S 1. Compositional meaning: sentences in which by combining and relating the mearing of words and merhemes we reach and understand the meaning of the phrases and dso by combination of the meaning of phrases, we understand the sentence meaning, the ‘whale meanings a compositional meaning, S After studying this section the students can: 1, Define the concept of compasitionalty and its types. 2, Find discentinuous and continucus constituents in sentences, 3, Find examples of ‘wh-fonting’ and ‘extrapositan’ n ergish sentences.Compasitional meaning: sentences in which by combining and relating the meaning of words ard morphemes we reach and understand the meaning of the ghrases and also by combination of the meaning of phrases, we understand the sentence meaning, the whsle meaning is a ccmpesttional meaning, Two kinds of Compositionality Linear corrpositionaity In [neat compostionalty our mind combines and processes the constituents one by ane simultaneously and from bottom to the top. This kind of processing is called garalol proceccing, Nonlinear compositional, Nonjingr compositionality of meaning happens in sentences ‘which have dlscontinuous constituents,discontinuous constituents are of twa kinds: L.Extraposition 2.wh-fronting ick bere This sort of disccntinuity, in which a clause is separated fom the subject noun phrase which it modifis,is known as extranasition\Wh- fronting bappens in sentences in which chjects ot advarbs are moved ta the beginning of the sentence in the form of wh-ward. Although the meaning of discontinuaus constituents is understacd compcsitionally, it needs extra processing, ‘You know that 'ssk’ as a transitive verb, wants an chject in VP, but the abject is ftonted before subject in the form of Wh-word, \Note You willlearn more about Wh-fronting or Wh-mavement in "Chomsky's Universal Grammar’1- Which of the following sentences is NOT true? y Non-linear compositionality of meaning happens in sentences which have ¥ continuous constituents. ee This sort of discontinuity, in which a clause is separated from the subject noun phrase which it modifies, is known as extra position. e Wh- fronting happens in sentences in which objects or adverbs are moved to the beginning of the sentence in the form of wh-word. In linear compositionality our mind combines and processes the constituents one C by one simultaneously and from bottom to the top. This kind of processing is called parallel processing.SE Ne 1. Non-compositional meaning: is the one which cannot be bul up as the sum of its parts, One of the linguistic units which have rnon-compositicnal mearing is icicr. 2. Phrasal verbs: are combination of a verb plus a prepostiona acer or better say a particlesuch as "Up" in “look up” or “out” in “flout” Ld After studyng this section the students can: 1, Define the non-compositional mesring, 2, Nama the linguistic elements with non-compositianal meaningNon-compositional meaning is the cne which cannot be uit up as the sum of its parts. One of the linguistic units which have non-ccmpcsitional meaning is idiom, Idioms have non-ccmpositional meaning and their meaning is usualy derived by semantic extension such as metaphor. For example the following phrase is an idiam because its meaning is net the sum of its parts [llget up] [Lent the wrong side]NPIP® [oF [the bed]NP]PP|PP]VP |. ~be surly or be in a bad mood. Idioms are listed in the lexicon as a whole because the phrase as 3 meaning associated to the whole not its parts, Other linguistic items which have non-comrasitional meaning are phrasal verbs, Phrasal verbs are combination of a verb plus a prepositional adverb or better say a particle such as “up” in “look up* or “out*in “Al out”,1- Idioms and re similar in the sense that they have non-compositional meaning. Discontinues constituents Phrasal verbs Adjective clauses Verbal phrases Toe © Extended! v Non-compostional © Compositional A, mei Le] 1 Semsntic role: Each noun or noun phrase in each sentence has 3 relation to the verb meaning in which we call semantic role, 2: Grammatical relations such as subject, object, chject of preposition. These relations given to NPs are forma relations based up cn sentence structures yj ® After reading ths patt the students can: 1, Identify the semantic roles associated with noun phrases in each Englih sentence. 2, Refer to the differences between semantic ‘oles and grammatical relatons,Note, ‘There is not an agresment arrang all inguistics about the number and dofnitions of @ roles, Scme semantic roles along with their defintions are as follows: doer, actor entity affected by the deed of agent or cause location of deed or event entity employed by an agent in a deed time of deed or event receiver of result of deed of agent perceiver of a stimulus entity perceived or experienced by an experiance cause not an agent targeted locationSead Relations in centonce: are af two lind: 1. Grammatical relations such as subject, object ,object of preposition. These relations given to NPs are formal relations based upon sentence structure. 2.Semantic relations or 6-rcles such as agent, patent, instrument, goal, etc. ‘These relations, given to NPS, are semantic relations based unen sentence meaning, ick bore In paraphrasing, the grammatical relations of nouns usualy changes, while the semantic relations of nouns are abways ccnstant, ick bere In changing or paraphrasing an active sentence in ta passive one, first of all the verb must be a transitive verb and abo the subject must have cause or agent semantic role and the active verb must have the patient as abject.eee eee ane Unike semantic roles, grammatical relations are expressed by the grammar n some way . For example Enalsh has fie grammatical characteristcs to represent subjects 1. The plete cf subject in the sentence: subjects ordinary precede the verbs Ageement between subject and verb: for example a present tense verb has a special suffixif the subject is third-serson 3, Replacement of subjacts with subject pronauns ( and objects with abject pronouns) 4, Aunlary- subject inversion in yes/no questions, Other languages use other grammatical characteristics to express subjects and objects For example Amharic lke Persian uses affives on verbs ta mark the subjects. For exemple in Persian the morpheme ‘zerr’ in Yaeftzem’ is market of subject or the morpheme ‘ral in the object marker, > Japanese also morphologically marks the grammatical relations subject, object and Topic using /2/ after subjects, o/ after objects and /wa/ after topics, Lath alo uses different suffixes for a number of different grammatical relations trauitionelly called as cases, Some of these cases are. In Nepal the subjects of transitive verbs and intransitive verbs have different suffies, whereas the subjects of an intransitive verb and object of transitive verb have the same suffixes. Languages with this pattern of crammatical morphology are called ergative languages. Nominative. suffixes for subject, accusative: suffixes for direct object, genitive: suffixes for possessive.Note, An ergative language maintains a syntactic or morphdoaical ecuivalance (such as the same word order or grammatical case) for the object of a transitive verb and the single core argument cf an intransitive verb, while treating the agent of a transitive verb different ‘This contrasts wth nomninative-accusative languages, such as Enalsh, where the agent of a transitive verb and the single argument of an intransive verb are trected alke (called a subject) and kept distinct from the object of a transitive verb, A Ergative alonment™ Accusative dignmentAccusative alanment These dfferent arguments are usualy symbalized as follows: + 0 = object of transitve verb [also symbolized as P for ‘patiert’) + S= core argument of intrarsitive verb + A= agent of transtive verb The relationship between ergative and accusative systerrs can be schematically represented as the fellowha Ergative-absolutive Nominative-accusative a same diferent 8 same same a differant same1- Languages in which the subjects of an/ a ... and ... of transitive verb have the same suffixes are called ergative languages. ¥ c intransitive verb, object c transitive verb, subject C intransitive verb, subject c transitive verb, object 2-In the sentence “Fish may be frightened by noise” the subject recoives .... Theta role. Agent Loe Patient © Theme c Causea Classification of English verbs based on the semantic roles they can give ta NPs: Verbs with cause/agent and patient, Change of state verbs, Verbs with agent, patient, and recpiert, Verbs with source and goal, Verbs wth agent=patient aT! After reading ths part the students can: 1. Explein the five classes of Enalih verbs with the semantic roles of their associated nouns when used n the sentences. 2. Paraphrase the sentence in another form.In ths part hve lasses of English verbs willbe mentioned. The cases are according to semantic roles that the verbs ave to thelr associated nouns in the sentence, Using theses verbs in the sentence we can paraphrase the sentences in another form: Verbs with agent-patient state verbs Verbs with agent,patient, and recipient 1. Verbs with cause/acent and patient ‘These are the tlanstuve verbs, which usualy have the cause/agent as subjects and patient as abject. Hen ths class of verbs are used in active senterces thelr paraphreses ‘would be a passive sentence,1. Verbs with cause/agent and patient These are the transitive verbs, which usualy have the causefegent as subjects and patient as object, Hen this class of verbs are used! in active sentences their parachrases would be a passive senterce. 2. Change of state verbs These verbs don’t have agent and thetr patent, that undergoes a change of state, is in subject position. Example: these logs light easily / Somecne lights these logs ezsiy. 3. Verbs with agent, patient, and recipient These ray have the patient as direct abject and recbient as object of ‘to’ or bath patient and recipient as co-obiects without ‘to’ Example: the buyer stl hasn't sent the check to me f the buyer stl hasn't sent me the check, Note: these constructions are called double abject construction, 4. Verbs with source and goal In the sentences with these verbs, if the goal is subject, the source is object of from’ and if the source is subject, the goalis abject of ‘into’. Example: little acoms grow into michty oaks { mighty oaks from little acorns grow. 5. Vorbs with agent=pationt These have the agent as a subject and the same time noun phrase agent may be ontionally expressed as an object reflexive pronoun. Example: Fred shaved / Fred shaved himself.1-In the sentence “these logs light easily” the verb is... tf oc A change of state verbs © Anergative verb CA transitive verb CAN objectiess verts 2- In the sentence “tittle acorns grow into mighty oaks” the subject's theta role is c Agent c Patient C Source c GoalPhrasal verb: a type of verb consisting of a sequence of a lexical element plus one or more particles, such as “came in’, ‘sit dow ‘e Extension: is the widening ar extending of the meaning of a word, For example in Englsh we use ‘siverware’ to refer to table utensls such as knives or forks whether mede cf svar or not,2- In the sentence “The children put away their books” the theta role of the underlined words are respectively. c Patient, agent c Agent, goal fo« Agent, patient c Agent, source 2- In the sentence “My mom sent a check to a professional association in Chicago” the theta role of the underlined words are .... Respectively. ee eee CU erensoaert recoent ood Co agent, patient, goal, source rc agent, patient, source, goal4- In the sentence “Winter brings snow which refills the mountain lakes” the theta role of the underlined words are ... Respectively. © source, patent, place £6 Shee paneer ace c agent, patient, goal Pacer: ser ccacd 5- In the sentence “A sorcerer can change a lizard into a princess.” the theta role of the underlined words are Respectively. c Agent, source, goal ¢ Agent, goal, source c Agent, patient, patient c Agent, theme, goal6- In the sentence “The midday sun feels hot to me” the theta role of the underlined words are Respectively. c Experience, stimulus 0 stimulus, experience 0 Agent, patient c Patient, agent 7- In the sentence “The sun melted the ice” the theta role of the underlined words are .... Respectively. "A o Cause, patient Patient, cause c Source, stimulus C Stimulus, source1- In the sentence “Mary got a letter from her father” the theta role of the underlined words are respectively. foc recipient , patient, source es Recipient, theme, goal c Goal, recipient, agent i Recipient, theme, source 2- In the sentence “The childron put away their books” the theta role of the undorlined words aro oo Doreen © Agent, goal Aten pat Cs Agent, source