TOPIC 1.

Lowest level - primitive statements

SUB TOPIC of direct observation
2. Next level - statements that express
Science and Scientific Method some common features of a
relationship between entities
Two defining moments stand out in stark 3. Highest level - overarching
relief: Rise of Greek Philosophy (Russel, fundamental principles that
1961 dated to Thales ca585 BC) and Rise encompass the entire range of
of Modern Science (Galileo to Newton ca. Natural Sciences. These principles
1600) allow no exception and cut across all
disciplines
Two entities of science:
1. Object of the inquiry - Objective The philosophical underpinning
existence independent of inquirer’s.
The inquirer is assumed to be This implies that we assume that the laws of
capable of rational inquisition. nature are the same everywhere and
2. Mind of the inquirer - The inquirer is remain so for all the time - again, a
assumed to be capable of rational philosophical assumption.
inquisition.
Paradigm (Thomas Kuhn, 1962)
Science as body of knowledge - How science progresses
- An empirical statement, the validity - This paradigm claims to be an
is eventually decided through interpretation of the physical world,
observation and experimentation. not just empirically, but even
- Mental picture of what Nature is philosophically.

For a collection of empirical statements to Weltanschauung

constitute scientific knowledge, it must - Majestic edifice of scientific
satisfy at least the following requirements: observations, laws, theories, and
principles, together with
1. The collection must be internally philosophical assumptions
consistent necessary to hold them together.
2. There must be logical
interrelationship between the Normal Science
statements that organizes them into - Consists of elucidating the paradigm
a coherent whole i.e, making small discoveries here
3. Should be able to deduce a and there and verifying the
prediction, which can be tested by predictions of the paradigm
experimentation
Anomalies
Empirical statements are arranged in a - Discoveries and observations that
hierarchy: do not fit the paradigm
If there is a competing paradigm that can The conventional test of the acceptability of
explain the anomalies, the existing a theory is whether its prediction is verified
paradigm is overthrown and a new one is by experiment.
established. There has to be extremely
compelling reasons before a paradigm is The value of science
replaced. In many cases, it’s retained
because it’s still useful. The value of science lies in its predictive
power.
Example:
Continental drift theory of Alfred Science teaches us honesty, humility before
Wegener proposed in 1912. facts, tolerance, and what biologist J.
- When it was proposed it went Brownowki (1965) calls ‘the habit of truth’. It
against the currently accepted gives us lessons on boldness and courage.
geology, but by 1960s, the
continental drift theory was revived Necessarily, science is silent on questions
and now at the center of geology. of moral values and on moral dilemmas.
Science may give us tools, but how we use
The methods of science the tools is beyond science.

The final judge of acceptability is empirical What science can do is to help us with the
observation. empirical parts of the problem, so that when
we make a decision, it will be an informed
In physical science there is a division and rational decision made in a democratic
between theorists and experimentalists: environment that science has helped shape.
1. Experimentalists - performs
experiments and makes Scientific Revolution
observations
2. Theorists - deduce predictions The periods of scientific revolution are also
the times when fundamental changes in our
The purpose of any scientific research is to scientific knowledge occur and fundamental
arrive at a statement that described an discoveries are made. This is no doubt
aspect of the physical world. stimulated by the liberation of the mind from
the limiting constraint of the obsolete
Paul Feyerabend (1993) paradigm, and this enables us to look at the
- Philosopher fo science world from new perspectives.
- In his book Against method, he
declared that science has no method The Question Concerning Technology by
Martin Heidegger
Lenin (1977)
- Regardless of the tool used in We shall be concerning technology, and in
arriving the theory, the ultimate so doing we should like to prepare a free
arbiter of the truth of theories is relationship to it.
social practice or experimental
verification.
The technology consists of three main The Moral Life
claims:
(1) technology is “not an instrument”, it is a Someone is living well or that have lived a
way of understanding the world; good life means that they are a good
(2) technology is “not a human activity”, but person, someone who is courageous,
develops beyond human control; and honest, trustworthy, kind, selfless,
(3) technology is “the highest danger”, generous, helpful, loyal, principled, and so
risking us to only see the world through on.
technological thinking.
In his masterpiece, the Republic, Plato
develops this argument in greater detail.
Technology itself is a contrivance - The morally good person, he claims, enjoys
instrumentum. a sort of inner harmony, whereas the wicked
person, no matter how rich and powerful he
Instrumental and anthropological may be or how many pleasure he enjoys, is
definition of technology - the current disharmonious, fundamentally at odds with
conception of technology, according to himself and the world.
which it means and a human activity.
A person who lives this way—obeying the
Four causes: commandments and performing the proper
1. Causa materialis - the material of rituals—is pious.
which
2. Causa formalis - the form, the shape The Life of Pleasure
into which material enters
3. Causa finalis - the end The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus
4. Causa efficiens - the effect that us was one of the first to declare, bluntly, that
finished what makes life worth living is that we can
experience pleasure.
What has the essence of technology to do
with revealing? The answer: Even in everyday speech, if we say
everything. For every bringing-forth is someone is “living the good life,” we
grounded in revealing. probably mean that they enjoying lots of
recreational pleasures: good food, good
We are questioning concerning technology wine, skiing, scuba diving, lounging by the
in order to bring to light our relationship to pool in the sun with a cocktail and a
its essence. The essence of modern beautiful partner.
technology shows itself in what we call
enframing What is key to this hedonistic conception of
the good life is that it emphasizes subjective
experiences.
What Does it Mean to Live the Good
Life? By Emrys Westacott The Fulfilled Life
According to Aristotle, we all want to be
happy.

But happiness is something we value not as

a means to some other end but for its own
sake. It has intrinsic value rather than
instrumental value.

But Aristotle’s idea of what it means to live

well is objectivist rather than subjectivist.

Conditions that must be satisfied to live a

fulfilled life:
1. Virtuous
2. Healthy and live a long life
3. Prosperity
4. Good relationships
5. Respect
6. Good Luck
7. Proper engagement

If at the end of your life you can check all

these boxes then you could reasonably
claim to have lived well, to have achieved
the good life.

The Meaningful Life

Having a meaningful life is by achieving

something for themselves.

For example
1. Having children
2. Pursue work
3. Devote to a cause
4. Engaged in a community

The Finished Life

A truly good life is one that is both enviable

and admirable in all or most of the ways
outlined above.