1.

5 Inverse Functions
1.5 and Logarithms

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 Inverse Functions
Let’s compare the functions f and g whose arrow diagrams
are shown in Figure 1.

Note that f never takes on

the same value twice (any two
inputs in A have different outputs),
whereas g does take on the same
value twice (both 2 and 3 have
the same output, 4).
In symbols, g(2) = g(3)

but f(x1) ≠ f(x2) whenever x1 ≠ x2 f is one-to-one; g is not.

Figure 1
2
 Inverse Functions
Functions that share this property with f are called
one-to-one functions.

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 Inverse Functions
If a horizontal line intersects the
graph of f in more than one point,
then we see from Figure 2 that
there are numbers x1 and x2
such that f(x1) = f(x2).
This function is not one-to-one
This means that f is not one-to-one. because f(x1) = f(x2).
Figure 2

Therefore we have the following geometric method for

determining whether a function is one-to-one.

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Example 1
Is the function f(x) = x3 one-to-one?

Solution 1:
If x1 ≠ x2, then x13 ≠ x23 (two different numbers can’t have
the same cube).
Therefore, by Definition 1, f(x) = x3 is one-to-one.

Solution 2:
From Figure 3 we see that no
horizontal line intersects the
graph of f(x) = x3 more than once.
Therefore, by the Horizontal f(x) = x3 is one-to-one.
Line Test, f is one-to-one. Figure 3
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6
 Inverse Functions
One-to-one functions are important because they are
precisely the functions that possess inverse functions
according to the following definition.

This definition says that if f maps x into y, then f –1 maps y

back into x. (If f were not one-to-one, then f –1 would not be
uniquely defined.)
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Inverse Functions
The arrow diagram in Figure 5 indicates that f –1 reverses
the effect of f.

Figure 5

Note that

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Inverse Functions
For example, the inverse function of f(x) = x3 is f –1(x) = x1/3
because if y = x3, then

f –1(y) = f –1(x3) = (x3)1/3 = x

Caution
Do not mistake the –1 in f –1 for an exponent. Thus

f –1(x) does not mean

The reciprocal 1/f(x) could, however, be written as [f(x)] –1.

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 Example 3
If f(1) = 5, f(3) = 7, and f(8) = –10, find f –1(7), f –1(5), and
f –1(–10).

Solution:
From the definition of f –1 we have

f –1(7) = 3 because f(3) = 7

f –1(5) = 1 because f(1) = 5

f –1(–10) = 8 because f(8) = –10

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Example 3 – Solution
cont’d

The diagram in Figure 6 makes it clear how f –1 reverses the

effect of f in this case.

The inverse function reverses inputs and outputs.

Figure 6

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 Inverse Functions
The letter x is traditionally used as the independent variable,
so when we concentrate on f –1 rather than on f, we usually
reverse the roles of x and y in Definition 2 and write

By substituting for y in Definition 2 and substituting for

x in (3), we get the following cancellation equations:

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 Inverse Functions
The first cancellation equation says that if we start with x,
apply f, and then apply f –1, we arrive back at x, where we
started (see the machine diagram in Figure 7).

Figure 7

Thus f –1 undoes what f does.

The second equation says that f undoes what f –1 does.

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 Inverse Functions
For example, if f(x) = x3, then f –1(x) = x1/3 and so the
cancellation equations become

f –1(f(x)) = (x3)1/3 = x
f(f –1(x)) = (x1/3)3 = x

These equations simply say that the cube function and the
cube root function cancel each other when applied in
succession.

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 Inverse Functions
Now let’s see how to compute inverse functions.
If we have a function y = f(x) and are able to solve this
equation for x in terms of y, then according to Definition 2
we must have x = f –1(y).
If we want to call the independent variable x, we then
interchange x and y and arrive at the equation y = f –1(x).

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16
 Inverse Functions
The principle of interchanging x and y to find the inverse
function also gives us the method for obtaining the graph of
f –1 from the graph of f.

Since f(a) = b if and only if f –1(b) = a, the point (a, b) is on

the graph of f if and only if the point (b, a) is on the graph
of f –1.

But we get the point (b, a)

from (a, b) by reflecting about
the line y = x. (See Figure 8.)

Figure 8 17
 Inverse Functions
Therefore, as illustrated by Figure 9:

Figure 9
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19
Logarithmic Functions

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 Logarithmic Functions
If b > 0 and b ≠ 1, the exponential function f(x) = bx is either
increasing or decreasing and so it is one-to-one by the
Horizontal Line Test. It therefore has an inverse function
f –1, which is called the logarithmic function with base b
and is denoted by logb.

If we use the formulation of an inverse function given by ,

f –1(x) = y f(y) = x
then we have

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 Logarithmic Functions
Thus, if x > 0, then logb x is the exponent to which the
base b must be raised to give x.

For example, log10 0.001 = –3 because 10–3 = 0.001.

The cancellation equations (4), when applied to the

functions f(x) = bx and f –1(x) = logb x, become

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 Logarithmic Functions
The logarithmic function logb has domain (0, ) and
range . Its graph is the reflection of the graph of y = bx
about the line y = x.

Figure 11 shows the case

where b > 1. (The most
important logarithmic functions
have base b > 1.)
The fact that y = bx is a very
rapidly increasing function
for x > 0 is reflected in the fact
that y = logb x is a very slowly Figure 11
increasing function for x > 1.
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Logarithmic Functions
Figure 12 shows the graphs of y = logb x with various
values of the base b > 1.
Since logb 1 = 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions
pass through the point (1, 0).

Figure 12
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Logarithmic Functions
The following properties of logarithmic functions follow from
the corresponding properties of exponential functions.

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Example 6
Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate log2 80 – log2 5.

Solution:
Using Law 2, we have

log2 80 – log2 5 = log2

= log2 16

=4

because 24 = 16.

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Natural Logarithms

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 Natural Logarithms
Of all possible bases b for logarithms, we will see that the
most convenient choice of a base is the number e.
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm
and has a special notation:

If we put b = e and replace loge with “ln” in (6) and (7), then
the defining properties of the natural logarithm function
become

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 Natural Logarithms

In particular, if we set x = 1, we get

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Example 7
Find x if ln x = 5.

Solution 1:
From (8) we see that
ln x = 5 means e5 = x

Therefore x = e 5.

(If you have trouble working with the “ln” notation, just
replace it by loge. Then the equation becomes loge x = 5;
so, by the definition of logarithm, e5 = x.)

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Example 7 – Solution
cont’d

Solution 2:
Start with the equation

ln x = 5

and apply the exponential function to both sides of the

equation:
e ln x = e5

But the second cancellation equation in (9) says

that e ln x = x.

Therefore x = e 5.
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32
Natural Logarithms
The following formula shows that logarithms with any base
can be expressed in terms of the natural logarithm.

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Example 10
Evaluate log8 5 correct to six decimal places.

Solution:
Formula 10 gives

log8 5 =

 0.773976

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Graph and Growth of the Natural
Logarithm

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Graph and Growth of the Natural Logarithm

The graphs of the exponential function y = ex and its

inverse function, the natural logarithm function, are shown
in Figure 13.

Because the curve y = e x

crosses the y-axis with a slope
of 1, it follows that the reflected
curve y = ln x crosses the x-axis
with a slope of 1.

The graph of y = ln x is the reflection

of the graph of y = ex about the line y = x.
Figure 13
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Graph and Growth of the Natural Logarithm

In common with all other logarithmic functions with base

greater than 1, the natural logarithm is an increasing
function defined on (0, ) and the y-axis is a vertical
asymptote. (This means that the values of ln x become
very large negative as x approaches 0.)

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Example 11
Sketch the graph of the function y = ln(x – 2) – 1.

Solution:
We start with the graph of y = ln x as given in Figure 13.
We shift it 2 units to the right to get the graph of
y = ln(x – 2) and then we shift it 1 unit downward to get the
graph of y = ln(x – 2) – 1. (See Figure 14.)

Figure 14
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 Graph and Growth of the Natural Logarithm

Although ln x is an increasing function, it grows very slowly

when x > 1. In fact, ln x grows more slowly than any
positive power of x.

To illustrate this fact, we compare approximate values of

the functions y = ln x and y = x1/2 = in the following table.

39
Graph and Growth of the Natural Logarithm

We graph them in Figures 15 and 16.

Figure 15 Figure 16

You can see that initially the graphs of y = and y = ln x

grow at comparable rates, but eventually the root function
far surpasses the logarithm. 40
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

41
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
When we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we
have a slight difficulty: Because the trigonometric functions
are not one-to-one, they don’t have inverse functions.

The difficulty is overcome by restricting the domains of

these functions so that they become one-to-one.

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions
You can see from Figure 17 that the sine function y = sin x
is not one-to-one (use the Horizontal Line Test).

Figure 17

But the function f(x) = sin x,

–/2  x  /2, is one-to-one
(see Figure 18).
y = sin x, x

Figure 18 43
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse function of this restricted sine function f
exists and is denoted by sin–1 or arcsin. It is called the
inverse sine function or the arcsine function.

Since the definition of an inverse function says that

f –1(x) = y f(y) = x

Thus, if –1  x  1, sin–1x is the number between

–/2 and /2 whose sine is x.

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Example 12
Evaluate (a) sin–1 and (b) tan(arcsin ).

Solution:
(a) We have

because sin(/6) = and /6 lies between –/2 and /2.

45
Example 12 – Solution
cont’d

(b) Let  = arcsin , so sin  = .

Then we can draw a right triangle with angle  as in

Figure 19 and deduce from the Pythagorean Theorem that
the third side has length .

This enables us to read from the triangle that

Figure 19

46
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The cancellation equations for inverse functions become, in
this case,

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse sine function, sin–1, has domain [–1, 1] and
range [–/2, /2], and its graph, shown in Figure 20, is
obtained from that of the restricted sine function (Figure 18)
by reflection about the line y = x.

y = sin x, x
y = sin–1 x = arcsin x
Figure 18
Figure 20

48
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse cosine function is handled similarly. The
restricted cosine function f(x) = cos x, 0  x   , is
one-to-one (see Figure 21) and so it has an inverse
function denoted by cos–1 or arccos.

y = cos x, 0  x  
Figure 21 49
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The cancellation equations are

The inverse cosine function, cos–1,

has domain [–1, 1] and range [0, ].
Its graph is shown in Figure 22.

y = cos –1 x = arccos x
Figure 22
50
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The tangent function can be made one-to-one by restricting
it to the interval (–/2, /2). Thus the inverse tangent
function is defined as the inverse of the function
f(x) = tan x, –/2  x  /2. (See Figure 23.) It is denoted by
tan–1 or arctan.

y = tan x,

Figure 23 51
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Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The remaining inverse trigonometric functions are
summarized here.

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