkerchief N [daim] phuam so ntswg
groin N (euphemism formale/female genital area,
genitals, groin) qhov chaw mos handle N [tus] ko
I o V (handle with care) puag qe
ground N (ground, dirt, earth, floor, soil) [daim for o V (handle, feel with hands, touch) kov
surface sense] av
I o (on the ground/floor) hauv av handsome (V be handsome) zoo maug

group (eLF group, herd, flock) pab hang V (hang, hang up, carry baby hanging at chest)
o (eLF group, stack, pile) pawg dai
I o (eLF group, class, kind, bunch) COy o

o
V (die by hanging) dai tuag
V (hang, hang up, be caught/hung up on
o N (group, bunch, lots) yam coy
o (Q a group, some) ib co . something) khuam

I o (Q a group, class, some) tej o V (hang up the telephone) khwb xov tooj, khwb

tes les foos

grow V (for one to grow, grow up, be grown up, be
theelder/eldest) hlob happen V (appear) tshwm tuaj
I o V (grow as to put forth leaves or shoots) hlav happy (V be happy) zoo siab
o V (grow as to cultivate on a farm) ua .teb
o V (grow by planting, plant) cog hard (V be hard, tough, stiff, not soft, ADV do hard,
I guard V (guard, watch over) ZOV, saib xyuas
with force) tawv
o (V be difficult) nyuab
o N [tus] neeg zov qhov rooj o (V be hard-hearted, firm) nplooj siab tawv qhawv

I guava N [lub] (txiv) cuab thoj harvest V sau qoob

guess V kwv yees hat N [lub] kaus mom
o V (guess, compete, defy, taunt) twv o (put on; wear, carry on/over head for hat, head

I o N [txoj] key kwv yees

wrap, umbrella) ntoo
guest N [tus] qhua hate V ntxub

I guide V coj key have V (have, possess, there is/are) muaj

guilty (V be gni1ty) muaj txim (txbaum) o V (have to, must) yuav tsum, yuav tau

I
 256

V (hide oneself, recede into, withdraw

•
he PRO (he, him, OBI himself, she, OBI her, OBI soinething) nkaum
herself, it, OBI itself) nws
high (V be tall) siab .
head N (body) [Iub] taub hau • (V be high in tone or pitch) soob
• N (head of village) [IUs] hau zos • (N high school) [Iub] tsev kawm ntawv theem
• (N Hmong women's bead wrap) [daim] phuam nrab
headache (V have a headache) mob taub hau highway N [txoj] kev loj
heal V (heal somebody, cure, fix, repair) kho (kom) hill N [Iub] me nyuam roob
• V (for something to heal) nqawm • N (hills, mountains) toj roob
• V (be healed, have recovered) kho zoo lawm
h 1m PRO (him, OBI himself, he, OBI her, OBI
healer N (traditional Hmong) [tus] txiv neeb herself, she, it, OBI itself) nws
health N [txoj] kev noj qab nyob huv himself PRO (OBI himself, him, he, OBI herself,
healthy (V be healthy) tsis muaj mob OBI her, she, OBI itself, it) nws
• PRO (emphatic reflexive as in do by oneselffor
hear V (hear, sense, feel, smell) hnov all 3rd person singulars) nws tus kheej
heart N [Iub] plawv hip N [Iub] ntsag
heavy (V be heavy) hnyav hire V (give a job to) txais ua hauj Iwm
heel N (foot) [Iub] luj taws, pob taw his pass (his _ , her _ , its _ ) nws + CLF
helicopter N [Iub] dav h1au kiv tshuab for most nouns
• PRO (his, hers, its) nws Ii
hello (general greeting) nyob zoo
• (to someone coming to where one is) (koj) tuaj history N (zaj) liv xwm, hais lub neej dhau los
los h it V (hit, attack, beat, fight, play piano, strike,
• (reply to above) (kuv) tuaj os type) ntaus
• (to someone on way to someplace) koj mus dab • V (hit a target) raug
Isi/ab tsi? • V (for (a) car(s) to hit (each other), collide, crash)
help V pab (sib) tsoo
• N [txoj] kev pab Hmong (V be Hmong) Hmoob
hen N [tus] poj qaib • N (Hmong person) [tus] neeg Hmoob
• N (Hmong language) Ius Hmoob
her PRO (OBI her, OBI herself, she, him, OBI
himself, he, it, OBI itself ) nws hoe N Crab] h1au
• ross (for a1l 3rd person singulars) nws + CLF • V (hoe, scratch out, dig) khawb

for most nouns

hold V (hold in hand, grasp) tuav
herb N (herb, condiment, .pice) txuj 10m • V (hold hands) sib tuav tes
• V (hold, grasp, grope) xuas
herbal (N herbal medicine) tshuaj nroj • V (hold one's breath) npo pa
herd N (herd, flock, group) pab • V (hold within, contain) ntim tau

here N (this place) qhov no hole N [Iub] qhov (taub)

• ADV ntawm no, nod
• V (make a hole, pierce) tho qhov

hers PRO (hers, his, its) nws Ii holiday N hnub so hauj Iwm

herself PRO (OBI herself, OBI her, she, OBI hollow V (be hollow) khoob
himself, him, OBI itself, it) nws home N [Iub] vaj tse, chaw nyob
• PRO (emphatic reflexive as in do by oneselffor • N [Iub] (house) tsev
a1l 3rd person singulars) nws IUs kheej • V (go home) mus tsev
hiccough V ua ntsos homesick (V be homesick for one's own country)
hide V (hide something) zai. nco teb chaws
• V (hide, be hidden) maim • V (be homesick, lonely) kho siab
• V (hide onesel/) tsiv maim homework N [txoj] hauj Iwm xib fwb muab los ua
tom tsev
] 257

J honest (V be honest, straight) ncaj, siab ncaj, ncaj

• V (hunt animals/for meat) raws tsiaj/nqaij
• V (hunt, kill [wild] animals) tua (qus) tsiaj
ncees • V (hunt to get meat in forest) caum nqaij
• (V be honest, not cheat/trick) tsis dag • V (look for, search, [try to] find) mbiav
honey N [COy] zib mu hurry V maum moos, tsuag tsuag
hook N [tus] nqe lauj • V (be in a hurry to do something) rawm
• (V be in a hurry, busy) maj
hope V (L) yam (bais tias), Yam thiab cia siab • (V be in a hurry/rush, anxious to rush oft) siab
• V (have hope) cia cia siab, muaj siab maj
o • N [txoj] key yam, key xav
hurt V (hurt oneself/someone physically) ua sab, ua
hopeless (V be hopeless) tsis muaj yam raug
horn N (animal) [tus] kub • V (hurt _'s feelings) ua rau _ tu siab
• N (musical hom, flute, pipe, tube) (lub] raj • V (have one's feelings hurt, be offended) tu siab
• V (be hurting, be sick, hurt in feelings) mob
horse N [tus] nees • V (be hurt at heart, grieved, surry, distressed)
I hospital N (lub] tsev kho mob mob siab
• V (body hurts, be hurt/injured seriously) sab

hot (V be hot to the touch) kub • V (be hurt, injured) raug sab
I • (V be hot weather, person feeling hot) SOy SOy
• (V be spicy) ntsim husband N [tus] txiv

hotel N (lub] tsev ntiav pw

I hour N (hour, o'clock) teev, (L) xuab moos I
.house N (lub] tsev
I PRO (I, me, OBI myself) kuv
I household N (household, family) tsev neeg, yim
(neeg) ice N (ice, frost, snow) te
• N (household goods) (lub] cuab yeej (cuab tam) • (frozen water) dej khov
I housewife N [tus] niam tsev ice cream N mis nyuj khov
housework N [txoj] hauj Iwm ham' tsev idea N (lub] tswv yim
I how ADV (manner, amount) Ii cas identification N [txoj] key ua kom paub pom
• ADV (amount, how much?) hov, npaum Ii cas • N (piece of identification) [daim] ntawv cob zeem
• (how far?) deb npaum Ii cas npe
I • (how long?) hoy ntev
idle (V be idle) nyob xwb xwb
• ADV (how many/much?) pes tsawg
• (V be idle, unoccupied, free of charge) dawb
• (V know how tu do something) txawj .
I • (how about_ ?) _ ne?
• (how do you feel?) Koj puas xis nyob?
i f (CONJ if, V be) yog
• (CONJ if only) tsuas tab yog, tab yog
however CONI txawm Ii cas los ignore V (not take an interest in) tsis muab siab rau
I • (CONI however, but) tiam sis, tab sis • V (ignore a person) ua ib tug tsis pom
• (ADV however, still) ts�
i l l (V be ill/sick) mob
hng V (embrace someone, bold in the arms) puag
I • V (hug each other) sib puag illegal (V be illegal) tsis raug raws cai

hnll V (hull rice) tuav txhuv illiterate (V lit. not to know how to read ) tsis
paub ntawv
I human N (human, person, people) [tus] tib neeg
illness N [txoj] key mob (key) nkeeg, [tus] kab
• N (human, person, man) [tus] neeg
mob
humid (V be hot and hmnid) vaum
I imagine V xav saib
hundred Q ([one] hundred) (ib) puas
imitate V (imitate, follow, resemble) yoog
hungry (V be hungry) tsbaib plab
I hunt V (hunt for game) plob
immediately ADV (now ) tam sim (no/kiag)

• V (hunt, pursue, chase after) raws immigrant N (immigrant, refugee) [tus] neeg thoj
nam
I

I
 258

impatient (V be impatient) siab luv intelligent (V be intelligent, sharp) ntse

• (V be impatient, in a hurry) rawm
intend V (intentionally) txbob txwm
impolite (V be impolite) tsis paub cai
interest N (bank) nyiaj tsam nOOv
important (V be important) tseem ceeb
interested (V be interested in _ ) _ nOOm kuv
impossible (V be impossible to do) yeej yuav ua siab
tsis tau
interesting (V be interesting) ntxim siab, txaus
improve V (make something better) kho kom zoo siab, raug siab
i n PREP (in, inside) hauv interpreter N (translator) [tus] neeg txbais Ius
• PREP (down/south in/at) nram
interrupt V OOav Ins
. • PREP (up/north in/at) pem
• PREP (over in/at) tim, tom intersection N [txoj] key tshuam
• (in addition) tsis !as Ii ntawd
• (in a couple of days [from now]) ob pep bnub intestine N (txoj) bnyuv
saum no • N (large intestine) bnyuv <lub
• (in order thatlfor) yuav ua kom • N (small intestine) bnyuv dawb
• (in place of, V take the place of) theej into PREP hauv, rau hauv
• (in that case/way) ua Ii ntawd
introduce V ua kom paub
inappropriate (V be inappropriate) tsis raug raws
investigate V nug xyuas
inch Q ib nti
invite V caw
incorrect (V be incorrect) tsis raug, tsis yog
iron N (metal) blau
increase V huam • N (for pressing clothes) [lub] luam ris tsho,
indecisive (V be indecisive) siab nlau, ob siab luam khaub ncaws
• V (press, flatten, print) luam
indeed ADV (indeed, even, really,pre-verhal • N (ironing board) [lub] rooj luam khaub ncaws
intensifier) twb
• ADV (indeed, post-verhal intensifier)nlag
irritate V (irrilate/beirritated, offended, resentful,
• ADV (indeed,jnst, only) xwb jealous) khib
• (V for skin to be irritated, itchy) khans
individually ADV (separately) ib lub ib lub
irritating (V be irritating, provoking) meem txom
inexpensive (V be inexpensive, cheap) pheej yig
island N [lub] pov txwv dej
infection N (serious infection) npuag
i t PRO (it, OBI itself, he, him, OBI himself, she,
inform V (inform, advise, explain, show, teach, tell) OBI her, OBI herself) nws
qbia
itch V (itch, be itchy) khaus
information N [txoj] key qhia ub no
its PQSS (its, his, her) nws + eLF for most nouns
injure V raug mob • PRO (its, his, hers) nws Ii
ink N kua (cwj) mem itself PRO (OB] itself, himself, herself) nws
in-laws N txbeeb tsav • (emphatic reflexive as in do by oneself for a11 3rd
• N (in-laws and all other relatives related to a man
person singulars) nws tus kheej
through any female) neej tsa
insect N (insect, bug) [tus] kab
• N (fly) [tus] yoov
J
inside ADV sab hauv
jacket N (any upper body garment with sleeves)
• ADV (inside a building) hauv tsev
[lub] tsho
instant N (instant, moment, second) pliag
jackfruit N [lub] OOv plab nyug
instead of PREP hos (ho) (ua cas), pauv chaw,
jail N [lub] (tsev) loj faj, tsev rau OOm, nkuaj
txauv chaw
• V (jail _ ) kaw hauv nkuaj, coj _ mns kaw

instructlon(s) N Ins qhia txog rau hauv lub tsev rau txim
 259

o January N (lub] ib hlis utuj

• V (keep in mind) nco ntsoov
• V (keep for oneself) ceev
Japan N Ziv poom teb, Teb chaws Nyij pooj, Teb • V (politely keep/detain a visitor) cheem

o chaws Zij peem

kettle N (lub] hwj rhaub dej, lauj kaub rhaub dej
Japanese (V be Japanese) Ziv poom, Nyij pooj, Zij
key N [tus] yoam sij, yawm sij
peem
I • N (Japanese language) Ius Ziv poom!Nyij pooj/ ki c:k V ncaws
Zij peem • V (kick backward, baby kicking in womb) tuarn
• N (Japanese person) [tus] ueeg Ziv poom! Nyij
I pooj/ Zij peem
kid N (child) [tus] me nyuam
• V (kid, joke, fib) lam, lam hais

jar N (jar, large storage jar, clay pot) (lub] fub/hub

kidney N (lub] raum
I jaundic:e N daj utseg
kill V (kill, shoot) tua
jaw N (lub] puab tsaig
kilogram N (kilogram, kilo) (lub] ki laus
I jealous (V be jealous) khib (siab) • (two kilograms) ob kis laus
jewelry N lias, uyiaj-kub kilometer N kis laus mev

I job N (txoj) hauj Iwm kind N (kind, sort, type) hom, yam
• (V be kind, uice) siab zoo
join V (join/kuot together, conuect) txuas
• (V be kind, nice, generous) siab dawb
• V (be joined, conuected) sib txuas
• ADV (kind of, sort of, a little, somewhat) tsem
I • V (join/fit together) dhos

I
tsawv, hauj sim
• V (be joined/fit together) sib dhos ua ke
• V (join in, as a discussion) koom king N (king, emperor, prince) [tus] huab tais
I • V (join, bear, carry, bring) coj • N (king of the heavens) huab tais qaum ntuj

joke V tso dag, lam kiss V nwj

• V (joke, kid, fib) lam • N [pas] nwj
I • (response to compliment: you're kidding,
flattering me) koj lam hais kitchen N (lub] tsev ua mov, tsev mov, chav na noj
• N (lo] Ius tso dag knee N (lub] hauv caug
I judge V (judge, decide) txiav txim knife N [rab] riam
• N tus txiav txim
knock V (knock at door, rap with knuckles) khob
juice N (juice, liquid, sauce) kua
I • N (fruit juice) kua txiv ntoo knot V (knot/join together, conuect) txuas
• N (knot in rope, string, wood) (lub] pob caus
July N (lub] xya hli ntuj
know V paub
I jump Y dhia • V (know how to do something) txawj
• CLF phlawv • V (don't know, be uncertain) xyov

I June N (lub] rau hli ntuj

jungle N (lub] hay zoov
L
just ADV (just now, just a moment ago) nyuam
I qhuav
lading (V be lacking, remaining, excepting) tshnav
• ADV (just, only) xwb, tsuas
• ADV (just starting to do, be in the process of ladder N (ladder, stair, staircase) [tus] ntaiv
I doing) tab tom
lady N (woman, wife) [tus] poj niam
• ADV (just so, just then) txawm sis
• ADV (just then) uim lake N (lub]pas dej
• (V be just, fair, equal) koob pheej, ncaj ncees
lamb N [tus] me nyuam yaj
lamp N (lub] teeb
K • N (glass lamp) (lub] tsom teeb
land N thooj av
keep V (keep, put away) (khaws) cia • N (country, nation) (lub] teb chaws
 260

landlord N [!us] tswv tsev learn V (learn, study) kawm

language N (a language) lus, lus hais leather N (leather, hide, skin of person/animal) tawv
• N (leather, animal skin, hide) tawv tsiaj
Lao (V be Lao) Los tsuas, Nplog (considered
pejorative by some) leave V (leave, go out) tawm mus
• N (Lao language) Ius Los tsuas/Nplog • V (leave, depart, go) lawm
• N (Lao person) [tus] neeg Los tsuas/Nplog • V (leave behind, release, relinqnish) tso (tseg)
• V (leave behind, abandon. cast away, discard,
Laos N Los tsuas teb, Teb chaws Los Tsuas, Nplog reject) tseg
teb, Teb chaws Nplog (considered pejorative by • V (leave something for somebody) tseg cia
some)
left (V be left vs. right) lauj
large (V be large, big) loj • (N left side, ADV on Ito the left) sab laug
• (V be large, great, major) niag • (V be left, remaining, lacking, excepting) tshuav
• (V be large, great, chief) tuam
• (V be left over) seem
last (last year) xyoo tag (los lawm), tsaib no
leg N [txhais] ceg
• (last night) nag hmo tsaus ntuj • N (lower leg, shin) [tus] kav, caj hlaub
• (last time) zaum tag no
• N (upper leg , thigh) [tus] ncej puab
• (last day) hnub kawg
• (N traditional Hmong leg wrappings) [txhais]
• N (last name, clan/surname) [lub] xeem
mhoob
late (V be late, tardy) lig • (V pnt on, wear leg wrappings, boots, gloves,
shoes, socks) rau
later ADV ( in a while) ib tsam
• ADV (afterwanl) tom qab legal (V be legal) raug raws cai
laugh V luag leisnre (V be at leisure, free, not busy) khoom
laundry (V lit. wash clothes) ntxhua khaub ncaws lemon N [lub] txiv qaub
• N (lemon grass) tauj qaib, tauj dub
law N (law, custom) [txoj] (kev) cai
• N [txoj] kev cai lij choj lend V (lend, loan, borrow) qiv/qev, txais
• N (law. court case, litigation) [txoj] kev plaub
less (ADV less than) tsawg dua, tsawg zog
kev ntug
lesson N zaj Ius (qhia)
la wn N (lawn, grass) nyom
let V (let, permit, allow) cia
lawyer N [!us] neeg hais plaub ntug, kws lij choj
• V (let, abandon, allow, free, leave, let, permit,
lay V (lay eggs) nteg place. put, release, relinqnish) tso
• V (lay/place something, release) tso • (let's) (for two) cia wb, (for three or more) cia
• V (for person to lay/lie down, recline) pw peb
lazy (V be lazy. tired) okees letter N (mail) [daim] ntawv, [tsab] ntawv
• (V be lazy, listless) tub okeeg • N (of the alphabet) [tus] (tsiaj) ntawv

lead V (lead for animals, take along forcibly) cab lettnce N [lub] zaub xav lav
• (lead for people. guide. bring along) coj
level N (floor, story) theem
leader N [!us] tub coj, tus thawj coj, tus tswj hwm • N (level, layer, story in a building, tier) txheej

• N (leader, official) [tus] nom • (V be level, even, smooth) tiaj, tiaj tus
• (V be level, smooth, clear of extraneous matter)
leafN [daim] nplooj
ch
• N (leaf of a tree) [daim] nplooj ntoos
• (V be level/even with) du lug
leak V ( _ leak throngh/filter through) xau _
library N [lub] tsev khaws ntawv, tsev rau ntawv
• V (leak _ in drops, drip) nrog _

• V (leak _ in a continuous stream, flow) los lick V yaim

lid N [lub] hau
lean V (lean. lean against) ib
l ie V (tell untruth) dag, hais Ius dag
• V (lean _ against) nres
• V (lie down, recline) pw
• V (lean against, lean over) pheeb

• V (lean, be inclined to one side, slanted) qaij life N (as one's daily life) [lub] neej
• N (state ofbeiog alive) [txoj] sia
262

• V (have a meaning, explanation, translation)

M
txhais hais tias
meaning N (meaning of a word, translation) txhais
machine N [lub] tshuab
Ius
mad ry be angry) c;bim (siab), npau (siab) • N (meauing of a word, essence, kernel) [lub]
• (V be crazy, insane) vwm ntsiab
magazine N [tsab] ntawv xov xwm measure V ntsuas
mail V (send a letter) xa (ib tsab) ntawv meat N nqaij
• N (mail, letter) [tsab] ntawv
mechanic N (auto) [tos] kws kho tsheb
make V (make, act, do, produce) ua
• V (make someone do something, cause) (ua)
medicine N (medicine, drug) tshuaj
kom meet V ntsib
• V (make/cause to happeu) ua rau • V (meet each other) sib ntsib
• V (meet with) cuag
malaria ry have malaria) ua npaws
• V (lit. meet again for 'goodbye') sib ntsib dua
male N (a human male, man) [Ius] txiv neej
• ry be male for certain large animals) phaw
meeting N [txoj] kev sib ntsib, (kev) sab laj
• (be male for birds) lau Mekong N Naj Khoos
man N (human male) [Ius] txiv neej melon N (melon, cucumber) [lub] dib
mango N [lub] txiv txhais memorize V cim
manyADV (many, much) ntau memory N [lub] cim xeeb, [txoj] kev nco txog
• ADV (many, of animals, people) coob
mention V hais txog, hais tawm
map N [daim] ntawv qbia kev roob hav, daim duab
ntiaj teb, (L) [daim] phab nthib merchant N [tus] neeg muag khoom

March N [lub] peb hlis ntuj message N (written) tsab xov

mark N (mark, seal, sign, stamp) [lub] cim messy ry be messy, disorderly) sw (sw), sw rawv
• V (mark something) cim metal N (iron) hlau
• V (make a mark, imprint) ntaus
middle (V be the middle) nmab nrab
market N (store) [lub] (tsev) khw, (L) tab laj • ADV «be) in the middle) (nyob) (hauv) nmab
marry V (marry _ ) yuav _
nrab
• V (get married) sib yuav, ua tshoob, • N (middle, center) (qhov) nmab nrab

match V (well-suited, match, as in color) pbim, sib midnight N ib tag hmo

pbim mile N mais
• N (for lighting fire) [Ius] hauv txhuam
milk N (cow) mis (nyuj)
mathematics N [txoj] kev xam phaj • N (mother's milk) uiam mis
mattress N [lub] pam pua saum toj million Q lab
May N [lub] tsib hlis ntuj mine PRO kuv Ii
may (V may _ , can , for permission,
_
minute N [lub] feeb, (L) nas this
possibility) _ tau
• (ADV maybe for 'might' sense of may) tej mirror N [daim] (180m) iav
zaumld
miss V (long to see, remember) nco (txog)
maybe ADV (maybe, probably) tej zaum/d • N (term of direct address/vocative to young
woman) leej moad
me PRO (me, I, OBJ myself) kuv
mistake N qhov yuam kev
meal N (as lunch, dinner) pluas mov • V (make a mistake) yuamkev
mean ry be mean, cruel) siab phem misunderstand V tsis nkag siab
• V (have a meaning, explanation) yog hais tias
 I 263

• m i x V (mix together) xyaw

• N (Hmong mouth/lip organlharp) [rab] ncas
• (V be mixed together) sib xyaws mouthful (eLF for mouthfuls, words) 10
• V (mix water into something, add water) tOY
I modern (V be modem) hom tshiab
move V (shift, change place within a smaIl area)
txav
• V (change residence) tsiv
mold V (mold, form with hands, shape, flatten) puab
I moment N (moment, instant, second) pliag
• V (move one's body, writhe, wriggle) nti

• V ( move something, bring along, lead, guide)

• (one moment) ib pliag, ib vog CO]

I Monday N lJub] lInub ob, (L) lInub vas cas movie N yeeb yam
• N (movie theater) lJub] tsev ntsia yeeb yam
money N (money, silver) nyiaj
• N (money, wealth) nyiaj txiag much ADV (much, many) ntau
I monkey N [tus] liab
• ADV (much, very) heev
mud N av nkos
month N (month) lJub] h1i ntuj
I • N (month, moon) lJub] h1i muddy (V be muddy) nkos (nkos Ii)
moon N lJub] h1i murder V tua neeg

I more (V be more, add to) ntxiv muscle N thooj nqaij leeg, [tus] leeg
• ADV (amount more than) ntau dua
mushroom N lJub] nceb
• ADV (comparative more _ than) _ dua
I • ADV (comparative more
_tshaj
_ than, most)
' _ music N (voice) suab kwv txhiaj
• N (instrument) paj nruas

• ADV (more than!over a certain number) _

tawm must V yuav tsum
I • ADV (the more _ the more _ ) yim _
• V (must, need to) yuav tau

yim _ mustache N (plaub) hwj/fwj txwv

I moreover ADV (moreover, also, consequently) kuj

• ADV (moreover, and, also) thiab
mustard N (mustard greens, leafy cabbage) zaub
ntsuab
morning N (moming, daylight) kaj ntug eLF for most nouns

II
my POSS kuv +
I • N (moming, early moming) lJub] (caij) sawv
ntxov myself PRO (OBJ myself, me, I) kuv
• PRO (emphatic reflexive as in do by oneself)
• ADV (in the morning) thaum sawv ntxov
kuv tus kheej
I • ADV (this morning) tag Iris no
I
I
mortar N (for pounding in) lJub] tshuaj khib
• N (for pounding rice cakes in) lJub] dab ncuav
N
I mosquito N [tus] yoov tshaj cum
most ADV (the most, more) tshaj, tshaj plaws nail N (metal) [tus] ntsia h1au
I motel N lJub] tsev ntiav pw
• N (fingernail) rau tes
• V (nail) ntsia
mother N [usually used without eLF or with leej]
name N lJub] npe
I niam
• N (honorary name given by in-laws to man after

mother-in-law N (wife's mother) [tus] niam tais marriage) upe laus

• N (husband's mother) [tus] niam pog • N (surname, last name, clan) xeem

I motorcycle N lJub] tsheb maus taus

• V (give a name to _ ) tis _ (Iub) npe hu ua
• V (be named) lub npe hu ua
mountain N lJub] roob
napkin N [daim] ntawv so qhov ncauj
I • N (mountains, hills) toj roob
narrow (V be narrow) nqaim
mourn V (mourn a death) nyiav • (V be close together) ti

I mouse N (mouse, house rat) [tus] nas tsuag

• N (mouse, rat, rodent) [tus] nas
nation N (people) tsoom (haiv) neeg
• N (nation, country) lJub] teb chaws
mouth N lJob] qhov ncauj nationality N haiv neeg
I

I
 264

• (last night) nag hmo

nausea (V have nausea, be nauseous) xeev siab
nine Q cuaj
navel N (body) [lub] utaws
nineteen Q kaum cuaj
near (V be near, close, ADV uearby) ze
nineteenth (V be nineteenth) thib kaum cuaj
nearly ADV (nearly, almost) yuav luag
ninetieth (V be ninetieth) thib cuaj caum
necessary (V be necessary to have/do) yam yuav
tsum ninety Q cuaj caum
• (V be necessary, important) tseem cceb
ninth (V be ninth) thib cuaj
neck N [lub] caj dab
no ADV (no, not) tsis + V
• N (back of neck) xub qwb
• (no, not. be true) tsis yog
necklace N [txoj] (bIua)(saw) caj dab, (solid) [lub] • (no matter what) tsis kay
xauv, kauj toog dab .
nobody (nobody/one [+ NEG on V], somebody/one,
• (V wear, put on necklace, bracelet, earrings,
anybody/one [+ NEG on V for NEG meamng],
eyeglasses, watch) coj
who) leej twg
need V (need to, must) yuav tsum, yuav tau
• V (need to get) yuav tsum tau
noise (N noise, ADV noisily, loudly) mov
.
• N (noise, sound, tone in tone language, vOice)
needle N [rab] koob [lub] snab
neighbor N [tus] neeg zej zos noodle N (egg noodles) mij
• N (large rice noodles) fawm
neighborhood N (neighborhood, environs) cheeb
• N (small rice noodles) peev choj
tsam
noon N huub ntseg, caij tav su, tav su
nephew N [tus] tub xeeb ntxwv
normal (ADV do/behave normally) xws Ii qub, (L)
nerve N (body) [txoj] leeg
tbas mas das
nervous (V be nervous, fearful, afraid) poob siab
north PREP (up to/allin the north, uphill) pem
nest N [lub] zes • ADV (up to/allin the north, uphill) ped
• N (name of direction) peb/sab/phab qaum teb
never ADV tsis muaj ib zaug
• ADV (have never) yeej tsis tau ib zaug nose N [lub] qhov ntswg
n!'w (V be new) tshiab not ADV tsis
• (idiom: Hmong New Year) tsiab peb caug • ADV (in imperatives, expressions of uncertainty)
• (idiom: Hmong New Year's feast, celebrate (tsis) tmob
Hmong New Year) noj (tsiab) peb caug
notebook N phau ntawv sau
• (Happy New Year) nyob zoo xyoo tshiab
nothing PRO (nothing [+ NEG on V], anything [+
news N [txoj] xov xwm, xov, [lub, txoj] moo
NEG on V for NEG meaning], something, what)
newspaper N [daim] ntawv xov xwm dab tsi
next (Q next, another, other, a second) Iwm November N [lub] kaum ib h1is ntuj
• (next time ) lwm lub caij, lwm zaus
now ADV tam sis/sim no, Dim no/nyiam no/niam
• (next year) lwm xyoo
no/nyem no
• PREP (next to) ntawm ib sa
• ADV (at this time) [lub] sij hawm no
• PREP (next to, close to) ze
• ADV (now, nowadays, this time period) [lub]
nice (V for a person to be nice, good-hearted) siab caij no
zoo
nowadays ADV niaj huub no, [lub] caij no
nickel N (five cents) [lub] npib tsib xee/xees
numb (V'be numb) loog
nickname N [lub] npe me nyuam yaus
number N [tus] naj npawb, (L) lej
niece N [tus] ntxhais xeeb ntxwv
nurse N [tus] neeg xyas neeg mob
• N (nieces and nephews as a group) xeeb ntxbwv
• V (breastfeed a baby) ntxais mis
night N hmo, hmo ntuj, tsaus ntuj
nut N [lub] txiv ntseej
• (one night) ib hmos
 Center for Southeast Asia Studies
UC Berkeley

Title:
Hmong For Beginners Glossary Part 2
Author:
Riddle, Elizabeth, University of California, Berkeley

Publication Date:
01-01-1995
Publication Info:
Center for Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley

Permalink:
http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/57p987mj

Additional Info:
Glossary covering words from N to Z.

Keywords:
Hmong, linguistics, Southeast Asia, language

Abstract:
"Hmong For Beginners" was written by Annie Jaisser and her co-authors (Martha Ratliff, Elizabeth
Riddle, David Strecker, Lopao Vang and Lyfu Vang) from materials they developed in the 1980s
when Hmong was first being introduced as a language of instruction for the Southeast Asian
Studies Summer Institute (SEASSI). The book was published by the Center for Southeast Asia
Studies at UC Berleley in 1995 and is now out of print. This electronic version is intended to make
the materials available to those interested in the Hmong language but with limited access to print
materials about the language.

eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic
research platform to scholars worldwide.
 265

o • ADV (pre-verbal) tsuas

• ADV (only if. if) yog hais tias
on to PREP rau saum
obey V mloog Ius
• (obey an elder) mloog tus blob open V (for door. things not opening on own and
without two equal hinged parts) qhib
object N (thing) khoom
• V (for things opening on own or with two equal
• V (object. not agree with) tsis pom zoo nrog
hinged parts) rna
observe V (observe. look [at]) saib • V (open for a book) nthuav
• V (observe a prohibition) caiv • (N open field. cleared and flat) tshav
obtain V (obtain. get) yuav. tau operate V (operate. do surgery) phais mob
• V (operate. cut open. do surgery) phais
occasion N (an occasion. a time) [lub] zaus. sij
I bawm operation N (surgery) [txoj] key phais (mob)
occupation N [txoj] bauj lwm. hom bauj lwm opium N (opium. opium poppies) yeeb
I ocean N (ocean. sea) [lub] (dej) hiav txwv
N (opium as drug) yaj yeeb
• (V smoke opium) baus yeeb
o'clock (o·clock. N hour. time) teev. (L) moos
oppose (V be opposed to. disagree with) tsis pom
I October N [lub] kaum bli ntuj zoo nrog
offend V (offend_) tu_siab opposite PREP (be opposite to. across from. over
there) tim
I
• V (be offended. wonied) tu siab
• ADV (be opposite to. across from. over there) tid
office N [lub] tsev kab xwm
or CONJ los
official N (official. leader) [tus] nom (tswv)
I oh IN[ (exclamation) abo aub!
• CONJ (or that) los tias
• CONJ (in questions) los sis
• CONJ (or it) los yog
o i l N (oil. fat. gas. gasoline. grease)roj
I ointment N tshuaj hom pleev
orange N (fmit) [lub] txiv kab ntxwv
• (V be orange. N orange color) xim txiv kab
OK (for agreement. consent) los tau ntxwv
I old (V be old for people) laus
• (N orange jnice) kua txiv kab ntxwv

• (V be older in precedence in family. grown up) order V (order. command) hais kom
blob • N (an order. command) [lo] lus hais kom ua raws
I • (V be old for things) qub • (in order to. lit. _ causes _ ) kom
• (How old is she/he?) nws muaj pes tsawg xyoo organize V sib kho ua ib pab
lawm?
I o n PREP (on. on top of) saum
origin N (origin, source) [lub] bauv paus
• PREP (on the floor/ground) bauv av original (Qoriginal. first) thawj
• PREP (date) tim
I • PREP (be on top of) nyob saum
originally ADV ib txwm. yeej (los)
orphan N [tus] (me nyuam/tub/ntxhais) ntsnag
once ADV (one time) ib zaug
other Q(other. another. a second. next) lwm
I • ADV (long ago) puag ta
one Qib
• (another day) lwm boub
• PRO (other people. others) luag ( tej). lawv tej.
• Q(one only. single) tib
luag lwm (lwm tus)
I • PRO (indefinite PRO for a person. indefinite
you) yus
• (other kinds of things) tej yam
• (other times. occasions) tej zaug
• (N one-way ticket) daim pib mus
• (N. ADV other side. outside. the back of) sab
I oneself PRO (OBJ oneself. indefinite yourself ) yus
• PRO (emphatic reflexive as in do something by
maud

otter N [tus] ntshnab

oneself) yus tus kheej
I onion N [lub] dos
our POSS (for 2) wb + CLF for most nouns
• POSS (for 3 or more) peb + classifier for most
• N (green onion) [tus] dos
nouns
o n ly ADV (used at end of sentence) xwb
I

I
 266

ours PRO (for 2) wb Ii pain N (abstract sense) [txoj]key mob

oPRO (for 3 or more) peb Ii
paint N kua kob
ourselves PRO (OBJ for 2) wb oV pleev xim, pleev kua kob
oPRO (emphatic reflexive for 2 as in do by
pair eLF nkawm
oneself) wb Ius kheej
oPRO (OBJ for 3 or more) peb pajamas N [cev] ris tshohnav pw
oPRO (emphatic reflexive for 3 or more as in do
by oneself) peb Ius kheej palpitations (V have palpitations) lub plawv dhia
heevheev '
out (V go out from) tawm
pan N (cooking pan, pot) [lub]lauj kaub
outdoors N sab nraum zoov oN (frying pan) [lub] yias
oADV nraum zoov
pandau N (a piece of Hmong embroidered cloth)
outside ADV nraud [claim]paj ntaub
oN, ADV sab nraud, sab nraum zoov
oPREP nraum pants N [lub] ris

oven N [lnb] qhov cub papaya N [lub] txiv taub ntoos, txiv maum kuab

over PREP (above, on top of, up) saum paper N [claim]ntawv

oADV ([way]up above)(puag)saud pardon V (pardon me) thov txim
o PREP (over to) tom, (more distant) tim
oADV (over there)(near)(qhov)ntawd, (farther) parents N niam txiv'
(qhov)tod, (farthest)(puag)tid park N (place for playing) [lub]vaj ua si
o PREP (over by but close) qhov ntawm oV (a car) nres tsheb
o(V be over here)nyob tom no
o ADV (way over there) tim ub parking N (parking place) [lub]chaw nres tsheb
oADV (over _
' _, more than _ ) _tawm part N (a fraction) feem
o ADV (all over a place, everywhere) qhov txhia o Q (some) ib co
chaw
o(V be over, be fwished) tas, tag lawm party (V lit. gather together to have fun) sib sau ua
kev 10m zem
overweight (V be overweight, fat)rog
pass V (pass [through/by], cross over, exceed,
owe V tshuav (nuj) nqilnqe, tshuav luag
stupass)dhau
o wl N [tus] plas oV (pass by) (rilUS) dhau
oV (pass on, to go, surpass) dua
own V (have) muaj oV (pass as a car on the road) mus dua
owner N [Ius] tswv oV (pass/hand out, dis1ribute)faib'
oV (pass gas) tso paus
passport N [daim] ntawv hla clam teb
p
past N yay dhau los
o (V be past, finished) tas/tag lawm
PM ADV (_PM)_(teev/moos) thaum tsaus o(V walk past)(mus key) dhau
ntuj
pastor N (pastor, minister, professor, teacher) [Ius]
Pacific N (Pacific Ocean) [lub]Dej hiav txwv Pa xi xib fwb/hwb
fiv
path N (path, road, street, way) [txoj]key
pack V (pack, tie up into a package, bind, wrap up)
patient (V be patient, even-tempered)siab ntev
pay oN (sick person) [tus]neeg mob
o N (pack, small package)pob
pay V them
package N pob khoom
o N (a small package, pack)pob oV (pay attenti,on) quay ntsej, m100g zoo zoo
o N (salary) nyiaj hIi
paddy N [daim for whole paddy, zeg for section]liaj
pea N (unshelled) [Ius] taum mog
page N [daim]phab (ntawv) oN (shelled) [lub] noob taum mog
pail N [lub] thoob
.1 267

I peace N (not at Wat)[txoj]kev thaj yeeb (nyab xeeb) photocopy V (photocopy, copy, preSs, print,
001 be at peace in one's heatt) IUs siab xerox)luam
peach N [lub]txiv duaj photograph N (photograph,picture)[daim]duab
oV yees duab
peacock N [IUs]yaj yuam
phrase N zaj Ius
I peak N (mountain peak) [lub]ncov roob
pick V (Pick as fmit,pluck, pinch) de
peanut N [lub](txiv laum)fuab/huab xeeb
o V (pick as corn, break off) ntais
pear N [lub]txiv phiaj,txiv zuaj o V (choose)xaiv

oV (pick up, gather)khaws

pen N (enciosure for animals) [lub] nkuaj o V (pick up,take in the hand) nqa hlo
oN (for writing) [1Us]cwj mem
picnic (V to have a picnic) noj mov hay zoov
pencil N [tns]cwj mem qhuav
picture N (picture, photograph)[daim]duab
penis N (may be offensively explicit)[IUs]qau
oN (euphemism for male/female genital atea, piece N (use the CLF appropriate for the noun under
genitals, groin)qhov chaw mos consideration)
o(CLF + N a piece of paper) daim ntawv
penny N (cent) [lub]npib ib xee
pig N [IUs]npua
people N (people, person)[coy](tib)neeg
oN (populace, population,a people) pej xeem pile (CLF a pile of something) pawg
oN (people of an ethnic group) haiv neeg
pill N (pill,medicine)[lub]tshuaj
pepper N (spice) txob
pillow N [lub]tog hauv ncoo
oN (a green/bell pepper) [lub]kua txob (nt.uab)
o N (the spice black pepper) hwj/fwj txob pillowcase N [lub] huab hauv ncoo
o N (a hot pepper) [lub]kua txob ntsim ntsim
pimple N [lub]pob kab ntxau
percent ntawm ib puas
pin N [rab] koob ntsia
perfect V (be perfect,the best)wo kawg o N (pin,needle) [rab]koob

perhaps ADV (perhaps,probably)tej zaum pineapple N [lub] txiv puv luj

o ADV (perhaps,it may be) saib tsam
pink (V be pink,N pink color)xirn paj yeeb,xim
period N (period of time,time) yav liab dawg muag
oN (period of several hours)!sam
oN (time period,season) [lub]caij pipe N (for carrying water) [lub]raj hlau
oN (punctuation)tee dub dub oN (for smoking) [IUs]yeeb nkab
oN (menstrua1 period) [lub]caij coj khaub ncaws place V (place,put) rau
I permanent (V be permanent,remain for a long oV (place,abandon,allow,free,leave,let,permit,
time) ua ntev,nyob ntev put, release,relinquish) tso
oN (place, location) qhov (chaw)
permit V (permit,abandon,allow,free,leave,let, oN (place,region) [lub]chaw
place,put,release,relinqnish)tso
o V (give permission) tso Ius plain N (geographic) [lub]tiaj (nras)
o V (permit, allow,let, set aside, store) cia oN (Plain of Jats)Tiaj Rhawv Zeb
o V ( permit, allow,let, give as a gift) pub plan N (plan,scheme, wisdom, cleverness)[zaj]
person N ([a]person)[IUs,(more polite) leej](tib) tswv yim
neeg plane N (airplane)[lub]day hlau, (L) nyoob hoom
perspire V tawm hws plant (V) (plant,insert) cog
oN (foliage,vegetation) tsob
I persuade V ntxias
oN (house plant,flower) [lub]paj
pestle N (pounder)[1Us/rab]dauj
oN (pounder for rice cakes)[rab]dauj ncuav plate N (dish) [lub]phaj

petal N (flower)nplaim (paj)

pharmacy N [lub]tsev thov tshuaj
268

play V ua si pound V(pound as to make rice cakes, grasp) tuav

• (play ball) ntaus pob ua si • V (pound as metal, beat, strike, hit) ntaus
• V (play by bitting, as tennis, piano, bit) ntaus • N(weight) phos
• V (play instrument by blowing, blow) tshuab pounder N(pounder, pestle as to make rice cakes)
• V (play instrument with reed or fingerholes,
[rab]dauj
blow) tshov
•(play the Hmong keng) tshov qeej pour V (pour, pour out) h1iv
•(play cards for fun) ua phaib ua si • V(pour out) nchuav
playground N [lub] chaw ua si powder N(powder, dust, flour) hmoov
please (II ask, beg) thov power N (power, authority, air/show of
authority/majesty) [lub] hwj chim
pleased (II be pleased) txaus siab
• N(power, a special power or ability as of a
pleat Vore shaman) [lub] hwj huam
• N(political power in a country) cheej tswj teb
pliers N [rab] ciaj chaws
plow V faus teb, laij teb • N(power, strength) [lub] zog loj
.
• N [lub] khais practice V xyaum (ua)
plum N [lub] !xiv moj mab praise V(praise, marvel at, admire) qhuas
plus (mathematics: V added to, CON] plus) n!xiv • V (praise, show appreciation for) qhuas zoo
I3ll
pray V (pray, ask for, beg) thov
pocket N(pocket, bag, purse, sack) [lub] hnab • (pray to God) thov ntuj, thov Vaj tswv

point(II)(indicate) taw prefer V (lit. like _ better) nyiam _ dua

• V (point with the fmger) taw tes
pregnant(II be pregnant) muaj menyuam
poison N tshuaj 10m •(V be pregnant, conceive) xeeb me nyuam/tub
• V (poison, be poisonous) 10m
prepare V npaj
police N(police officer) [lUs] neeg ceev xwm prescription N [daim] ntawv muas tshuaj
• N (policeman) [lUs1 tub ceev xwm
present V (be present, come) tuaj
polite(V be polite) paub(kev) cai • N(time) [lub] caij tam sim no
polities N tseev tsim • N(gift) khoom pub dawb, khoom saib dab muag

pond N (pond, lake) [lub] pas dej president N(leader of a country) [lUs] thawj kay teb
chaws, [lUs] tsoom txoov
poor (V be poor) txom nyem, pluag
pretend V ua txuj (tsab), tsab
popcorn N paj pob kws
pretty (V be pretty, beautiful) zoo nkauj
poppy N [lub] paj yeeb
prevent V thaiv key, tsis pub ua
popUlation N (population, populace, a people) pej • V(prevent, hinder, delay, inconvenience) say
xeem !sam

pork N nqaij npuas previously ADV (previously, np until now, ago)

port N(for boats) [lub] chawsores nkoj oram ntej

possible(II be possible, can/could do/be) yuav tau price N [lUs] nqe, nqi
•(II be possible in theory, might do/be) tej zaum priest N [IUs] pov thawj, huj sam
ua tau • N(Catholic priest/father) [lUs] !xiv plig
postage N (amount) nqi xa ntawv prince N [lUs] tub huab tais, huab tais tub
post office N [lub] tsev xa ntawv • N (prince, emperor, king) [lUs] huab tais

pot N (cooking pot, pan) [lub] lauj kaub princess N [tus] huab tais ntxhais

potato N [lub] qos yaj ywm principal N (of a school) thawj saib tsev kawm
• N (sweet potato) [lub] qos liab ntawv
I
�",-

I 269

I print V (print printed matter) luam ntawv

• V (put away) ua cia
• V (put into) muab/tso rau bauv, ntim.
• V (print, copy, photocopy, press, xerox) luam
• V (put out a fire) Ina bluav taws
I prison N (prison, jail) [ll,lb]tsev rau txim, (tsev) loj
faj, nkuaj
• V (put together) muab tso ua ke
• V (put on, wear clothes [and neck scarves]on
main part of body but not head, hands, feet) huav
probablyAD V (probably, maybe) tej zaum/d • V (put on, wear bracelet, earrings, eyeglasses,
I •AD V (probably, in my estimation) kwv yees necklace, watch) coj
• (V be probable, suspect, guess) nyaj • V (put on, wear, wrap around waist for belt,
problem N (problem, question) [lub]teeb meem sash) sia
I • (no problem) Isis ua (Ii) cas • V (put on, wear, carry on/over head as for bat,
head wrap, umbrella) ntoo
produce V (produce, act, do, make) ua • V (put one's heart/mind (in)to something) rau
I • V (produce, create) tsim siab
profession N hom bauj Iwm

I professor N (professor, minister, pastor, teacher)

[ius]xib fwb/hwb Q
progress V Yam mus ntxiv, Yam meej
question V (ask a question) nug, noog
I prohibition ( V observe a prohibition) caiv • N [lo]Ius nug/noog
• N (question, problem) [lub]teeb meem
promise N [lo]yeem Ius, Ius cog tseg
I • V cog Ius, yeem Ius quick/ly AD V (quick, quickly, fast) sai, tsuag,
nrawm
.pronounce V (pronounce, say, speak, tell) hais
•AD V (quick in motion) ceev

I protect V (protect, defend, obscure the view, shelter)

thaiv
•AD V (quickly, hurriedly) zoj zeeg
• (V be quick-tempered) siab ceev
• V protect, defend, guard, shelter) pav hwm
quiet (V be still, perfectly quiet) ntsiag to
I proverb N [txoj]paj lug • (V be/ stay quiet, still) ua/nyob twj ywm
province N (province, state) [lub]xeev quietJy AD V twj ywm

I puberty N (young marriageable woman/man who

has reached puberty) [Ius]bluas nkauj/nraug
quilt N [daim]pam rwb
quarrel V sib cay
pull V (grasp and pull with the hand) rub
quarter N (25 cents) [lub]npib uees kaum tsib xee
I • V (pull hand over hand) tooj
• V (pull out, extract as teeth) rho queen N [tus]poj vaj txwv
• V (pull up/out by the roots, as weeds, hair) dob

I • V (pull out of a bag, pocket, withdraw) thau

R
pulse N (body) mem tes
pumpkin N [lub]taub dag
I pupil N (eye) [lub]ntsiab muag
rabbit N [1Us]luav
race N (ethnic group, nationality, kind of people)
purple (V be purple, N color purple) xim (xiav)
I tsam xem, xim paj yeeb ntsba
haivneeg
radio N [lub]xov tooj cua, (L) vib tbab nyub
purse N (purse, bag, pocket, sack) [lub]huab
I push V (push, shove) tbawb
radish N [lub]zaub ntug baus paus kheej
• V (push aside with the hand) haiv railroad N [txoj]key tsheb ciav blau
• V (push, put to flight) xyob • (N railroad station) [lub]chaw nres tsheb ciav
I • eLF (a push into flight) xyob blau
pu t V (put, place, put on/wear boots, gloves, leg rain N nag
wrappings, shoes, socks) rau • V los nag
I • V (put, abandon, allow, free, leave, let, permit, • <N rain coat) [lub]tsho tiv nag
place, release, relinquish) tso rainbow N [ius]zaj sawv
• V (put aside) muab cia
I

I
270

raise V (raise, raise up, set up/upright, erect, refrigerator N [Iub] (L) tub yees. txee txias
establish) tsa
refngee N (refugee. immigrant) [tus] neeg thoj nam
• V (raise, lift to higher level) cev
• V (raise as a hand) tsa, cev refuse V (lit. not be willing) tsis kam
• V (raise up, erect, stand up) tsa bio, tsa
region N(region. area) thaj tsam
_

sawv
• V (raise horizontally) txhawb register V (register as at school. emoll) sau npe cia
• V (raise, rear, care for and feed, for hnmans to oV (register. emoll. sign one's name) sau npe
give birth) yug
• V (raise, care for, look after) tu regret (V regret. INT what a pity) khuv xim

rap V (rap, knock with knuckles) khob reject V tsis txais/yuav

• V (reject.erase; eliminate. cross out) thuam
rat N (rat, rodent, mouse) [tus] nas • V(reject. abandon. cast away. discard. leave
behind) tseg
raw(V be raw, uncooked) nyoos
_

relatives N kwv tij (neej !sa)

reach V (reach with arm, reach to, extend to) cnag
• N (relatives by marriage) neej tsa
• V (arrive, to the point or limit of) txog
• N (close blood relatives) txheeb. kwv tij txheeb
• V (reach up to, np to the point of) txij
txheeb
• V (reach/arrive at a point, reach to, extend to) nto
relax V (relax. rest. take a break) so
read V nyeem (ntawv)
release V (release.abandon.allow. free, leave.let.
ready (V be ready) tiav (lawm), tau lawm
permit, place, put. relinquish) 180
• (Are yon ready? Yes/No.) Puas tan tiav? Tiav,
lawm/Tsis tau tiav. religion N (traditional Hmong religion) [txoj] key
teev dab qhuas
real (V be real. true) yog tiag
oN (can imply Christiauity) [txoj] key teev ntuj
realize V (lit can see that) porn tau tias • N (L) [Iub] xam xanas
really ADV (really. truly) tiag (tiag) (Ii) rely on V (rely on.COWlt on) yam txog
• ADV (really. indeed, even) twb • V (rely upon, trust in. hope) Yam
• ADV (very) heev. kawg (nkaus). kawg nkaus Ii • V (rely on. trust in) yam khom
• ADV ( really to a great degree) na
remain V (remain. stay. live. be alive. be located)
_. _ _

lnaj
nyob
reason N (a reason for something) qhov vim Ii cas
remaining (V be remaiuing.lacking, excepting)
reasonable (V be reasonable as of a law or price) tshnav
yog lawm o(V be remaining, left over) seem

receive V (receive. accept.catch something thrown) remember V (remember. recall past) nco qab
txais • V (remember,keep in memory. think of) nco
• V (receive. get) tau (txais) txog
• V (can remember) nco tau
recently ADV sai sai no. nyuam qhnav no
remove V (extract. pull out) mo
recognize V nco tau. paub tau
• V (remove. take off. as clothes) ble
recommend V (recommend [to]. explain. teach. oV (remove, take away) tshem
inform) qhia(rau)
rent V (rent from someone. hire
record N (phonograph) [daim] phaj kwv txhiaj something/someone) ntiav
oN (history recorded) [zaj] xeev xwm txheej • V (rent to someone) ntiav rau
• V (record sOWld) kaw o N (rent for dwelling) [tus] nqi !sev
• V (record talking) kaw Ius
repair V (repair, fix. cure. heal someone) kho
recover V (from illness) zoo mob. kho zoo lawm
repeat V (say again) hais dna
red 0 (V be red) liab
repeatedly ADV pheej
• N (red color) xim liab
replace V (replace. change. exchange) bioov. pauv
rednce V (reduce. take some away) qee tawm
•(reduce/lowerprice) luv nqi/nqe • V (replace with. exchange for another) txauv
I �'

I
I 27 1

I reply V (reply, answer) teb road N (road, path, street, way) [txoj] key
• N [10] Ius teb
roast V (roast, bake, barbecue, toast) ci
I request V (request, ask for, beg) thov
rock N (rock, stone) [lub]pnb zeb
respect N saib taus
roll V (roll along, roll something along) dov
I
• V txhawb nqa
• V (roll over and over, roll along) ntog
rest V (rest, relax, take a break) so • V (roll up into a roll, wind around) kauv
• N (the rest of) dna Ii coy • V (roll up as a sleeve) qaws

I restaurant N [lub] tsev noj mov roofN [lub] rulruv (tsev)

restroom N [lub]tsev dej, chav tawm rooj, (L) room N (a room) [lub] chav (tsev), kem (tsev)

I hoob nab
return V (return) roy
rooster N [tus]lau qaib
root N [tus] cag
• V (come back) roy (qab) los/tuaj
I • V (go back) roy (qab) mus rope N (rope, string) [txoj]blua
reverse (N Hmong reverse applique needlework) paj rot V (rot, be rotten, destroy) Iwj
ntaub txiav
I rib N [tus] tav
rough (V be rough, not smooth, free of extraneous
matter) tsis du
rice N (cooked rice) mov round (V be round, circular) kheej
I • N (unhulled rice) nplej
• N (hulled, uncooked rice) txhuv roundtrip (N roundtrip ticket ) daim pib mus thiab
• N (finished, ready to eat rice) mov siav
los

I • N (glutinous/sticky rice) mov nplaum

• (N rice bowl) [lub] ntim
row V (a boat) nquam

• (N rice cake) [lub]ncuav rub V (chafe, rub, rub vigorously) tshiav

I • (N rice noodles, small) peev choj • V (rub, rub off, massage) mos
• (N rice noodles, large) fawm • V (rub lightly, brush off, stroke, caress) plhws
• (N rice paddy) [daim]liaj rubber N roj hmab
• (N rice plant) tsob nplej
I • (N rice steamer) [lub] tsu
• (N treadntill for dehuskingrice) [lub]cos
rude (V not be pnlite) tsis paub cai
rug N [daim] ntaub,pua taw rooj

I rich (V be rich, wealthy) muaj nyiaj

ride V caij
ruin V (ruin, destroy, spnilsomething) ua kom puas
• (V be ruined, destroyed, useless, spniled) puas
V (give a ride to, transpnrt) thauj lawm
ridge N (mountain ridge) [lub] caj roob rnle V (rule, govern) kav, tswj
• N (a rule, law) [txoj] key cai
rifle N (gnu) [rab]phom
ruler N (person governing, official) [tus] nom tswv
right (N, ADV direction) sab xis • N (for measuring) [tus]pas ntsnas
• (V be correct) raug, yog, thwj
rnn V khiav
ring N (jewelry) [lub, ntiv] nplhaib • (nose running) los ntswg
• V (ring, make a noise) nrov
• V (for ears to ring, cry) quaj
rinse V yaug s
rip V (rip, tear intentionally) dna
• V (rip, tear, be tom) ntuag sack N (sack, bag, pocket, purse) [lub] hnab
ripe (V be ripe, ripen, not raw, not uncooked, boiled sacrifice V (offer animal sacrifice to spirits) txi dab
for water) siav
sad (V be sad, worried, depressed) to siab
rise V (go up, climb) nce • (V be sad, lonely, homesick) kho siab
• V (get up, go up, stand up) sawv • (V be sad, sickly, weak) minas
river N tus dej sail V (sail a boat) tsav nkoj
272

sailboat N [lub] nkoj cua scarf N [txoj] phuam qhwv caj dab, phuam kauv caj
dIb
salary N nyiaj hIi
school N [lub] tsev kawm ntawv
sale 01 be on sale at lower price) luv nqi/nqe
scissors N [rab] ruab
salt N ntsev
scold V cam
saltless (V be saltless, tasteless) tsuag
scratch V (scratch, scratch out, dig, hoe) khawb
salty 01 be excessively salty) daw utseY
• (V be tastily salty) qab ntsev scream V qw (quaj)
same (A D V the same, similar, the same as, like) ib screw N [tus] ntsia thawv ntswj
yam (Ii), ib yam okaus Ii, tib yam, luag ib yam
screwdriver N [tus] qhib ntsia
• (V be the same as/like/equal to each other) sib
luag scrub V (scrub with friction, brush) txbuam
• (V be almost exactly the same) yuav luag ib yam • V (scrub, rub, rub with hands in water) zawv
• 01 be the same, similar, like,AD V like, CONI
like, as) zoo Ii sea N (sea, ocean) [lub] dej hiav txwv
• (V be the same, the same as) zoo ib yam Ii search V (search for, look for, [try to] find) nrhiav
sand N suab zeb • V (search out, hunt for) tshawb
• V (search for something among other things)
sandal N [lub, okawm for pair] khau khiab fawb
satisfied 01 be satisfied) hum siab seashore N [lub] ntug hiav txwv
• 01 be satisfied,AD V satisfactorily) tas siab
season N (season of the year) [lub] caij ntuj
• 01 be satisfied, full) puv siab
• N (season, time, period) [lub] caij
• 01 be satisfied according to wish) dhos siab
• (V be appeased) siab nqig/nqeg seat N (place to sit) [lub] chaw zaum
• 01 be happy) qab siab, zoo siab • N (chair) (lub] rooj zaum
• 01 be pleased) raug siab, siab kaj, kaj siab
seatbelt N [txoj] siv pay duav
satisfy V ua kom txaus siab, ua kom zoo siab
second (V be second) thib ob
Saturday N [lub] Hnub rau, Hnub vas xaum • (second year) xyoo ob
sausage N [txoj] hnyuv ntxwm • Q (a second, another, other, next) Iwm
• N (a second, moment) ib pliag
save V (save, put aside, be surplus) tshaj
• V (save, put aside for Use) txawm secretary N [tus] kws ntawv
• V (save, preserve, care for, keep in good see V (physical perception) pom
condition) txuag • V (see if/whether) saib (puas)
• V (put away, put aside, store ) cia • V ([go] see, visit, watch, look at) xyuas (saib)
• V (pick up and store away) khaws cia • (see you later, good-bye) sib ntsib dua
• V (save, store up) ceev (tau cia)
• V (save money) tseg tau nyiaj seed N (lub] noob
• V (save someone, rescue) cawm seem V (seem, appear, be like, be similar, be the
saw N (tool) [rab] kaw same) zoo Ii
• V (to saw) kaw seizure 01 have a seizure, epilepsy) qaug dab peg'
say V (say, pronounce, speak, tell) hais seldomAD V tsawg zaus kawg
sayings N (a saying) txoj Ius select V (select, choose, pick) xaiv
• (CLF for sayings, speeches, poems, etc,) zaj
• (a traditional saying, proverb, flowery/elegant selfish (V be selfish) qia dub
speec h) [zaj] paj Ius/lug sell V muag
scare V ua kom ntshai
• 01 be scared, afraid, fear) ntshai
• 01 be scared) poob siab
• 01 be scared, afraid of pllllishment) siab xob
 273

I send V (send something) xa shape V (shape, mold, form with hands, flatten)
• V (send someone on a trip, errand) xa _ mus puab

I
• V (send someome on an errand) kom mus
_ • N (shape, picture) [tus] duab
• V (send someone to dollet someone go do • N (shape, body) [lub] cev
something) tso _ mus
share V sib faib
• V (send on a mission, errand) txib
I sentence N (grammar) zaj Ius, [txoj] kab lusllug
sharp (V be sharp physically, mentally) ntse
• N (court judgment) Ius txiav txim shave V cbais, cbais plaub

I sense V (sense, feel, smell, hear) hnov

separate V (to separate, separate from, divorce,
she PRO (she, OBJ her, OBJ herself, he, him, OBJ
himself, it, OBJ itself) nws
divide)ncaim sheep N [tus] yaj
I September N [lub] cuaj h1is ntuj sheet (CLF for sheets, flat things) daim
• (sheet of paper) daim ntawv
serious (V be serious) tsis nyiam tso dag
I
• N (bedsheet) [daimjpam pua chaw
servant N (servant, slave) [tus] qhev
shelf N txee [lub]
• N (female servant) [tus] nkauj qhe
• N (small storage shelf over fire in Hmong house)

I
• N (male servant) [tus] tub qhev, tub mab tub qhe
[lub] qab nthab
set V (set, place, set free, release, relinquish, allow,
shin N [lub] roob hlaub
let, permit) tso

I • V (set/put aside, store, put away, save) cia

• V (set aside/down, liftoff and set to one side)
shine V (shine, be bright) ci
ship N (ship, boat) [lub] nkoj
tsaws

I
• V (set aside, leave, abandon, elimiuate, reject, shirt N (any upper body garment with sleeves) [lub]
cast away) tseg tsho
• V (set a fire) hlawv
• V (set free) daws, tso shiver V tshee, ua tshee tshee

I • V (set up, set upright, raise up, establish) tsa • V (shiver from cold) no tshee
shoe N [tus for one, nkawm for pair] khau
seven Qxya
• (V put on, wear shoes, boots, gloves, leg
I seventeen Qkaum xya
seventeenth (V be seventeenth) thibkaum xya
wrappings, socks) rau
shoelace N [txoj] hlua khau

I seventh (V be seventh) thib xya

seventieth (V be seventieth) thib xya caum
shoot V (shoot, kill) tua
• V (shoot with a gun) tua phom
• N (bamboo shoot) [tus] ntsuag xyoob

I seventy Qxya caum

sew V xaws
shop N (shup, store) [lub] tsev muag khoum
• V (go shopping) kay khw
• N (sewing machine) [lub] tshuab xaws khaub
I ncaws shore N [lub] ntug (dej)

shade N ntxoov ntxoo, ntxoov duab, duab ntxoov short (V be. short horizontally) luv
• V ntxoov • (V be short vertically) qis

I shadow N [tus] duab (ntxoov), ntxoov duab

• (V be short in stature) qeg/qig (taub)
• (N short time) sij hawm tsis ntev
• (V be short-tempered) siab luv
shady (V be shady, shaded, cloudy, overcast) ntxoov
ntxoo shorts N [lub] ris luv
shake V (shake, sway, quake, move tu and fro) co should V (must) yuav tsum
• V (shake, swing from side to side, wave, quiver)
I yoj shoulder N [lub] xub pwg

shallow (V be shallow as water) ntiav shout V (shout, scream) qw

• V (shout, cry out loudly) nthe
shaman N [tus] txiv neeb
shovel N [rab] duav hlau

I
 274

show V ua (kom) pom six Q rau

o V (with hand) ua tes taw
sixteen Q kaum rau
o V (show,advise, explain, infonn, teach, tell)
qhia sixteenth (V be sixteenth) thib kaum rau
o V (put on a show) ua yeeb yam
sixth (V be sixth) thib rau
shower V (bathe) da dej
sixtieth (V be sixtieth) thib rau caum
shrimp N [tus] cws
sixty Q rau caum
shut V (shut, close,be closed, be tumed off, lock,be
locked)kaw size N hom loj me
o V (shut as eyes) qe skillet N (frying pan) [lub] yias
s h y (V be shy,embarrassed,ashamed) txaj muag skin N (skin of personlanimal, hide, leather) [daim]
sick (V be sick) mob, tsis xis nyob tawv
o N (skin of person) [daim] cev/tawv nqaij
side N (side of something, direction) sab o N (skin of a fruit) [dalm ] tawv (txiv) ntoo
o N (side in a contlict, side of a place) tog o V (remove skin) laws tawv
sign N (sign, mark, seal, stamp) [lub] cim skinny (V be skinny, thin) yuag
o V (sign one's name) sau npe,kos npe, ntaus cim
skirt N [daim] tiab
npe
o V (use sign language) piav tes skull N [lub] pob txha taub bau, khauj khaum taub
silly (V be crazy) vwm han
o (V be stupid, foolish, dumb,unintelligent) ruaru sky N [lub] utuj
sil ver N (silver metal, money) nyiaj sleep V pw tsaug zog
o (N silver color, V be silver in color) xim nyiaj o V (lie down, often used to imply sleep) pw
similar (V be similar, like, the same,AD V like, o N (sleeping bag) [lub] hnab pw
CON] like, as) zoo Ii, xws Ii sleepy (V be sleepy) tsang tsaug zog
o (AD V similar, the same [as], like) (zoo/xws) ib
yarn (Ii), ib yarn nkaus (Ii), tib yam, luag ib yarn sleeve N [lub] tsho tes
slice V (slice, cut with slicing motion) blais, suam
simple (V be simple,easy) yooj yim,tsis nyaub slowAD V (slow, slowly) qeeb, maj mam
since PREP (time) txij puag thaum, txij Ii (thaum) small (V be small) me, nyuag, nyuam, tsawg, me
o CON] (because) rau qhov, vim nyuam
sing V (sing a song) hu nkauj smart (V be smart, intelligent, sharp) ntse
o (V sing a Hwong ballad) hais kwv txhiaj o (V be smart, clever, wise, have a plan) muaj tswj
single Q(a single, one) tib yim
o Q(a single, lone) twm smear V (smear, spread liqnid [such as paint/oil]
o (only/just one) ib + CLF _ ukaus xwb over a surface) pleev
sink N (sink, bathtub, tub) [lub] dab dej, smell V (smell something, sniff at) hnia
o N (sink for washing face) [lub] dab ntxuav muag, o V (sense, be conscious of odor) hnov (tsw)
o N (sink for washing dishes) [lub] dab ntxuav tais o V (smell bad) tsw tsw, Isis tsw qab
diav o V (smell good) tsw tsw qab
o V (as of a boat) tog o N (a smell) ntxhiab
sister o N (a bad smell) tsw ntxhiab
o N (female's sister) [tus] viv neaus smile V luag ntxhi,luag (nyuv) nyav
o N (female'S older sister) [tus] niarn laus
o N (female's younger sister) [tus] niarn bluas smoke V (smoke a cigarette) haus luam yeeb
o N (males's sister) [tus] muam o V (produce smoke) ncho pa
o N (male's youngest sister) [tus] muam ntxawm o Npa taws
o N (female's sister-in-law) [tus] tis nyab o N (smoke,haze) faj suab
o N (male's sister-in-law) [tus] muam o (V be smoky) pob pob Ii
slt V zaum
I 275

I smooth(V be smooth. level. clear of extraneous son N [IUs](me nyuam) tub

matter)du • N(son-in-law) [lus] vauv

I snail N [lus] qwj song N(zaj) nkauj

• N(Hmong ballad) kwv txhiaj
snake N [lus] nab
soon ADV(soon. not long from now) sm sm saum
sneeze V txham
I snow N(snow. ice. frost) [COy] te
no, tsis ntev sawn no
• ADV(in a moment. second. instant) ib pliag. tib
• N(less common words for snow) npu. daus(xib pliag xwb

I daus npu)
• V los te/daus
• ADV(in around an hour) ib chim
• ADV(from an hour to a day) ib tsam
• ADV(less than ib tsam) ib me tsam
s o CONJ(so [then])ces
I • CONJ(so. so then, therefore. consequently.
thus. thereby) thiaj Ii
sore(V be sore. hurt. be sick) mob
• V(have a sore throat)mob qa
• CONJ(so. and so. therefore. and then)ho • N( a sore) [lub] qhov txhab
I • ADV(so that. in order to) kom. yuav kom
• ADV(so _ to such a great extent)_
sorry(be sorry. sad. worried. depressed)tu siab
•
. ua •(I'm sorry. excuse me) thov rum
luaj •(I'm sorry to express condolence) kuv nrog/pab
• ADV (so much. as much/many as. really) diam
I koj tu siab
soap N [lub] (L) xaj npus. xum npum. xu npus. xos sort N(sort. type. kind) hom. yam
npus
I soccer (V play soccer. lit. kick a ball in play) ncaws
soul N(human soul/spirit) [lus] plig. ntsuj (Plig)
•(Hmong ceremony for calling the soul/spirit) hu
pob (ua si)
plig .. .

I sock N [txhais for one. nkawm for pair] thorn khwm

• (V wear. put on socks. boots. gloves. leg
sound N(sound. noise. lone in tone language. voice)
[lub] suab
wrappings. shoes) rau • (N sound. noise; V make a sound. ring. be loud)
I sofa N [lub] rooj zaum ntev nrov

soft (V be soft. fme. small. young and tender) mos soup N(vegetable)kua zaub. zaubhau
•(V be soft. tender. pliable. weak)muag sour(V be sour)qaub
soli N(soil. dirt. earth. ground. floor) av sou th (N name of direction) sab qab teb
soldier N [lus] tub rog.(L) [lus] thab ham • PREP(to/at/in the south. downhill. below) nram
• ADV(to/at/in the south. downhill. below)urad
some Q ib co ib qho. tej. puav. qee. ib kuag. ib
.•

txhia soyhean N [lub] taum pauv

somehow ADV ua Ii cas los tsis paub spare(N spare time)sij hawm tsis ua dab tsi

someone PRO (someone/body) ib tug speak V(speak. pronounce. say. telI)hais

• (N someone. a person)ib tug neeg • V(speak, speak words) hais Ius
• PRO (used in statements. questions: • V(speak of/to. converse. chat)(sib) tham
someone/body. anyone/body [+ NEG on V for • V(speak for/on behalf of. inteIpCet. translate)
NEG meaning]. no one/body [+ NEG on V]. txiv Ius
who) leej twg
speech N(a speech)zaj Ius
something PRO ib yam dab tsi speed N [txoj] key ceev
• PRO(used in statements. questions: something.
anything [+ NEG on V for NEG meaning]. spell V(spell out letter by letter) hais ib tug ntawv
nothing [+ NEG on V]. what) dab tsi. ab tsi zujzus
• V(be spelled/written. write) sau
sometimes ADV tej zaug. zaus puav. qee zaus
spend V(spend. use)siv
somewhere ADV ib qhov chaw twg los yog
• PRO (used in statements. questions: spice N(spice. condiment. herb) txuj 10m
somewhere. anywhere [+ NEG on V for NEG
spicy (V be spicy. not bland) ntsim
meaning]. nowhere [+ NEG on V]. where) qhov
twg spider N [lus] kab laug sab
 276

spill V (spill, pour)nchuav steel N klIb, kab (ntaus)b1au

• (spill something)ua _ nchuav
step N (a step vertically)qib/qeb
spirit N (human spirit/soul) [tus] plig, ntsuj (Plig) • N (step, steps, levels of ascent, story
. of
• V (Hmong ceremouy for calling the spirit/soul) building, layer)theem
hu plig • N (a step in walking, in a situatiou, procedure)
• N (a spirit) [tus] dab roam
• N (fiiendly or familiar spirits)neeb • V (take steps in walking) tshais roam
• V (do Hmong spirit rites)ua neeb, ua dab • V (step on, trample) tsuj
spit N (spit, spittle) [lawb] qaub ncaug stepdanghter N [tus] ntxhais tshiab
spoonN [rab]diav stepfather N!xiv tshiab
spread V (spread, smear liquid [such as paint/oil]
. stepmother N niam tshiab
over a surface)pleev
stepson N [tus] tub tshiab
• V (spread, increase, prosper)huam
stick N (stick, rod, cane) [lub]pas
spring N (season) [lub] caij (ntuj) nplooj ntoos b1av
• V (stick onito, be stuck to) 10
squash N [lub] taub
sticky (V be sticky, gluey, glutinous)nplaum
squat V zaum khooj ywb • ( N sticky/glutinous rice)mov nplaum
squirrel N [tus] nas ncuav stiff (V be stiff, hard, tough)tawv
stable N (stable, pen, enclosure, jail) [lub] nkuaj still ADV (time)tseem
• ADV (still more, more so, comparative degree)
stair N (stair, staircase, ladder) [tus] ntaiv
haj yarn
stamp N (postage)[daim]nqi/nqexa ntawv • (V be still, quiet, silent) ntsiag{to)
• N (Slamp, mark, seal, sign)[lub] cim • (V be still, quiet) twj ywm
stand (V stand up, get up, rise)sawv sting V plev
• V (stand up/upright)sawv ntsug
stir V (stir, mix) do
• V (be standing, stand erect, upright, stand
something erect) ores stomach N (stomach, abdomen)[lub] plab
• V (stand slill)nres zog
stomachache (V have a stomachache)mob plab
star N [lub] bnub qub
stone N (stone, rock) [lub] pob zeb
stare V (stare at)ntsia ntsoov • V (be of stone)zeb
• V (stare at, look at, gaze)ntsia
stool N [lub] tog
start V (start, begin)pib
• V (start, begin, originate) chiv stop V (motion, situation) mes
• V (stop from, prevent from action, rebuke,
startle V (startle, scare, frighten, intimidate)hem forbid)txwv
• (V be startled)ras dheev • V (stop, cease, end) tsum
• (V be startled, surprised)xooj • V (Stop it! Enough!) tsum lawm
• (V be startled, dazed, confused, subdued) yoog
store N [lub] tsev muag khoom
zog
• (V be startled, surprised, frightened, tense)ceeb • N (market) [lub] khw, (L)tab laj
• V (store, put aside, put away)cia
state N (as CaIifornia, province)[lub]xeev
storm N cua daj cua dub
stay V (stay, be at, live, be alive)nyob • V los nag los cua blob blob, los los nag thiab
cua daj cua dub blob blob
steal V (steal, do secretly)nyiag
story N (folk tale) [zaj] dab neeg
steam V cub
• N (story in a building, layer, level, step)theem
• V (place beside the fIre to steam and soften)ncu
• N (story in a building, layer, level, tier) txheej
• Npa dej
• N (steam from rice, a pot, condensed moisture, stove N (stove, fIreplace for cooking)[lub] qhov cub
perspiration, sweat)hws
straight (V be straight, honest)neaj
steamer N (rice steamer)[lub] tsu
strange,(V lit be different)txawv
I 277

I stranger N [tus] qhua sure (V to be sure of something) muaj tseeb, paub

tseeb
strawberry N (lub] txiv pos (liab), txiv plauj
surgery (V do surgery, operate) phais mob
street N (street, road, path, way) [txoj] key
oV (do surgery, cut open, operate) phais
strength N (lub] zog
surname N (surname, last name, clan) (lub] xeem
string N (string, rope) [txoj] hlua
surpass (V surpass, ADV more than most, N
oN (string, thread, wire) [txoj] xov
,

surplus, profit) tshaj

striped (V be striped, multicolored) (xim) txaij o(V surpass, ADV more than again) dna
,

oV (surpass, exceed, pass [by/through], cross

strong (V be strong) muaj zog over)dhau
student N (female) [tus] ntxhais kawm ntawv surprise V ua kom ceeb
oN (male) [tus] tub kawm ntawv o(V be surprised, startled) ceeb, xooj
oN (students) tub ntxhais kawm ntawv
surround V (surround, be around) nyob ncig
I study V kawm
oV (study using books) kawm ntawv swallow V nqos
stump N (tree stump) (lub] pob ntoos, hauv paus sweat N (sweat, condensed moisture, perspiration,
I ntoo steam from rice, a pot) hws
oV tawm hws
stupid (V be stupid, dumb, foolish, unintelligent)
ruam sweater N (lub] tsho tiv no me, tsho ntaub tiv no
o(V be stupid, dazed, confused) bah
sweep V cheb
subject N (subject matter) (lub] ntsiab (Ius)
sweet (V taste sweet) qab zib
I succeed V ua tau zoo o(N sweet potato) (lub] qos yaj ywm liab
sucb (V lit. be like that) yog zoo li ntawd swell V (swell, be swollen, inflamed) 0

I suddenly ADV dheev

oADV (occur suddenly, in an instant) pliag ntshis
swim V ua luam dej

suffer V (snffer pain) sab

I oV (snffer, encounter, incur, be affiicted with)
raug
T

TB (V have tuberculosis) mob ntsws

I
sufficient (be snfficient, enough) txaus
o(have a TB skin test) bno tsuaj sim key mob
sugar N piam thaj ntsws
oN (sugar cane) kab tsib

I suit N (pants and jacket) (cev) ris tsho loj

table N (table, furniture) (lub] rooj
tableclotb N [daim] ntaub pua rooj
suitcase N (lub] bnab tawv rau khaub ncaws

I oN (suitcase, stomge box) (lub] phij xab tail N [tus] tw, ko tw

summer N (lub] caij (ntuj) soy take V (take, have in hand) muab
oV (take from) muab ntawm los

I
sun N (sun, day) (lub] bnub oV (take hold of, make use of) xua.
o(suntanned) ziab tshav oV (take in the hand, grasp, hold with the hand)
Snnday N (lub] Hnub chiv, Hnub ib, Hnub vas thiv tuav

I
oV (take off, remove, as clothes) hie
sunflower N (lub] paj noob hlis o V (take _ somewhere) coj _ mus
sunrise N (lub] bnub tuaj oV (take to, give to) muab mu
oV (take to, carry to) nqa _ mus
I sunset N (lub] bnub poob oV (take an amount of time, use) siv
oV (take a bath, shower) da dej
sunsbine N (sunshine, sunlight, daylight) tshav
oV (take care of, watch, guard, as children) zov
I
ntuj
oV (take care of) tu
supervisor N tus saib oV (take care of and feed, raise, for humans to
give birth) yug
supper N (Pluas) luno
I
I
,
 278

• V (take/use medicine)siv tshuaj • V (have a temperature, fever)ua npaws, lub cev

• V (take solid medicine,eat)noj kub, kub ib ce
• V (take liquid medicine,drink) haus
ten Qkaum
• V (take pictures)yees duab,(L)lhaij duab
• Q(ten thousand)(ib)Yam
tale N (folk tale,story) [zaj] dab neeg
tender (V be tender,fine,small,soft) mos
talk V (talk, speak,say) hais (Ius) • (V be tender,soft,pliable,weak)muag
• V (talk with, chat, converse) (sib)!ham
tendon N [txoj] sawv
• V (talk about) !ham txog,hais txog
tennis (V play tenuis) ntaus pob tes uiv
tall (V be tall) siab
tenth (V be tenth) thib kaum
tamarind N [lub] txiv quay
• Q(fraction a tenth)feem kaum
tape N (cassette)daim kaw Ius,kas xev
test N [txoj] key sim
• V (record)kaw
• V (put to a test, try) sim
• (N tape recorder/player)[lub] thej
• V (see how something will work out) ,aib yuav
taste V (take a taste,sample) saj teb Ii cas
• V (taste good) qab • V (take a test)xeem

taxes N se testicle N (may be offensively explicit)[lub] noob

tea N (liquid)dej tshuaj yej,dej ces qes
• N (euphemism for male/female geuital area,
• N (tea leaves)nplooj ces
geuitals,groin)qhov chaw mos
teach V (teach,advise, explain, inform, show, tell)
Thai (V be Thai)Thaib
qhia • N (Thai language) Ius Thaib
teacher N [Ius] xib fwb/hwb qhia ntawv,(L)nais • N (fhai person) [Ius] neeg Thaib
khus
Thailand N [lub] Thaib teb,Teb chaw, Thaib
• N (teacher,miuister,pastor,professor) [Ius] xib
fwb/hwb than (ADV more than, again,V surpass, used to
form comparative)dua
teapot N [lub] fwj, fwj dej tshuaj yej,lauj kaub rau
ceo thank (thank you)ua tsaug
tear V (tear,be tom)ntuag that DEM (nearby)ntawd
• V (tear/rip intentionally,be tom by something) • PRO (nearby)eLF + ntawd
dua • DEM (near hearer)ko
• V (tear off as of banana leaf off its main rib) • PRO (near hearer) eLF + ko
ntshi • (CONJ that, V say that) (hai') tias
• V (tear down,dismantle)rhuav • (CONJ that,relative clause marker that,who,
whom,which) uas
tear N (from eye)kua muag
their POSS (for 2) nkawd + CLF for most nouns
tease V (tease,pester)ze.
• ross (for 3 or more)lawv + eLF for most
telegram N tsab xov ntaus, [tsab] ntawv xov tooj nouns
• V (send a telegram)ntaus xov tooj
theirs PRO (for 2) nkawd Ii
telephone N [lub] xov tooj,(E) te.les foos • PRO (for 3 or more)lawv Ii
• N (pay telephone) [lub] xov tooj siv nyiag
them PRO (they,them for 2) nkawd
• N (telepbone book) phau ntawv xov tooj
• PRO (they, them, usually for 3 or more)lawv
• V (call someone on the telephone)hu xov tooj
• PRO (them,they,others,especially for vague·
television N [lub] txais duab ua zog,(E) thi vi reference)luag (tej)
tell V (tell, pronounce,say,speak)hais themselves PRO (OBJ for 2) nkawd
• V (tell,advise,explain,inform,show,teach) • (emphatic reflexive as in do by oneself)nkawd
qhia lus kheej
• V (tell a story,narrate,talk about)piav • (OBJ for 3 pr more)lawv
• V (tell someone to do something,cause)kom • (emphatic reflexive as in do by oneself) lawv tus
kheej
temperature (as of air) [txoj] key kub no
• N (fever)[Ius] npaws
I
279

Ii thenADV (at that time) thaum ntawd thirsty (V be thirsty) nqhis dej
oADV (then, after that, thereupon, consequently,
thirteen Q kaum peb

I
therefore)txawm
oAD V (and then, therefore, so) ho thirteenth (V be thirtecnth)-thib kaum peb
oAD V (so then, therefore, consequently, thereby)
thiaj (Ii) thirtieth (V be thirtieth) thib peb caug

I oAD V (then, and then, so then) ces

oAD V ([so] then, in that case, therefore) mam Ii

thirty Q peb caug
this D EM no
there AD V (nearby)(qhov)ntawd
I
o PRO qhov no, eLF + no

oAD V (near hearer)(qhov)ko o (do this and that) na ub na no

oAD V (over there, farther than ntawd)(qhov)tod

oAD V (over there, farther than tod, across the

those PRO cov ntawd, tej ntawd, eLF + ntawd

I valley)(qhov)tid
oAD V (way over there) tom/tim ub
o PRO (near hearer) cov ko, tej ko, eLF + ko

thousand Q txhiab
oAD V (up there as of elevation, direction) ped
o Q (teu thousand) (ib) vam

I oAD V (up there above, on top of) saud

oAD V (down there)nrad
o Q (twenty thousand) ob vam

thread N (thread, string, wire) [txoj] xov

thereby AD V (thereby, thus, therefore, so then,
I
o N (hemp thread for weaving) seb
consequently) thiaj (Ii)
three Q peb
therefore AD V (therefore, that being the case, thus)
throat N caj pas, qhov qa
I yogli ntawd
oAD V (therefore, so then, consequently, thus,
o N (inside and back of mouth) qa

thereby) thiaj (Ii) through (PREP through, across, V pass

oAD V (therefore, [so] then, in that case) mam Ii

I oAD V (therefore, after that, consequently, then,

thereupon) txawm
[throughlby] cross over, surpass, exceed) dhau
o (V pass through a place, cross)h1a (dhau)
o (V comelflow through) los ntawm

I thereupon AD V (thereupon, afteithat,

-

consequently, then, therefore)txawm

throw V (1 hand underhand)pov
o (Hmong New Year's ball throwing) pov pob

these PRO cov no, tej no, eLF + no o V ( 1 hand overhand)txawb

I they PRO (they, them, OBJ themselves for 2)nkawd'
o PRO (they, them, OBJ themselves usually for 3
o V (throw undethand)cuam
o V (throw, scatter) nphoo
o V (2 hand undethand, throw for water) ntov
or more) lawv
I
o V (throw up, vomit) ntuav
o PRO (they, them, others, especially for vague
o V (throw away) (pov) tseg
reference)lnag (tej)
thumb N [tus] ntiv tes xoo
thick (V be thick, as of book, board) tuab
I o (V for liquids to be thick) nyecm thunder V xob qnaj

thief N [tus] tub sab Thursday N [lub] Hnub tsib, Hnub phaj hav

I thigh N [txhais] ncej puab thus AD V (thus, therefore, so then, consequently,

thereby) thiaj (Ii) .
thin (V be thin vs. thick) nyias oAD V (thus, that being· the case, therefore) yog Ii
I
o (V for a person, animal to be thin, skinny,
ntawd
emaciated)yuag
o (V for liquids to be thin) sab ticket N daim pib

I thing N (thing, object) khoom

o N (thing, kind, sort, varietY) yam
tie V (tie, bind) khi
o (ceremonial tying of strings on wrists) khi tes,

o N (thing, article, point in a speech) qhov khi h1ua

I o N (things in general, articles) qhov txhia chaw

th ink V ( think that) xav tias

tiger N [tus] tsov
tight (V be tight) ceev
o (V think about) xav txog

I o (V think about someone/place withlonging) nco

txog
third (V be third) thib peb
I
I
280

time N (lime as an entity) [lub] sij hawm toothache (V have a toothache) mob hniav
o N (time of day, hour, o'clock) teev, (L) moos
toothbrush N rab txhuam hniav
o (What time is it?) Pes tsawg moos lawm?
o N (number of limes, an occasion) zaus toothpaste N tshuaj txhuam hniav
o N (next/another time) Iwm zaus
o N (first time) thawj zaug top N (top/back side 01) qaum
o N (top, tip, end)[lub] ntsis
o (have free/leisure time to do sometlring) muaj
o PREP (on top of, above) (nyob) saum
khoom
o N (Hmong toy spinning top) [lub] tuj lub
o N (time of year, season, period, era) [lub] caij

o N (period of lime) yay touch V (touch, handle, feel with hands) kov
o N (lime, age, a person's age) [lub] bnub o V (physically be touching) chwv mug
nyoog/nyug
o (waste time) nkirn bnub nyoog
tough (V be tough, hard, stifl) tawv

tingle V (feel a tingling) rhiab okuav toward PREP (toward/s, to) rau

tire N (vehicle tire, wheel) [lub] log towel N [txoj] phuam (so cev)

tired (V be tired, lazy) nkees town N (town, small city, village) [lub] zos

t o PREP (to, toward) rau to Y N khoom ua si, yam ua si

o PREP (to [nearby], at) ntawm trade V (trade, change, exchange) pauv
o PREP (over to) tom
o PREP (over to, esp. laterally [farther than tom], tradition N hom key cai thaum ub
across the valley) tim train N [lub]tsheb ciav hlau
o PREP (up to [geographic elevation], up to the
north) pem tr anslate V txhais Ius
o PREP (down to [geographic elevation], down to
translator N [los] neeg txhais Ius
the south) mam
o PREP (to the point of, about, V arrive at) txog transport V nquam, thauj
toast V (toast, dry by the fIre) txhiab trap V (tmp, snare, make a trap) cuab
o V (toast, bake, barbecue, roast) ci
travel V (travel, follow a path) taug key
today N bnub no
tray N (bamboo tmy) [lub] vab
toe N [tus] ntiv taw
treatment N (medical) [txoj] key kho mob
toenail N [tus] taU taw
tree N (tree, wood) [los] ntoo
together ADV (together [with]) ua ke o N (tree foliage) tsob ntoo
o N (tree stump) [lub] pob ntoos, hauv paus ntoo
toilet N (toilet, toilet bowl) [lub] dab tawm rooj
o (at the base/in the shade of a tree) hauv tsob qab
tomato N [lub] txiv Iws suav, txiv Iws liab ntoos
tomorrow ADV (tomorrow, morning) tag kis frick V (trick, lie, cheat) dag
tone N (tone in tone language, noise, sound, voice) trip V (trip, fall down) ntog
suab o V (trip over something, stumble) dawm
o N (journey) [txoj] key taug key
tongue N [tus] nplaig
trouble N [txoj] key nyuab siab, (kev) plaub
tonight ADV hmo no o (V make trouble) thab (piaub)
too ADV (too, also, CONI and) thiab troublesome (V be troublesome, annoying,
o ADV (too, also, as well, moreover) kuj obnoxious, pesty) thab thab plaub
o ADV (too, likewise, the same) ib yam
o ADV (excessively _ ) _ hwv trough N (trough, basin, tub) [lub] dab
o (V be excessively ) dhau
truck N [los] tsheb thauj khoom
_ _

o (that's too bad, what a pity) khuv xim

true (V be true) tseeb, muaj (tseeb) tiag
tool N (tool, eqoipment, utensil, household good)
o (V be true, right, ADV really, truly) tiag
[lub] cuab yeej
o (V be true, right, be, exist) yog
tooth N [tus] hniav
I 281

trunk N (tree) [lub] cev ntoo, [IUs] cay ntoo u

• N (car) qhov quay tsheb rau kboom
• N (elephant) [IUs] coy n1xhw ugly (V be ugly, bad) phem, tsis zoo
trust V (trust in, believe) ntseeg ulcer N (ulcer, boil,abcess) [lub] rwj
• V (trust iu, have confidence in) muab siab rau,
tso siab rau umbilical (N umhilica1 cord) [txoj] blab ntaws

truth N [txoj] key tseeb umbrella N [lub] kaus

• (V carry umbrella, carry onIover head, wear, put
try V (try, attempt, test) sim on head) ntoo
tub N (tub, basin, trough) [lub] dab uncertain (V be uncertain) xyov
• N (tub, bathtub, sink) [lub] dab dej
unde N (father's older brother) [IUs] txiv blob
tuberculosis (V have tuberculosis, TB) mob utsws • N (father's younger brother) [IUs] txiv ntxawm
Tuesday N [lub] Hnub peb, Hnub vas as qhas • N (mother's brother) [IUs] dab laug
• N (father's sister's husband) [IUs] yij laug
turban N (Hmong woman's head wrap) [txoj] phuam • N (mother's sister's husband) [tus] yawm txiv
(V put on, wear, carry on/over head for head wrap, • N (term ofrespect for older man, paternal
hat, umbrella) ntoo grandfather, patemal grandfather's brother) [IUs]
o turkey N [IUs] qaib CoY txwv yawg

turn V (turn iu another direction) lem unconscious (V be unconscious) tsis nco qab lawm
• V (turn in another direction, revolve) tig uncooked (V be uncooked, fresh. green, as timber)
• V (turn around, spin, be spinning) kiv nyoos
• V (turn on, as a light, set a fire) taws
• V (turn on, as a light, open) qhib under PREP (under, underneath) hauv qab
• V (turn off, as of a light, kill , shoot) tua underpants N (women's) [lub] tiab me me
. • V (turn against, have cbange of heart) fay xeeb, • N (men's) [lub] ris xiv liv
ntxeev siab
• V (turn over, roll over, cbange over) ntxeev nnderstand V tu taub, nkag siab
• N (your turn) koj thib
underwear N ris tsho sab hauv
turnip N [lub] zaub lauj pwm
undress V (lit. take off clothes) ble ris tsho
turtle N [tus] vaub kib
unemployment N [txoj] key poob hauj lwm
twelfth (V be twelfth) thib kaum ob
unhappy (V be unhappy) tsis zoo siab, tsis qab siab
twelve Q kaum ob
United States N (America) As mes liv kas teb,
twentieth (V be twentieth) thib nees nkaum Teb chaws As mes liv kas, A mes lis kas, A me
I twenty Q nees nkaum
Ii kas, Mi Ii kas, Mi kas, Mis kas, Mis kuj

• Q (twenty thousand) ob Yam university N [lub] tsev kawm ntawv theem kawg,
tsev kawm ntawv qib siab
I twice ADV (twice, two times) ob zaug
• (twice as much) ob npaug unlock V (uulock, open, turn on) qhib
twin N (twin children) me nyuam ntxaib unsettled (V be unsettled in miud) siab n1xhov
I twist V (twist, be twisted, wriug) ntswj until PREP txog, mus txog
two Q ob unusual (V lit. be very different) txawv heev
I • Q (two or three, a few) ob peb
unwilling (V be unwilling) tsis kam
type V (typewrite) ntaus ntawv
up PREP (up in geographical elevation, inlup to the
• N (type, kind, sort) hom
I • N (type, kind, thing) yam
north, uphill) pem
• ADV (up there, uphill) ped
typewriter N [lub] tshuab ntaus ntawv • (V go up, ascend, climb) nce
• (V be upright) ntsug
I • (V stand upright) sawv ntsug
• (V stand up, rise, get up) sawv

I
 282

• (N Vietuamese person) [Ius] neeg Nyab laj

upset (V be upset} tsis txaus siab, nyuaj siab
• (V be upset, angry) chim village N (village, small city, town) [lub] zos
upstairs N theem saum toj vine N [txoj] hmab
urinate V tso zis violent (V be violent, intense, severe) heev
• (N a violent person) [tus] neeg siab heev heev
urine N [tawb] zis
virus N kab mob
u s PRO (us, we, OBr ourselves for 2) wb
• PRO (us, we, OBr ourselves for 3 oi more) peb visit V (visit, look at, watch, [go] see) xyuas (saib)
use V siv voice N [lub] (voice, noise, sound, tonein tone
• N (a use, usefulness, worthwhileness) qab hail language) suab
used (V be used to, familiar) swm vomi t V (vomit, throw up) ntuav
useful (V be useful) zoo siv vote V pov ntawv
• (V be useful, have a use) muaj qab hau
vnlva N (vulva, vagina, may be offensively explicit)
usuaI (V be usual, normal) (L) !has mab das [lub] pim, paum
ADV (as usual, like before) xws Ii qub • N (euphemism for female/male genital area,
genitals, groin) qhov chaw mos
usually ADV (usually, as usual, like before) raws Ii
ib txwm, raws Ii qub, xws Ii qub

w
v
wad N (wad, pile of money) phau nyiaj
vacation N [lub] caij so waist N [lub] duav
vaccinate V txbaj tshuaj wait V (wait [for], [go] meet) tos
vacuum N (vacuum cleaner) [lub] nqus tsev wake V (wake up, awaken) tsim
• V (wake someone up, get someone up, raise, set
vagina N (vagina, vulva, may be offensively
up, erect) tsa
explicit) [lub] pim, paum
• N (euphemism for female/male genital area, walk V mus kev, mns (ko) taw
genitals, groin) qhov chaw mos • (walk around) thuv
valley N [lub] hav wall N [daim] phab ntsa
N (river valley) [lub] kwj ha, hav dej
wallet N [lub] hnab tawv me
valuable (V be Valuable, worthy, suitable,
want V xav
appropriate) tsim nyog
• V (want, desire) yuav
. various (N various kinds of things, different kinds) • V (want to get) xav tau
yam ub yam no • V (want that, want someone to do something)
xav kom
vegetable N (leafy green and other non-legumes)
zailb war N rog, kev tsov (kev) rog, kev ua tsov ua rog,
• (Hmong vegetable soup) zaub tsuag kev sib ntaus sib tua,
• V (fight a war) ua rog, ua tsov ua rog, ntaus
vein N [txoj]hlab ntsha
rog, sib nlaus sib tua
venereal (N venereal disease, VD) [Ius for a case]
warm (V be warm) sov
mob kas cees, mob yees, mob uav
warn V ceeb toom
very ADV heev, kawg (nkaus (Ii»
wash V (wash outloff in water, as dishes, hands)
videocassette N [daim] kab xev vi eli aws
ntxuav
• (N videocassette recorder,VCR) [lub] tso mu vis
• (V wash, scrub, as clothes) ntxhua
Vietnam N Nyab laj teb, Teb chaws Nyab laj • (V wash by scrubbing/rubbing with hands in
water, e.g. rice, clothes) zawv
Vietnamese (V be Vietnamese) Njab laj • (N washing machine) [lub] tshuab ntxhua khaub
• (N Vietnamese language) Ius Nyab laj ncaws
I
I
r:
ref
-'
,0'" ,
;:;--· .
'

i 283

I' wasp N [IUs] nkawj

• N (of a child) cceb thawj
• (V lose weight) sem nqaij, yuag zuj zus
waste V nkim welcome V (welcome someone, receive) txais
I • (waste time) nkim hnub nyoog • (you're welcome) tsis ua (Ii) cas
watch N (timepiece) pub] teev, (L) moos well N (water) qhov dej
• (V wear, put on watch, bracelet, earrings,
I eyeglasses, necklace) coj
• V (watch, stare, gaze at) ntsia
• (V be weill good) zoo
• (V be well, fine, life going well) noj qab nyob
zoo
• V (watch, as TV, look at, observe, see) saib
I
• (ADV, well, topic/hesitation/encouraging
• V (watch, look at, [go] see, visit) xyuas (saib) imperative marker, CON] particle carrying
• V (watch, as children, guard) zov utterance forward, and) mas

I
water N (water, soda pop) dej west N (name of direction) sab hnub poob
• (N water buffalo) [IUs] twm
wet (V be wet) ntub (dej)
watermelon N pub] dib liab, dib dej

I wax N ciab
• N (beeswax) ciab ntab
what PRO (what, something, anything [+ NEG on
V for NEG meaning], nothing
' [+ NEG on V])
dab tsi, ab tsi
• (what/which
I way N (way, path, road, street) [txoj] kev _ ?) _ zoo Ii cas?
• (what/which kind?) yam zoo li cas?
we PRO (we, us, OBI ourselves for 2 people) wb
• PRO (we, us, OBI ourselves for 3 or more wheel N (wheel, tire) pub] log

I people)peb
weak (V be weak, lack strength) tsis muaj zog
when ADV (when in questions, whenever) thaum
twg
• (V be weak and unsteady on feet) qaug zog • (CON] in statements) thaum
I • (V be/feel weak, feeble, sickly) tsaug
• (V be weak, sickly, sad) mluas
where ADV (in questions) qhov twg
• (CON] in statements, as in I know [a place]
where) qhov chaw uas
I
wear V (wear, put on clothes [and neck scarves] on
main part of body but not head, hands, feet) hnav whether CON] (whether, if) yog
• V (wear, put on boots, gloves, leg wrappings, • (it makes no difference whether _ or not --->
socks, shoes) rau
I • V (wear, put on, wrap around waistfor belt,
sash) sia
_ tsis dua, tsis
_ tsis dua
whic h (general word compounded with other words
• V (wear, put on, carry on/over head for hat, head to form question words) twg
I wrap, umbrella) ntoo
• V (wear, put on bracelet, earrings, eyeglasses,
• (relative clause marker which, who, whom, that,
CON] that) uas
necklace, watch) coj
while ADV (time when) thaum uas
I weather N huab cua • ADV (a little while ago, just now) puag ta
weave V (baskets) hiab whisper V ntxhi

I
• V (cloth) ua ntos (ntaub)
white V (be white) dawb
wedding N tshoob • N (the color white) xim dawb
• (White Hmong) Hmoob Dawb
Wednesday N pub] Hnub plaub, (L) Hnub vas phuv
I weed N (vegetation, weeds) nroj
• (N egg white) pub] hli
who PRO (in questions: who, whom) twg twg
• V (pull weeds) dob nroj • PRO (in questions, statements: who, whom,
I • V (hoe out weeds) nthua nroj
week N pub] lim piam, (L) as thiv
someone/body, anyone/body [+ NEG on V for
NEG meaning], no one/body [+NEG on V]) leej
• (last week) pub] lim piam tag los, lim piam twg ,
I nram ntej
• (next week) pub] Iwm lim piam
• (relative clause marker who, whom, whose,
which, that, CON] that) uas
• (this week) pub] lim piam no whole Q (whole, entire, complete, all) tas/g nrho
I weigh V (weigh something) luj
• V (have a certain weight) hnyav
• Q(whole, entire, all, every, each) txbua
• (in special expressions: whole, entire, as in my
whole body) kheej
weight N qhov hnyav
I
•
 284

whom PRO (in questions: whom, who) twg twg wisdom (V to have reached the age of wisdom) siab
• PRO (in questions, statements: whom, who, nthuav
someone/body, anyone/body [+ NEG on V for
wi s e (V be wise, intelligent, sharp) ntse
NEG meaning], no one/body [+ NEG on V]) leej
twg wish V thov (kom), hawm, thov hawm
• (relative clause marker whom, who, whose,
which, that; CONJ that) uas with (PREP for accompaniment, V accompany) Drog
• (instrument sense expressed by a serial verb
whose PRO (used in questions) leej twg Ii phrase with a verb such as muab 'take', siv 'use'
• (relative clause marker whose, who, whom, + the instrument noun; e,g. Muab rab riam hIais
which, that; CONJ that) uas nqaij 'Slice the meat with the knife')
why ADV (in questions) vim Ii cas, ua (Ii) cas within PREP (within, in) hauv
• ADV (why in statements, because) vim, vim
chij, vim yog Ii no without (V not to have) tsis muaj
• (V not to accompany) tsis Drog
wicked (V be wicked, evil, cruel) siab dub siab txia
ntshav wok N (wok, frying pan) [Iub] yias
• (V be wicked, evil, bad, ugly) phem woman N [lus] poj niarn
wide (V be wide) day womb N (womb, uterus) [Iub] tsev me nyuam
widow N [lus] poj ntsuam wood N (wood, tree) ntoo
widower N [lus] yawg ntsuag • N (firewood) [tsuam for bunches] taws
• N (one log of firewood) ib ya cav taws
wife N [tus] poj niarn
• N (older/lst wife) [tus] niarn hIob
woods N (woods, [smaIl] forest/jungle) [Iub] hay
• N (younger/2nd wife) [lus] niarn yau zoov (me me)

wild (V be wild, untamed) qus wool N (wool cloth) ntaub plaub tsiaj
• (wild animals) tsiaj qus word N [10] Ius
w i ll V (marker offuture or unfulfilled, unrealized work N [txoj] hauj lwm
situations) yuav , • V ua hauj lwm
• V (will as in volunteering, agreeing, deciding to
do; one thingto happen after another) marn (Ii) worker N [lus] neeg ua hauj lwm
• V (be willing) kam world N [Iub] ntiaj teb
win V yeej worm N [lus] cuanab
• (win a war/battle) ntaus rog yeej lawm
worry V(worry, be concemed, distressed, anxious)
wind N [nthwv for gust] cua txhawj
wind V (wind around, roll up) kauv • (V be worried, have cares) nyuaj siab
• (V be worried, scared, frightened) poob siab
window N [Iub] qhov rai/rais
worse (V be worse, more evi1lwickedlugly) phem
windy (V be windy) cua hIob dna
win e N cawv qab zib worst (V be the worst, most evil, wicked, ugly)
• N (wine, alcohol) cawv phem tshaj
wing N [tus, phob, sah] tis worth V (be worth/cost some price) muaj nqi/nqe,
winnow V tsoov raugnqi/nqe

winter N [Iub] caij (ntuj) no worthwhile (V be worthwhile, important) tseem

ceeb
wip e V (wipe, wipe away, erase) so • (V be worthwhile, worthy of, valuable, snitable,
• (wipe one's nose) so ntswg appropriate) tsim nyog
• (wipe away tears) so kua muag
wire N [txoj] hIua hIau
-,�
• N (wire, string, thread) [txoj] xov
 285

wouud N (wound, injury) [lub] qhov txhab, qhov yes ADV (for acknowledgment or agreement with
raug mob, qhov raug sab what has been said) aws
• V (wound, injure someone) ua sab, ua raug _ • (for many question contexts repeat V from
sab question and optionally add polite particle mas)
• (V be wounded, injured, suffer pain, illness) raug • (\I be correct, exist, be) yog (mas)
mob
I wrap V (wrap, wrap up) qhwv
yesterday N nag hmo
yet ADV (yet, still) tseem
wrench N [tus] ciaj ntswj • (have not yet_ ) tseem tsis tau_, tseem
tsis tau
wrist N [lub] dab teg
• N (wrist bone) pob teg , yolk N [lub] nkaub qe
write V sau you PRO (you, OBI yourself for 1) koj
• PRO (you, OBI yourselves for 2) neb
writer N tus sau
• PRO (you, OBI yourselves for 3 or more) nej
wrong (V be wrong, incorrect) tsis yog, tsis raug • PRO (indefinite you, one, I ) yus
• (tu make a mistake) yuam kern
young (\I be young, younger in age) hluas
• (\I be young and tender for babies, vegetables, be
I x
soft) mos
• (V be younger in age, small) yau, yaus
• (N female's younger sister) [tus] niam hluas
• (N male's younger brother) [tus] kwv
xerox V (xerox, copy, photocopy, press, print) luam
• (N youngest daughter) ntxawm
'x-ray (II take an x-ray) thaij (yees) daim duab es xam • (N youngest son) ntxawg
les, thaij pob txha
I yam N (yam, sweet potato) [lub] qos liab
your POSS (for 1) koj + CLF for most nouns
• POSS (for 2) neb + CLF for most nouns
• POSS (for 3 or more) nej + CLF for most nouns
I y
yours PRO (for 1 person) koj li
• PRO (for 2 people) neb Ii
• PRO (for 3 people) nej Ii
I Yao (V be Yao [considered less polite], Mien [more yourself PRO (OBI yourself) koj
polite]) Co • PRO (emphatic reflexive for 1 as in do by

I
• N (Yao/Mien language) Ius Co oneself) koj tus kheej
• N (Yao/Mieu person) [tus] neeg Co
yourselves PRO (OBI for 2) neb
yard Q (0.91 meters) ib npab, 0.91 mev , • PRO (emphatic reflexive for 2 as in do by

I • N (grassy yard of a house) [lub] tiaj nyom

yawn V rualo
oneself) neb tug kheej
• PRO (OBI for 3 or more) nej
• PRO (emphatic reflexive for 3 or more as in do

I
year N xyoo by oneself) nej tus kheej
• (one year) ib xyoos
• (last year) xyoo tag (los lawm), tsaib no
• (the year before last) tsaib ub
I • (years ago) puag tsaib ub
• (next year) Iwm xyoo
z

• (a new year) xyoo tshiab zero N [lub] yaj ntshis, (L) [tus] xoom
I • (Happy New Year) nyob zoo xyoo tshiab
• (idiom: celebrate Hmong New Year) tsiab peb
zip (N zip code) [tus] naj npawb nroog
caug, noj peb caug, noj tsiab zipper N [txoj] (saw khawm) swb

I yell V (yell, shout) qw

• V (yell, cry out loudly, shout at) nthe
zoo N [lub] vaj (yug) tsiaj

I
yellow (II be yellow) daj
• N (the color yellow) xim daj

I
I