The On-line Mud Logging Handbook Alun Whittaker

The On-line
Mud Logging
Handbook
by Alun Whittaker

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Drilling Data Logging

Aegis Group
244 Ohio Street
Vallejo, CA 94590-5051
USA
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mudlogman@yahoo.com
The On-line Mud Logging Handbook Alun Whittaker

Drilling Data Logging

The availability of small, rugged digital computers, arriving coincidentally with the demand of improved geo-pressure monitoring and well
control, provided the impetus for the addition of range of drilling machinery monitoring, mud circulation pressure, volume, and flow rate
sensors.
Today, many of these systems are automatically controlled and monitored at unmanned stations. Nevertheless, in many cases, the mud
logging unit can serve as a 24/7 drilling control center, including:
✔ Drilling data sensors and acquisition systems
✔ Mud system volume, flow and pressure control monitoring systems
✔ Drilling data analysis, display and management systems
✔ Rig logistics and broadband communications services

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Table of Contents
Tattle-tales and Trouble-makers.....................................................................................................................................................................8
Drilling Data Monitoring.................................................................................................................................................................................8
Drilling Data Services....................................................................................................................................................................................9
Drilling Data Acquisition .............................................................................................................................................................................10
Hoisting System Measurements..................................................................................................................................................................10
Depth and Rate of Penetration...............................................................................................................................................................10
Wire line Recorder..................................................................................................................................................................................12
Hydrostatic Recorder..............................................................................................................................................................................15
Automated Drilling Line Measurement....................................................................................................................................................16
Hook Load and Weight on Bit.................................................................................................................................................................18
Rotary System Measurements....................................................................................................................................................................18
Circulating System Measurements..............................................................................................................................................................21
Mud Weight (Density).............................................................................................................................................................................21
Mud Flow Rate.......................................................................................................................................................................................28
Mud Pit Volume......................................................................................................................................................................................34
Linearity.............................................................................................................................................................................................36
Sensitivity..........................................................................................................................................................................................36
Completeness...................................................................................................................................................................................37
Motion Compensation........................................................................................................................................................................37
Mud Pressure.........................................................................................................................................................................................39
Mud Temperature...................................................................................................................................................................................39
Mud Conductivity....................................................................................................................................................................................39
Drilling Data Services....................................................................................................................................................................................41
Unmanned Intelligent Display Devices........................................................................................................................................................44
Drilling Data Analysis..................................................................................................................................................................................44
Drilling Data Analysis Services....................................................................................................................................................................47
Drilling Optimization................................................................................................................................................................................50
Bit Economics.........................................................................................................................................................................................50
Drilling Hydraulics...................................................................................................................................................................................50

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Directional Control..................................................................................................................................................................................50
Trip Analysis...........................................................................................................................................................................................50
Casing String Calculations.....................................................................................................................................................................50
Well Control............................................................................................................................................................................................50
Logistics.................................................................................................................................................................................................51
Formation Evaluation..............................................................................................................................................................................52
Drilling Data Communication........................................................................................................................................................................52
The Sting ...............................................................................................................................................................................................57
And Next.........................................................................................................................................................................................................59

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Didn't find what you needed here? Sorry.

Why not go back to the Chapter Summaries, and fine a better place to start, or use the Index to search for the subject you need.

List of Figures & Tables

Figure 1: In enhanced mud logging operations, an independent network of drilling and circulation sensors are automatically monitored in the
mud logging unit..............................................................................................................................................................................................11
Figure 2: The Geolograph®-type of recorder is still widely used for semi-automated rig-floor drilling instrumentation.....................................13
Figure 3: The Bristol-type of recorder provides continuous operation and better depth resolution, but requires careful calibration and
monitoring. It is more suitable for standard mud logging operations all some people find this traditional circular chart difficult to read. .........22
Figure 4: For enhanced mud logging, a direct drilling line measurement with rig motion compensation is necessary......................................24
Figure 5: Enhanced mud logging, and automated data monitoring systems require sensors on the drilling wire line, crown or traveling block,
and rotary table................................................................................................................................................................................................26
Figure 6: Drilling torque is an important measure of formation consistency and hardness, and a signal of bit mechanical damage or wear. In
practice, whether torque is high or low, consistently uniform or variable is more important than the actual value in NM.................................27
Figure 7: A differential pressure mud density measurement device. Variations on this basic design use larger diameter bells on the lower
ends of the tubes, or cover them with thin membranes....................................................................................................................................29
Figure 8: To prevent plugging, the ends of the dip tubes may be covered with a plastic membrane................................................................31
Figure 9: Mud density can be measured by determining reduction in the weight of a heavy ball suspended in drilling fluid, or the buoyant
effect on a light ball anchored in the fluid.........................................................................................................................................................32
Figure 10: The most reliable, but most expensive method of continuous mud density measurement is a radiometric, Compton scattering,
measurement...................................................................................................................................................................................................33
Figure 11: Differential mud flow measurement is complicated by the progressive change in hole volume created by drilling..........................36
Figure 12: Offshore, differential mud flow measurement is further complicated by the wave and tidal movement of a floating rig...................37
Figure 13: Mud flow can be measured by (A) radial displacement of a floating ball, or (B) strain on a paddle fully immersed in the fluid........48

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Figure 14: Mud flow can be measured by (A) sonic transmission in a fluid-filled pipe, or (B) reflection from fluid surface in a partially filled
pipe..................................................................................................................................................................................................................49
Figure 15: Mud flow can be measured using magnetic induction effects in a fluid-filled pipe...........................................................................50
Figure 16: Mud pit measurements may use rotational and linear floats or sonic level measurements.............................................................51
Figure 17: Mud pit volume sensors must provide measurements that are linear in pits of all shapes and sizes..............................................52
Figure 18: Mud pit volume sensors must provide measurements that are sensitive to small and large volume changes in both large and small
mud pits...........................................................................................................................................................................................................53
Figure 19: Mud pit volume sensors must provide measurements that are independent of floating rig motions................................................56
Figure 20: For enhanced mud logging or stand-alone operation, a micro-computer controlled system provides all of the functions demanded
of a pit volume totalization system: monitoring all (active and inactive) pits at the well-site, non-linear pit level-to-volume calibration, rig pitch
and roll compensation, with display, alarming, and history functions for all pits and the total system. ............................................................57
Figure 21: Mud delta chloride or conductivity is a good indicator of approaching under-balance and a possible well kick, but it only works on
wells where a water-based mud is used with a natural salinity much lower than that of the formations penetrated. .......................................59
Figure 22: The server computer provides the automatic link between the mud logging sensors and the data processing, display, and
communications devices in the mud logging unit, on the rig and beyond ........................................................................................................61
Figure 23: Examples of dumb data display devices that show the data directly monitored by the mud logging and drilling sensors with a
minimum of data manipulation ........................................................................................................................................................................62
Figure 24: Examples of more intelligent and interactive data display devices that show some of the basic mud logging along with processed,
and historical and graphical displays of data. .................................................................................................................................................65
Figure 25: Some examples of the drilling reports and logs that can be generated by the logging unit (illustrations courtesy of Anadriil-
Schlumberger).................................................................................................................................................................................................67
Figure 26: Off-line analysis involves the generation of numerous drilling reports and logs (illustrations courtesy of Anadriil-Schlumberger).. .68
Figure 27: Off-line analysis involves the generation of numerous drilling reports and logs (illustrations courtesy of Anadriil-Schlumberger).. .70
Figure 28: A manned mud logging unit should provide the skilled supervision to decide which analyses to perform and provide on-site
interpretation of the results (illustrations courtesy of Anadriil-Schlumberger)...................................................................................................73

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Figure 29: A mud logging unit fully equipped for two-way communications and for data and visual interaction (illustration courtesy of
Exploration Logging)........................................................................................................................................................................................74
Figure 30: A modern well site-to-headquarters communications link based upon the concept implemented in the Amoco Critical Drilling
Facility (CDF) in Tulsa, OK. All available data was concentrated at the mud logging unit and transmitted in near-real-time to the exploration
base and beyond. ...........................................................................................................................................................................................75

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Drilling Data Logging

Tattle-tales and Trouble-makers
Drilling engineering services were first installed in the mud logging unit in support of geo-pressure logging services. For continued reliable
access to drilling and circulation data, it became the practice to install independent rig and drilling fluid sensors with displays (and later, on-
line computer processing) in the mud logging unit. The pioneer mud logging contractor in this application were:
✔ A division of the Dresser Company (now part of Halliburton Drilling Fluids), who were closely followed by
✔ The Analysts (who later became Anadrill-Schlumberger), and
✔ Exploration Logging or EXLOG (now part of Baker-Hughes INTEQ)

Drilling Data Monitoring

To obtain accurate and rapid pressure evaluation results, a reliable and rapid stream of data was required at the logging unit in a digital form
which could be automatically read by the computer.
The types of regular rig instrumentation, available at that time, under the supervision of a normal rig crew, was insufficiently well-maintained
and calibrated for such a purpose. Even in the hands of a conscientious and well-trained crew, there were limits to the accuracy and
sensitivity and accuracy that could be expected from the older mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic rig sensors. Worse, it was extremely
difficult or impossible to interface such devices to the digital systems of the data acquisition system.
Fully automated drilling data acquisition systems began to be installed on in the mud logging unit during the seventies. Using a
microprocessors or mini-computers, the data could be used to calculate formation pressure and well over-balance parameters (see Chapter
12).
With no alternative available, the larger mud logging contractors moved into the rig instrumentation field and began designing and
manufacturing rig sensors and systems of all types, including those not directly related to conventional mud logging and formation pressure
evaluation requirements. New sensor technologies were introduced from outside the oil industry and the concept of the centralized and
integrated data acquisition system was born within the mud logging unit.
At first these systems were greatly disliked by drillers and rig crews, who saw them as tattle-tales intended to spy on them and report their
errors and failures. Eventually, in the hands of good mud loggers who knew the value of sharing information with a good driller, resistance
was overcome.

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Since then, the traditional builders of rig instrumentation have re-entered the filed and, with their established ability to build rugged, rig-proof
instrumentation, they have become, once again, the primary suppliers. Today, most rigs have some form of digital data acquisition and
display system. The central processor of the system may be provided by the rig operator, or the mud logging contractor, but there are likely
to be remote video displays and computer interfaces located on the rig floor, in the mud logging unit, and in several other locations around
the rig.
At the same time, the range of software tools available has improved so that even the smallest mud logging contractor, with the aid of these
hardware suppliers, and specialty software
developers, can supply the same range and quality of This is true for local operations in developed areas. Of course, in remote and
well-site services as the largest mud logging company, primitive locations, where long-distance logistics and support are necessary, the
or oilfield conglomerate. Once again, you can select larger, international contractors may still have an edge.
your mud logging contractor based solely on local
knowledge, and quality of the well-site crew.

Drilling Data Services

Significant innovations related to improvements in drilling operations control and optimization lead to the recording of all data on a foot-by-
foot, or minute-by-minute basis on magnetic tape, then disk, and now direct transmission via the Internet. This allows the data (or copies of
it) to be stored in databases, and played back at a later time, and in other locations in a range of formats and combinations. Drilling data
services are now widely utilized in drilling management and optimization and can be divided into three groups, requiring different levels of
technology and crew expertise. These are:
✔ Data Acquisition
✔ Data Analysis
✔ Data Communication
The present range of such systems is extremely wide. In response to the integral mud logging unit systems, the traditional rig
instrumentation suppliers have developed unmanned data acquisition systems utilizing integrated, electronic technology and with various
levels of on-board intelligence. In a typical system, the central processing system is commonly packaged in an armored box in a safe area of
the rig but smaller mud logging contractors, unable to build their own systems, can lease or buy this equipment, and software to run it, for
installation in the logging unit.
✔ Little difference exists between the operating specifications of such systems, whether provided by the mud logging contractor or a rig
instrumentation company such as TOTCO, Martin Decker (now Martin-Decker Totco, Inc.) or Geolograph (now Geolograph-Pioneer,
Inc.). However, in the rugged environment of the drilling well site, sensors, however well designed, require regular attention:

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inspection, cleaning, relocation, replacement, repair or calibration. The success of stand-alone data acquisition system is dependent
upon the training and motivation of the rig crew. Even if the manufacturer's service personnel are readily available, it is to no avail if
the rig crew do not respect the equipment, maintain it and calibrate it regularly.
✔ A data acquisition service provided in the logging unit, on the other hand, is manned at all times. Logging crew members, better
trained and probably better motivated that the rig crew, are available to maintain and calibrate the system and its sensors. They are
more likely to notice and act upon anomalous readings, whether they are caused by instrument malfunctions, or true drilling events.
Furthermore, if pressure evaluation is being performed in the mud logging unit (see Chapter 12) then the mud loggers will be using the data
in their own work and so can be relied upon to maintain and monitor the equipment regularly, and to report other significant drilling events
promptly. They will also motivated to note and correct malfunctions to the system which will impact upon the convenience and success of
their own logging work.

Drilling Data Acquisition

Logging unit sensors are located around the rig in order to monitor all drilling and circulating systems (see Figure 1). In most cases these
are independent of the rig's sensors although, in some, a mud logging signal pick-up is piggy-backed, or parasitical to an existing rig
sensor.
Unfortunately, in some installations, the independence and effectiveness of this sensor network is severely reduced by an arbitrary
insistence that all sensors must agree. Despite the more modern design, better maintenance and the extra cost being paid for the mud
logging sensors, too often they are regularly re-calibrated or arbitrarily adjusted to agree with the driller's older, or less well maintained
instrumentation.

Hoisting System Measurements

The most important measurement taken from the draw-works, elevator, and traveling block – the drill string lifting and suspension system --
is the total depth of the well which, at any time, is the principal datum against which all other well and formation measurements are logged.

Depth and Rate of Penetration

Rate of penetration, the change of bit depth with time, is also an important indicator of rock strength related to mineralogy, induration and
porosity. When tripping, the bit position and speed of movement of the drill string in the bore hole are necessary data for calculation of swab,
surge pressures and hole fill-up requirements.

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Figure 1: In enhanced mud logging operations, an independent network of drilling and circulation sensors are
automatically monitored in the mud logging unit.

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Wire-line Recorder
The traditional Geolograph®-type depth measurement system is still a standard on many rigs. It utilizes a spring-loaded drum of steel cable
mounted next to the draw-works. From there, it is run up to the crown block (at the top of the derrick), and down to where it is attached to the
traveling block.
As the block moves down, the spring-loaded drum turns and, for On a trip, the entire drill string is not completely disassembled and laid
each foot of vertical movement a cam is tripped causing a tick back on the pipe racks. Instead, it is broken down into sections,
mark on a clock-driven recorder (see Figure 2). Every tenth foot approximately 30 meters (or 93 feet) in length. Each of these is sto o d
an extra large tick is marked to ease reading. Smaller depth back vertically, with the bottom ends resting on the rig floor and its
changes, usually 0.1 feet, may be shown on a mechanical digital upper end slotted into steel fingers on a platform high in the derrick.
counter. This platform is commonly called the m o nkey bo ard and the crew
The drum cannot accommodate the large, fast, up and down member who works up there, moving the stands of drill pipe in and out,
pipe movements involved when tripping or making a connection is called the d errickm an .
and so, the driller must turn the recorder off when the bit is lifted
of bottom, and on again when he tags bottom again (as
indicated by the weight indicator – as there is always some squat or or shortening of the drill string due to its compression under weight,
there is a similar degree of imprecision in the driller's decision when to put the recorder back in )
The total depth is only known in one of three special circumstances:
✔ After each connection, the driller sets the digital counter to the depth of the hole, calculated from the sum of all of the measured
lengths of the drill pipe, drill collars and all
other components in the drill string. This The mud logger needs to be familiar with this greasy note book, in the driller's
tabulation of measurements - called the back pocket. It is the rig's holy grail – source of every measurement that goes into
driller's pipe tally - is kept in the driller's log or all drilling reports. You have only two options:
note book,
Be prepared to change the mud log to match this scruffy tome, or
✔ After every a trip (or short trip) the driller sets
the digital counter to the depth of the hole, Keep a constant eye on the thing and, if there's a mistake in it, know how to
calculated from the sum of all of the measured convince the driller to change it before it gets car ved in sto ne .
lengths of all drill string components plus the
measured amount of the kelly that is below the
rotary table when bottom is tagged.

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✔ On every 4th or 5th trip out of the hole, the length of every stand (commonly 3 or 4 joints, each) of drill pipe or drill collars pulled out
is measured with a steel tape or laser, and a new pipe tally created (to eliminate any accumulated small errors from individual drill
pipe measurements). On tagging bottom once again, the driller resets the digital counter to the depth of the hole, calculated from the
new pipe tally plus the measured amount of the kelly that is below the rotary table.

Figure 2: The Geolograph®-type of recorder is still widely used for semi-automated rig-floor drilling instrumentation.

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Between connections, there may be small errors introduced if the recorder is turned on a little early or late, but at the next connection the
counter is again reset according to the pipe tally, and so no large errors can accumulate. Other errors may result when there are large
changes made in weight on bit, resulting increased or decreased squat or compression of the drill pipe under it’s own weight.

The drill string mostly consists of heavy, rigid drill collars, and light, flexible drill pipe. The number, size and combination of these
components are carefully computed by the driller and tool pusher so that over the planned range of weight on bit, the entire bottom
hole assembly (or BHA, made up mostly of drill collars) will always be in compression when the bit is on bottom, while the majority of the
drill string (made up mostly of drill pipe) will remain in tension.

This allows better directional control, minimizes wear on the drill pipe, and damage to the bore hole wall. While drilling, weight on bit
can be adjusted up and down, for best effect, and the neutral point (the point in the drill string between the upper section in tension and
the lower section in compression) is always close to the top of the BHA. Only in extreme circumstances will this change very much,
causing large changes in compression (or squat) of the drill string.
One circumstance where this may occur is when a short interval of the well is cored (requiring low weight on the core bit) without
changing the BHA.

Another is when drilling on a floating rig in severe weather when a large amount of heave may result in the repeated opening and
closing of a bumper sub (this is a sort telescopic joint in the drill string, designed to open and close, to compensate for rig heave –
vertical movement – without affecting the weight on bit).

However, on many modern offshore rigs, the latter problem is overcome with a motion compensation system, which allows the traveling
block and drill string to remain stationary relative to bottom, despite movements of the rig.

The Geolograph-type recorder is simple and robust. It stands up to rig activities with little maintenance and has a degree of accuracy
acceptable for rig floor activities. Some mud logging units use their own, or a remote slave to the driller's, Geolograph-type recorder.
However, the device's deficiencies include lack of accuracy between connections, difficulty of reading (without the driller's annotations, the
blank chart is effectively meaningless), and it is difficult to interface with a digital data monitoring and display system.

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Hydrostatic Recorder
A different method, the Bristol®-type of recorder, has also been widely used for mud logging measurements.

Figure 3: The Bristol-type of recorder provides continuous operation and better depth resolution, but requires careful
calibration and monitoring. It is more suitable for standard mud logging operations all some people find this traditional
circular chart difficult to read.

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In the Bristol-type recorder, a water-filled hose runs between a water reservoir attached to the kelly swivel and a pressure sensor located in
the mud logging unit. By measuring changes in hydrostatic pressure, the device can continuously monitor and provide an analog display of
depth on a clock-driven circular chart. Depth and drill rate may be calculated and displayed to a fraction of a foot (although the clockwork-
driven circular chart display, standard in older units is difficult to read, see Figure 3).
The Bristol-type recorder has an even greater limitation related to the fact that atmospheric pressure cannot sustain a water column taller
than 10 meters (33 feet):
✔ First, the recorder cannot measure drill string movement during trips or even when the kelly is lifted to its full, 13 meter (42 feet)
height.
✔ It is also not possible to run the water hose in a Starting a new well, as a young mud logger, I couldn't decide which I hated
straight path from the top of the kelly to the mud most:
logging unit on the ground. The hose must run via a The uncooperative floor crews who would do nothing to help the mud
series of cascading loops each more more than 10
logger with a broken Bristol hose, or
meters tall. After hasty rig-ups or in gusty weather
these loops can easily become snagged and tangled The helpful ones who were only too happy to hook me up on a wire
on derrick projections bringing the whole system line, and send me flailing about the derrick, like a drunken Peter Pan,
down (literally). trying to catch hold of, and splice the broken ends of the hose.
Neither the Geolograph nor the Bristol system is acceptable
Frustrated or terrified, it was a difficult decision.
for enhanced, and automated mud logging, for which drill
string position, direction and speed of motion must be
available at all times whether, tripping, drilling with a 13 meter long kelly or 20 meters of drill pipe and a circulating head. Also, on floating,
offshore rigs the drill string position calculation must also take into account the vertical movement of the rig with tide and wave action.

Automated Drilling Line Measurement

Improvements to the earlier systems have been been introduced, for example:
✔ A Geolograph-type recorder with an optically encoded drum system capable of detecting both downward and upward motion, and
✔ A pressurized Bristol-type recorder allowing a greater range of measurement without the cumbersome hose loops.
However, the most successful modern systems all involve methods of directly measuring drilling line movement. Movements of the draw-
works drum, the derrick crown block, or the cable itself are monitored using a series of optical encoders or magnetic proximity switches to
determine the direction and distance of drilling line movement. From these, the motion of the traveling block and, hence, the drill string may
be automatically computed and displayed digitally to within a fraction of a meter or better (depending of the sensor spacing and number of

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drilling lines, see Figure 4).

Figure 4: For enhanced mud logging, a direct drilling line measurement with rig motion compensation is necessary.
On floating rigs, motion compensation may be performed using a similar wire-line measurement system attached to the riser tensioning or
base plate anchoring system to measure the vertical movement of the rig relative to seabed. If a split traveling block is used then a block
separation proximity sensor may also be required.

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Hook Load and Weight on Bit

The next most important hoisting system measurement is drilling hook load. The hook load measurement when the bit is on bottom is
deducted from the hook load measured with the drill string hanging free (when the bit is off bottom), to compute the weight on bit.
In more sophisticated systems, it may also be used to compute wire-line stretch, drill string extension (or compression) in order to
calculate neutral point position and to make finer-scaled adjustments to calculated total depth.
Almost all rig hook load sensors consist of one of various types of strain gauge mounted on the end of the drilling line close to the dead line
anchor (see Figure 5).
Hook load is determined from tension in the clamped end of the drilling line and transmitted hydraulically to the driller's weight indicator
display. Installation and removal of these type of sensors is
a troublesome operation and adding a second may interfere This goes against the general principle of having a separate data acquisition
with performance of the first. To avoid downtime delays, in system for the logging unit. I have also seen more than one installation where
most mud logging operations, an independent hook load
problems with a piggy--back pressure sensor caused as much delay and
sensor is not used. Instead, a pressure sensor is introduced
into the hydraulic line to the driller’s instrument and a digital measurement errors, from hydraulic leaks and air locks, as installing a whole
signal from this sensor transmitted to the mud logging unit. new hook load sensor probably would have taken.
This is a common cause of problems (and conflicts between
mud logging and rig crews), and fortunately, newer designs of easily mountable digital strain gauges are becoming more available and soon,
I hope, will eliminate these piggyback installations..

Rotary System Measurements

At the rotary table, two important measurements are made:
✔ Rotary speed, and
✔ Drilling Torque.
Rotary speed is usually measured from the rotary main drive itself using proximity switch to generate a digital signal. of one count per
rotation. Measurement of drilling torque is more difficult and has to be indirect, because direct measurement of torque in the turning drill
string is practically impossible.

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Figure 5: Enhanced mud logging, and automated data monitoring systems require sensors on the drilling wire line,
crown or traveling block, and rotary table.

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Figure 6: Drilling torque is an important measure of formation consistency and hardness, and a signal of bit
mechanical damage or wear. In practice, whether torque is high or low, consistently uniform or variable is more
important than the actual value in NM.
On older, direct (chain or belt) drive rigs, torque can be monitored using a strain gauge to measure tension in the rotary drive belt or chain.
On more modern rigs, the rotary table is driven by a DC (direct current) electric motor and drilling torque is measured by monitoring the
changing current supplied to the rotary table to maintain constant rotary speed. This is done either directly at the power source or by
measuring the Hall Effect current induced in a transducer clamped to the power supply cable.

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The latter method is preferable, because it allows the mud logging sensor to be installed without rig down time, or modification to the system
circuitry.
In either case, mechanical or electrical, the torque measurement is the least well-calibrated of all drilling data. Units of measurement may be
arbitrary, for example: current amperes. Even when a calculated value of true torque, such as newton-meters (or foot-pounds), is available,
the calibration is theoretically derived and hardly capable of testing. Fortunately, absolute measurements of torque are rarely needed
(except in research studies of drill bit design). Most often it is the torque variation or variability of torque that is significant (see Figure 6).
Relative differences in torque can provide the information for drilling control and formation evaluation. Nevertheless, an important
contribution to drilling monitoring would be a simple mechanical method to calibrate rotary torque measurements.

Circulating System Measurements

When mud loggers first began working with geo-pressure calculations, the first new logging measurements added to support them were
drilling fluid sensors. This is because:
✔ Many geo-pressure parameters involve changes in the chemical nature of the returning drilling fluid.
✔ A major purpose of geo-pressure logging is to determine optimal drilling fluid properties to balance and control down-hole formation
pressures.
✔ Unlike weight on bit, and rotary speed, there were no automated drilling fluid measurement systems available on most rigs. Mud
density mad viscosity were measured manually on an hourly basis using very basic equipment (see Chapter 4). Other properties,
requiring more skilled analysis were measured no more than twice day.

Mud Weight (Density)

The oldest drilling fluid measurement made by mud loggers is mud density, because was the important measurement needed in pressure
evaluation calculations, and it was, at the time, the least automated on the rig. Now, in some areas, mud density sensors in the active mud
pit and the flow line are almost standard mud logging equipment. It is therefore disappointing that mud density sensors are probably the
least reliable and almost the least accurate of any mud logging sensor. The oldest type of mud density sensor is the hydrostatic dip-tube
gauge (see Figure 7). The simplest of these consists of two tubes of equal diameter and different length. They are bolted together,
immersed in the drilling mud, and air is bubbled through both tubes. Each tube will sustain an internal air pressure equal to the hydrostatic
pressure of mud outside (if the internal pressure were less then the mud would invade the tube, if it were more, then the air would blast
freely from the tubes).

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Figure 7: A differential pressure mud density measurement device. Variations on this basic design use larger diameter
bells on the lower ends of the tubes, or cover them with thin membranes.

The difference in hydrostatic pressures can expressed as:

..................... Equation 1

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Where: ∆P = Difference in hydrostatic pressure between the longer and shorter tubes

ᴩ = Mud density
k = Equivalence constant (for the density and pressure units used)
∆H = Difference in depth of submergence between the longer and shorter tubes
Thus:

..................... Equation 2

Where, if: ∆P = kilopascals

ᴩ = kilogram/meter3

k = 9.807 x 10-3
∆H = meter

Since the tubes are bolted together, the difference in depth of submergence is a constant. The output from a differential pressure gauge
measuring the difference in tube pressures can be calibrated to read directly in mud density.
The dip tube gauge is quite accurate, but it very subject to error due to mud inhomogeneity and turbulence between the levels of the two dip
tubes. Shortening this distance:
✔ Improves the mud sample consistency, but
✔ Substantially reduces the sensitivity of the device.
The sensor is also subject to a drift in response because of the tubes becoming progressively, but not equally plugged with mud filter cake.
This requires regular cleaning and re-calibration.

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✔ Another version utilizes larger diameter cups on the ends of the dip tubes, attempting to reduce the effect of tube plugging.
Unfortunately, the tubes do not become plugged in the wide diameter bells. Instead they continue to be plugged at the bottom of the
small diameter sections of the dip tubes.
✔ Another version, uses a thin plastic membrane to cover the ends of the dips tubes so that the air flow never contacts the drilling fluid.
The air pushes against the membrane (the red surface in Figure 8) with sufficient pressure to free the in-bound and outbound flow
paths, allowing it to flow out of the drilling fluid without actually contacting it.

Figure 8: To prevent plugging, the ends of the dip tubes may be covered with a plastic membrane.
Unfortunately, while resisting plugging, this type needs even more regular cleaning and repair: the membranes are easily abraded,
stretched or torn by cuttings in the drilling mud.

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✔ A re-designed version of the dip tube sensor is also available in which the dip tubes themselves are replaced with two solid state,
piezo-electric pressure sensors submerged directly in the mud at different depths. This alleviates the plugging and abrasion problems
but the device is much less sensitive to density variation even when the submergence depth difference is increased substantially.
Another property of dense fluids that can be used to measure density is buoyancy.

Figure 9: Mud density can be measured by determining reduction in the weight of a heavy ball suspended in drilling
fluid, or the buoyant effect on a light ball anchored in the fluid.
A tethered floating ball will exert an upward buoyant force on its anchor point which will be a function of the density of the ball and of the
density of the fluid. A solid state, piezo-electric strain gauge can be incorporated into the ball anchor and produces a signal which may be
calibrated to read directly and reliably (see Figure 9). This type of sensor is also subject to turbulence or even to strong lateral currents
adding a false upward force on the light ball. The immersion of the entire sensor assembly is also a possible cause of serious corrosion
problems and a complication when routine servicing is required.
A superior variation of this device uses a heavy ball hanging in the drilling mud from a strain gauge suspension above the fluid. In this case
the buoyant force acts upwards on the heavy ball and reduces its effective weight. This configuration is much easier to service and less
susceptible to turbulence and currents than the floating ball. Nevertheless turbulence and filter cake build-up acting together, substantially

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reduce the dependability of the device. Performance may be considerably worse if the ball must be located in a particularly bad location
where it is subject to strong turbulence or substantial debris accumulation,
The latest, best and unfortunately most expensive type of mud density sensor utilizes the Compton scattering principle of gamma ray
absorption (the same principal as the wire-line Density log, see Chapter 10).
In this is a clean, non-contacting method, a gamma ray source and detector are located on opposite sides of the mud stand pipe or flow line.
Within a wide range of compositional variation, the gamma ray absorption of the mud is directly proportional to mud density (see Figure 10).

Figure 10: The most reliable, but most expensive method of continuous mud density measurement is a radiometric,
Compton scattering, measurement.
In order to work successfully, the fluid distribution within range of the gamma ray source (not just in a direct line between source and
detector) must remain consistent. This requires that the pipe must have a symmetrical shape and must be kept full, with neither air space

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above, nor debris accumulation below, and no stagnant areas. Depending on the gamma ray source size used (which may be limited by
local nuclear storage or transportation regulations) there may be also be a limitation on the maximum diameter of the pipe. These
requirements can be met with comparative ease when measuring the density of clean mud going into the hole through the relatively small
diameter the standpipe. When measuring the density of gas cut and cuttings loaded mud coming out of the hole, it may be necessary to
modify the existing rig flow line, or build a diverter for accurate mud density measurement.
Gamma absorption depends upon density of all components in the mud and the absorption indices of the elements present in those
components. Most of the common elements have similar enough indices and varying composition does not noticeably effect response.
Barium, of course, has a much higher gamma ray capture index so that, when Barite is first added to increase mud density, it is necessary to
re-calibrate the sensor. As mud density is further increased and the proportion of Barite to all other components changes, it is necessary to
shift progressively to different calibration ranges. Some of the more sophisticated devices are equipped with a micro-processor able to
automatically shift between linear calibration sub-ranges or a single non-linear calibration program.
A further, more difficult, problem is encountered when the mud is gas-cut. All sensor calibrations are performed or calculated based upon a
mixture of mud colloids and dispersed solids. Because the density of gas is much lower than these, the presence of gas in the mud will
cause mud density to be under-estimated and, as gas content increases, the magnitude of the under-estimate will become greater. This
effect is minor during normal drilling but may be significant during show evaluation, and it may cause serious problems when monitoring a
gas kick or when monitoring mud weight changes in pressure control operations.
Several other physical properties are responsive to mud density. For example, some experimentation has been performed with sonic time-
of-flight sensors intended to monitor changes in the velocity of sound which is also responsive to density. So far, neither these or other
experimental designs have achieved commercial operation. Despite all of its drawbacks, the gamma ray sensor remains the only really
reliable mud density sensor. Unfortunately, it has achieved only limited application in the field. This is for several reasons:
✔ Cost: The sensor is more expensive to purchase and operate than simpler devices. Most mud logging companies offer the gamma
ray sensor and a cheaper alternative.
✔ Installation: A flow line gamma ray sensor may require a fairly major installation effort. For short duration, onshore wells this may
be impractical. Even on semi-permanent offshore installations it is often difficult to convince drilling management to allocate the time
and cost for flow line modification.
✔ Compliance: The regulatory requirements for the storage, transportation and operation of nuclear devices vary from state to state,
are often complicated and compliance can be expensive.

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Mud Flow Rate

Mud flow rate sensors are in a related, but very different position to mud density sensors. Their application is not theoretical, or predictive.
Instead, they are needed in real time, to detect hazards when they occur, and to generate immediate alarms.
✔ They are critical in geo-pressure evaluation logging.
However, unlike mud density, the measurements made by mud flow and volume sensors are not used to compute trends in formation
pressure, or to predict potentially hazardous conditions.
✔ They have a critical role in the detection of well kicks, lost circulation and other drilling problems resulting in sudden:
✔ Failure of return mud flow, and loss of surface mud volume. or
✔ Mud flow out of the bore hole in excess of flow in, and gain in surface mud volume.
✔ These conditions indicate that bore-hole hydrostatic pressure has failed to control formation pressure and that uncontrolled flow is
occurring of:
✔ Mud out of the boreholes, into a weak, low pressure formation down hole, or
✔ Formation fluid, under high formation pressure, into the bore hole, displacing the drilling mud at surface.
✔ Either of these conditions can rapidly accelerate out of control and lead to disastrous well collapse, well kick, or a blow-out.
✔ Yet the complex, unpleasant nature of the fluid and the difficult environment of measurement combine to make these amongst the
least reliable least effective sensors in action.
There is a need for rapid recognition and immediate action, but this is often stymied by environment limitations that make some delay
necessary in order to avoid regular (and perhaps equally hazardous) false alarms.
When drilling, the bore hole is progressively enlarged as fresh hole is cut and the the cuttings are removed from the hole. As the mud
circulates through this enlarging hole there is small apparent negative differential mud flow. The volume of mud entering the hole will be
slightly greater than that leaving (see Figure 11).

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Figure 11: Differential mud flow measurement is complicated by the progressive change in hole volume created by
drilling.
On an offshore, floating rig this pattern is complicated by the rig's vertical motion with wave action (see Figure 12).
As the rig moves vertically upward:
✔ A telescope joint opens, lengthening the riser, so that
✔ Mud will temporarily cease to enter the flow line, although
✔ The riser continues to fill from below

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Eventually the rig will move downward, and:

✔ The telescopic joint closes, shortening the riser, so that
✔ Mud will overflow into the flow line at a higher than normal rate (that is at a higher rate than the Mud In-flow rate, see Figure 12).
A similar, but much longer term process accompanies the daily rise and fall of the tide.
.

Figure 12: Offshore, differential mud flow measurement is further complicated by the wave and tidal movement of a
floating rig.
Mud flow sensors located on the rig cannot detect mud flow variations of shorter duration than the wave period. Even on this time scale,
sophisticated averaging and damping software is required to allow the measurements to be understood.

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In standard mud logging, mud flow-in is computed from the pump rate counter. In enhanced mud logging this is not acceptable. Variation in
the pumps volumetric efficiency at different running rates introduce far too great an error and prevent reliable qualitative comparison of mud
flow-in and mud flow-out. For consistency, flow rate sensors of similar design and configuration must be used on both the rig standpipe and
the flow line
The earliest design of flow sensor was a simple paddle attached to a pneumatic switch controlling a whistle or alarm klaxon. This was a
simple device designed to register if flow was either on or off:
✔ When the mud was flowing, the paddle would lift activating the switch.
✔ When flow stopped, the paddle would fall again and close the switch.
The alarm would be set to activate when the normal condition failed:
✔ If flow stopped while drilling or,
✔ If flow started while tripping or making a connection.
This device was elaborated to produce the first true flow measuring sensor. The paddle was connected to a rheostat instead of a switch, so
that progressive upward displacement of the paddle would be reflected by a change in electrical resistance( see Figure 13).

Figure 13: Mud flow can be measured by (A) radial displacement of a floating ball, or (B) strain on a paddle fully
immersed in the fluid.
✔ The large size of this sensor requires a much larger pipe than normally used in the upstream mud system but it otherwise works well
in measuring mud flow-in.

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✔ On the downstream side, the sensor can be installed with minimum effort in the large diameter flow line, but its performance is far
from satisfactory.
✔ Firstly, when large sediment loads occur the paddle can act as an obstruction. Cutting and cavings, deposited on and around the
paddle, can hold it fully open, prevent it from closing or, by increasing its mass, modify its response.
✔ Worse still, the sensors response is only semi-quantitative at best. In addition to flow volume it will also respond to mud density,
viscosity and mud level in flow lines that are very rarely fully filled all the way to the top.
Some improvements have been achieved by replacing the hinged paddle with a rigid paddle or a smaller target rigidly attached by an arm to
a solid state strain gauge. In this cause, lateral strain in the arm is measured to indicate mud flow volume. This method brings several
functional improvements in operation and maintenance but it does nothing to more closely relate the sensor's output to true mud volumetric
flow, and to that alone.
Sonic flow meters have become widely used in process industries, utilizing time of flight or Doppler shift measurements to determine mud
velocity and hence flow rate (see Figure 14). These have been less successful in the oilfield. For linear response, all sonic sensors require
a full pipe, and that re-introduces the associated problems mentioned above. Sonic flow sensors also exhibit generally poor performance
and unreliability in drilling fluid applications subject to variations in density, turbulence and cuttings load.

Figure 14: Mud flow can be measured by (A) sonic transmission in a fluid-filled pipe, or (B) reflection from fluid surface
in a partially filled pipe.

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Another type of sonic flow meter has recently been introduced which can be used even without a filled pipe. Indeed it makes use of the
partial fill level. This is a sonic level sensor which recognizes rise and fall of the mud in the partially filled flow line and this value is used to
compute mud flow rate. Although mud level is effected by several other parameters, practical experience shows that when carefully installed
and configured, the level sensor provides a consistent mud flow measurement.
For water-based drilling fluids, the ideal flow measurement is made using the electromagnetic induction (EMI) flow meter (see Figure 15).
This encloses the entire, filled pipe but does not intrude inside it. Measurement is based upon the induction of electric currents in a coil
through when an electrical conductor (water in the mud) is moving. The magnitude of the induced current is directly proportion to the mud
velocity and, in a full pipe, volume flow rate.

Figure 15: Mud flow can be measured using magnetic induction effects in a fluid-filled pipe.
The EM flow meter is not effected by mud properties, cuttings load or gas. It is in most ways an ideal flow meter. Unfortunately, in addition to
the full pipe requirement it is a very expensive device, and cannot be used in non-conductive, oil-based drilling muds (which are invert
emulsions in which water, when present, is in a discontinuous phase). These factors have prevented any widespread introduction of the EM
flow meter. While most major mud logging contractors offer it as an option, they also offer inferior, cheaper and, sadly, more widely used,
alternative sensors.

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Mud Pit Volume

The second line of defense (after differential mud flow-out measurement) in well kick detection, is mud pit volume. Fortunately, this is one
mud measurement that can be be made with accuracy and relative ease without the highest technology or cost. The oldest type of pit level
sensor used a floating ball on a swing-arm (see Figure 16). Rising and falling pit level rotates a rheostat located in the pivot of the swing
arm. This type of sensor is still widely used in standard mud logging units and is acceptable with one consideration.
The raw rheostat response is not linear to pit level, but it is a relatively simple hardware fix to linearize this signal and provide a response
that is linear with pit volume. If this done, the sensor is acceptable in a standard mud logging.

Figure 16: Mud pit measurements may use rotational and linear floats or sonic level measurements.
In enhanced mud logging, the swing-arm type sensor is rarely acceptable. Due to the shape, size and obstructions in mud pit it is rare that a
swing arm sensor can monitor a pit from empty to completely full without hanging up at some point on an obstruction or the pit wall.

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A vertical sensor works more conveniently in most pit configurations. In this sensor:
✔ The floating ball moves freely up and down a hollow. rigid, fixed, vertical rod.
✔ Inside the ball are magnets, while
✔ Inside the rod are many small, magnetic Reed proximity switches.
✔ Movement of the ball opens and closes switches to reflect the current mud level.
Surface turbulence in the pit and mud filter cake deposition on the floating ball may cause minor error or fluctuation on this sensor but
results are generally very reliable and within acceptable levels of accuracy.
A sonic mud level sensor has been used successfully in a few installations. This sensor is remarkably easy to install and maintain. Not only
does it avoid contact with the mud, with the attendant corrosion and abrasion problems, the sensor does not even need to be near the mud.
It can be conveniently installed on the ceiling, lighting gantry or cable trays high above the mud pit.

Figure 17: Mud pit volume sensors must provide measurements that are linear in pits of all shapes and sizes.

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Most pit volume sensors do not measure volume directly. Instead, they measure pit fluid level and, by means of hardware or software,
convert this to volume. The keys to success are:

Linearity
The sensor must give a response which is linear with volume regardless of irregular pit shape or intrusions, such as pipes, mixers,
and so on (see Figure 17).
Depending upon the complexity of pit shape this may require a simple scaling factor performed in hardware or a complicated level-
by-level calibration sequence using embedded programming and on-board memory.

Sensitivity
In level-to-volume conversion, a tall, narrow pit, having a large height-to-volume ratio gives excellent sensitivity but response may
complicated by the exaggerated effect of surface turbulence and wave motions. A good pit volume system should have the
sensitivity and damping capability to provide an accurate response from pits of all shapes and sizes (see Figure 18).

Figure 18: Mud pit volume sensors must provide measurements that are sensitive to small and large volume changes
in both large and small mud pits.

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Completeness
A complete pit surveillance system should have sensors installed to monitor every pit on the rig (including slug and mixing pits)
containing any type of mud, drilling water or oil storage. Each sensor should have the range to monitor a pit from completely empty
to completely full. The display system should be capable of high and low alarms on individual pits,and computing totals for
combinations of several pits, up to the entire fluid system.

Figure 19: Mud pit volume sensors must provide measurements that are independent of floating rig motions.

Motion Compensation
On a floating, offshore rig the system must be capable of compensating for rig movement to always report true volume.
✔ Since all measured movements in the pit are relative to movements of the floating rig itself, the system cannot solve the mud
lag and surge problem resulting from wave and tidal action (heave, see Figure 12), but
✔ It must be able to compensate for the lateral changes in mud level caused by the vessel swaying (more correctly: pitch and
roll, see Figure 19).
This can usually be performed using two sensors in opposite corners of each pit, along with averaging software or circuitry, but
in most cases, regardless of sensor type, complete satisfaction of these requirements involves more than simple circuitry and a
display panel.

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In some cases, the digital sensor data is monitored by an on-board computer, processed as necessary and output with other drilling
displays. A more flexible and responsive method uses a stand-alone micro-processor for data processing, display and alarming of all mud pit
data, with results displayed in the logging unit, at other locations around the rig, or transmitted to the central computer as needed (see
Figure 20).

Figure 20: For enhanced mud logging or stand-alone operation, a micro-computer controlled system provides all of the
functions demanded of a pit volume totalization system: monitoring all (active and inactive) pits at the well-site, non-
linear pit level-to-volume calibration, rig pitch and roll compensation, with display, alarming, and history functions for all
pits and the total system.

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Mud Pressure
Mud pressures are measured at the standpipe and casing head (for well kill procedures). Fortunately, these too are conveniently and
accurately measurable. Although many rigs continue to use the traditional Bourdon tube-type hydraulic gauges, most mud logging
companies utilize solid state, piezo-electric pressure gauges of a similar type. These devices are reliable and accurate requiring little
calibration or maintenance.

Mud Temperature
Two final mud sensors that are commonly installed are the mud temperature and electrical conductivity sensors. For in-bound and out-
bound measurements, these are normally installed near the suction line of the active mud pit, and the flow line.
The mud temperature sensor can be useful in mud management, but its most important application is in geo-pressure evaluation where the
trend of lagged differential pressure can be used to deduce formation geothermal gradient changes and abnormal fluid pressures. This is
discussed in full detail in Chapter 12.

Mud Conductivity
Use of the mud conductivity sensor owes its origin to the Delta Chloride method of geo-pressure evaluation widely used in the offshore Gulf
Coast and other areas where mud salinity (and hence electrical conductivity) shows marked differences from formation water salinity. By
measuring the salinity of the drilling mud entering and leaving the hole (suitably lagged) it is possible to locate even small influxes of salt
water resulting from a brief temporary under-balance even, for example a small swabbed influx during a connection, analogous to a
connection gas. These saline equivalents of connection gases are early and safe indications of impending major under-balance and geo-
pressure (see Chapter 12 and Figure 21).
The original Delta Chloride logging method required regular sampling of mud at the suction line and flow line, filtration, and salinity
titrations. This was improved using a bench-top resistivity meter, and then using conductivity sensors in the mud flow.
Unfortunately, this is method is not a generally applicable pressure evaluation technique. It is not based upon general compaction principals.
It is only successful in those basins and drilling locations where the salinity difference between formation water and mud filtrate exists. I
hope it isn't necessary to add this, but just in case: the conductivity sensor is also of no value whatsoever in oil-based drilling muds other
than to confirm that in invert-emulsion is non-conductive.
Modern temperature and conductivity sensors are usually sealed, solid state devices, requiring little routine maintenance, or even calibration
– although simple certification is always a useful assurance to those who are footing the bill: just compare the indicated value in buckets of
hot, and cold, fresh, and salty water samples with the results obtained using a thermometer, and a mud engineer's portable resistivity meter.

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Figure 21: Mud delta chloride or conductivity is a good indicator of approaching under-balance and a possible well kick,
but it only works on wells where a water-based mud is used with a natural salinity much lower than that of the
formations penetrated.
The most important concern with these sensors is that they be positioned in free flowing mud, as close as possible to the actual points of
entry, and exit from the bore hole. If they are located in stagnant or weakly flowing locations then the measurements will be less responsive
to valid changes in mud temperature and conductivity. In such locations they are also more likely to become coated with mud solids, or
buried in cuttings and other mud debris, thus becoming completely unresponsive to actual conditions.

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Drilling Data Services

Mud loggers began to install drilling data sensors in order to obtain more reliable, more automated, and more digitally accessible data for
use in geo-pressure logging (see Chapter 12) and, along with them came the first computer-equipped mud logging units, supplying a range
of data processing and display capabilities.
As mentioned earlier, drilling foremen and engineers were very quick to appreciate the value of these continuous data streams, and
computing power, so that a whole range of drilling-related software services became available, such as:
✔ Drilling data displays, such as:
✔ Tabulated displays and plots of stored historic drilling data.
✔ Calculation and display of drilling efficiency data such as cost-per-meter, or Weight-on-Bit, Rotary Speed, or Drilling Torque
normalized drilling rate parameters.
✔ Trip monitoring programs: including:
✔ Pipe run/pull speed monitoring, and calculation of swab and surge pressures
✔ Hook load monitoring, and calculation of hook-load deviations at dog-legs and other tight spots in the hole.
✔ Mud pit measurements, calculation of total surface and bore-hole mud volumes, fill-up requirements, and alarming of fluid losses
or gains.
✔ Tracking of bore hole inclination measurements (from drift indicators, or real-time measurement while drilling) and the plotting of true-
depth logs and well-path plots.
✔ Well-control monitoring services, such as:
✔ Monitoring Shut-in Stand Pipe and Casing Head Pressures after a well kick.
✔ Calculating mud density and displacement volume requirement for killing a shut-in well.
✔ Monitoring mud pit volumes, mud volume, mud
Yup! This looks like another of those WATCH THIS SPACE places, where you
flow rates, and pressures during a well kill and
alarming of any deviation from the well-kill plan can expect to see a lot more content added in a future edition of this
or loss of well control. handbook, about how all of these things are done, what they look like and
what the mud logger can put into, and get out off each of them.

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These days, the equipment, computation and manning of these services may involve combination of people and equipment supplied by the
drilling contractor, the mud logging or other service company, and the oil company.

Figure 22: The server computer provides the automatic link between the mud logging sensors and the data
processing, display, and communications devices in the mud logging unit, on the rig and beyond

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✔ Most modern mud logging sensors supply a digital electronic output signal and likewise, the mud logging unit can easily accept digital
input from other data streams available at the well site.
✔ However some older or specialized sensors may instead provide an analog electrical signal.
✔ In order to be processed by a computer program or stand-alone micro-processor these must first undergo analog-to-digital
conversion.
✔ Some large groups of sensors, such as pit volume sensors, may be pre-processed, totaled, or averaged and then a smaller set of
processed data are output.

Figure 23: Examples of dumb data display devices that show the data directly monitored by the mud logging and
drilling sensors with a minimum of data manipulation

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All of the sensor signals, in a digital form, finally pass to a computer in the mud logging unit. The computer polls each of the sensors as
needed, and runs monitor programs providing further calculations, historical data display and analysis. Finally, but most important, there is
the storage and shifting of data to account for lag time. When data has been lagged to the correct depth of origin it may be recorded into a
data file on a magnetic, optical disk or other mass storage device. Selected lagged and computed data may also be labeled with identifiers
and added to the system data line to be accessible to further data display or communications devices.
Historically, the larger mud logging companies used sensors, monitoring and analysis software that had been developed in-house and
sometimes use proprietary processing schema and algorithms. These days, much of the hardware is available off-the-shelf and relatively
low in cost. Again, in this day of the generic personal computer, smaller mud logging contractors can buy or build much of what they need for
sophisticated data acquisition and analysis. They may not be able to exceed what the biggest contractors can offer, but they are at least
able to play in the same league.

Unmanned Intelligent Display Devices

Raw and minimally processed, for example lagged data, may be displayed on various type of dumb display devices in the logging unit or
elsewhere on and off the rig. Figure 23 shows examples of such devices.

Drilling Data Analysis

Even the simplest data acquisition system will commonly provide some level of data analysis by converting raw signals to usable
parameters and units and by integrating values to determine incremental, totalizing and rate parameters.
For example:
✔ Uncompensated Kelly Height
minus Block Separation
minus Rig Position Displacement
equals Motion Compensated Kelly Height
✔ Pipe Tally Total
plus Kelly Length
minus Motion Compensated Kelly Height
equals Total Depth

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✔ Total Depth
minus previous Total Depth
equals Drilled Depth Interval
✔ Time of Day
minus previous Time of Day
equals Drilled Time Interval
✔ Drilled Depth Interval
divided by Drilled Time Interval
equals Rate of Penetration
Even this simplified computation of depth and rate of penetration involves five steps (in reality it would take even more including derivation of
the input parameters and averaging rate of penetration over the specified sample interval.
This level of computation is usually the limit of data analysis in stand alone data acquisition systems and dumb display devices. Unmanned,
intelligent services and display devices offer more computational power, memory capacity and the capability for more interaction between
the machine and its users. In an un-manned system this allows more control and better information for the end user. With intelligent display
devices attached to a manned logging unit, the end user, driller, engineer or geologist, is able control his own information supply without
continual access or visits to the mud logging unit and its crew.
These units are commonly based upon a rack-mounted personal computer:
✔ This may be a self-contained chassis with high-resolution color monitor, custom keyboard or other input devices.
✔ Alternatively it may be an off-the-shelf desktop computer with custom hardware and software allowing its use as a terminal and
display device.
✔ Printing, plotting, communications and mass storage devices can be added as necessary.
The first alternative is best for rig floor, mud room or exposed locations. It provides a more compact, more rugged, cheaper display station,
and one that is more easily installed and explosion proofed.

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The PC alternative is preferable for office locations on the rig, or away from it. The use of a standard computer adds further flexibility (and
usually cuts cost) because standard PC software and
peripheral devices can be added for data analysis, I know of at least one customer who. on a long, slow drilling well in a very
reporting and many other functions. remote location, insisted that a joystick should be standard equipment for the
data display station installed in his trailer - no questions were asked.

Figure 24: Examples of more intelligent and interactive data display devices that show some of the basic mud logging
along with processed, and historical and graphical displays of data.
Examples of the greater flexibility and power of intelligent devices include:
✔ Menus for user-configurable layouts, data combinations, units of measurement, and so on.
✔ Mass storage and portability (with removable media) of data for later off-line analysis.
✔ Computation and display of more complex parameters, such as hydraulics, drilling optimization and economic break-even
parameters, and geo-pressure analyses.

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Obviously, as with any distributed systems, too much freedom and flexibility could be disastrous. To avoid this, data flow in these systems is
entirely one way. While secondary data calculation and display parameters may be selected set and reset at the display station, all major
parameter setting for data sampling, calibration and storage, plus the parameters for all other peripheral devices, must be set at the mud
logging unit, locked in and inaccessible to the remote display stations. Data entry and system management are delegated to the mud
logging crew who also remain responsible for sensor maintenance, calibration and the generation of routine logs and reports.

Drilling Data Analysis Services

In addition to collecting and distributing drilling data, the mud logging unit may supply off-line or multi-tasking computers, software, and
specialized well-site personnel for advanced levels of data analysis. The need for such a service at the well site can be assessed from
consideration of:
✔ The difficulty and expense of the drilling operation,
✔ The specialized skill, training and local experience of the mud logging crew and consultants,
✔ The availability of similarly skilled and locally experienced personnel within the operating company, and
✔ The quality of communications between the well site and the oil company headquarters or research center where such expertise and
services are available
For example, in-fill drilling in an established domestic oil field using a mature drilling program, experienced well-site supervisors and close,
good quality, communications with home office would require data acquisition and recording:
✔ As a means of monitoring optimum and safe adherence to the drilling program.
✔ It can also indicate unforeseen drilling events and maintain a record of how, and how successfully, these were overcome.
✔ In other words it is an information source rather than a problem-solving tool.
On the other hand, on an offshore rank wildcat well (an exploration well in area and section which have never been drilled before) with a
limited supply of experienced personnel and poor long-distance communications:
✔ The availability of data analysis services and expertise at the well site can prove to be much more cost effective.
✔ Any increase in drilling efficiency or a decrease in rig downtime sufficient to save a single day of rig time on location can, in these
circumstances, produce a large enough saving in day rate charges to pay for the entire data analysis service for the whole well.

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Data analysis services can be divided into two phases. These are:
✔ On-line or real-time monitoring, and
✔ Off-line analyses.
The first of these is a manned equivalent of the un-manned data acquisition services discussed above. The difference is that more complex
real-time computations can be performed: ones requiring manual input, skilled decision making, program response and control.
Artificial intelligence in drilling control remains in its infancy and, for some time to come, human supervision and intervention in real-time
program flow will be required to secure the maximum advantage from monitoring, optimization and control software.
Examples of real-time monitor program printouts and logs are shown in Figure 25.

Figure 25: Some examples of the drilling reports and logs that can be generated by the logging unit (illustrations
courtesy of Anadriil-Schlumberger)
Off-line analyses are called up and run as an when is necessary as indicated by monitor results and the skilled interpretation of the logging
and crew and operations personnel. Figure 26 shows some examples of the reports and logs which may be generated by the logging unit.

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Figure 26: Off-line analysis involves the generation of numerous drilling reports and logs (illustrations courtesy of
Anadriil-Schlumberger).
These may include:

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Drilling Optimization
Selection of bit type and operating parameters to optimize rate of penetration and lifetime for the bit.

Bit Economics
Cost per unit depth interval and break-even calculations for comparison between alternative drilling tools and practices.

Drilling Hydraulics
Optimization of drilling fluid properties, pump rates and bit nozzle sizes in order to maintain desirable drill string and annular flow regimes
and optimize jet impact force and bit cleaning.

Directional Control
Determination of well path, bottom hole position, direction to target or to avoid intersection between deviated wells. Bottom hole assembly
design or stiffness and steering abilities.

Trip Analysis
Calculation of drill string buoyed weight, displacement, capacity and swab and surge pressures when tripping into and out of the bore hole.
Comparison of computed values with measured values in order to locate or detect problems caused by frictional drag at dog legs, fluid influx
or lost returns.

Casing String Calculations

Assembly of a casing tally, string weights and displacements, cement volume, composition and setting requirements.

Well Control
Calculation of mud density to kill the well, displacement volumes and rates, simulation of gas bubble expansion, movement and pressure.

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Logistics
Usage log and inventory control of well expendable materials and tools, equipment maintenance schedules and performance records, well
progress data and report generation.

Figure 27: Off-line analysis involves the generation of numerous drilling reports and logs (illustrations courtesy of
Anadriil-Schlumberger).

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Formation Evaluation
Plotting, cross-plotting and integration of mud logging and drilling data with MWD logs and performance, when data becomes available, of
wire-line and well test analyses.
When using a manned mud logging service to provide these services it is important the require more than just the software and personnel to
run it on demand. These capabilities could be purchased or leased for much less or developed in-house. It should be the function of the
logging crew to operate and maintain the entire system and to integrate the data gathered by all systems. Drilling, mud logging and
formation evaluation data and
analyses coupled with the
technical and regional knowledge A wise old geologist told me that:
of the logging crew need to be When I ask an OK mud logger to do something, he says: “I was just about to do that.”
combined to create an overall
evaluation and information When I ask a GOOD mud logger to do something, he says: “I just did that -- and here's the
service. Information should be result.”
reported when available and
when needed - not when When I really need something, a GREAT mud logger hands me the result before I think to
requested! ask for it.

Monitor software runs in real-time during all well-site operations: drilling, tripping, casing running, and pressure control. Unlike data
acquisition software, an important component of drill monitoring is the constant skilled operator supervision, interpretation and control.

Drilling Data Communication

While an important well-site tool when the rig is isolated from close communication, the computerized mud logging unit may be of even
greater value when a high quality communications link exists between the logging unit and more complex central computers able to access
a major drilling and geological database for exploration simulation and problem solving.
In practice, a data communications system may be as simple or as complex as circumstances demand and the budget justifies.
Specifically, remember that data communications does not solve exploration problems - it simply moves them somewhere else, and that
other location may be one less well-suited to solving the problem!

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A communications systems does not need to be any more complex than the data acquisition and data analysis systems it serves to link.
✔ It should be capable of conveying the definition of a problem and the data necessary to solve it to the location where the means of
solution exist.
✔ It must then convey an explanation of the solution and any supporting material back to the location where it can be implemented.
A communications system may be entirely dumb, as for example a telephone link between two facsimile machines. For many years, this
was the standard method used in transmitting mud log data from the well site to an exploration base, and continues to be so in locations
where reliable phone service is available. Why bother with the Internet or fancy satellite communications when Ma Bell runs right by the end
of the road?
In this instance, the mud log which may be drafted manually is transmitted via facsimile machine and a telephone line to a similar machine
where it can be manually (or visually) interpreted by the geologist. Any further information transfer can be accomplished in its entirety by a
verbal continuation on the telephone between the mud logger and geologist with each of them looking at a copy of the mud log. Little or
nothing could be added to the processes by the inclusion of computers or software to the transmission process at either end.
Where data has been gathered automatically and stored in a digital form on tape or disk in large quantities there may be a reason to add
computers into the link as a means of compacting, selecting or reorganizing data at the transmission end and in order to store, format or
perform analysis at the receiving end.
Intelligence at the transmitting end allows flexibility in use of the communications link. The most obvious example of this is the reduction
of data volume when the link does not have capacity to transmit all available data or is available only for limited periods of the day. For
example: when voice and data communications must share the same communications link. Data gathered over long periods may be sorted,
edited, averaged or condensed as necessary and transmitted as a single high speed batch when time is available.
With a dumb system, all data must be transmitted in real time, as it is gathered:
✔ When data is being sent the data link is monopolized.
✔ When it is not being transmitted the data is lost.
Alternatively, an augmented system may be used in which data is stored in a non-selective mass storage system. To transmit this data may
require almost as much time as was taken to gather it. Alternatively the data record can be printed or plotted, manually edited and re-
entered before transmission.
Intelligence at the receiving end yields a number of benefits both technical and practical. Most obviously, there is a reduction in the
volume of data that is required to be transmitted. If the data communication receiving system contains only dumb devices: video screens,
line printers, plotters, disc drives, and so forth, then the transmitted data must be accompanied by instructions on how the data is to be
formatted or organized in the output medium.

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A computer or intelligent terminal at the receiving end not only does not require formatting instructions. It can also perform checks on
received data quality, and automatically request retransmission of badly received data.

Figure 28: A manned mud logging unit should provide the skilled supervision to decide which analyses to perform and
provide on-site interpretation of the results (illustrations courtesy of Anadriil-Schlumberger)
In the past, data was received at a dumb tape recording system with some limited error checking firmware. After transmission was
completed, the tape was physically removed to a mainframe computer for data analysis.
Today it is more common for a dedicated computer work station to be used either alone, or upstream of the database computer to filter and
pre-process data. In addition to the previously mentioned advantages, this also allows data analysis to be commenced while data is still
being transmitted and totally dedicated to the exploration program. It also allows a more flexible, user programmable linkage between the
well site and the mainframe computer. This allows the user freedom to make changes to the system and handle incompatibilities without
recourse to data processing or communications specialists.
The most important benefit of data communications is that the gathered data can be distributed to a large number of experts and other
interested parties in the format they require (logs, reports, magnetic disk or tapes) with the shortest possible delay. It also requires the
minimum effort on the part of well-site personnel who need to be involved in well operations not in daily report preparation.

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However, up to this point, data communications has solved less than half of the problem. The remote personnel will only receive computer-
monitored data and whatever information has been digitized and entered by the mud logging crew. Much ancillary data, observations an
even subjective opinion formed by well-site personnel are missing. While having time and hindsight to evaluate the received data, remote
personnel lack the the perspective and detail of the well-site personnel. They do not even have all of the necessary information available to
them. For example: detailed mud chemistry, additions, mud-making and treatment operations are not included in mud logging reports.
In many cases, the headquarters may lack access to any software capable of performing data analysis. Where available, it may be run on a
networked computer subject to the time schedule and priorities of DP professionals. Hardly a real-time operation!

Figure 29: A mud logging unit fully equipped for two-way communications and for data and visual interaction (illustration
courtesy of Exploration Logging).
In other cases, sophisticated communications software and hardware may, by its high visibility and impressiveness, capture the entire
budget leaving applications capabilities to languish. Some years ago, I visited an oil company data center of which both that company and
its mud logging contractors were very proud. Any engineer, at his desk, could flip the dial on a CRT monitor and view the current mud

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logging and drilling data from any of his company's wells in real time. If he wanted to perform a calculation based on that data however, he
needed to reach into his desk drawer and pull out a pocket calculator!
The sophisticated communications link is commonly only one way, from rig to base, and dedicated to the transmission of numerical data or,
at best, low resolution images. This prevents detailed analytical data sets, evaluations or prognoses being transmitted back to the rig in a
machine readable or detailed graphical form. It also limits the communication of ideas and opinions and visual data. This abundance of
incomplete information and the lack of human-scale communication can lead to misunderstandings, to well-site personnel becoming
concerned about being second-guessed by rivals. The lack of analytical tools at the receiving end may result in the data stacking-up unused
or in the second guess being no better, maybe worse, than the first ones. In short, the improved data communications may be counter-
productive.

Figure 30: A modern well site-to-headquarters communications link based upon the concept implemented in the Amoco
Critical Drilling Facility (CDF) in Tulsa, OK. All available data was concentrated at the mud logging unit and transmitted
in near-real-time to the exploration base and beyond.

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An ideal communications system would give consideration to:

✔ Two-way data communications.
✔ Monitoring of all rig systems and activities.
✔ On-line access to a drilling and geological databases and simulation software.
✔ High quality voice communication.
✔ High resolution color graphics transmission of reports and graphs, still images of bits, cores, micro-photographs of cuttings, and so
on.
✔ Lower resolution video transmission for surveillance of rig activities, inspection of larger exhibits or rig structure and for face-to-face
video conferencing.
The closest that has been achieved to an ideal communications system is the Critical Drilling Facility (CDF) developed at Amoco Research
Laboratory in Tulsa under the leadership of Keith Millheim. Figure 30 is an impression of the capabilities of and ideal system based upon
those established at the CDF. The group responsible for this development have given a good account of their progress in the literature.
Since a detailed discussion of this falls beyond this book, I will leave you to study this from first hand accounts in the references cited in the
Bibliography.

The Sting
The combination of good quality mud logging with drilling data acquisition, analysis and communications can be a very successful.
Equipment that requires careful attention, continuous monitoring and skilled interpretation is better located in the mud logging unit than in
any other place on the rig. Unfortunately, the application of enhanced mud logging has not always been satisfactory.
In part, this has resulted from lack on planning. As discussed above, partial implementation of a system can be counter-productive.
Commercially available exploration database software, and even the enhanced mud logging services themselves have been notoriously
lacking in the provision of software for the analysis and application of their own monitored data. As a result, the logging is well-used and
well-appreciated as real-time data monitoring, drilling management and alarm system. Unfortunately, once the data is monitored and stored,
their is neither the time, knowledge or software tools available at the well site to use the data for optimization and planning. With the
exception of geo-pressure evaluation, little data analysis is performed or used at the well site.
Another failure has been an inability to match the demands of drilling optimization in some areas of sensor technology: some measurements
are made with great accuracy and reliability, some with much less, and some are not made at all. Mud measurements are a case in point.

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✔ Mud temperature, resistivity and pH -- quantities of more significance to formation evaluation than drilling engineering -- are
accurately measured.
✔ Mud rheology: viscosity, gel strength, water loss, and so on -- quantities, of prime interest to drilling engineers -- are not
automatically monitored nor even manually input on a regular basis.
✔ Mud density is valued in formation, pressure evaluation and drilling engineering, and the mud logging contractors take great pride
on how well the quantity is stored, lagged and processed.
For example, calculations of equivalent and required mud densities have been regularly refined and are generally reported to
accuracies of 0.1 pound per gallon.
Unfortunately, as discussed above, the mud density sensors used to measure the actual mud density cannot achieve anything
near this accuracy. Applications software that computes mud density corrections smaller than the accuracy with which the
measurement are made is of little practical value.
A further aspect of the failure to understand well-site realities is in the lack of provision for calibration of enhanced mud logging sensors. You
may have noted in the early part of this chapter that, in marked contrast to mud log gas analysis, there was no mention of calibration for the
drilling and circulation sensors.
You may also have noticed that most of these modern sensors involve solid state, piezoelectric strain gauges and pressure transducers.
These sensors are usually factory calibrated and certified to remain within a small range of fluctuation. The theory is that they will either
work correctly or not at all. When they are working, they will do so with a greater reliability, consistency, and accuracy than any of the
pneumatic, hydraulic, or simple electrical sensors used in the standard rig instrumentation. In theory, there is no intermediate condition, no
middle course.
Unfortunately, this philosophy does not fit well with the pragmatic thinking of typical drilling supervisors, foremen, and tool pushers. These
people are familiar with the standard rig instruments. They know how these behave, when and to what extent they can be trusted. They also
know rig crews and how to instruct and supervise them in maintaining, operating, and using the sensors. They know none of these things
about the newer, enhanced mud logging instrumentation, and little more about the mud logging crew themselves -- other than they are
known associates of the geologist, a well-known and major trouble maker.
It may not, therefore, be surprising that, in the absence of an independent calibration, demands are made for the enhanced mud logging
sensors to agree with the equivalent rig instruments. This results in regular shifts and offsets in the mud logging sensors. In fact, when
interpreting modern mud logging data after the well, our greatest difficulties are not with doubtful accuracy but with the regular and
apparently arbitrary upward and downward shifts of the data caused by the mud loggers periodic attempts to keep up with the drifts of the rig
instruments.
Enhanced mud logging has added convenience and safety to well-site monitoring of drilling parameters. Much improvement is required

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before it truly becomes a well-site optimization and planning tool. In addition to drilling engineering technology, this improvement requires a
better understanding of the nature of the problem to be solved and the psychology of the people who will be solving it.

And Next
Next, in Chapter 10, we take a brief diversion away from mud logging, and look at other sources of formation evaluation data that may
become available, from time to time, at the well site.
These data sources include:
✔ Wire-line and measurement-while-drilling (MWD) logs provide complex but direct measurement of formation properties using logging
tools (or sondes) lowered deep into the bore hole.
✔ Well testing, on a wire-line, or drill-stem, in open hole, or through casing perforations, allows the recovery of samples of actual
flowing formation fluids from the formations down hole.
These data can be useful to the mud logger in better understanding and interpreting his own data on the current well, or serve as a guide to
expected mud logging results on future wells.
It is important for the mud logger to understand them and, if necessary, to know how to use then with mud log data in log evaluation.

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