Contents
Text credits v
Introduction vi

Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

Section A: The challenge of natural hazards
Chapter 1 Natural hazards 2
Chapter 2 Tectonic hazards 4
Chapter 3 Weather hazards 22
Chapter 4 Climate change 44
Question practice 56

Section B: The living world

Chapter 5 Ecosystems 60
Chapter 6 Tropical rainforests 68
Chapter 7 Hot deserts 84
Chapter 8 Cold environments 100
Question practice 116

Section C: Physical landscapes in the UK

Chapter 9 The physical diversity of the UK 120
Chapter 10 Coastal landscapes 122
Chapter 11 River landscapes 152
Chapter 12 Glacial landscapes 182
Question practice 200

iii

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 Contents

Paper 2: Challenges in the Human Environment

Section A: Urban challenges
Chapter 13 The global pattern of urban change 204
Chapter 14 Urban growth in Nigeria 208
Chapter 15 Urban challenges in the UK 224
Chapter 16 Sustainable development of urban areas 248
Question practice 254

Section B: The changing economic world

Chapter 17 E
 conomic development and quality of life 258
Chapter 18 Reducing the global development gap 268
Chapter 19 Economic development in Nigeria 276
Chapter 20 Economic change in the UK 290
Question practice 312

Section C: The challenge of resource management

Chapter 21 G
 lobal resource management 316
Chapter 22 Resources in the UK 320
Chapter 23 Food334
Chapter 24 Water352
Chapter 25 Energy366
Question practice 380

Paper 3: Geographical Applications

Chapter 26 Issue evaluation 384
Question practice 391
Chapter 27 Fieldwork and geographical enquiry 392

Glossary402
Index414
Photo credits 418

iv

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Case studies and examples in the UK used in this book

Key
Examples
Case Studies

Isle of Arran
(Sections 12.8–12.9)

Lake District
Cumbria (Section 3.9) (Section 12.5)

Epping Forest
London (Chapter 15) (Section 5.2)
River Severn
(Chapter 11,
Section 11.8)

Jubilee River
(Section 11.15)
Dorset
London
(Section 10.4)
Medmerry River (Section
(Section 10.15) 15.11–15.12)

Case
00_01 studies and examples
AQA GCSE Geography across the world used in this book
student book
Barking Dog Art
Spain (Section 23.6)
Alaska (Sections 8.3–8.5)
Italy (Section 2.5, 2.7)

China
The USA (Section 24.5)
(Sections Tunisia
7.3–7.5) (Section 18.4) Nepal (Section
2.6, 2.7, 25.7)

The Philippines
Nigeria (Section 3.6)
(Chapter 19)
Bangladesh
Lagos
(Section 23.8)
Brazil (Section 14.8)
Ethiopia
(Section 6.4–6.5) Lagos (Section 24.7)
(Chapter 14)

Key
Examples
Case Studies

00_02 AQA GCSE Geography student book

Barking Dog Art 1

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 1.1 1 Natural hazards

J KEY LEARNING Defining natural hazards

➤ What natural hazards are
What is a natural hazard?
➤ Different types of natural
hazard Natural events have always occurred on our dynamic Earth. Without people,
natural events would be just that, events – there would be no natural ‘hazards’.
➤ Factors that affect
Yet in a world with a rapidly growing population, and with technological
hazard risk
developments leading to faster travel and quicker communication, it is difficult
to ignore that humans are becoming increasingly vulnerable to natural
hazards. Natural hazards pose potential risk of damage to property, and loss
of life. The more humans that come into contact with natural events, the more
the potential risk of natural hazards increases.

How are different types of natural displacing a large body of water. Some natural hazards
are caused by human influence rather than a natural
hazard classified? process. For example, forest fires in California in 2014
Natural hazards are most commonly classified by their were recorded as being caused by arson and falling
physical processes, that is, what caused the hazard to power lines rather than naturally occurring events.
occur. These processes include:

■ tectonic hazards, such as earthquakes or tsunamis,

Where do natural hazards occur?
which involve movement of tectonic plates in the Some regions around the world are more vulnerable to
Earth’s crust natural hazards than others. The different colours of the
■ atmospheric hazards, such as tropical storms countries in Figure 1.4 show the likelihood of a natural
■ geomorphological hazards, such as flooding, which disaster occurring, based on historical data.
occur on the Earth’s surface The year 2018 was a bad one for natural hazards. There
■ biological hazards, such as forest fires, which involve were volcanic eruptions in Indonesia and Guatemala,
living organisms. earthquakes and tsunamis in Indonesia, flooding across
However, these categories are closely linked. For East Africa and wildfires in California. Some of the
example, tsunamis are a tectonic hazard, but can also biggest natural hazards that occurred around the world
be caused by a landslide (a geomorphological hazard) in 2018 are located on the map in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.1 Avalanche, Italy, 2017 Figure 1.2 Flooding, York, 2015

477513_01_AQA_G_T1_SA_002-003.indd 2 29/03/20 7:33 PM

 Section A: 1 Natural hazards

What factors affect hazard risk? ■ Wealth – a risk tends to decrease with increased
wealth, as people can afford to prepare for and
The frequency and magnitude (strength) of natural respond to natural hazards.
hazards are increasing due to human influences such ■ Population growth – by 2024, 8 billion people are
as the enhanced greenhouse effect (which increases expected to populate the planet, which inevitably
the risk of more extreme weather such as drought) and increases hazard risk as there are more people to
deforestation (which increases the risk of hazards such as interact with natural events.
flooding). The main factors that affect hazard risk are:

Lack of Language
Location Magnitude Timing Expense
knowledge barrier

Can’t accurately
Can’t move
predict hazard

Why do people
make themselves
vulnerable?

It’s worth staying Don’t want to go

Overconfident Optimistic it
Resources Jobs
in defences won’t happen

Figure 1.3 Why people live near hazardous areas

Key
Very high risk Earthquake
North High risk Volcanic eruption
USA Greece Korea Medium risk Flood
Japan Low risk Tsunami
Very low risk Heatwave
India No data Wildfire
Guatemala
Pakistan Papua
Nigeria
New Guinea

Indonesia

Figure 1.4 World natural hazard risk and biggest natural disasters in 2018
01_03 AQA GCSE Geography
Activities
Barking Dog Art

1 Distinguish between a natural hazard and a 3 Explain why some hazards are more difficult to
natural event. categorise than others.
2 Categorise the following natural hazards into 4 Describe the pattern of natural hazard risk in Figure 1.4.
tectonic, atmospheric, geomorphological or
5 Use Figure 1.3 to explain why people can make
biological: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
themselves more vulnerable to natural hazards.
flooding, landslides, tornados, avalanches, forest
fires; hurricanes, typhoons or cyclones. 6 Suggest how humans could have caused the
hazards in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2.

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 2.1 2 Tectonic hazards

J KEY LEARNING Earthquakes and the

➤ The Earth’s structure
➤ How tectonic plates
distribution of volcanoes
move What is the Earth’s structure?
➤ The location of
The Earth’s internal structure is divided into layers (see Figure 2.1). At the centre
earthquakes and
is the core, which is mainly made of iron and nickel, is extremely hot and under
volcanoes
a lot of pressure. The inner core is solid; the outer core is liquid. The mantle
➤ The relationship between surrounds the core, is beneath the Earth’s crust and is made of solid material that
earthquakes, volcanoes can flow very slowly. The upper portion of the mantle is a weak layer called the
and plate margins asthenosphere, which can deform like plastic. The outermost layer of the Earth is
the solid crust, and there are two main types of crust: oceanic and continental.
Oceanic crust is:
thinner and more dense (5–10 km)
■
■ formed of basaltic rock
How do tectonic plates move?
■ sinks when it meets continental plates What exactly makes tectonic plates move is still being
■ usually less than 200 million years old. explored by scientists.

Continental crust is: Convection

■ thicker (20–200 km)
One theory is called convection. The core’s temperature
■ composed mainly of granite rock is around 6,000 °C. This causes magma (molten rock)
■ up to 3.8 billion years old. to rise in the mantle. As it rises further from the core, it
The crust and upper mantle together form a rigid shell cools and sinks back towards the core. The convection
at the surface of the Earth called the lithosphere. The currents flowing in the mantle carry the plates with them.
lithosphere is broken into several major fragments, called Only limited evidence of convection currents has so far
tectonic plates, which move very slowly over the upper been found.
mantle. The movement of plates can be tracked from
space using GPS. Ridge push and slab pull
A more recent explanation is called ridge push and slab
Where two plates meet it is known as a plate margin.
pull (see Figure 2.1). At constructive margins, ocean
There are three types of plate margin, which describe the
ridges form high above the ocean floor. Beneath ocean
different ways that the plates are moving: constructive,
ridges the mantle melts; the molten magma rises as the
destructive and conservative plate margins (see
plates move apart, and cools down to form new plate
Sections 2.2 to 2.4). The interaction between the
material. As the lithosphere cools, it becomes denser and
different tectonic plates and the mantle beneath leads to
starts to slide down, away from the ridge, which causes
the triggering of earthquakes and volcanic activity.
plates to move away from each other. This is called ridge
Ridge push push. Additionally, at destructive margins the denser
Crust plate sinks back into the mantle under the influence of
gravity, which pulls the rest of the plate along behind it.
This is called slab pull.

Slab pull Slab pull

Outer core Where are earthquakes and
volcanoes located?
Inner core
Mantle Earthquakes and volcanoes are not randomly
distributed over the Earth’s surface. Figure 2.3 shows
the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes. The
Figure 2.1 The layers of the Earth showing ridge push pattern matches where plate margins are located
and slab pull

477513_02_AQA_G_T1_SA_004-021.indd 4 4/25/20 7:52 PM

 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

(see Figure 2.2). Earthquakes are found at all three types For example, there is a chain of volcanoes and
of plate margins, whereas volcanoes are found at two, earthquakes which runs along the west coast of North
constructive and destructive (see Sections 2.2 to 2.4.) and South America. The large band of volcanoes and
earthquakes which circles the Pacific Ocean is known as
Earthquakes and volcanoes are found both on land and
the Ring of Fire.
in the sea.

Key
Fold mountains
North American 6 Alps Eurasian
Plate movement
Juan Rocky 10 Rate of plate
de Fuca Mountains Himalayas movement cm/year
Arabian
Destructive margin
Pacific Caribbean 1 Philippine
African Constructive margin
Cocos
10 Pacific

Pacific South 2
Nazca American
10 1
6 Andes Indo-Australian

2
7
Antarctica
Scotia

Figure 2.2 World map of major tectonic plates and plate margins

Not every earthquake and volcano lies along a plate

margin. Some also occur in the middle of plates. These Activities
are known at ‘hot spots’, where the Earth’s crust is
1 Define what a tectonic plate is.
thought to be particularly thin. For example, Hawaii has
formed due to volcanic eruptions at a hot spot that is 2 Contrast the characteristics of continental and
located far from the edge of the Pacific Plate. oceanic crust.
3 Describe the global distribution of earthquakes.
4 Describe the global distribution of volcanoes.
5 Do you agree with these statements? Explain
your answer.
a) ‘Earthquakes and volcanoes occur together.’
b) ‘Earthquakes and volcanoes occur away from
each other.’
c) ‘Earthquakes and volcanoes occur along plate
margins.’
d) ‘Earthquakes and volcanoes occur away from
plate margins.’
Key 6 Using Figure 2.1, explain how tectonic plates
Earthquakes move.
Volcanoes 7 Explain what hot spots are.
Figure 2.3 Tectonic hazards around the world

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 2.2 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Constructive plate margins

➤ How plates at
constructive margins
How do plates move at constructive margins?
move Constructive plate margins occur when tectonic plates move apart from
➤ Why earthquakes and each other. Most tectonic plates move a few centimetres a year. This may not
volcanoes are found sound much, but over time this has meant that whole continents have moved
at constructive plate position. As shown in Figure 2.2 in Section 2.1, the Eurasian Plate and North
American Plate form a constructive plate margin: they are moving away from
margins
each other at a rate of six centimetres per year.

Why are earthquakes and

volcanoes found at constructive
plate margins?
Tectonic plate Tectonic plate 1 At constructive margins, the upper part of the mantle
melts and the hot molten magma rises. The East
Pacific Rise, on the other hand, is a faster moving
constructive plate margin. It separates the Pacific
Plate from the North American Plate and Nazca Plate
Rising magma
at a rate of about ten centimetres per year.

2 As the tectonic plates are moved away from each

other, this releases pressure and therefore molten
magma rises between. It cools down to form solid
rock. As the rock cools, it becomes denser and sinks,
causing the tectonic plates to move further (see ridge
Tectonic plates Cooling magma Direction of
move apart forms new plate movement
push on page 4).

Rising magma

3 Much of the magma never reaches the surface

New plate material Shield volcano forms
but it is buoyant enough to push up the crust at
constructive margins to form ridge and rift features.
In a few places the magma erupts on to the surface,
producing a basic lava that is runny and spreads out
before solidifying. Over many eruptions, a volcano
that typically is low, has a wide base and gentle
slopes, known as a shield volcano, is formed.
Mantle

Rising magma

Figure 2.4 Constructive plate margins

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is located along a constructive Rift valleys are steep-sided valleys that form at
plate margin. The North American plate is moving away constructive plate margins. The strain of the tectonic
from the Eurasian plate (Figure 2.5). The magma has risen plates moving away from each other is splitting Iceland
and caused uplifting of the Earth’s crust, forming the ridge in two, causing cracks or faults to form on either side. As
as a range of underwater mountains. the sides of the rift move and stretch apart, sections drop
down to form rift valleys.
Iceland is the world’s largest volcanic island situated
on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Magma has risen to form Iceland’s Thingvellir National Park has a visitor centre with
underwater volcanoes, which have grown above sea level a path leading to the Almannagjá fault where a stretch of
to form this volcanic island. The Westman Islands are 15 the plate margin can be viewed (Figure 2.6). Hundreds of
islands all created by volcanic activity originating on the small earthquakes occur in Iceland on a weekly basis.
seabed (Figure 2.5).

N
NORTH AMERICAN EURASIAN
PLATE PLATE

ICELAND

Thingvellir
Reykjavik

Atlantic
Ocean
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
Westman
Islands
Key
0 100 Volcanoes
km

Figure 2.5 Map of Iceland Figure 2.6 Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Thingvellir, Iceland

Geographical skills
Activities
Draw a sketch of Figure 2.6
1 Describe the direction in which plates move at constructive
and label human and physical
plate margins.
features.
2 Use Figure 2.2 in Section 2.1 (page 5) to identify the plate names at
two different constructive plate margins.
3 Are earthquakes experienced at constructive plate margins? Explain
your answer.
4 What evidence can you find on the map (Figure 2.5) and the
photograph (Figure 2.6) that Iceland lies on a constructive plate
margin?
5 Explain why there are so many volcanoes located in Iceland.

477513_02_AQA_G_T1_SA_004-021.indd 7 29/03/20 7:36 PM

 2.3 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Destructive plate margins

➤ How plates at
destructive margins
How do plates move at destructive margins?
move Destructive plate margins occur when tectonic plates move towards each
➤ Why earthquakes and other and collide. The effect this has depends on the type of plate:
volcanoes are found n If two continental plates collide, they are both buoyant and so cannot sink
at destructive plate into the mantle. As a result, compression forces the plates to collide and
margins form mountains.
n If an oceanic and a continental plate collide, the denser oceanic plate is
subducted and sinks under the continental plate, into the Earth’s mantle,
where it is recycled, causing earthquakes, fold mountains and volcanoes.

a) Why are earthquakes and volcanoes found at

Ocean
Oceanic Continental tectonic
destructive plate margins?
tectonic plate plate The pressure and strain of an oceanic and continental plate moving towards
Mantle each other can cause the Earth’s crust to crumple and form fold mountains.
As the plates converge, pressure builds up. The rocks eventually fracture,
causing an earthquake, which can be very destructive (see Figure 2.7a).

The denser oceanic plate subducts down into the mantle under the influence
of gravity. The plate is denser than the surrounding mantle so pulls the rest of
the plate along behind it, driving further movement of the tectonic plate. At
the surface, this creates a deep ocean trench (see Figure 2.7b).
b) Fold mountains
As the oceanic plate sinks deeper into the mantle, it causes part of the mantle
Ocean to melt. Hot magma rises up through the overlying mantle and lithosphere,
trench and some can eventually erupt at the surface, producing a linear belt of
volcanoes. The magma becomes increasingly viscous (sticky) as it rises,
Slab pull producing composite volcanoes which are steep-sided, erupt a variety
Su
bd

of materials such as sticky acidic lava and ash, and have violent eruptions
uc
zo

tio

(see Figure 2.7c).

n

n
e

Japan’s volcanoes
Japan is prone to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It has 118 active
volcanoes currently erupting or showing signs of eruption (ten per cent of
c)
the global total), more than almost anywhere else in the world. Japan’s band
Composite
of volcanoes form part of the Ring of Fire (see page 5) surrounding the
volcano
Pacific Ocean. There are so many because Japan lies on the margin of four
plates: the Eurasian, North American, Pacific and Philippine (see Figure 2.2
in Section 2.1). The Pacific plate subducts beneath the North American plate
and the Philippine plate, which then subducts beneath the Eurasian plate.
Earthquake Many parts of Japan have experienced earthquakes due to the pressure built
Magma up in the plates as they move at this destructive plate margin.
rises
Subduction Also formed at the destructive plate margin of the Pacific and Philippine
zone
plates is an ocean trench, known as the Mariana Trench. It is 10,994 metres
Figure 2.7 Destructive plate margins deep – deeper than the tallest mountain, Mount Everest (8,848 metres). The
Mariana Trench is the deepest known part of the Earth’s oceans.

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

Pacific plate

Asia

Eurasia plate

Japan

Mariana Trench
Philippines plate

Figure 2.8 Satellite image of Japan. The darker the blue, the greater the ocean’s depth

Geographical skills
Activities
Draw an annotated sketch map
1 Describe the direction in which plates move at destructive
of Figure 2.8. Annotate the
plate margins.
image to show where you would
2 Use Figure 2.2 in Section 2.1 to determine which of the following are
expect earthquakes, volcanoes
destructive plate margins:
and mountains to be formed –
n Eurasian and Philippine plates explain why.
n Nazca and Pacific plates
n Nazca and South American plates
n North American and Eurasian plates.
3 What landforms are found at destructive plate margins?
4 Explain how earthquakes and volcanoes are formed at destructive
plate margins.

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 2.4 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Conservative plate margins

➤ How plates at
conservative margins
How do plates move at conservative margins?
move A conservative plate margin occurs when tectonic plates move parallel
➤ Why earthquakes are to each other. The two plates can move side by side, either in the same
found at conservative direction but at different speeds, or simply in the opposite direction to one
plate margins another (see Figure 2.9).

Why are earthquakes found at conservative plate margins?

One theory is that pressure might build up at the margin direction, but at different speeds (see Figure 2.10). The
of the tectonic plates as they are pulled along behind a North American plate moves at approximately
plate being subducted elsewhere. As the plates move 6 centimetres per year, whereas the Pacific plate moves
past each other, friction causes them to become stuck. at approximately 10 centimetres per year. Fifteen to
Pressure builds up and up until eventually the rock twenty million years ago, Los Angeles would have
fractures and pressure is released, sending out huge been south of where San Diego is now. If the plates
amounts of energy, causing an earthquake. However, continue to move at the same speed, in 20 million years’
volcanoes are not formed at conservative plate margins. time, Hollywood in Los Angeles will be adjacent to the
Magma cannot rise to fill a gap as there is no gap created Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco.
between the tectonic plates, and therefore there is no new
California experiences thousands of small earthquakes
land formed. Neither is there any land destroyed, because
every year. One of the biggest earthquakes to hit California
there is no tectonic plate subducted into the mantle.
was in San Francisco in 1906. Scientists have estimated that
The San Andreas Fault stretches 800 kilometres the 1906 San Francisco earthquake measured a magnitude
through the state of California in the USA. It is found of 8.3 on the Richter scale. (The largest earthquake ever
along the margin between the North American plate recorded was in Chile, in 1960, which measured 9.5.)
and the Pacific plate. These tectonic plates are sliding Approximately 700 people died and the damage caused
past each other in roughly the same northwest was estimated to cost over US$500 million.

a) b) (i) Plates move further

past each other in Direction of plate
opposite directions movement

Tectonic plate
Tectonic plate

Mantle
Mantle

b) (ii) Plates move in the same

direction but at different speeds Direction
of plate
movement

Figure 2.9 Movement Mantle

of tectonic plates at a
conservative plate margin

10

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

The US Geological Survey have run computer models to

predict the next major earthquake on the San Andreas
Fault. They report that there is most likely to be an
earthquake similar to the 1906 San Francisco earthquake
at intervals of about 200 years. There is only a small
chance (about 2 per cent) that an earthquake like this
would happen within the next 30 years.

Key
N Fault line

North American
San Francisco Plate
USA

Los Angeles
San Andreas Fault
San Diego
Pacific
Ocean

Pacific
Plate
MEXICO

0 500
km

Figure 2.10 Map showing the San Andreas Fault, California, USA Figure 2.11 The San Andreas Fault
02_13 AQA GCSE Geography student book
Barking Dog Art
Activities
Geographical skills
1 Use Figure 2.2 in section 2.1 to identify a different conservative plate
margin from the San Andreas Fault. The Richter scale is logarithmic.
This means each increase of
2 a) Are the following statements about conservative margins true
one on the scale means the
or false?
power is increased by 10, not 1.
i) Two tectonic plates move away from each other.
So a magnitude 6 earthquake is
ii) Two tectonic plates move parallel past each other.
10 times more powerful than a
iii) Two tectonic plates move towards each other.
magnitude 5 earthquake.
iv) Earthquakes are found at conservative margins.
v) Volcanoes are found at conservative margins Calculate how much more
b) Explain your answer for each statement. powerful a magnitude 8
earthquake is than a magnitude 4
3 Describe and explain the similarities between the photographs in
earthquake.
Figure 2.5 in Section 2.2 and Figure 2.11 on this page.
4 Complete the following summary table about the three types of
plate margins.

Margin type Type of plates Direction Earthquakes Volcanoes

(oceanic or of plate (tick or (tick or
continental or movement cross) cross)
either)
Constructive
Destructive
Conservative

11

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 2.5 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Earthquake in Amatrice, Italy (2016)

Example

➤ Primary and secondary

effects of an earthquake What were the effects of the earthquake?
➤ How people responded to On 24 August 2016, an earthquake measuring a magnitude of 6.2 on the
the Amatrice earthquake Richter scale struck central Italy. The earthquake’s epicentre was halfway
between the towns of Amatrice and Norcia, at a shallow depth of 5.1 km.

Amatrice is a town in the Apennine Mountains in central

Italy, approximately 30 miles north of L’Aquila, which ITALY
also experienced a major earthquake in 2009 (see Adriatic
Sea
Figure 2.12). The Amatrice earthquake was felt as far
as 100 miles away, in Rome. Amatrice experienced a
Sardinia MARCHE
range of impacts which affected the wealth of the area
and of the community (economic impacts), the lives of
Sicily UMBRIA
members of the community (social impacts) and the Arquata
landscape (environmental impacts). Norcia del Tronto

Amatrice
Primary effects
As a direct result of the earthquake, 299 people were L’Aquila
LAZIO
killed, 400 were injured and 4454 were made homeless.
Tyrrhenian Rome
It struck at 3.36 a.m., so most people were asleep in ABRUZZO
Sea
buildings which collapsed, with no time to evacuate:

n Towns and villages in the regions of Umbria, Lazio

N
and Marche suffered most damage.
n Around 293 historic buildings were damaged or 0 50 MOLISE
destroyed, including the fourteenth-century Basilica of km
St. Benedict in Norcia, and the Church of Sant’Agostino
Figure 2.12 Amatrice in the region of Lazio, Italy
and the Basilica of San Francesco in Amatrice.
n Over half the buildings were destroyed in Amatrice, Secondary
02_15 effects
AQA GCSE Geography
80 per cent of the historic old town, despite their Barking Dog Art
Some effects of the earthquake occurred later and
reinforcements. indirectly as a result of the initial earthquake itself. These
n Amatrice’s Romolo Capranica school completely are some of the secondary effects:
collapsed (considered a substandard construction).
n The centre of Amatrice town was cordoned off due to
n Even though the government had allocated €1 billion
the unsafe buildings. Parts of the centre were made
for building improvements to be made following the
‘red zones’, reducing business, tourism and income.
2009 L’Aquila earthquake, many properties did not
meet seismic building standards (across Italy, this is n Farmers struggled to earn a living as 90 per cent
true of around 70 per cent of buildings). of sheep, goats and cattle barns (and their milking
systems) were destroyed.
n The earthquake struck during the summer holiday
season, so the population was much higher than n Landslides blocked roads and reduced access to the
normal. The death toll included tourists celebrating an area.
annual food festival. n Residents suffered psychological damage, especially
n Overall, the EU estimated the total damage at as they know they live in the most seismically active
€21.9 billion. area in Europe.
n The press reported individuals were arrested for
looting properties in Amatrice.

12

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

What were the responses to

the earthquake?
Immediate responses
There were a range of immediate responses. For those
made homeless, 10,000 were accommodated in 58 tent
camps. Converted sports halls and hotels on the Adriatic
coast provided shelter for 4000. Additionally:

n Rescue workers, including the Italian Red Cross, 5000

soldiers and Alpine guides, arrived within an hour,
searching for survivors and providing food and tents. Figure 2.13 Aftermath of the earthquake in Amatrice, Italy, 2016
Twelve helicopters and 70 dog teams were involved in
the rescue effort.
Long-term responses
n Patients at Amatrice hospital were transferred to There were several long-term responses:
a nearby hospital in Rieti as Amatrice hospital was n Students attended classes in neighbouring schools
severely damaged. A temporary hospital was set up. while 12 classrooms in prefabricated buildings were
The national blood donation service appealed for new constructed in Amatrice so children could return to
donors to ensure demand was met. school there.
n Facebook set up their safety check feature for people in n A €42 million government initiative called ‘Italian
the area to let friends and family know they were safe. The Homes’ sought to rebuild villages with buildings
Italian Red Cross requested locals remove wi-fi passwords of the same character, but now earthquake-proof.
so rescue teams could communicate more easily. Tax incentives allow 65 per cent of total renovation
n Italian Prime Minister Matteo Renzi announced costs to be used as tax breaks to help reduce the
€50 million for the emergency response, for cost of rebuilding. However, this was not enough to
reconstruction work to begin immediately and taxes ensure a significant increase in buildings that are safe.
for residents to be cancelled. Prime Minister Matteo Renzi stated it was ‘absurd’ to
n British chef Jamie Oliver pledged donations for think Italy could build completely earthquake-proof
every plate of Amatrice’s famous Amatriciana pasta buildings. The Italian press criticised the government
served in his restaurants. All proceeds from visits over building regulations, especially as some recently
to museums and archaeologist sites on 28 August renovated buildings had also collapsed.
throughout Italy went to a fund to help rebuild the n Six months after the earthquake, the Italian
historic sites damaged in the earthquake. government promised to move people from
However, rescue efforts were hampered due to blocked temporary camps into lightweight wooden houses.
roads, a damaged bridge, the mountainous terrain and n A year later, 2.4 million tons of rubble and debris
over 2000 aftershocks which caused even more damage. remained in affected areas.

Activities
1 Use Figure 2.12 to describe the location of Amatrice. 4 Complete the table of effects for this earthquake.
2 Define the primary and secondary effects of an Economic Environmental Social
earthquake.
3 a) G
 ive three examples of primary effects likely in
any earthquake around the world. 5 Explain how four of the responses described would
b) Give three examples of secondary effects likely help to manage the effects.
in any earthquake around the world. 6 Justify why both immediate and long-term
responses were needed.

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 2.6 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Earthquake in Gorkha, Nepal (2015)

Example

➤ Primary and secondary

effects of the earthquake What were the effects of the earthquake?
➤ How people responded On Saturday 25 April 2015, at 11.56 a.m. (local time), a 7.8 magnitude
to the Gorkha earthquake earthquake struck the Gorkha district in Nepal (Figure 2.14). The earthquake’s
epicentre was in Barpak, 80 kilometres northwest of the capital, Kathmandu.

Primary effects
CHINA
The immediate primary effects included:

n A total of 8,841 dead, over 16,800 injured and 1 million

Gorkha
District made homeless.
n Historic buildings and temples in Kathmandu,
H
i TIB E T including the iconic Dharahara Tower (Figure 2.16), a
NEPAL m
a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in which 200 people
l
Barpak a
y were estimated to be trapped, were destroyed; there
a
s were no compulsory building standards in Nepal, so
N Kathmandu many modern buildings also collapsed.
n The destruction of 26 hospitals and 50 per cent of
0 200 schools. (Save the Children estimated 29,000 more
INDIA
km people would have been killed if the earthquake had
struck during school hours, rather than on a Saturday.)
Figure 2.14 Nepal, Asia n A reduced supply of water, food and electricity.
n 352 aftershocks, including a second earthquake on
12 May 2015 measuring 7.3 magnitude.

Secondary effects What were the responses to the

The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest. earthquake?
It swept through Everest Base Camp, which is used by
international climbing expeditions. Out of the 19 who died, Immediate responses
several were tourists and the rest were members of an Nepal requested international help. The UK’s Distasters
ethnic group in Nepal called Sherpas. Sherpas work as Emergency Committee (DEC) raised US$126 million by
porters, guides and cooks. They are aware of the dangers September 2015 to provide emergency aid and start
of Mount Everest, but tourism can provide them with an rebuilding the worst-hit areas.
income to help lift them out of poverty.
Temporary shelters were set up. The Red Cross provided
In 2014, the World Travel and Tourism Council reported tents for 225,000 people. The United Nations (UN)
that tourism was 8.9 per cent of Nepal’s GDP and health agency and the World Health Organization (WHO)
provided 1.1 million jobs. It was expected to increase by distributed medical supplies to the worst-affected
5.8 per cent in 2015, but until Nepal has recovered from districts. This was important as the monsoon season had
the earthquake, tourism, employment and income will arrived early, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.
shrink.
Nepal’s mountainous terrain and inadequate roads made
The earthquake happened just before the monsoon it difficult for aid to reach remote villages. 315,000
season, when rice is planted. Rice is Nepal’s staple diet, people were cut off by road and 75,000 were
and two-thirds of the population depend on farming. additionally unreachable by air. Sherpas were used
Rice seed stored in homes was ruined in the rubble, to hike relief supplies to remote areas. Facebook
causing food shortages and income loss. launched a safety feature so people could indicate

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

they were ‘safe’. Several companies did not charge for A recovery phase started six months later by the Food
telephone calls. and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO). To expand crop production and growing
Long-term responses seasons, individuals were trained how to maintain and
Nepal’s government (along with the UN, EU, World repair irrigation channels damaged by landslides in the
Bank, Japan International Cooperation Agency and earthquake.
Asian Development Bank) carried out a Post-Disaster However, by November 2018, a community perception
Needs Assessment. It reported that 23 areas required report (funded by UK Aid) stated that 34 per cent of
rebuilding, such as housing, schools, roads, monuments people affected by the earthquake were still living in
and agriculture. Eight months after the earthquake, temporary shelters or in homes that were unrepaired.
the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(OCHA) reported that US$274 million of aid had been
Nepal’s recovery needs are US$6.7 billion, roughly a third
committed to the recovery efforts.
of the economy. Early estimates suggest that an additional
The Durbar Square heritage sites were reopened in June three per cent of the population has been pushed into
2015 in time to encourage tourists back for the tourism poverty as a direct result of the earthquakes. This translates
season. Mount Everest was reopened for tourists by into as many as one million more poor people.
August 2015 after some stretches of trail were re-routed.
By February 2016, the Tourism Ministry extended the
Figure 2.15 Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (Source:
climbing permits that had been purchased in 2015 to Worldbank.org press-release 23/06/2015)
be valid until 2017, so that climbers would return and
attempt Everest again.

Figure 2.16 Dharahara (Bhimsen) Tower, Kathmandu, before and after the earthquake Figure 2.17 Tents set up near
Kathmandu airport, Nepal

Activities 4 Why do you think the tents in Figure 2.16 were set
up near Kathmandu airport?
1 Use Figure 2.14 to describe the location of Nepal.
5 Explain three immediate and three long-term
2 Draw a sketch of the photos in Figure 2.16 or Figure responses to the Gorkha earthquake.
2.17 that shows the effects of the earthquake.
6 Research other ‘before and after’ images of the
Annotate the effects.
earthquake. Describe the differences.
3 Identify the economic, environmental and social
effects for the Gorkha earthquake.

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 2.7 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Comparing the Italy and Nepal earthquakes

Example

➤ How the effects and

responses compare Do effects and responses to earthquakes differ?
➤ Why effects and Earthquakes occur whether the country is a high–income country (HIC),
responses are different newly emerging economy (NEE) or a low–income country (LIC). Tectonic
events do not discriminate by wealth. However, the effects of an earthquake
differ due to the ability to predict, protect against and prepare for the
hazard. Equally, a country’s ability to manage the effects and devastation can
be affected by its level of wealth and resources.

How do Italy’s and Nepal’s earthquakes compare?

Italy Nepal
Income level High income Low income
GDP US$1.832 trillion (2015) US$21.41 billion (2015)
GNI per capita US$32,910 (2015) US$780 (2015)
Magnitude 6.2 magnitude 7.8 magnitude
Time of day 3.36 a.m. (local time) 11.56 a.m. (local time)
Deaths 299 8,841 (19 on Mount Everest)
Homeless 4,454 1 million
Hospitals damaged Amatrice Hospital 26 hospitals
Sites damaged Basilica of St. Benedict, Norcia. World Heritage sites, for example
The Basilica of San Francesco, Dharahara Tower, the Patan and
Amatrice. Amatrice’s Romolo Bhaktapur Durbar Square.
Capranica school.
Cost of damage US$19.7 billion US$5.15 billion
Amount of aid US$1.3 billion from EU US$274 million from EU

There may be more

damage in a poorer Economically Poorer countries
country but it developed countries always suffer more
doesn’t cost as can respond faster in an earthquake.
much to repair. to earthquakes.

Poorer countries rely It doesn’t matter

on international help. where the country
is – the impacts are
always devastating.

Figure 2.18 Attitudes to earthquakes in HICs and LICs

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

Why do effects and responses differ?

Earthquakes never occur in exactly the same circumstances. Figure 2.19 shows some
factors that are responsible for the different effects and responses in different countries.
Many are influenced by the wealth of the country concerned.

Building density
Depth of focus Population density The more Plate margin
The shallower the The more people buildings the Some plate Distance from epicentre
focus the more the more potential greater the margins are more The closer to the epicentre
energy to cause risk of injuries and likelihood some destructive than the greater the magnitude
damage. fatalities. will collapse. others. will be.

Monitoring and
Medical facilities predicting Time and day of
Magnitude The more medical Transport infrastructure More resources the week
The stronger resources the The better the transport available to If buildings and roads
the earthquake easier it is for network the quicker it is monitor and predict collapse when they
the greater the victims to get to evacuate victims and for earthquakes should are empty there are
impact. treatment. aid to arrive. reduce the risks. fewer casualties.

Construction Resources and

Time of year standards Type of event finance
Climate in different Buildings with Secondary effects, The more resources Earthquake-prone areas
seasons can make strict building e.g. tsunamis, and money available Planning, preparation
impacts and regulations have avalanches and the quicker it is to and protection is more
responses harder less chance landslides, cause rebuild homes and likely in areas that expect
(e.g. monsoon). of collapsing. further devastation. businesses. earthquakes.

Training Corruption
Emergency services More training so Corrupt governments
More skilled emergency the public and and organisations
services, armies and emergency services divert aid and supplies
volunteers reduce know what to do to away from areas that
casualties. reduces casualties. need it most.

Figure 2.19 Factors affecting the impact and responses to an earthquake

Activities
1 Draw a large Venn diagram, as shown, to categorise 3 Suggest other ways that the impacts in Figure 2.19
which effects and responses are similar and which could be categorised.
are different in the earthquakes in Italy and Nepal. 4 Use Figure 2.19 to explain reasons for the
You will need to use the information in Sections 2.5 differences in:
and 2.6. Colour-code the effects and responses.
a) effects in Italy and Nepal
b) responses in Italy and Nepal.
5 Decide if you agree or disagree with the statements
Italy Both Nepal
in Figure 2.18 and give reasons for your answers.
6 Are earthquakes more devastating in high-income
2 Sort the reasons for varying impacts in Figure 2.19 countries (HICs) or low-income countries (LICs)?
into two categories: those influenced by wealth and Justify your answer.
those not influenced by wealth.

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 2.8 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Risking it

➤ Where people live in
relation to earthquakes
Do people live in areas prone to volcanic
and volcanoes eruptions and earthquakes?
➤ Why people live in areas Despite all the dangers, millions of people still live in hazard-prone areas. As
at risk of tectonic hazards the world’s population rises, more people will live in volcanic and earthquake-
prone areas. Figure 2.20 shows that large cities, with over 1 million
inhabitants, can be found in the same locations (and within close proximity)
to earthquakes. Approximately eight per cent of the 7.7 billion people who
live in the world live near volcanoes, and 50 per cent of the 330 million
people in the USA are living at risk of earthquakes.

Key Why do people continue to

Cities with over 1 million people
Large earthquakes since 1973 live in hazardous areas?
Geothermal energy
In volcanically active areas, geothermal energy
is a major source of electrical power: steam is
heated by hot magma in permeable rock, then
boreholes are drilled into the rock to harness
the super-heated steam to turn turbines at
power stations. It is renewable energy – it will
not run out, and it will reduce greenhouse
gases and the likely effects of climate change.

Hellisheidarvirkjun (or Hellisheidi) power plant

is the largest geothermal power station in
Iceland and the second largest in the world.
It provides electricity and hot water for
Figure 2.20 Cities with over 1 million inhabitants and earthquakes
02_26 AQA GCSE (9-1) Geography Second Edition the capital, Reykjavik. Geothermal energy
Barking Dog Art produces approximately 30 per cent of
Iceland’s total electricity.

Farming
Lava and ash erupting from volcanoes kill
livestock and destroy crops and vegetation.
After thousands of years, weathering of this
lava releases minerals and leaves behind
extremely fertile soil, rich in nutrients. Land
can be farmed productively in these areas to
provide a source of food and income. Volcanic
soils are found on less than one per cent of the
Earth’s surface, but support 10 per cent of the
world’s population.

Figure 2.21 Hellisheidarvirkjun geothermal power plant, Iceland

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

Mining
Settlements develop where valuable minerals are found, as jobs are created
in the mining industry. It is not just dormant and extinct volcanoes that are
mined, but also active volcanoes.

Kawah Ijen is an active volcano in East Java, Indonesia. Its crater is one of the
biggest sulphuric lakes in the world. Sulphur is sold, for example, to bleach
sugar, make matches, medicines and fertiliser. However, mining in active
volcanoes is dangerous:

n Miners can afford little protective clothing.

n Hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide gases burn their eyes and throats
and cause respiratory diseases.
n In the last 40 years, 74 miners have died from the fumes.
n Loads of sulphur weighing 100 kilograms are carried up and down the
rocky and slippery mountain paths.

Nevertheless, miners can earn an average of $6 per day (more than on a

coffee plantation), so miners continue to live and work in dangerous areas.
Figure 2.22 A cartoon showing how
people may be persuaded to move away
from hazardous areas. The speech bubble
says, ‘Hey – great news! I’ve finally decided
to sell you my house on the island!’

Tourism
Tourists visit volcanoes for the spectacular
and unique views, relaxing hot springs,
adventure and, for thrill seekers, the sense
of danger. More than 100 million people
visit volcanic sites every year. The revenue
they generate benefits the locals and the
countries they are in.

Family, friends and feelings

People do not wish to leave because their
friends and family are there. It is often
cheaper and easier to stay, especially
when the risks may not be perceived as
dangerous enough or residents are in
denial that a disaster may occur. Figure 2.23 Mining sulphur at Kawah Ijen crater, Indonesia

Activities 3 Draw a sketch of the photograph in Figure 2.23.

Annotate it with the following labels:
1 How does the map in Figure 2.20 demonstrate that
crater, lake, sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and sulphur
people are at risk from earthquakes?
dioxide gases, little protective clothing, hand–
2 Why would a farmer consider the benefits of living carried loads of sulphur, rocky paths.
near a volcano different in the short term rather
4 Describe three benefits of living near a volcano.
than in the long term?
5 Explain why it may have taken time for the
character in Figure 2.22 to make that decision.

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 2.9 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Risk management

➤ How the risks of
earthquakes can be
Can the risks of earthquakes be reduced?
reduced Prediction, monitoring, protection, and planning all aim to reduce
➤ How the risks of volcanic the damage that earthquakes and volcanic eruptions cause to people
eruptions can be reduced and property.

Monitoring and prediction Planning

It is possible to predict the general locations where Planning and preparing what to do during and after an
earthquakes are most likely to happen, as they occur earthquake helps the authorities, emergency services
along plate margins. However, it is extremely difficult to and individuals to act quickly and calmly, so there is less
predict their time, date and exact location. The following chaos and fewer injuries and deaths:
show some ways that technology is used to try to
n Furniture and objects can be fastened down so they
monitor and predict tectonic hazards:
are prevented from toppling over.
n Seismologists use radon detection devices to n Residents can learn how to turn off the main gas,
measure radon gas in the soil and groundwater, electricity and water supplies to their properties.
which escapes from cracks in the Earth’s surface. n Preparing emergency aid supplies, how they would
n Sensitive seismometers are used to measure tremors be distributed and where evacuation centres will be
or foreshocks before the main earthquakes. saves lives, as food, water, medicine and shelter are
n Earthquake locations and their times are mapped to accessed faster.
spot patterns and predict when the next earthquake n On 1 September each year, the Japanese practise
will occur. earthquake drills on a national training day. This marks
n Smart phones have GPS (Global Positioning System) the anniversary of the Tokyo earthquake in 1923,
receivers and accelerators built in. They can detect which killed 156,000 people.
movements in the ground, which are analysed to n The American Red Cross provides an earthquake
potentially warn others further away. safety checklist to help people plan and prepare for
n Animals are believed to act strangely when an earthquakes in their homes, at work and in schools.
earthquake is impending.
Rolling weights on roof to
counteract shock waves

Protection Identification number

visible for helicopters
Automatic shutters come
down over windows
Buildings made of brick or buildings with no
Meets planning
reinforcement collapse easily during an earthquake. regulations with strict
safety checks
Designing buildings and strengthening roads and bridges
to withstand earthquakes provides protection. This is Birdcage
also called mitigation. Figure 2.24 shows features of interlocking Reinforced lift shafts with
steel frame tensioned cables
earthquake-resistant designs.
Fire-resistant
Panels of marble and glass
Unfortunately, earthquake-resistant buildings and materials
flexibly anchored to steel
infrastructure are extremely expensive, so it is usually superstructure

not possible to adapt existing buildings. The aim of

earthquake-resistant buildings is to ensure that people
are not injured or killed – so although this might be
achieved, the building may still need to be repaired or
even rebuilt after an earthquake.
Open areas
Reinforced
latticework Rubber shock-absorbers between
Figure 2.24 Earthquake-resistant building design foundations foundations and superstructure
deep in bedrock

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 Section A: 2 Tectonic hazards

Can the risks of volcanic eruptions be reduced?

Monitoring and prediction
It is easier to predict volcanic eruptions than
earthquakes. Volcanoes usually give advance warning
signals that they are going to erupt. However, the exact
time and day of the eruption is still difficult to predict.

n Satellites (GPS) and tiltmeters monitor ground

deformation (changes in the volcano’s surface).
n Seismometers measure small earthquakes and tremors.
n Thermal heat sensors detect changes in the
temperature of the volcano’s surface.
n Gas-trapping bottles and satellites measure radon
and sulphur gases released.
n Scientists measure the temperature of water in
streams and rivers to see if it has increased.
Figure 2.25 Monitoring volcanic activity

Planning Protection
An evacuation plan is one of the most effective methods Protecting against a volcanic eruption is extremely
of protection against an eruption. Authorities and difficult. Buildings cannot be designed to withstand the
emergency services need to prepare emergency shelter, lava flows, lahars or weight of debris and ash falling
food supplies and form evacuation strategies. Exclusion on roofs, especially if this mixes with water. Therefore,
zones can be designated so that no one is allowed to people need to evacuate their homes to a safe location
enter where people are considered vulnerable and in under the instruction of the authorities.
danger. Additionally, residents can be educated about
preventing unnecessary injury and loss of life. They can
practise advice to cover their eyes, nose and mouth to
prevent being irritated by gas fumes. If residents are not
evacuated, they are taught to seek shelter or go indoors
to avoid the dangers of falling ash and rock.

Activities 6 Copy and complete the information in the following

table.
1 Define the terms prediction, protection, planning
Monitoring and predicting a volcanic eruption
and monitoring.
Changes a Equipment Explain why the
2 True or false? (a) Earthquakes can be predicted. volcanologist used to changes mean a
(b) Volcanoes can be predicted. Explain your would observe monitor volcanic eruption
answers. volcano is imminent
3 Use Figure 2.24 to describe how each feature in the
earthquake-resistant building reduces injury and 7 Suggest what the man in Figure 2.25 is doing.
loss of life.
8 ‘Predicting tectonic hazards is a waste of time.’ To
4 Describe how the risks of living in an earthquake-
what extent do you agree with this statement?
prone area may be lessened by (a) individuals and
(b) governments. 9 Why are prediction, protection and planning each
5 Devise your own earthquake safety checklist and important factors in reducing the risks of a tectonic
explain your reason for each item. hazard?

10 Suggest why monitoring, prediction, protection and

planning may differ in different parts of the world.

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 3.1 3 Weather hazards

J KEY LEARNING Global atmospheric circulation

➤ The features of global
atmospheric circulation
What are the features of global atmospheric
➤ How global pressure and circulation?
surface winds influence Global atmospheric circulation helps to explain the location of world climate
precipitation zones (see Figure 3.1) and the distribution of weather hazards. In Chapter 5,
you will also learn how the Earth’s climate zones govern the pattern of
global ecosystems.

Figure 3.1 World

climate zones

Tropic
of Cancer

Equator

Tropic
of Capricorn

Polar and sub-polar Arid Mediterranean

Temperate Tropical Mountainous

The most important influence on worldwide variations Taken together, the low pressure belt at the Equator and
in climate is latitude. Because of the curved surface of the high pressure belt at the Poles provide the basis for
the Earth, the Equator receives much higher insolation a simple convection cell to operate. Global atmospheric
than the polar latitudes. The parallel rays of the Sun are circulation, however, is a little more complicated.
spread thinly when they strike the Earth’s surface at
The Sun’s energy strikes the Earth at a low angle,
high latitudes, whereas at low latitudes sunlight covering a large area at the Arctic Circle. This
is more highly concentrated (Figure 3.2). means the ground is only mildly heated.

As a result, air at the Equator is heated Arc

tic
Circ
strongly. It becomes less dense and le
Tro
rises to a high altitude. This creates a p
Can ic of
global climate zone of low pressure: Equ cer
ato
r
the equatorial zone. After rising, the
Sun
air spreads out and begins to flow
Tro The Sun’s energy strikes the Earth
towards the North and South Poles. Cap pic of almost at a right angle between the
rico
rn Tropic of Cancer and the Equator,
Meanwhile, the low insolation received covering a small area. This means the
Ant ground is greatly heated.
at polar latitudes results in colder, arc
tic
Circ
dense air and high pressure. As the air le
sinks towards ground level, it spreads out
South Pole
and flows towards the Equator.
Figure 3.2 Solar heating of the Earth varies with latitude (showing the
position of the Earth on 21 June, the Summer Solstice)
03_02 AQA GCSE Geography
Barking Dog Art
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 Section A: 3 Weather hazards

There are three convection cells, not just one, as Figure 3.3
illustrates. As well as pressure belts at the Poles, there
How do global pressure and
are areas of high pressure at the Tropics of Cancer surface winds influence
and Capricorn. As the air sinks towards the ground, it
precipitation?
warms up. The result is high pressure and hot, dry desert
conditions. This circulation of air between the Tropics Global pressure and surface wind patterns influence
and the Equator is called the Hadley cell. precipitation in several important ways:

Global circulation involves three cells because the Earth n Rainfall is high and constant throughout the year near
rotates on its axis, generating strong, high-altitude winds the Equator. As hot air rises, it cools slightly. Water
which wrap around the planet like belts. These winds flow vapour is converted into droplets of rain.
towards the east, as the Earth spins, and interact with the n The low-pressure zone around the Equator is called
convection cells. Figure 3.3 shows two particularly strong the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). Air rises
high-altitude currents of air called jet streams. and triggers bursts of torrential rain. Sometimes, the
The exact position of the jet streams and convection ITCZ grows a ‘wave’ of low pressure which extends
cells changes with the seasons, which take place because further than usual. Tropical storms develop along
the Earth is tilted on its axis. Each year, as the planet these waves. Once they gain energy, they can travel
journeys around the Sun, insolation rises and falls at each even further away from the Equator (pages 24–25).
latitude. In high polar latitudes, the Sun does not even n Rainfall is often higher in coastal areas in Western
rise during the winter. In southern Europe, temperatures Europe due to the movement of the Polar jet stream
rise steeply in summer before falling in winter. over the Atlantic. Rain-bearing weather systems
called depressions (also known as cyclones) follow
the Polar jet stream, often bringing stormy conditions
Activities to the UK’s west coast (see page 38).
n Rainfall is often low around the Tropics of Capricorn
1 Study Figure 3.1.
and Cancer. Dry air descends there as part of the
a) Identify the climate zone which the UK belongs to.
Hadley cell, resulting in arid conditions.
b) Identify all the different climate zones found
in (i) the USA and (ii) Russia. (Use an atlas or n Precipitation is also very low in polar regions and
online map to show you the countrys’ borders.) falls mostly as snow, as cold air cannot hold much
water vapour.
2 a) State what is meant by insolation.
b) Using Figure 3.2, explain one reason why the
Equator receives higher insolation than polar
latitudes.
3 a) State what is meant by an arid climate.
b) Explain why arid conditions exist in (i) parts of
the tropics and (ii) some polar regions.

Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Polar Subtropical Subtropical Polar
jet jet jet jet

Hadley Hadley
Polar Ferrel cell cell Ferrel Polar
cell cell cell cell

Equator

North Pole 60 Polar front 30 0 30 Polar front 60 South Pole

Figure 3.3 The three global convection cells and the position of the high-altitude jet streams

03_03 AQA GCSE Geography

Barking Dog Art

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 3.2 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING The global distribution of

➤ Tropical storms and why
they occur
tropical storms
➤ Why tropical storms are What are tropical storms?
distributed where they are
Tropical storms are a natural hazard. A tropical storm occurs when tropical
➤ How tropical storms relate
warm air rises to create an area of intense low pressure, much lower than
to global atmospheric
the depressions experienced in the UK. As the warm, moist air reaches high
circulation
altitudes, powerful winds spiral around the calm central point, creating the
‘eye of the storm’, and the warm air cools and condenses into heavy rainfall
and thunderstorms.

Between 1995 and 2015, tropical storms killed the most people of all weather
related disasters. Storms were also the weather-related hazard associated
with the largest economic losses between 2015 and 2019. The devastation
caused by tropical storms is clear to see in Figure 3.4.

What are tropical storms called? Each tropical storm has its own unique international
name. These names are predetermined by the World
Tropical storms have different names depending on the
Meteorological Organization. They are alphabetical
location in the world (see Figure 3.5). Their location is
and alternate in gender. For example, the 2022 name
their only difference. They are known as:
list starts with Alex, Bonnie, Colin, Danielle, Earl, Fiona
n hurricanes in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans and so on. Tropical storms are more recognisable and
(such as Hurricane Irma, 2017) engaging for the public when given names rather than
n typhoons in the west of the North Pacific Ocean co-ordinates. Names repeat every six years unless a large
(such as Typhoon Haiyan, 2013) loss of life or cost in damage would make it insensitive to
n cyclones in the Indian and South Pacific Oceans (such repeat them.
as Cyclone Idai, 2019).

Figure 3.4 Destruction near Beira, Mozambique after Cyclone Idai in 2019

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 Section A: 3 Weather hazards

Why are tropical storms distributed where they are?

The 80–100 tropical storms that take place every year are rapidly in this low-pressure region. Latent heat is
caused by particular conditions. Tropical storms occur in then released, which powers the tropical storm. The
the tropics (mainly where the intertropical convergence warmest seasons are between summer and autumn
zone (ITCZ) lies) – broadly south of the Tropic of Cancer when it is most typical for tropical storms to develop.
and north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The seasons vary depending on their location (see
Figure 3.5).
The distribution of tropical storms is dependent on a
n A low wind shear (wind which remains constant and
number of conditions.
does not vary with height). This means the tropical
n Low latitude areas, between 5° and 30° north and storm clouds can rise to high levels without being
south of the Equator. Here, a higher insolation means torn apart.
temperatures are higher than at the poles (see n The Coriolis effect (see Section 3.3) is not strong
Section 3.1). enough along the Equator for tropical storms to spin.
n Sea temperatures above 27°C, at a depth of
approximately 60–70 metres. This provides the
heat and moisture that causes the warm air to rise

Key: Average per year

<1 per year 3.0 and more per year
1.0–2.9 per year Average tracks

Hurricanes Typhoons
East Pacific
June–Oct Cyclones
Tropic of Cancer 23.5ºN
Caribbean
Aug–Oct
East Asia Pacific
South Asia
May–Dec Ocean
Equator Pacific Atlantic Oct–Nov Indian
Ocean Ocean Ocean

Tropic of Capricorn 23.5ºS

Madagascar West Australia

Southwest Pacific Dec–Mar Jan–Mar
Jan–Mar

Figure 3.5 The global distribution of tropical storms

Activities
03_05 AQA GCSE Geography student book
Barking Dog Art
1 Define the term tropical storm. 5 Use Figure 3.5 to locate the regions where you
2 Why is the tropical storm in Figure 3.4 called would expect people to be most vulnerable to
a cyclone? (Hint: find Vanuatu in an atlas.) tropical storms.
3 Describe the global pattern of tropical storms in 6 Research a recent tropical storm. Identify evidence
Figure 3.5. which demonstrates that tropical storms are natural
4 Explain why the following conditions are needed for hazards that pose risk of damage to property
a tropical storm to form: and life.
a) temperature above 27 °C c) low wind shear
b) not along the Equator d) over the ocean.

25

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 3.3 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING In a spin

➤ How tropical storms form
How does a tropical storm form?
➤ The structure and
features of tropical Tropical storm formation follows a particular sequence:
storms 1 Air is heated above the surface of warm tropical oceans. The warm air
rises rapidly under the low-pressure conditions.
2 The rising air draws up more air and large volumes of moisture from the
ocean, causing strong winds.
3 The Coriolis effect causes the air to spin upwards around a calm central
eye of the storm.
4 As the air rises, it cools and condenses to form large, towering
cumulonimbus clouds, which generate torrential rainfall. The heat given
off when the air cools powers the tropical storm.
5 Cold air sinks in the eye, therefore there is no cloud, so it is drier and
much calmer.
6 The tropical storm travels across the ocean in the prevailing wind.
7 When the tropical storm meets land it is no longer fuelled by the source of
Figure 3.6 Satellite image of a tropical moisture and heat from the ocean, so it loses power and weakens.
storm (Typhoon Haiyan, 2013)

A At the start B As the C There is a D Wind and E As the

of a tropical tropical storm period of calm heavy rainfall tropical storm
storm, the continues, the with no wind increase ends, the air
temperature air pressure or rain at the dramatically pressure and
and air falls more eye of the again, the temperature
pressure fall. rapidly, wind storm. The Sun temperature rise. Wind and
Air rises and increases, appears, so it drops and rainfall subside.
clouds begin cumulonimbus gets warmer. air pressure
to form. It cloud forms Air pressure is begins to rise.
becomes and there is very low.
windy. heavy rainfall.

240–320 km
A B C D E

Flow of dry air from the upper atmosphere

(keeps eye free of clouds)

Direction of
movement Eye
Height may
(16–24 km/h)
be more than
13 km

Water at more
Rain bands
than 27°C
16–48 km Anticlockwise surface flow

Figure 3.7 Cross-section through a tropical storm

26

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 Section A: 3 Weather hazards

What are the structure and

features of a tropical storm?
Figure 3.7 shows a cross-section of the structure of a
tropical storm. The satellite image in Figure 3.6 shows Activities
the swirling wind and cloud around the central circular
1 Draw a sequence of at least three diagrams, with
eye of the storm where there is no cloud.
captions, to show the formation of a tropical
storm.
Why does a tropical storm spin? 2 What is the eye of the storm?
The Coriolis effect bends and spins the warm rising air. 3 Using the satellite image on page 26, state which
The spinning can be seen in satellite images (such as hemisphere the tropical storm is in and how you
in Figure 3.6 on page 26). Hurricanes in the northern reached your answer.
hemisphere bend to the right, which causes the clouds 4 Sketch a larger version of the cross-section of a
to swirl anticlockwise, whereas cyclones in the southern tropical storm in Figure 3.7. Annotate it with the
hemisphere swirl in a clockwise direction. sequence of weather conditions that would be
experienced. (Include information about wind,
What direction do tropical rain, clouds, temperature and air pressure.)

storms travel?
Tropical storms travel from east to west due to the
direction in which the Earth spins. When they hit land,
they lose the energy source from the sea that powered
them. As they pass over land, friction also slows them 5 Write a short paragraph to explain what causes
down. As they lose energy they change direction. This tropical storms to spin.
exact direction and speed is unknown. However, tropical 6 What happens to a tropical storm when it reaches
storms in the northern hemisphere track north and land? Explain why.
tropical storms in the southern hemisphere track south
(Figure 3.5 on page 25). An average tropical storm has a
lifespan of approximately one to two weeks.

The rotation of the Earth

causes winds to take Air would move in
curved paths straight paths if the What is the Coriolis effect?
Earth did not rotate
Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of
low pressure. They do not blow in straight lines across
the Earth but are affected by the Coriolis effect. As
the Earth rotates it causes the wind to bend. This is
because the Earth has a curvature, with the Equator
far wider than the poles. Therefore the Earth has to
spin faster at the Equator. This difference in speed
means that wind bends as it blows across the Earth.
This is known as the Coriolis effect.

Rotation of
the Earth
Equator

Figure 3.8 The Coriolis effect

03_09 AQA GCSE Geography student book 27

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 3.4 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Climate change and tropical

➤ How climate change
might affect tropical
storms
storms
How might climate change affect
tropical storms?
Climate change (see Chapter 4) will alter the conditions that cause tropical
storms to form.

Higher storm surges More destructive flooding

As the temperature increases, sea levels will rise due to As heavy rainfall is expected to increase, this will mean
thermal expansion. The impact of rising sea levels will there is likely to be increased flooding during tropical
mean storm surges are expected to become higher. storms, which will be more destructive.

The number and intensity of tropical storms varies greatly

Increased heavy rainfall from year to year. This makes it more challenging for
A warmer atmosphere will mean the air can hold more scientists to detect trends in the future frequency and
moisture so heavy rainfall is expected to increase. intensity of tropical storms due to climate change. Since
Historic amounts of rainfall of over 1524 millimetres were the 1970s, satellite technology has made it possible to track
recorded in south-eastern Texas during Hurricane Harvey tropical storm frequency and intensity more consistently.
in 2017 (see Figure 3.10). Longer-term trends are more complicated, although
scientists use hurricane models to project future trends.

a) Number of intense hurricanes b) Percentage of intense hurricanes

100 50
120
maximum wind speed
m/s

40
100
categories: 2+3
Per cent total hurricanes/category

50
Number of hurricanes/category

category: 1
categories: 2+3 category: 1
80
30

categories: 4+5 categories: 4+5

60

20

40

10
20

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Key for a) and b)

Total category 4 and 5 hurricanes Max. wind speed (m/s)
Total category 2 and 3 hurricanes The dashed lines show the 1970–2000
Total category 1 hurricanes average totals in each category.

Figure 3.9 The number, and percentage, of intense hurricanes according to the Saffir-Simpson scale (categories 1 to 5)

28

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 Section A: 3 Weather hazards

Intensity
The impact of climate change on tropical storms is
Activities
unknown. However, there is evidence of a link between 1 What conditions will climate change affect that
warmer oceans and the intensity (destructive power) cause tropical storms to form?
of tropical storms. The strength of tropical storms is 2 Is climate change expected to affect:
classified using the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale. a) the intensity of tropical storms?
Category 5 is the most intense and 1 the least intense b) the frequency of tropical storms?
(see Figure 3.11 on page 31). c) the distribution of tropical storms?
Tropical storms are expected to become more intense, In each case, explain why.
by 2–11 per cent, by 2100. The number of the most 3 Explain how climate change may make the impact
severe category 4 or 5 tropical storms (see Section 3.5) of tropical storms worse.
has increased since the 1970s (Figure 3.9). Predictions 4 What makes the link between climate change and
suggest that every 1°C increase in tropical sea surface tropical storms uncertain?
temperatures will mean a 3–5 per cent increase in
5 Using Figure 3.10, suggest how increased rainfall
wind speed.
would make tropical storms more destructive.

Frequency and distribution

Scientists are uncertain whether climate change will
lead to an increase in tropical storms. They mostly
agree that the overall frequency of tropical storms is
expected to either remain the same, or decrease, as a
result of climate change – although the number of more
severe tropical storms (categories 4 and 5) will probably
increase, while category 1–3 storms will decrease (see
Figure 3.9). The regions where tropical storms are
experienced are not expected to change significantly as
a result of climate change.

Uncertainty
The reasons for all this uncertainty is due to:

n Inaccurate data: wind speed monitoring has only

become more accurate in recent decades, so the use
of previous data – which is less accurate – to decide Figure 3.10 Marines transporting supplies in the Hurricane
how tropical storms are affected by climate change is Harvey relief effort
questionable.
n Unreliable predictions: predicting the impact of
climate change is unreliable, as the rate of and impact
of climate change in the future is uncertain.
n Other impacts: potential risk to life and property
has already increased due to population growth and
building in coastal locations, even without factoring in
climate change.

29

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 3.5 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING The effects of and responses to

➤ The primary and
secondary effects of a
tropical storms
tropical storm
What are the effects of a tropical storm?
➤ The immediate and long-
term responses Tropical storms have significant effects on people and environments. The
impacts of a tropical storm are strong winds, torrential rainfall and storm
➤ How tropical storms are
surges (when the sea level rises rapidly and particularly high due to the
measured
storm). Landslides and tornadoes can also be caused by tropical storms.

Primary effects
Wind speeds are at least 119 kilometres per hour. As A common immediate response for predicted disasters
a direct result of the tropical storm, the winds can is evacuation, to higher ground (away from the potential
demolish houses across whole towns and villages, impact of storm surges) or even to emergency storm
destroy infrastructure, such as electricity power lines, shelters. Shelter provided by public buildings, or tents
and wipe out crops. The amount of destruction will provided by international aid, are also necessary where
depend on the storm’s strength and how well people and homes are extensively damaged or even destroyed.
property are protected.
Distributing emergency food and water is essential for
Flooding is caused by the heavy rain and storm surges. survivors in the aftermath of a tropical storm. High-
Storm surges can be up to five metres and are driven income countries (HICs) are more likely to have the
by the wind pushing seawater onto the coastline. Heavy resources available to do this, though during large-
rainfall can be up to 500 millimetres falling within 24 scale disasters international help is often necessary and
hours. The cause of death for the majority of victims is welcomed. Aid may be hindered if roads have become
due to flooding, which can be made worse when aid is blocked by debris or fallen trees, or flooded. Equally, if
hampered if roads are flooded. there is large-scale devastation, it can take longer for aid
to reach where it is needed, especially in more remote
locations.
Secondary effects
Some effects of tropical storms occur later and indirectly
as a result of the tropical storm itself. Torrential rain Long-term responses
can also trigger landslides, causing further devastation. Governments, nongovernmental organisations (NGOs)
Furthermore, water supplies can be contaminated with and charities aim for sustainable development after the
seawater, sewage and industrial waste, which increases initial relief effort has saved lives. Projects range from
the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera. repairing damage to existing buildings, infrastructure
and businesses, to ensuring the country is capable of
What are the responses to a managing a future hazard by investing in methods of
protection and prediction of tropical storms, such as
tropical storm? a new early-warning system for storm surges or new
sea defences. The speed to start and complete
Immediate responses long-term responses will depend on how much
destruction was caused, the wealth of the country to pay
As tropical storms can generally be predicted, warning
for the work, and the help available from other countries,
systems provide crucial information regarding strong
organisations and charities.
winds, heavy rain and storm surges, which are broadcast
to the public. This allows vital time to prepare and
protect property (see Section 3.7).

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 Section A: 3 Weather hazards

Wind category 1 Well-constructed frame homes could have some damage to the roof,
Winds: 119–153 km/h 74–95 m/h shingles, vinyl siding and gutters. Large branches of trees will snap and
Very dangerous winds will produce shallowly rooted trees may be toppled. Extensive damage to power lines
some damage and poles will likely result in power outages that could last a few to
several days.

Wind category 2 Well-constructed frame homes could sustain major roof and siding
Winds: 154–177 km/h 96–110 m/h damage. Many shallowly rooted trees will be snapped or uprooted and
Extremely dangerous winds will cause block numerous roads. Near-total power loss is expected with outages
extensive damage that could last from several days to weeks.

Wind category 3 Well-built frame homes will incur major damage or removal of roof
Winds: 178–208 km/h 111–129 m/h decking and gable ends. Many trees will be snapped or uprooted,
Devastating damage will occur blocking numerous roads. Electricity and water will be unavailable for
several days to weeks after the storm passes.

Wind category 4 Well-built frame homes can sustain severe damage, with loss of most of
Winds: 209–251 km/h 130–156 m/h the roof structure and/or some exterior walls. Most trees will be snapped
Catastrophic damage will occur or uprooted and power poles downed. Fallen trees and power poles will
isolate residential areas. Most of the area will be uninhabitable for weeks
or months.

Wind category 5 A high percentage of frame homes will be destroyed, with total roof
Winds: 252 km/h 157 m/h or higher failure and wall collapse. Fallen trees and power poles will isolate
Catastrophic damage will occur residential areas. Power outages will last for weeks to months. Most of
the area will be uninhabitable for weeks to months.

Figure 3.11 Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale

03_12 AQA GCSE Geography student book

How are tropical storms
Barking Dog Art
Activities
measured? 1 Define primary and secondary effects.
Tropical storms are measured using the Saffir–Simpson 2 List three ways tropical storms affect (a) people,
hurricane wind scale (Figure 3.11). This scale was (b) the environment and (c) the economy.
updated in 2012 and is now based on wind speed,
3 Describe the scale used to measure
which is considered easier to understand. (Previously,
tropical storms.
storm surge, flooding impact and central pressure were
4 Distinguish between immediate and long-term
included, but surges and flooding are influenced too
responses.
much by local conditions.) The higher the category scale,
the higher the intensity of the tropical storm. 5 Suggest why food, clothes and water are needed
following a tropical storm.
6 Explain why emergency aid can be slow to arrive
after a tropical storm.
7 Why are both immediate and long-term responses
necessary? Explain your answer.
8 Suggest three reasons why some tropical storms
could cause more damage than others.
9 How would you expect the responses to be
different in an HIC from those in an LIC?

31

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 3.6 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING The trouble with Typhoon Haiyan

Example

➤ Primary and secondary

effects of a typhoon What were the primary effects?
➤ The immediate and long- On 8 November 2013 at 4.40 a.m. local time, a category 5 typhoon struck the
term responses Philippines. Typhoon Haiyan, also known as Typhoon Yolanda, originated in
the northwest Pacific Ocean. It was incredibly powerful, with recorded wind
speeds of up to 314 kilometres per hour.
In numbers The strong winds battered people’s homes and even the evacuation centre.
n 6,190 people died Those made homeless were mainly in the Western and Eastern Visayas.
Power was interrupted, the airport was badly damaged and roads were
n 14.1 million people affected,
blocked by trees and debris. Leyte and Tacloban had a five-metre storm
of which 4.8 million already
surge, and 400 millimetres of heavy rainfall flooded one kilometre inland.
lived in poverty
Ninety per cent of the city of Tacloban was destroyed (Figure 3.14).
n US$12 billion overall damage
Coconut, rice and sugarcane production made up 12.7 per cent of the
n Over 1 million farmers
Philippines’ GDP before the typhoon. The harvest season had just ended
and 600,000 hectares of
before it struck, but rice and seed stocks were lost in the storm surges. The
agricultural land affected
damage to rice cost US$53 million and 75 per cent of farmers and fishers lost
n 1.1 million tonnes of crops their income. The UN totalled the recovery costs for agriculture and fishing at
destroyed US$724 million.
n 1.1 million houses damaged
n 4.1 million people homeless What were the secondary effects?
An oil barge ran aground at Estancia, causing an 800,000 litre oil leak. Most
of this washed ashore, contaminating 10 hectares of mangroves (see
Figure 3.17, page 35). Looting was rife as survivors fought for food and
supplies. Eight deaths were reported in a stampede for rice supplies. By 2014,
rice prices had risen by 11.9 per cent.

The flooding caused surface and groundwater to be contaminated with

Figure 3.12 Tracking co-ordinates of seawater, chemicals from industry and agriculture, and sewage systems.
Typhoon Haiyan
50°E 60°E 70°E 80°E 90°E 100°E 110°E 120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E Batan Islands
Date Time Lat. Long. Wind 50°N N
(mph)
05/11 00:00 6°N 146°E 75 40°N
Laoag
Vigan
05/11 12 :00 7°N 143°E 105 CHINA SOUTH JAPAN Sagada Bontoc 0 200
KOREA San Fernando
Banaue
06/11 00:00 7°N 140°E 150 30°N km
HONG Pacific
06/11 12 :00 8°N 136°E 160 INDIA KONG TAIWAN Ocean
Philippine
South China Sea
20°N Sea Manila
07/11 00:00 9°N 133°E 175 Lake Taal Puraran
PHILIPPINES Puerto Galera
07/11 12 :00 10°N 129°E 190 10°N Mayon Volcano
Viriato
08/11 00:00 11°N 125°E 185 MALAYSIA Visayas
Indian Estancia
Ocean SINGAPORE N 0°
Tacloban
08/11 12 :00 12°N 121°E 155 Iloilo City Leyte
09/11 00:00 12°N 116°E 135 INDONESIA Cebu
0 2000 10°S
km Puerto
09/11 12 :00 15°N 113°E 115 Princesa Sulu Butuan
20°S Sea
10/11 00:00 16°N 110°E 100
10/11 12 :00 19°N 108°E 85 Figure 3.13 Location map of the Philippines Zamboanga Davao
11/11 00:00 22°N 107°E 70 Mindanao
Sea Lake Sebu

32
03_15 AQA GCSE Geography student book
Barking Dog Art
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 Section A: 3 Weather hazards

This meant fishing had to stop in Estancia. The likelihood

of infectious diseases spreading increased.

What were the immediate responses?

The president televised a warning. The authorities
evacuated 800,000 people. Many sought refuge in
an indoor stadium in Tacloban. Although this had a
reinforced roof, they died when it was flooded. The
government sent out essential equipment and medical
supplies. In one region these supplies were washed away.

Emergency aid supplies arrived three days later by plane

once the main airport reopened. It was a week before Figure 3.14 Tacloban city after Typhoon Haiyan, 2013
power was fully or partially restored. Within two weeks,
over 1 million food packs and 250,000 litres of water were
distributed. A curfew was imposed two days after the
typhoon to reduce looting. Activities
Thirty-three countries and international organisations 1 Study Figure 3.14. What evidence is there of
pledged help and sent rescue operations. Celebrities, (a) strong winds, (b) torrential rainfall and
such as the Beckhams, and large multinational (c) storm surges?
organisations, such as Coca-Cola, Walmart, Apple 2 Describe the following effects of the typhoon: (a)
and FIFA, donated and used their influence to raise social (b) environmental (c) economic.
awareness and encourage public donations. Over US$1.5 3 Suggest reasons why Typhoon Haiyan was so
billion was pledged in foreign aid. destructive.
4 Do you think people in the Philippines were
What were the long-term responses? prepared for the typhoon? Explain your answer.
In July 2014, the Philippine government declared it was
working towards long-term recovery, ‘building back
better’ so that buildings would not just be rebuilt, but
upgraded and therefore future-proof. The government
also has: Geographical skills
n a ‘no build zone’ along the coast in Eastern Visayas, 1 Use Figure 3.12 to:
which was later changed to a ‘no dwelling zone’ so a) Plot the path of Typhoon Haiyan on a map
commercial buildings can be built using the latitude and longitude co-ordinates.
200 n a new storm-surge warning system
b) Label the countries and islands Typhoon
n replanted mangroves Haiyan passed through on your map. Give
n plans to build the Tacloban-Palo-Tanauan Road Dike. your map a suitable title.

no
Restoring previous livelihoods has been hard, especially c) Draw a line graph to show the speed of wind
for farmers and fishers. It is expected to take 5–10 years over the duration of the typhoon.
n for new coconut trees to grow and bear fruit. Rebuilding d) State a reason why a line graph is more
permanent homes was also slow, with 100,000 families suitable than a bar graph.
still in temporary accommodation in 2015.
uan

vao

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 3.7 Paper 1: Living with the Physical Environment

J KEY LEARNING Reducing the effects of

➤ How tropical storms are
monitored
tropical storms
➤ How tropical storms are How are tropical storms monitored?
predicted
Monitoring tropical storms allows predictions to be made which can save
➤ How people and property
lives and reduce damage. The following explains some of the ways in which
can be protected
they are monitored.
➤ How risks can be reduced
through planning

Satellites Can tropical storms be predicted?

There is a classic cloud pattern associated with tropical All available weather data are fed into supercomputers
storms that satellites monitor. In 1997, it was accidentally which run models to predict the path and intensity of
discovered that the appearance of rainclouds which tropical storms. In the following cases, this has had
reach approximately 16 kilometres in altitude are more some success:
likely to indicate that a tropical storm will intensify within
24 hours. Seven years later, the Global Precipitation n In 2013, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Measurement satellite was launched. It monitors Administration (NOAA) developed two new
precipitation every three hours between latitudes 65° supercomputers. In 1992, the location of a tropical
north and south of the Equator to identify the high- storm, predicted with three days’ warning, could be
altitude rainclouds. wrong by 480 kilometres. Supercomputers can now
give five days’ warning and a more accurate location
within 400 kilometres.
Aircraft n The National Hurricane Centre in Florida predicts
A plane first flew purposely into a hurricane in 1943 to a tropical storm’s path and intensity for up to
make observations. Now, specially equipped aircraft seven days using a ‘track cone’ (Figure 3.16). The
frequently fly through tropical storms at 10,000 feet to cone shape allows for error with the unpredictable
collect air pressure, rainfall and wind speed data. They behaviour of the tropical storm, especially when it
release dropsondes (sensors) which send measurements hits land. Around 70 per cent of tropical storms occur
every second, by radio, back to the aircraft. within the predicted cone.
The US National Aeronautics and Space Administration n In 2013, Cyclone Phailin in India was successfully
(NASA) monitors weather patterns across the Atlantic predicted. As many as 1.2 million people were
using two unmanned aircraft called Global Hawk drones. evacuated. Twenty-one people died. A further 23 died
On-board radar and microwaves help scientists to in flash flooding after. Yet in 1999, a similar cyclone hit
understand more about the formation of tropical storms the same area and more than 10,000 lives were lost.
to improve forecasting models. n National Hurricane Centres around the world issue
early warnings so people have time to prepare to
evacuate – but some may not bother. Additionally,
evacuation is costly and time-consuming, particularly
if the path of the tropical storm does not actually
pass the area in which they live.

Is protection possible?
Buildings have areas of weakness which can be
reinforced to reduce damage caused by the forceful
winds of tropical storms. This is called mitigation (see
Figure 3.15 Global Hawk drone Chapter 4, Section 4.5). In the USA, the Federal

34

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 Section A: 3 Weather hazards

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) advises 25°N

homeowners to: 11 am Thu
11 am Wed
n install hurricane straps (galvanised metal) between
S
the roof and walls 20°N 11 am Tue
S
n install storm shutters on windows Hawaii S

n install an emergency generator S

11 am Sun
H
n tie down windborne objects such as garden furniture 15°N H
11 am Mon H
n reinforce garage doors Pacific
n remove trees close to buildings. Ocean
2 pm Sat
With the fierce storm surges and flooding that occur in 10°N
160°W 155°W 150°W 145°W 140°W 135°W
tropical storms, salt marshes, wetlands and mangroves
Key
can protect against storm surges by reducing the waves’ Potential track Sustained winds Current information
energy. Additionally, trees reduce wind energy and trap Days 1–3 S 39–78 mph Saturday,
debris, which can cause damage – although trees can Days 4–5 H 79–110 mph 1st August, 2015
13.8°N 140.1°W
cause devastation too, if uprooted near buildings and Tropical cyclone Max sustained
infrastructure. Another way to protect land is to ensure wind 105 mph
that low-lying areas are not built on. Coastal flood defences
Figure 3.16 Hurricane Guillermo track forecast cone
(Chapter 10) such as levées and flood walls reduce the
impact of storm surges as they hold back the seawater.

How can planning reduce risks?

03_19 AQA GCSE Geography student book
American National Hurricane Preparedness Week in Barking Dog Art
May aims to encourage people to plan what they need
to have and do in the event of a tropical storm. Advice
includes:

n preparing disaster supply kits

n having fuel in vehicles
n knowing where official evacuation shelters are
n storing loose objects
Figure 3.17 Mangroves on the coast can protect against storm
n planning with family what to do.
surges

Activities 2 Describe how the Global Hawk drone (Figure 3.15)

helps to monitor tropical storms.
1 Complete this spider diagram to show how the
3 How might track forecast cones such as the one in
effects of a tropical storm can be reduced. List the
Figure 3.16 be (a) of benefit to citizens, (b) to the
different types of (a) monitoring, (b) prediction,
detriment of citizens?
(c) protection and (d) planning.
4 Do you think all countries can plan for tropical
Monitoring storms? Explain your answer.
5 Study Figure 3.16.
How can the a) Give the latitude and longitude co-ordinates
effects of
Planning Prediction that Hurricane Guillermo was expected to be on
tropical storms
be reduced? Thursday 6 August at 11 a.m.
b) Describe the track of Hurricane Guillermo.

Protection

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