Byeiey system in rockets: e (ieniters are defined as devices, or assemblies that release heat and eee Hs reabtion of the main propellants. Igniters derive power from ap outside source oF Tmt jimited quantity of internally stored energy.) The solid rocket motor 15 Serie pressure vessel, with a nozzle at one end, partially the grains plus an ignition ce ides the igniter (usually Pyrotechnic, mixture triggered by an electrical signal) eee energy to start the combustion. The grain starts to burn on its exposed inner surfaces 1.2 Types of igniters: A. Gaseous igniters: ee Herat ‘It is not used now (eg. Shock tube type). Reactive gaseous mStar TS 4 very thm tube with high pressure) 1t is hazardous in nature and re 2 iaee only for space applications. For directional control of high Pressure and high ‘temperature gas, there is some burst dampers. B. Liqyid rocket injectors . 7 / Depending upon whether the fuel and/oxidizer are spontaneously ignitable or not after injecting them into the combustion chamber, the bipropellant systems are Classified into two types ~ 1, Mypergolic ignition fon Hypergolic ignition 1. Hypergolic ignition: The term “Hypergolic” denotes a ‘bipropellant_combination _that_ignites spontaneously when the bvo components meet. Igniter is not required” Iunition delay Gee the time interval between start of injection and start of combustion) sfiould be less than 40 milliseconds. But care should be taken such that ignition celayhoanObenoe ee ee 7 beh Some of the combination of hypergolic ignition [= Fuet | ~—oxwizer”_—| FUEL OXIDIZER [Kerosene= | RENA UDMH NOs 1 Hydrazine GIFs i MMH Fe ‘Ammonia O: 1 fsycropeniomemmaiaee [CIOS eal Where UDMH ~ Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine MMH ~ Mono Methyl Hydrazine| — Mono Methyl Hydrazine MME Some additional Examples Fuel Oxidizer Aniline + RFNA Orthotoluedene + RFNA : Hydrazine + Nitrogen tetrachloride Metatoluene + RFNA Where RFNA - P23 Pumng Nitric Acid Chatacteristics of Hypergolic liquids: Hypergolic lianids would have very high bulk density Ignition delay should be less than 50 miliseconas de ey 3, They must be chemically stable \4. They must be compatible with selected polymer and metal 3, The viscosity’should be less than 10 centistokes f They should remain liquid upto the temperature of 200°C 7. & f They should have low vapor pressure q They should itave good he 2, Non Hypergolic Ignition 2 In this type of ignition igniter is required for ignition and the ignition delay should be less than 50 milliseconds. es Examples: Liquid Hz + Liquid 2 - gives best performance Liquid H; + Liquid F, - Difficult to store Extremely corrosive Better oxidizer than Liquid O; Nitric acid + Kerosene 5 Hydrogen Peroxide + Kerosene ae C, Solid Rocket Igniters: ; Ignition of solid propellant rocket motor: ___The combustion of the propellant grain is accomplished by means of a igniter Which is started by means electrical current.Properties of igniter: 1. Should have a very small ignition delay , 2, Should raise the temperature of the grain above its ignition temperature by releasing sufficient energy } 3. Should generate enough volume of gas to build up sufficient pressure for smooth , buming of the grain 4, Should be stable over long periods : 5. Should produce minimum combustion i There are two basic types : q 1. Pyrotechnic type igniter 2. Pyrogen type igniter 1. Pyrotechnic type igniter: cotechnic igniters are electrically initiated slow burning_pyrotechnic. torches. They pel wath solid propellant technology and typically incorporate one or pes. solid propellant charges Bum duration is in the range of 2 to 10s, depending on ee requirements. In industrial practice, pyrotechnic igniters are defined as a ae solid explosives or energetic propellant like chemical formulations (usually sm: Lips Of propellant which give a large buming surface and a short buming time) as ee producing material. This definition fits a wide variety of designs, known Be cr carbon igniters, powder can, plastic case, pellet basket, perforated tube, eee le case, jellyroll, string, or sheet igniters. The common pellet-basket design is ene in fig. | MOE A t | Initiator squib: ' rs é j-dapter | . Safe and arm. lee device Wee Main charge fs Gum aut oarm) yy les : ; | elects oan cones R Basket ita sna pope Vata. j U FIGURE 14-14. Typical pyrotechnic igniter with three different Propellant charges thitt ignite in sequence SeStage 1: On receipt of an electrical signal the initiator releases the energy of a small amount of sensitive powdered pyrotechnic housed within the initiator, commonly called the squib or the primer charge. It generally contains 74% KN, 15.6% charcoal ang 10.4% sulphur (gunpowder) ee Stage 2: The heat released from the squib ignites the booster charge. Stage 3: Finally the main charge is ignited. The main charge Consists of pellets containing 5% binder, 24% boron, 71% potassium perchlorate, Typical binders are epoxy resins, eraphite, vegetable oils, nitrocellulose and polyisobutadiene, ‘The initiators and the booster charges are such as they are easy to ignite and are self sustaining at low Pressure. In pyrotechnic igniters the heat transfer to the grain is by radiation. §.. Pyrogen type igniter: A Pyrogen igniter is basically a small rocket motor, which is used to ignite a large rocket motor. The Pyrogen is not designed to produce thrust, All lise one or More nozzle orifices, both sonic and supersonic types, and most use Conventional rocket motor grain formulations and design technology. Heat transfer from the Pyrogen to the motor grain is largely convective, with | the hot gases containing the grain surface as contrasted to a highly radiative energy emitted by pyrotechnic igniters, pe a For Pyrogen igniters the initiator and the booster charge are very similar to the design used in pyrotechnic igniters. The reaction products from the main charge impinge to the surface of the Tocket motor grain, producing motor ignition. very large motors is to mount externally, with the = ing its jet up through the large motor nozzle. In this end the -€ Of ground support equipment. PYRO~ TECHNIG IGNITE C pewe T-BASEET peston ) Be INiTaT 3 ae Booster Ny MAIN CHARGE CTnkiinal — By Koved MEE reg Ineo — ee 2 Ae ee Sr eee x.Classification of solid rocket igniters: Solid rocket Igniters sn. ae Totally confined igniters ‘unconfined igniters Nozdle igniters 1, Powder can igniter 1 Film igniter 1. Basket igniter 2, Bag igniter 2, Conducting film 2. Alco jet 3, Jelly roll 3. Pyrocore 3. Pyrogen Totally confined igniters: In this case the gas released is confined to a particular direction Bag igniter: ¢ don’t have enough control over ignition. After ie ts. In this old primitive igniter, w' ignition of fully charged bag igniter, rate of increase is very high. So burst occurs. the heat release and pressure generation Occur. Advantages: Easy to fabricate and cost of production is very low. Disadvantages: stem is very far from meeting the requirements of modern The particular sy: high performance rocket motors. BAG 2GNITORAdvantages: Disadvantages: Powder can igniter: Pellets are made up of black powder or metal oxidants or aluminium powder. Here the directional control of ignition can be done. It is rapturous, not suitable for large rocket motor. Powder can igniter is suitable for small rocket motor and not suitable for large rocket characteristics. ms > PALLETS: ( Blazle Pewder « atAL Peader) ¢ Jelly Roll: PowDeR CAN IGANTOR Take a film coated pyrotechnic and binder. Roll this film over arod. Atler ———— rolling, take out the rod give squib suffers at the front and back. Then give the Tubber support externally. Ignition is started at the squib. Here the ignition transfers layer by layer. Productive cover is used to tight the main charge, 2 | 7 MAIN cnr. | 4 ee ROBBER | Sepporr| | | » 2: le. a ff oa. 1) These igniters are nozzle insertable _ 2) They make efficient use of motor fuel volume 3) They have little or no debris 4) The hardware weight is low ‘ 1) They are very fragile and not suitable for large rocket motor 2) They are difficult to manufacture and the principle of operation is complex ’ 3) They produce high shock (the shock will produce cracks on the fuel grain) r 4 8 s § thUnconfined igniters: In this case the gas released is not confined to a particular direction. Actually they are confined; they are accomplished only relative to others. PROPELLANT arasn yf PyRoTE CRNEE eS we FEBER ena a a UNCONFINED TG@Nr TERS Film igniters: 8 : ‘The film igniter is produced by painting an ignitable fucl-oxidizer binder mixture directly onto the propellant surface. The film can be activated by the conventional pyrotechnic igniter. It permits the use of low output conventional ignition system. and has. pften be used an aid to ignite the systems which handle materials difficult to ignite. The film components normally contains Fine metal powder — Aluminium powder Perchlorate oxidizer — Ammonium Perchlorate Polymer binder Conducting film igniter: ~ Tt contains thin strips of pyrotechnic material applied directly to the propellant, which can overlay of circuit leads. It consists of the application of thin strips with in the perpendicular overlay of actuation circuitry. A typical pyrotechnic mixture consists of metal powder, perchlorate oxidizer, silver conductor and the polymeric binder. ‘Aluminium foils are used as protective layer of conducting film igniters. Advantages: . These igniters produce low pressure peaks . They make efficient use of space . They are insensitive to electromagnetic radiation epr Disadvantages: ‘They cant be removed from the notor They are sensitive to friction and resistance They are difficult to apply 4. Quality control is difficult iG ae SsNozzle igniters or ballastically controlled igniters: Basket Igniters: , It uses palette charges. They are fabricated from the heavy wire n sheet metal or perforated glass fiber reinforced resins. The perforated c retain the high surface area, palette charge as it bums, The exhaust products pattem determined by the geometry of the design contains reactive products reactive materials. This system makes available in wide choice of config for some flame pattem control, re POLES PERFORATED ConTANER Advantages: \ 1. They can be made sufficiently strong to withstand environmental conditions 2. They can be designed to retain the palette charge within the igniter until the buming is very near complete. ' 3. Fp en ee e medium to fast ignition wit ignitic i oe ignition with low ignition charge 1. The hardware weight is high 2. Forward attachment is often difficult 3. The burning area of the palettes cant be readily determined 4, Intemal igniter pressure and the mass delivery rate are difficult to determine Pyrogen: A en igniter consists of small nozzle pressure chamber containing hi energy fast rocket propellant usually having a complex geometry. aie primal The design is respectively used in very largeAdvantages: 1. These igniters 2, They are adaptable to either hi 3, They eliminate the handling o charges. int head application have little or no shocks tal oxide ead end of ‘Yauncher mou! f large amount of relatively hazardous me! ds upon the Disadvantages: and its therefore depen The Pyrogen must itself have an igniter primitive ‘used to ignite. mn the two tubes, Wo have main harge is Girst ignited. The ¢ main charge- ‘There are Since there is control it ¢ betwee’ The booster ¢} jnner wall to th omes out. Alcojet: “These are two tubes, In the annular Sp2e charge. Booster charge present inside {ne tube. jpmition passes through the perforations in the perforations in the outer tube through which fame © js a ballistically controlled igniter. Fame TUBE TRAP ! i 2 BoosTER CHARSS 9g Ss : PeweT oO (asm CARGOES? | perronatseh BO 29 MAEN Squib-> Transfer charge -> Booster charge > Main charge > Live motor grain S.no | Component Charge Weight [Form Duration(ms) 1___| Squib or primer. 0.0510 5g, Prepackaged [05-10 2 __ | Transfer charge 0510 10g ‘Powder or: 1-10 granules 3 Booster charge 1M0tolofmain | Pellets 5-50 charge +_| Main charge {900-2008 __| Pellets 150= 500 Squib: The squib is the primary element of the ignition train that affects the conversion of electrical impulse from the control console to chemical reaction in the rocket motor. The squib consists of the following parts. 1. Inert components a. Circuit clements b. Base or body c. Insulation d. Metal case ‘ 2. Active components a. Prime charge b. Squib booster charge c. Squib main charge 0: R CHARGE BoosTe \ Les LILI iJ fLIELZIIZIA MourDEp PRENOLIC PLO Y PHENOLIC BASE SQvTB 12Characteristics of the Squib includes the following: 1. A functioning time curve A flame pattern that shows a unit comparison of the flame pattern obtained from. the two different charges in the same squib Pressure characteristics Thermal characteristics . Auto ignition characteristics or different thermal analysis. . Static sensitivity characteristics “7, Reliability required to meet the design requirements Transfer charge: Sy ava Transfer charge is a reactive component that consists of a fuel oxidizer system of high surface area to weight ratio, 1, Fuel — metal powder (aluminium, zine or magnesium) 2. Oxidizer 3. Binder Oxidizer: Perchlorate or nitrates of metals or inorganic compounds Binders: For handling the dispersion problem used some organic polymer as binders for mixing the oxidizer and fucl. ‘The transfer charge reaction rate is controlled through chemically purity, particle size, percent binders and bi ding procedure. The granules of the transfer charge are usually produced by milling or blending, Booster charge: Booster charge consists of pellets or combina are used to initiate the main charge. The granules are Prepared in the same manner as the transfer charge granules as before the reaction rate is controlled through purity, particle size, binding procedure and compacting pressure. tion of granules and pellets, which “\Main charge: |1.3 IGNITER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: ‘An igniter contains an electrically heated wire, which is surrounded by small amount of primer. ‘The primer propellant is a substance, which is sensitive to temperature ‘and bums when heated. The main igniter charge is immediately adjacent to the primer. Tt produces a hot flame which ignites the rocket grain. Igniler cases are usually sealed to prevent absorption of moisture and control the ignition at altitudes which are very high. Some igniter cases are made of a plastic so that they will bum and therefore will not form an obstruction to the gas flow. The igniter like the propellant charge must be resistant to moisture and capable of storage and operation over @ wide range of operating ‘environment. Oya SUTURE Eqviter Cue Arata ted amd prenure i Seales Vyniter < henge Primony charge Elena! {— Hote a ee The main design consideration involved are as follows 1. The pyrotechnic material data (P-t curve, functioning time curve, heat output curve) 2, P-t curve: The time delay between the electrical signal and first pressure nise 3. Time pressure relationship between igniter pressure and operating pressure ofthe , rocket . (dpldt) = Pressurization rate The amount of debris cjected through the nozzle at the time of start ‘The amount of electrical energy required ‘Amount of solid particles in the igniter cases | Rocket motor data (Grain size, shape, motor free volume) rays 14. Propellant grain size dictates the propellant surface and that is exposed to the igniter. The larger grain size implies that the propellant surface area required for surface ignition is also larger and hence a more powerful igniter is required. This means that the size of the igniter have to be increased (or) a suitable main charge has to be incorporated in the igniter. 9. Formulation of primary and main charges 10. Moisture content of the igniter propellants 11, Construction and fastening of the igniter case 12. Location of the igniter with respect to the grain 13. Surface condition of the main charge 14, The size, direction, shape and temperature of the flame. 15. The nozzle closure rapture pressure 16. Back up data (previous test firing data) 17. Propellant ignitability data (Are image furnace method, Ignitability bomb) Arc image furnace method: In the arc image fumace method, samples of propellants are subjected to the high gradient output of a focused carbon are that is timed to give controlled exposure per unit arca by a standard Calorimeter, Results of energy inputs required for ignition of various propellants are compared at several pressures. Ignitability bomb: The ignitability bomb is device used to determine the relative ignitability of the propellants at various pressures under the direct fire of ignition materials, In this method, the experiments are caried in a bomb similar to a strand-buming bomb. Both the charge size and the distance of the propellant from the charge can be controlled. With the standard propellant, the bomb can also evaluate the relative efficiencies of the ignition materials, Liquid propellant Rocket Injectors The injector as the name implies injects the propellants into the combustion chamber in the right proportions and the right conditions to yield an efficient, stable combustion process. Placed at the forward or upper end of the combustor, the injector also performs the structural task of closing off the top of the combustion chamber against the high pressure and temperature it contains. The function of the injector is similar to those of a carburetor of an internal combustion engine. The injector has to introduce and meter the flow of liquid propellants to the combustion chamber, cause the liquids to be broken up into small droplets (a process called atomization), and distribute and mix the propellants in such a manner that a correctly proportioned mixture of fuel and oxidizer will result, with uniform propellantit i i mass flow and composition over the chamber cross section. This has been accomplished with different types of injector design and elements. inj i ly related to the injection hole pattern on the face of the injector is_ closely relat Renee of feed ae with the injectors. These pees for Bie ae abution of propellant from the injector inlet to all the injection Mae i erase piers al volume allows low passage velocities and good distribution of flow over: fee of the chamber, A small manifold volume allows for a lighter weight inj reduces the amount of “dribble” flow after the main valves are shut, ‘The higher passage velocity caus¢s a uneven flow through the different identical injection holes and thus a poorer distribution and wider local gas composition Variation. Dribbling result in after buming, which is an. insufficient imegular combustion that gives a litle “cut off? thrust after valve closing. For application with very accurate terminal vehicle velocity requirements, a cut off impulse has to be very small and reproductive and often walls are built into the injector to minimize passage volume. ‘The various types of injectors in liquid propellant rocket engines are as follows 1, DaCimpinging stream type injector 2. (JHE hon-impinging or shower type injector 3. DaOsplash plate injector 4. *€} OF Spray type injector 5. ‘mixing injector 6. co-axial hollow post injector 1, The impinging stream type injector: In the impinging stream type injector, the propellants are injected in such a Tanner that the fuel and oxidizer streams impinge upon each other. A conical outlet housing the jet is also employed to collest the streams and supply a well-mixed propellant charge to the combustor. This will aid the atomization of liquid into droplets. Majority of rocket engine uses impinging type injector. - The impinging stream type, multiple-hole injectors are commonly with oxygen- hydrocarbon and storable propellants. “For unlike doublet patterns the propellants are injected through @ number of separate small holes in such a manner that the fuel and oxidizer streams impinge upon each other. Impingement forms thin liquid fans and aids ing hole injectors atomization of the liquids into droplets also aiding distribution, Impingii are also used for like-on-like or selfsimpinging pattems (fuel-on-fuel and oxidizer-on- oxidizer) The two li quid streams then form a fan which breaks up into droplets. Unlike doublets work best when the hole size. (more exactly the vi olume flow) of the fuel is about 16equal to that of the oxidizer and the ignition delay is long enough to allow the formation of fans. For uneven volume flow the triplet pattern seems to be more effective. -__linpingeinent S27 pons Onidzer maniiolds Fuel inanutales. Sell-wmpinging, Teplet mmpireena, ae stream pa7een siream pattern 2. The non-impinging type or shower head injector: The non-impinging or shower head injector employs non-impinging streams of propellant usually emerging normal to the face of the injector. It relies on turbulence and diffusion to achieve mixing. The German world war Il V-2 rocket used this type of injector. This is not used, because it requires a large chamber volume for good combustion. Ee, ~ OxtbISe 3. The splash plate injector: In the sffash plate injectors mixing is achieved by impinging propellant streams against a surface. a 4.Sheet or spray type injector: i Vij SPLASH PLATE PATTERN. : |4.Sheet or spray type injector: Sheet or spray type injector give cylindrical, conical or other types of spray sheets; these sprays generally intersect and thereby promote mixing and atomization. By varying the width of the sheet (through an axially movable sleeve) it is possible to throttle the propellant flow over a wide range without excessive reduction in injector pressure drop, This type of variable concentric tube injector was used on the descent engine of the e -ge cle n as em ae . junar excursion module and throttled over a range of flow with only a very small in mixture ratio. é e CONVERGENT S Soe Cone SPRAY ex 3S epee OND Ee eee NAM ce ZU. os o fs e , e a Se re 5.The pre-mixing injectors: ’ o ‘The pre'ntting injectra mx the quid patents ep core iene artetaren ) or into the chamber, The lengths of the premix chamber are crtieal so that explosion of the premixed propellant does not take place inside the engine. \e’6. The coaxial hollow post injector: The coaxial hollow post injector has been used for liquid oxygen and gaseous hydrogen injectors Sy most domestic and foreign rocket designers. It works well when | the liquid hydrogen has absorbed heat from cooling jackets and ahs been gasified. The gasified hydrogen flows at high speed (typically 330m/sec or 1000fsec), the liquid ' oxygen flows far more slowly (usually at less than 33mv/sec or 100fvsec) and the | differential velocity causes a shear action, which helps to break up the oxygen stream into 1 small droplets. The injector has a multiplicity of that coaxial post on its face. This type \ of injectors is not used with liquid storable bipropellants, in part because the pressure | drop to achieve high velocity would become too high. Y4, My oe Pa se” TAG Injection elements: - The configuration of an injector frequently described as being a pattern of specific \f injection elements. The most common types of injection elements are non-impinging, unlike-impinging and like impinging. 1, Coaxial: The most common type of non-impinging element is the coaxial configuration. ‘The coaxial or concentric injection element usually has a slow moving central stream of liquid oxidizer surrounded by a high velocity concentric sheet of gascous fuel. Initially developed are NASA during early experiments with LOX/hydrogen, it has a well-earned reputation as a high performance, stable injection element for gascous fuel and liquid ( oxidizer. The liquid oxidizer*is deliberately injected at low velocity, with the usual injection pressure drop accomplished by an upstream metering orifice in each element, | and diffused to a reduced velocity in the tubular LOX post on the other hand, the fuel | injection pressure is tured into high injection velocity in the annular gap around the | LOX post. Mixing, atomization of the liquid, and mass distribution are provided by the i shearing action of the high velocity gaseous fuel on the surface of the liquid. The fuel surrounding the oxidizer tends to shield the combustion process. The coaxial element is | Jess well suited to liquid fuels; or even very dense gaseous fuels, since the velocity relationship required to make it work well are difficult to obtain. Non-impinging elements: | Low Velocity Liquid (Ox) LLLLLLLLLLS TITTTI7777\~ ee High Velocity Gas (Fuel) Coax Element 42. Shower head: Directly axial or near-axial, non-impinging streams of cither liquid or gaseous propellants are generally referred to as “Shower heads”. This type of element provides very little effective atomization or mixing, and is seldom used for primary injection. It is most frequently used for fuel-film cooling streams at the chamber wall. eeeesy Sy Ox a 7 ———— “Shower head” 3. Fan formers: Liquid injection geometry that provides eprays in ‘cones’ or ‘fans’ are frequently used in various types of combustion systems. Such injection methods are the primary techniques in airbreathing systems with liquid fuels, Generally these units use intemal geometry employing either swirl or impingement to provide a stream which diverges in a predetermined pattern as a finely atomized spray, However, these systems have not been popular with rocket injector designers, probably because of face cooling problems and high total mass flow densities associated with rocket combustors. UL le Spray oF “Fan” Former 4, Slots and Sheets: ‘Narrow two-dimensional slots have often been suggested to increase the surface area of propellant streams, but they have seldom been successful. Flow from slots Csuaily fas proven quite erratic, tending to ligament into large and imegular masses, Sheet flow of liquids generally requires swirl or impingement to provide the desired dispersal. Slots and Sheets 20Unlike Impinging Elements: 1, Unlike Doublets: , A straight forward way of mixing two different fluid streams directs one against the other, this in essence describes the basic unlike doublet, The impact produces a fan shaped spray made up of a mixture of the two impinging fluids, with no combustion or other chemical reactions, the combined streams form a largely two-dimensional spray in a plane basically at right angles to the plane which includes the center lines of the impinging streams. From the impingement angles of the two streams the spray spreads at q a resultant angle (‘‘delta angle” computed from sum of momentum vectors) based on the combined momentums. Where Mo, Me= mass flow rates | Tan 6 = (m,V,sin ro — myvein rp)/( mMeVeCOS Fr, + M{V«COS F;) Ve Vr = injection velocities Fuel Fuel oxidizer Unlike Doublet Fuel Unlike Triptet 2. Unlike triplets: A mismatch in stream size and momentum between the oxidizer and the fuel in the unlike doublet elements will force the Propellant and two symmetrically impinging outer streams of the other Propellant. This unlike triplet may have either two fuel streams impinging on a central oxidizer stream (fuel-oxidizer-fuel) or the reverse (oxidizer-fuel-oxidizer’ Line of resultant jet momentum, 1g. ‘Oxidizer jet. \ Point of impingement , Angular relation of doublet impinging-siream injection pattern impinging YA Point ff Fe | | 2 Y YR oe. i Wa, V2 Wall Fig. 4-58 Resultant angle of impinging strea iLike impinging elements; 1, Like doublets: Like-impinging (or self-impinging) elements impinge the injected streams (liquid or gas) directly on other streams of the same propellant. The most common of these, a doublet configuration, has two like-fuid streams angled together to an impact point, producing in a fan shaped spray of droplets similar to that of an unlike doublet, Like impinging elements are frequently used for liquid/iquid propellant systems in which reaction or heat transfer between unlixe-impinging streams is undesirable. 2.Like impinging triplets: Three streams of the same propellant can be directed to a common impingement Point. This concept has been applied in some injectors requiring small holes, since more triplet elements can be packed into the same manifold space than doublets. The like impinging triplet usually produces narrower spray fans and larger drops than an equivalent doublet resulting in an overall net loss rather than gain. Other element types: Virtually anyway that a liquid can be sprayed has been dried in rocket engine injectors, Early injection pattems frequently used splash plates to break up the liquid streams and to reduce emphasis on careful control of the dimensions of impinging streams. Injectors have also been designed with swirl, or other geometric features within the injector structure to enhance atomization and distribution of the fluids. Platelet Construction: One design concept called “platelet construction” has effectively employed diffusion-bonded photo-ctched plates for fabrication of small to midsized injectors, It offers significant advantages in case and in design freedom for innovative manifolding and injection elements, i Premixed: It is common practice to premix fuel and oxidizer upstream of the chamber in other types of combustor design, but vary rate in rocket engine combustors. In air breathing systems, the fuel is mixed with air and flame holding is provided downstream, in the combustion zone, At the high pressures and high mass flux conditions in a rocket engine, however the probability of premixed reaction traveling upstream to the mixing section is high and could be disastrous. Many rocket propellant combinations are either hypergolic or potentially detonable in the mixed conditions. Inspitc of these limitations, some experiments have been made with premix chambers with excessive thermal loads on the structure, 22Important design consideration of an injector (or) Factors influencing the-Injector — behavior: The important design considerations of an injector are 1. Propellant combination . Injection orifice pattem and orifice size Transient conditions . Hydraulic characteristics |. Heat transfer characteristics . Structural design aspects . Combustion stability NAWELY 1, Propellant combination: Hypergolic (self-ignition) propellants generally require injector designs somewhat different from those required by propellants which must be ignited. If one of the propellants is readily gasified then the injector design can take advantage of this fact by not requiring spl plate or liquid mixing devices. The chemical reactivity, Vaporization, the ignition temperature, the diffusion of hot gases, the volatility, surface tension have a strong influence on the design of an injector and these parameters are dependant upon a particular fuel and oxidizer combination. Injector designs that perform well with one combination do not work too well with a different propellant combination. 2, Injection orifice patter: and orifice size: With individual holes in the injector plate, there appears to be an optimum Performance and heat transfer condition for each of the following Parameters. Orifice size, angle of impingement, angle of resultant momentum, distance of the impingement locus from the injector face, number of injection orifices per unit of injector face surface area, flow per single injection orifice and distribution of the orifice holes over the injector surface. These exists an optimum condition for heat performance. Most ct these Parameters are determined experimentally. 3. Transient conditions: Special provisions such as temporary plugging of holes, accurate valve timis insertion of paper cups over holes to Prevent entry of one propellant into the manifold of the other propellant, or check valves are required. For a starting and. stopping to permit satisfactory transient operations, E 4, Hydraulic Characteristics: The orifice type and pressure drop across the injection orifice determine the injection velocity. A low-pressure drop is desirable to minimise system or the pumping power and improve the overall Pressure drops are sometimes generally required to incr combustion instability and to give injection ‘velocity for bett the weight of the feed Tocket efficiency. But high- fease the rocket resistance the 'er atomization of the liquids.§. Heat transfer characteristics: Lower heat transfer rates are usually obtained where the injectors are designed so that the resultant momentum of the individual injection stream is pointed in the direction of chamber axis or when the injection pattern results in an intentionally rich mixture near the chamber walls, In general the high performance of the injectors, the higher will be the heat transfer rate at the walls of the combustion chamber and the injector face, This is because the high efficiency usually leads to high turbulence and sometimes thin boundary layers, 6. Structural design aspects: The injector is highly loaded by pressure forces from the combustion chamber anu the propellant manifolds. These special conditions during transition can cause stresses which sometimes exceed the steady operating conditions by several times. The faces of many modem injectors are flat and must be reinforced in such a manner that there will be Ro unnecessary complication in the geometrical and hydraulic arrangements of the manifold passage. The structure must also be sufficiently flexible to avoid applying of under thermal stresses caused by heating the injector face by hot combustion Sases. The injector design must also provide for the position seals within the fuel and oxidizer manifold at a sealed attachment of the injector to the chamber. stability: jection hole pattem, impingement pattem, hole distribution and “pressure drop have a strong influence on combustion stability. Some types are much more esistant to pressure disturbances. The resistances to vibration is determined experimentally and also used special antivibration devices, such as baffles, or resonance cavities are designed directly into the injector. PROPELLANT FEED SYSTEMS a Liquid propellants are required to be injected at a pressure slightly above the combustion pressure. Two types of feed systems can be employed; They are 1. Gas pressure feed systems 2. Turl ym feed systems. The former is much simpler and widely used of low thrust and short-range operations. The later is used in large engines. iis The propellant feed system has two principal functions; to raise the pressure of the propellants and to feed them to one or more thrust chambers, The energy for these functions comes cither from a high pressure gas, centrifugal pumps, or a combination of the two. The selection of a particular feed system and ifs components is governed primarily by the application of the rocket, duration, number of type of thrust chambers, past experience, mission and by general requirement of simplicity of design, caso of manufacture, low cost, and minimize inert mass. All feed systems have piping, a serics 24.of valves, provisions for filling and removing (draining and flushing) the liquid propellants, and control devices to initiate, stop and regulate their flow and operation. In general, a gas pressure feed system gives a vehicle performance superior to a turbo pump system. When the total impulse or the mass of propellant is relatively low, the chamber pressure is low, the engine thrust to weight ratio is low (usually < 0.6) In turbo pump feed system the propellant tank pressure are much lower (by a factor of 10 to 40). Turbo pump systems usually give a superior vehicle performance when the total impulse is larger (higher Au) and the chamber pressure is higher. The gas “pressure feed system can be relatively simple, such as for a single operation, factors preloaded, simple unit or quite complex as with multiple restartable thrusters or reusable systems, 1, Gas pressure feed systems: One of the simplest and most common means of pressurizing the propellants is to force them out of their respective tanks by displacing them with high pressure gas, This gas is fed into the propellant tanks at a controlled pressure, thereby giving a controlled Propellant discharge. Because of their relative simplicity, the rocket engines with pressurized feed systems are very reliable.A simple pressurized feed system is shown in fig. It consists of a high pressure gas tank, a gas starting valve, a pressure regulator, propellant tanks, propellant valves and feed lines. Additional components such as filling and draining provisions, check valves, filters, flexible elastic bladders for separating the liquid from the pressurizing gas, and pressurize sensors or gauges, are also often incorporated. Check ‘neck valve valve Tank’ vent valve Tank vent valve NS. ~ Bees regulator -——_I { High pressure gas. supply tank High pressure gas valve (remote control) Oxidizer Fuel tank tank Gas bleed J valve Drain Gas fill valve |__>— Propellant valves =~ (temote control) Restricting Optional one ‘additional ——r= thrust -—>~ Rocket thrust chi er chamber(s) ee‘An inert gas is separately carried at a pressure much higher than the injection pressure, this 1s used fo exert the required pressure in the propellant tanks. The pressurizing gas is chosen on the basis of its chemical properties density, pressure and the total weight of the gas and the tank. Nitrogen, Helium and air have been used for pressurization. The propellants under high pressure are forced to flow into the thrust chamber through valves, feed lines and injectors. Afier all tanks are fitted, the high-pressure gas valve is remotely actuated and admits gas through the pressure to the propellant regulator at a constant pressure to the propellant tanks, The check valves prevent mixing of the oxidizer with the fuel when the unit is not in an upright position. The propellants are fed to the thrust chamber by opening valves. When the propellants are completely consumed, the pressurizing gas can also scavenge and clean lines and valves of much of the liquid propellant residue. In this method no moving parts such as pumps and turbines are used. Therefore the system is considerably simpler. However the pressurization of the propellant tanks requires them to be comparatively much heavier and introduces a weight penalty besides other problems. Therefore this system is unsuitable for large rocket engines and long range missions. With monopropellants the gas pressure feed system becomes simpler, since there is only one propellant and not two, reducing the number of pipes, valves and tanks. Pressure for injection can also be generated within the propellant tank or tanks by introducing a small quantity of a gas which reacts exothermally with the propellant, this produces the high pressure gas requires to force the propellant into the combustion chamber, : Turbo pump feed system: For high presstire and high thrust liquid engines, the turbo pump feed system is preferred. Here the propellants are pressurized by means of pumps, which in tum are driven by turbines. These turbines derive their power from the expansion of hot Gases.injectors Jo oxidizer injectors Turbine exhaust To fuel injecto sTuntoo pomp allo” ange ot f° Turbine 1 Oxidizer Gos Fuel y Fig a. Turbo pump feed system for Liquid propellant Rocket Enging The turbine or turbines work on high pressure and temperature gas generated > separately or tapped out from-the main combustor. (Fig a) depicts a general arrangement of a turbo pump system. Here both the fuel and oxidizer purnps are driven by a single turbine in order to achieve flexibility in choosing the design and operating parameters. The fuel and oxidizer pumps can be driven separately by their turbines. Fig (b) depicts a turbo pump feed systems employing a single turbine driving the fuel and oxidizer pumps through a reduction gear. The turbine operates on a separate gas stream generated from the propellants in an independent gas generator as shown. A pressurizing fas can be used to increase the pressure of the propellants at the pump suctions to avoid cavitation and the resulting instability in pump operations. Generally turbine speeds are high; therefore propellant pumps can be driven at optimum speeds through reduction * gears with an additional weight penalty. The working gas for the turbine can also be generated at the optimum temperature and pressure. The gas generator has also its own injection ad ignition systems. The flow of propellants of gas generator occurs (in the system a s shown in Fig 5) due to action of pressurizing gas. If the gas pressurization is not employed the propellants can be bled from the delivery lines of the pumps. The propellants flow required for driving the turbine is of order of 1.5 to 5 percent in of man inflow. The turbine exhaust is also expanded through an exhaust nozzle to provide and additional thrust as shown in the fig. ox. |r | 6 Nwe he : ] fo vem Ee 5 5 ge ke eX oa a As ¢a given peripheral speed of the pump impeller it is preferable to employ higher rotation speed in order to restrict the size of the pump. Engines with turbopumps are preferred for booster and sustainer stages of space launch vehicles, long-range missiles, and in past also for aircraft performance argumentation. These are usually lighter than other types for these high thrust, long duration applications, An engine cycle for turbo pump fed engines describes the specific propellant flow paths through the major engine components, the method of providing the hot gas to one ‘or more turbines, and the method of handling the turbine exhaust gases. There are open -cycles and closed cycles. Open denotes that the working fluid exhausting from the turbine is discharged overboard, after having been expanded in a nozzle of its own, or discharged into the nozzle of the thrust chamber at a point in the expanding section for downstream of the nozzle throat.In closed cycles or topping cycles all the working fluid from the turbine is injected into the engine combustion chamber to make the most efficient use of its remaining energy. In closed cycles the turbine exhaust gas is expanded through the full pressure ratio of the main thrust chamber nozzle. The gas generator cycle and the staged combustion cycle can use most of the common liquid propellants. The expander cycle works best with vapourized cryogenic hydrogen as the coolant for the thrust chamber, because it is an excellent heat absorber and does not decompose. Gas generator cycle: In the gas generator cycle the turbine inert gas comes from a separate gas generator. Its propellant can be supplied from separate propellant tanks or can be bled off the main propellant feed system. This cycle is relatively simple; the pressures in the liquid pipes and pumps are relatively low. It has less engine specific impulse than an expander cycle or staged combustion cycle. The pressure ratio across the turbine is relatively high, but the turbine or gas generator flow is small of total propellant if compared to closed cycles. Some early engines used a separate monopropellant for creating the generator gas. S turbine GAS GENERATOR CYCLE The RS-68 rocket engine nas a simple gas generator cycle. This engine is the largest liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen rocket engine built to date. 29Expander eyele: | In the expander cycle most of the engine coolant (usually yen fed ie e E low pressure ratio turbines after having passed through the cooling ie pipes up energy. Part of the coolant, perhaps 5 to 15% bypasses the turbine 2 ae turbine exhaust flow before the entire coolant injecied into the engine cor chamber whers {sixes and burns with the oxidizer. rel Onidiver oop np re Ousier ( lurbine EXPANDER CYCLE . The’primary advantages of the expander cycle are good specific impulse, engine simplicity, and relatively low engine mass. In the expander cycle all the propellants are fully buméd in the engine exhaust nozzle. This cycle is used in the RL10 hydrogen/oxygen rocket engine. A recent modification of this engine, the RLIOB-2, It delivers the highest specific impulse of any chemical rocket engine to date, Staged combilstion cycle: ‘In the staged combustion eycle, the coolant flow path through the cooling jacket is the same as that of he expander cycle. Here a high pressure pre-combustion chamber where is burns with the remaining oxidizer. This cycle tends itself to high chamber Pressure operation, which allows a small thrust chamber size. The staged combustion cycle gives the highest specific impulse, but it is more complex and heavy. A variation of the staged combustion cycle is used in the Space shuttle main engine, Fuel pomp dizer luibine 30. STAGED-COMBUSTION CYCLE a ae by o- aoe a an on NO oO © S ¢: S F ALiquid propellant rocket Combustion chamber: The combustion chamber is that part of a thrust chamber where the combustion or buming of the propellant takes place. The combustion temperature is much higher than the melting points of most chamber wall materials. Therefore it is necessary either to cool these walls or to stop rocket operation before the critical wall areas become too hot. If the heat transfer is too high and thus the wall temperature become too high, the thrust chamber will fail, Copeoston of Liquid propellants: The combustion of liquid propellants is very efficient in well designed thrust “chambers, precombustion chambers, or gas generators, Efficiencies of 95 10 99.5% are typical compared to turbojets or furnaces, which can range from 50 10 97%. This is due to very high reaction rates at the high combustion temperatures and the thftst mixing of fuel and oxidizer reaction species by means of good injection distribution and gas turbulence. The combustion chamber is divided into several zones, such as injection atomization zone, Rapid combustion zone, stream tube combustion zone, transonic flow zone, supersonic expansion zone, yeh os" ne ‘Streamtube Sonienion Soe combustion Transonicflow zone zone Chamber-combustion region _ wilh subsonic Now Tae te, Sone flow "tine ~ The relative thickness of these zones, their behavior and their transitions are influenced by the specific propellant combination, operating conditions (Pressure mixture ratio, etc), the design of injector, and the chamber geometry. Rapid combustion zone: In this zone intensive and rapid chemical reactions occur at increasingly higher temperature; any remaining droplets are vaporized by convective heating. The further breakdown of the propellant chemicals into intermediate fractions and smaller, simpler chemicals and the oxidation of fuel fractions occur rapidly in this zone. The rapid expansion of the heated gases also forces a series of local transverse gas flows from hot high buming rate sites to colder low burning rate sites.———Injection/Ato mization Zone : In this zone the liquids are atomized into a large number of small droplets. Heat is transformed to the droplets by radiation from the very hot rapid combustion zone and by convection from moderately hot gases in the first zone. This first zone is heterogencous; it contains liquids and vaporized propellant as well as some burning hot gases, Chemical reactions occur in this zone, but the rate of heat generation is relatively low, in part because the liquids and the gases are still relatively cold and in part because vaporization near the droplets causes fuel rich and fuel lean regions which do not burn as quickly. ; i Some hot gases from the combustion zone are recirculated back from the rapid combustion zone and they can create local gas velocities that flow across the injector “face, Stream tube combustion zone: In this zone oxidation reactions continue, but at a lower rate, and some additional heat is released. However chemical reactions continue because the mixture tends to be driven towards an equilibrium composition. Streamlines are formed and there is relatively little turbulent mixing across streamline boundaries. The residence time in this zone is very short compared to the residence time in the other two zones. The residence time of the propellant material in the combustion chamber is very short, usually less than 100 milliseconds. Combustion in a liquid rockét engine is very dynamic with the volumetric heat release being approximately 370 MiJ/m’-sec, which is much higher than in turbojets. 4 x ‘ ( c « ‘ 5 ‘ f é Design consideration of combustion chamber. The design consideration of combustion chamber includes Combustion chamber shape » Combustion chamber volume 3-Chamber wall loads and stresses 1. Combustion chamber shape: mall cross section entails high nonisentropic pressure osses. Long chambeis also dictate a longer thrust chamber envelope and impose space limitations on the injector design to accommodate the desired number of injection elements: With short chamber a large cross section, the propellant atomization and vaporization zone occupies a relatively large portion of the chamber volume, while mixing and combustion zone becomes too short for efficient combustion, Other factors such as heat transfer, combustion stability, weight also be considered in determining the final combustion chamber configuration. Three geometrical shapes that have been used in combustion chamber design. There are spherical, near spherical, cylindrical chambers. A long chamber with siTrust Chamber Axis ‘Spherical a Combustion Nozzl Chamber injector Thrust Chamber axis: 1 Near Spherical ‘Combustion Throat Nozzle Chamber Injector i hast Chambe: Axis , Fig. 48 Frequently used geometrical shapes for combustion chambers. While spherical and near spherical chambers were used in early European designs, the cylindrical chamber has been employed most frequently in the united states, ‘compared to a cylindrical chamber of the same volume, a spherical or near spherical chamber offers the advantage of less cooling surface and weight. A spherical has the best surface-to-volume ratio of all the geometric choices and for the same material strength and chamber pressure. The minimum wall thickness required for pressure loads is about half that of a cylinder. Spherical chambers give the least internal surface area and mass per unit chamber volume. However, the spherical chamber is more difficult manufacture and has provided poorer performance in other respects. Today we prefer a cylindrical chamber (or slightly tapered cone frustrum) with a flat injector and a converging-diverging nozzle. Bit Bis ‘Chamber revo: | Diameters Area Ag Throat i" Throat , Diameter Dy chamber Area A —| cytinarical | Section Length tc. 8 Chamber Contraction Ag. NeaRatio ~ Ay 11 Elements of basic cylindrical combustion chamber. 33“Typical combustion chamber characteristics Length for variobs propellant combinations. jonchamber S.no | Propellant combination ee eth (L) (inch) 17] Chlorine triflouride/biydrazine base fuel 20.35 2 [Liquid fluorine/Hydrazine 24-38 3__| Liquid flouring/Liquid Hydrogen 25-30 4__ | Hydrogen peroxide/RP| 60-70 5 Nitric acid/Hydrazine base fuel 30-35 a © | Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydronen 30-40 7__ [Liquid Oxygen/RP-1 40-50 @. Combustion chamber volume: ‘The chamber volume is defined as the yolume upto the n includes the cylindrical chamber and the converging cone Neglecting the effect of comer radii, the chamber volume Veis Ves AiLi + AiLe (1+ AVA) + AVAD) L— Cylindrical length ‘A,/A, = Chamber contraction ratio - L, — Length of conical frustrum jozzle throat section and it frustram of the nozzle. ustion chamber volume is a function of the mass density of the combustion products and the stay relationship can be expressed as following The theoretically required comb flow rate of the propellants, the average time needed for efficient combustion. This equation V_= mVts m_—Propellant mass flow rate: V.— Chamber volume V Average specific volume t.—Propellant stay time oa Stay time(t,):.* ue of’the time spent by each molecule or atom within the It is the-average val the values of .001 to .040 sec for different types of thrust chamber, Stay times have chambers and propellant. CoMracteristic chamber length (L. or L'): ‘The characteristic chamber length is defined as the length that a chamber of the same volume would have if it were a straight tube and had no converging nozzle section L'=VJAv i V - Chamber volume 3 A,— Nozzle throat area ' * ’ a Typical values for L’ are between 0.8 and 3 meters (ie, 2.6 to 10 fi) for several bipropellants and higher for some monopropellants, * 34 een © © 0 O%0290 a 1 aa e\ . ea i The volume and shape are selected after evaluating the following parameters The volume has to be large enough for adequate mixing, evaporation and ae complete combustion of propellants, chamber volumes vary for different © propellants with the time delay necessary to vaporize and activate the propellants and with the speed of reaction of the propellant combination. when the chamber \ E volume is too small, combustion is incomplete and the performance is poor. With | ;. higher chamber pressures or with highly reactive propellants, and with injectors \ : that give improved mixing, a smaller chamber volume is usually permissible | - The chamber diameter and volume can influence the cooling requirements. If the | : chamber volume and the chamber diameter are large, the heat transfer rates to the walls will be reduced, the area exposed to heat will be large, and the walls are 1\ é somewhat thicker. ' : 3. All inert components should have minimum mass. The thrust chamber mass is a function of the chamber dimensions, chamber pressure and nozzle area ratio and ie the method of cooling ; 4. Manufacturing considerations favor simple chamber geometry, such as a @ & <7 lindrical with a double cone bows tie shaped nozzle, low cost materials and Do ste simpler fabrication processes. 5. In some applications the length of the chamber and the nozzle relate directly to Bae y” the overall length of the vehicle. A large diameter but short chamber can allow a ‘£2 somewhat shorter vehicle with lower structural inert vehicle mass. o 6. The gas: pressure drop ‘for accelerating the combustion products within the chamber should be minimum, any pressure reduction at the nozzle inlet reduces ¢ ” * ? are the exhaust velocity and the performance of the vehicle. These losses become BE appreciable when the chamber area less than three times the throat arca 7. For the same thrust the combustion volume and the nozzle throat area become 9 smaller as the operating chamber pressure is increased. This means that the PMA p P t “77 chamber length and the nozzle length also decrease with increasing chamber o n¢/ Pressure, the performance will go up with chamber pressure, > 3. Chamber walls loads and stresses: J The analysis of loads and stresses is performed on all propulsion components : during their engineering design. Its purpose is to assure the propulsion designer and the 4 flight vehicle user that ; The component are strong enough to carry all the loads, so that they can fulfill oie their intended functions ; 1. Potential failures have been identified together with the possible remedies or a redesigns. 5 2. Their masses have been reduced to a practical minimum.” In this section we . concentrate on the JoadSand stresses in the walls of thrust chambers, where é high heat fluxes and large thermal stresses complicate the stress analysis. 4 ‘Some of the information on safety factors and stress analysi8 apply also to all 1 propulsion system, including solid propellant motors and electric propulsion. ae The safety factors are very small in rocket propulsion when compared to i \ an oa ae i! Bo 1) S 35 i! 1 |commercial machining, where thesz futur vant oe 2 — 0 times larger, Several load conditions are ‘considered for each rocket component, they are a. "Maximum expected working load is the largest likely operating load under all likely operating conditions or transients b. The design limit load is typically 1.20 times the maximum expected load to provide a margin. ee. c. The damaging load can be based on the yield Jaad or the ultimate load of the endurance limit load, whichever gives the lowest value, The yield load . Gauses a permanent set or deformation, and is typically set as 1.10 times the design limit load d. The proof tect load 1s applied to engines their. components during development and manufacturing inspection. It is often equal to the design limit load, provide this load condition can be stimulated in a laboratory. 1 mee The walls of 2 siected to rapid and axial lead= from the chamber pressures, flight accelerations (axial and transverse), vibrations and thermal stresses. They also have withstand a momentaty ignition pressure surge or shockpofterr due to excessive propellant accumulation in the chamber. ‘Thus surge can Xceed the nominal chamber pressure. In addition the chamber walls have to transit thrust loads es ‘wells Torces and in some applications 2!s0 moments, imposed by thrust vector control devices. Walls also have to survive k” namely the initial thermal stresses at rapid starting. Wheh walls are cold or at ambient temperature they nal siresstsa TEPC experience higher gas heating rates than after the walls have been heated. These loads are different for almost every design and each unit has to be considered individually in determining the wall strengths. 7 Combustion instability: go) Qs? “Combustion instability’ is defined in terms of the nature of pressure fluctuations: in the combustion chamber. Combustion chamber pressure fluctuations are always present during normal, stable operation of a rocket engine system. They are usually quite Fandom showing frequently spectra that are essentially continuous in nature, with few, if an recognizable peaks. Combustion instabilities cause 1, Pressure peaks which increases the ‘burning rate and results in enormous pressure build up. 2. Increased heat transfer rates and higher wall temperatures 3. Vibration of the structure and the sensitive: electronic instruments and the pay load 4, Uncomfortable to the passengers inside oa) \Y ey =e Oo wr M0" i ee a: on 3 6Types of combustion instabilities S.no | T; ype | Word | Frequency | Cause Relationship | nen Lowh description _| range (Hz) | frequency Chugging | 10-400 Linked with pressure | | | (Feed interactions between system propellant feed system. If not | instability) the entire vehicle and | Feat 7 combustion chamber \ Inrresine ‘Acoustic or} 400-1000 [Linked with — mechanical | reece Buzzing vibrations of __ propulsion | salem structure, injector manifold, | flow eddies, fueV/oxidizer | ratio fluctuations. and | propellant feed —_system | \ resonances | 3 High frequency ‘Screaming | Above 1000 | Linked with combustion | or process forces (Pressure Screeching waves and chamber acoustical or Squealing resonance properties) i “Smooth combustion le 4 Rough combustion ny ae /\ Damping ti c ™ Stability rating test Time » ai ‘ime for differs hr traces of chamber pressure P with time pal Typical oscilloerIf the process of racket combustion is not controlled, then combustion instabilities can occur which can vary quickly cause excessive heat transfer. The aim is to prevent occurrence of this instability and to maintain reliable ‘operation Combustion in liquid propellant rocket engine is never perfectly smooth. There are always some fluctuations of pressure, temperatuf ‘and velocity are always present. When these fluctuations interact with the natwel frequenci®® of the propellant feed system or the chamber acoustics, periodic superimposed ‘oscillations occur which is known as instability. In normal practice ‘smooth combustion is said to occur when the pressure fluctuations during steady operations do not ‘exceed + 5% of the mean pressure Phd which oceur at completely random intervals is called rough combustion. ‘Chugging: = Chugging, a low frequency instability (also referred to as “Bulk mode of instability’) arise from an interaction between the propellant feed systems and the combustion chamber of the rocket motor. Propellant flow rate disturbance (usually 10 — 50 Hz) pive rise to low frequency longitudinal ‘combustion instability, producing a longitudinal motion of vibration in the vehicle. ‘This vehicle flight instability 1s called ‘Pogo instability. Pogo instabilities cast OCCU + the propellant feed lines of large vehicle such as space launch vehicles or ballistic missiles. Buzzing: Buzzing, the intermediate type of instability which represents pressure perturbations greater than 5% of the mean. ‘combustion chamber. It has ‘been associated in Yesonances of various parts ‘of the feed system and ‘mounting structure and vortex formation in the gas flowing around comers. Most have Jow amplitude. It is often more noisy annoying than damaging, although the occurrence of buzzing may initiate high frequency instabilities. This type of instability is more prevalent in medium size engines than in large engines. ’ Sereeching: he third type, screeching or screaming has frequency ‘and is most persisting and most common in the development of new engines. It involves high frequency oscillations. These oscillations are ‘due to the interaction between the acoustics of the chamber and the combustion process. Both liquid and solid propellant rockets commonly experience high frequency instability ‘during their development phase. High frequency instability occurs jn’ atleast two modes, longitudinal and transverse. The longitudinal mode propagates along axial planes ‘of the combustion ‘chamber and the pressure waves are Phected at the injector face and converging nozzle cone. The transverse mode propagates ‘along planes perpendicular to the combustion chamber axis and broke down {nto tangential and radial modes. One possible source of triggering high frequency instability is a rocket combustion phenomenon called popping. Popping is an undesirable random high amplitude pressure disturbance that occurs during steady state operation of a rocketa bsoegpolie popelans It isa possible source for initiation of high frequency Rnelofittic pressure i me some of the characteristics of a detonation wave The rise Bett neck sa few microseconds and the pressure ratio across the wave can be 21. The elimination of popping is usually achieved by redesign of the injector rather than by the application of baffles or absorbers. Heat transfer Distribution: ee hes is transmitted to all internal hardware surfaces exposed to hot gas namely the injector face, the chamber and nozzle walls. The heat transfer rate or heat transfer “intensity, that is local wall temperatures and heat transfer per unit wall area varies within the rocket. A typical heat transfer rate distnbution is shown in the fig. The amownt of heat transferred by conduction from the chamber gas to the walls in a rocket thrust chamber is negligible. The larger part of the heat is transferred by means of convection For constant chamber pressure the chamber wall surface increases less rapidly than the volume as the thrust level is raised. Thus the cooling of chamber is generally easier in farge in thrust sized, and the capacity of the wall material or the coolant to absorb all the heat rejected by the hot gas is generally more critical in smaller size, because of the volume surface relationship. Higher chamber pressure leads to high vehicle performance; but also (0 higher engine inert mass. However the resulting increase of heat transfer with chamber pressure often imposes design or material limits on the maximum practical chamber pressure for liquids and solid propellant rockets. The, heat transfer intensity in chemical rocket propulsion can vary from less than ‘50W/cm? or 0.3 Btwin’sec to over 10K W/cm? or 100 Biwlin?sec, The high values are the nozzle throat region of large bipropellant thrust chambers and high pressure solid rocket motors. The lower values are for gas generators mbers at low chamber pressures nozzle exit section or small thrust chat | Fal date | | Thrust chamber contour ate distribution for liquid The peak is always #4 RE 8-8. Typical axial he propellant thrust ropellant FIGURE ypical axial heat transfer rate z pune chambs i soli pellant rocket Motors: nozzle throu’ ambers and solid propellar ete ee and the lowest value 1S usually 39~ Cooling of thrust chambers: The primary objective of cooling is to prevent the chamber and nozzle walls from Becoming 100 hot, so they will no longer be able to withered we imposed loads or stresses, thus causing the chamber or nozzle to fail. Cooling reduces the wall temperatures to an acceptable value. Cooling also helps to reduce the oxidation of the Wall material, Cooling methods: 1. Steady state method a. Regenerative cooling b. Radiation cooling \steady state or transient heat transfer method a. Ablative cooling 3. Film cooling a. Transpiration cooling 4. Dump cooling 5. Thermal insulation 2. Un: 1. Steady state method In this method the heat transfer rate and the temperature of the chamber Teach thermal equilibrium. Cook led thrust chambers have Provisions for Cooling some or all metal parts comit ng into contact with hot gases, such as chamber walls, nosele walls and injector faces. Internal cooling i and outer walls or of an assembh is usually the location that has the hi; highest heat transfer intensity and is therefore the mow difficult to cool. For this reason cooling jacket is designed so that the coolant velocity is higher at the criti ict cal regions by restricting the coolant passage cross s State method includes regenerati ‘orae exit manifold Inlet ‘manifold Reinforcing tension amo Exit (Section C) bands xm Chamber (ection B) Throat (Section A) Top view without manifold FIGURE 8-9. Diagram of a tubular cooling jacket. The tubes are bent to the chamber and nozzle contours; they are formed hydraulically to give a variable cross section to Farmit the same number of tubes at the throat and exit diameters, Coolant enters through the inlet manifold into every other tube and Proceeds axially to the nozzle Cat manifold, where it then enters the alternate tubes and returns axially to go directly to the injector. \ 40a, Regenerative cooling: It is done by building a cooling jacket around the thrust chamber and circulating one of the liquid propellants (usually the fuel) through it before it is fed to the injector This cooling téchnique is used primarily with bipropellant chambers of medium to large thrust. It has beenjeffective in applications with high chamber pressure and high heat transfer rates. Alsofmost injectors use regenerative cooling. It is most widely used method which utilizes one or possibly both of the propellants fed through passages in the thrust chamber wall for cooling before being injected into the combustion chamber. Advantages: 1. No performance loss (thermal energy absorbed by the coolant is returned to the injector) 2. No change in the wall contour as a function of time, indefinite firing duration, and relatively light weight construction Disadvantages: 1. Limited throttling with most coolants, reduced reliability with some coolants (eg, Hydrazine) 2. High-pressure drops required at high heat flux levels, and thrust levels. 3, The mixture ratios or nozzle area ratios possibly limited by maximum allowable coolant temperature. The design of a regeneratively cooled thrust chamber involves consideration of gas side heat flux, wall structural requirements, coolant side heat transfer, and the effects of temperature increases on coolant properties. Heat transfer in a regeneratively cooled chamber can be described as the heat flow between two moving fluids, through a multiplayer partition. The fig shows this process schematically. The general steady state correlation of heat transfer from the combustion:gases through the layers, which include the metal chamber walls to the coolant. ee Chamber as St nner Wall ! sey aye ; f bo b+ cootant side Boundary Layer Taw —~ nt Combustion spor Gas be Two | _ ele ijenp Tee ga frp They Gas Shae teil Lemp e = Aclibet7e Radial Distance From ioe Cenier of Chane Fai “eat eemp Temperature Fig. 4-50 Heat ceanster regenerative cooling. 41 ab.Radiation cooling: With this method heat is radiated away from the surface of the outer thrust chamber wall. It has been successfully applied to very small, high temperature material combustion chambers and to low heat flux regions, such as nozzle extensions. When it reaches thermal equilibrium this wall usually glows red or while hot and radiates heat away to the surrounding or the empty space. . Radiation cooling is used with monopropellant thrust chamber, bipropellant and monopropellant gas generators and for diverging nozzle sections beyond an area ratio of about 6 — 10. A few small bipropellant thrusters are also radiation cooled. This cooling scheme has worked well with lower chamber pressures (less than 250 Psi) and moderate heat transfer rates. 2. Unsteady state or transient heat transfer method: This method is also called heat sink cooling. This method has mostly been used with low chamber pressure and low heat transfer rates. Heat sink cooling of thrust chambers can be done by absorbing heat in an inner liner made of an ablative material, such as .fiber reinforced plastics. Ablative materials are used extensively in solid propellant rocket motors. a, Ablative cooling: In this process combustion gas side wall material is sacrificed by melting, vaporizing and chemical changes to dissipate heat. As a result, relatively cool gases flow over the’ wall surface, thus lowering the boundary layer temperature ‘and assisting the cooling process. In addition, the ablative thaterial is usually a good thermal insulation. Ablative cooling was first used and still used extensively with solid propellant rocket motors. It has been successfully applied to liquid propellant thrust chamber, particularly at low chamber pressure, short duration and also in nozzle extensions for both large and small thrust chambers where the static gas temperatures are relatively low. ‘An ablative material usually consists of a series of strong, oriented fibers (such as glass, Kevlar or carbon fibers) engulfed by a matrix of an organic material (such as plastics, epoxy resins or phenolic resins) 3. Film cooling: Here, exposed chamber wall surfaces are protected from excessive heat by a thin film of coolant or propellant introduced through orifices around the injector periphery Or through manifolded orifices in the chamber wall near the injector and sometimes in several more planes toward'the throat. The method has been used particularly for high heat fluxes either alone or in combination with regenerative cooling. This method is applied to the complete thrust chamber or just to the nozzle, where the heat transfer is the highest. In this method relatively cool thin fluid film covers and protects exposed wall surfaces from excessive heat transfer. Fig shows the film cooled chambers. The film is introduced by introduced by injecting small quantities of fuel or an inert fluid at very low velocity through a large number of orifices along the exposed 2