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UNIT 5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES AND SPECIAL MACHINES

(QUALITATIVE TREATMENT ONLY) 9 Hrs.

Principles of Alternator - Construction Details - Types Special Machines: Stepper motor-

AC and DC Servomotor -Universal Motor - Hysteresis Motor -Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor - Switched Reluctance Motor - Brushless D.C Motor - Construction,
Working And Applications.

5.1 Synchronous Motor - Construction and Working

Synchronous motor and induction motor are the most widely used types of AC motor.
Construction of a synchronous motor is similar to an alternator (AC generator). A
same synchronous machine can be used as a synchronous motor or as an alternator.
Synchronous motors are available in a wide range, generally rated between 150kW to
15MW with speeds ranging from 150 to 1800 rpm.

Construction of Synchronous Motor

The construction of a synchronous motor(with salient pole rotor) is as shown in the

figure at left. Just like any other motor, it consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator core is
constructed with thin silicon lamination and insulated by a surface coating, to minimize
the eddy current and hysteresis losses. The stator has axial slots inside, in which three

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phase stator winding is placed. The stator is wound with a three phase winding for a
specific number of poles equal to the rotor poles.
The rotor in synchronous motors is mostly of salient pole type. DC supply is given to the
rotor winding via slip-rings. The direct current excites the rotor winding and creates
electromagnetic poles. In some cases permanent magnets can also be used. The figure
above illustrates the construction of a synchronous motor very briefly.

Working of Synchronous Motor

The stator is wound for the similar number of poles as that of rotor, and fed with three
phase AC supply. The 3 phase AC supply produces rotating magnetic field in stator. The
rotor winding is fed with DC supply which magnetizes the rotor. Consider a two
pole synchronous machine as shown in figure below.

 Now, the stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (lets say clockwise). If the
rotor position is such that, N pole of the rotor is near the N pole of the stator (as shown
in first schematic of above figure), then the poles of the stator and rotor will repel each
other, and the torque produced will be anticlockwise.
 The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they rotate around very fast
and interchange their position. But at this very soon, rotor can not rotate with the same
angle (due to inertia), and the next position will be likely the second schematic in
above figure. In this case, poles of the stator will attract the poles of rotor, and the
torque produced will be clockwise.
 Hence, the rotor will undergo to a rapidly reversing torque, and the motor will not start.
But, if the rotor is rotated upto the synchronous speed of the stator by means of an external
force (in the direction of revolving field of the stator), and the rotor field is excited near the
synchronous speed, the poles of stator will keep attracting the opposite poles of the rotor
(as the rotor is also, now, rotating with it and the position of the poles will be similar

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throughout the cycle). Now, the rotor will undergo unidirectional torque. The opposite poles
of the stator and rotor will get locked with each other, and the rotor will rotate at the
synchronous speed.

Characteristic Features of a Synchronous Motor

 Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will not run at all.
 The only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)
 Synchronous motors are not self starting. They need some external force to bring
them near to the synchronous speed.
 They can operate under any power factor, lagging as well as leading. Hence,
synchronous motors can be used for power factor improvement.

Application Of Synchronous Motor

 As synchronous motor is capable of operating under either leading or lagging power

factor, it can be used for power factor improvement. A synchronous motor under no-
load with leading power factor is connected in power system where static capacitors
cannot be used.
 It is used where high power at low speed is required. Such as rolling mills, chippers,
mixers, pumps, pumps, compressor etc.

5.2 Stepper Motor Theory of Operation

Stepper motors provide a means for precise positioning and speed control without the use
of feedback sensors. The basic operation of a stepper motor allows the shaft to move a
precise number of degrees each time a pulse of electricity is sent to the motor. Since the
shaft of the motor moves only the number of degrees that it was designed for when each
pulse is delivered, you can control the pulses that are sent and control the positioning and
speed. The rotor of the motor produces torque from the interaction between the magnetic
field in the stator and rotor. The strength of the magnetic fields is proportional to the amount
of current sent to the stator and the number of turns in the windings.

The stepper motor uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the motor shaft turn a
precise distance when a pulse of electricity is provided. You learned previously that like

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poles of a magnet repel and unlike poles attract. Figure 1 shows a typical cross-sectional
view of the rotor and stator of a stepper motor. From this diagram you can see that the
stator (stationary winding) has eight poles, and the rotor has six poles (three complete
magnets). The rotor will require 24 pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one
complete revolution. Another way to say this is that the rotor will move precisely 15° for
each pulse of electricity that the motor receives. The number of degrees the rotor will turn
when a pulse of electricity is delivered to the motor can be calculated by dividing the
number of degrees in one revolution of the shaft (360°) by the number of poles (north and
south) in the rotor. In this stepper motor 360° is divided by 24 to get 15°.
When no power is applied to the motor, the residual magnetism in the rotor magnets will
cause the rotor to detent or align one set of its magnetic poles with the magnetic poles of
one of the stator magnets. This means that the rotor will have 24 possible detent positions.
When the rotor is in a detent position, it will have enough magnetic force to keep the shaft
from moving to the next position. This is what makes the rotor feel like it is clicking from one
position to the next as you rotate the rotor by hand with no power applied.

Diagram that shows the position of the six-pole rotor and eight-pole stator of a typical
stepper motor.
When power is applied, it is directed to only one of the stator pairs of windings, which will

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cause that winding pair to become a magnet. One of the coils for the pair will become the
North Pole, and the other will become the South Pole. When this occurs, the stator coil that
is the North Pole will attract the closest rotor tooth that has the opposite polarity, and the
stator coil that is the South Pole will attract the closest rotor tooth that has the opposite
polarity. When current is flowing through these poles, the rotor will now have a much
stronger attraction to the stator winding, and the increased torque is called holding
torque.By changing the current flow to the next stator winding, the magnetic field will be
changed 45°. The rotor will only move 15° before its magnetic fields will again align with the
change in the stator field. The magnetic field in the stator is continually changed as the
rotor moves through the 24 steps to move a total of 360°. Figure 2 shows the position of the
rotor changing as the current supplied to the stator changes.

Movement of the stepper motor rotor as current is pulsed to the stator. (a) Current is
applied to the A and A’ windings, so the A winding is north, (b) Current is applied to B and
B’ windings, so the B winding is north, (c) Current is applied to the C and C’ windings, so
the C winding is north, (d) Current is applied to the D and D’ windings so the D winding is
north. (e) Current is applied to the A and A’ windings, so the A’ winding is north.

In Fig. 2a you can see that when current is applied to the A and A’ stator windings, they will

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become a magnet with the top part of the winding being the North Pole, and the bottom part
of the winding being the South Pole. You should notice that this will cause the rotor to move
a small amount so that one of its south poles is aligned with the north stator pole (at A), and
the opposite end of the rotor pole, which is the north pole, will align with the south pole of
the stator (at A’). A line is placed on the south-pole piece so that you can follow its
movement as current is moved from one stator winding to the next. In Fig. 2b current has
been turned off to the A and A” windings, and current is now applied to the stator windings
shown at the B and B’ sides of the motor. When this occurs, the stator winding at the B’
position will have the polarity for the south pole of the stator magnet, and the winding at the
B position will have the north-pole polarity. In this condition, the next rotor pole that will be
able to align with the stator magnets is the next pole in the clockwise position to the
previous pole. This means that the rotor will only need to rotate 15° in the clockwise
position for this set of poles to align itself so that it attracts the stator poles.

In Fig. 2c you can see that the C and C’ stator windings are again energized, but this time
the C winding is the north pole of the magnetic field and the C’ winding is the south pole.
This change in magnetic field will cause the rotor to again move 15° in the clockwise
position until its poles will align with the C and C’ stator poles. You should notice that the
original rotor pole that was labeled 1 now moved three steps in the clockwise position.

In Fig.2d you can see that the D and D’ stator windings are energized, the winding at D
position is the north pole. This change in polarity will cause the rotor to move another 15° in
the clockwise direction. You should notice that the rotor has moved four steps of 15° each,
which means the rotor has moved a total of 60° from its original position. This can be
verified by the position of the rotor pole that has the line on it, which is now pointing at the
stator winding that is located in the 2 o'clock position.

In Fig.2e you can see that the A and A’ stator windings are energized, the winding at A
position is the south pole. This change in polarity will cause the rotor to move another 15°
in the clockwise direction. You should notice that the rotor has moved four steps of 15°
each, which means the rotor has moved a total of 75° from its original position. Thus the

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sequence of energizing ABCDA will move the rotor in the clockwise direction. It can be
easily verified that for the counter clockwise direction the sequence should be ADCBA.

Stepper Motor Switching Sequence

The stepper motor can be operated in three different stepping modes, namely, full-step,
half-step, and micro-step.

Full-Step

The stepper motor uses a four-step switching sequence, which is called a full-step
switching sequence which is already described above.

Half-Step

Another switching sequence for the stepper motor is called an eight-step or half-step
sequence. The switching diagram for the half-step sequence is shown in Fig. 3. The main
feature of this switching sequence is that you can double the resolution of the stepper
motor by causing the rotor to move half the distance it does when the full-step switching
sequence is used. This means that a 200-step motor, which has a resolution of 1.8°, will
have a resolution of 400 steps and 0.9°. The half-step switching sequence requires a
special stepper motor controller, but it can be used with a standard hybrid motor. The way
the controller gets the motor to reach the half-step is to energize both phases at the same
time with equal current.

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FIGURE 3 The switching sequence for the eight-step input (half-step mode).

In this sequence the first step has SW1 is on, and SW2,SW3 and SW4 are off. The
sequence for the first step is the same as the full-step sequence. The second step has
SW1 and SW2 are on and all of the remaining
switches are off. This configuration of switches causes the rotor to move an additional half-
step because it is acted upon by two equal magnetic forces and the rotor turns to the
equilibrium position which is half a step angle. The third step has SW2 is on, and SW1,
SW4 and SW3 are off, which is the same as step 2 of the full-step sequence. The
sequence continues for eight steps and then repeats. The main difference between this
sequence and the full-step sequence is that the energizing sequence for half step is A AB B
BC C CD D DA.

Micro Step Mode

The full-step and half-step motors tend to be slightly jerky in their operation as the motor
moves from step to step. The amount of resolution is also limited by the number of physical
poles that the rotor can have. The amount of resolution (number of steps) can be in-
creased by manipulating the current that the controller sends to the motor during each step.
The current can be adjusted so that it looks similar to a sine wave. Figure 4 shows the
waveform for the current to each phase. From this diagram you can see that the current
sent to each of the four sets of windings is timed so that there is always a phase difference

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with each other. The fact that the current to each individual phase increases and decreases
like a sine wave and that is always out of time with the other phase will allow the rotor to
reach hundreds of intermediate steps. In fact it is possible for the controller to reach as
many as 500 micro steps for a full-step sequence, which will provide 100,000 steps for
each revolution.

FIGURE 4. Phase-current diagram for a stepper motor controller in micro step mode.

Types of Stepper Motors

A stepper, or stepping motor converts electronic pulses into proportionate mechanical

movement. Each revolution of the stepper motor's shaft is made up of a series of discrete
individual steps. A step is defined as the angular rotation produced by the output shaft each
time the motor receives a step pulse. These types of motors are very popular in digital
control circuits, such as robotics, because they are ideally suited for receiving digital pulses
for step control. Each step causes the shaft to rotate a certain number of degrees. A step
angle represents the rotation of the output shaft caused by each step, measured in
degrees. Figure 5 illustrates a simple application for a stepper motor. Each time the
controller receives an input signal, the paper is driven a certain incremental distance. In
addition to the paper drive mechanism in a printer, stepper motors are also popular in
machine tools, process control systems, tape and disk drive systems, and programmable

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controllers.

Figure 5. Paper drive mechanism using stepper machine

The most popular types of stepper motors are permanent-magnet (PM) and variable
reluctance (VR).

Permanent-magnet (PM) Stepper Motors

The permanent-magnet stepper motor operates on the reaction between a permanent-

magnet rotor and an electromagnetic field. Figure 6 shows a basic two-pole PM stepper
motor. The rotor shown in Figure 6(a) has a permanent magnet mounted at each end. The
stator is illustrated in Figure 6(b). Both the stator and rotor are shown as having teeth. The
teeth on the rotor surface and the stator pole faces are offset so that there will be only a
limited number of rotor teeth aligning themselves with an energized stator pole. The
number of teeth on the rotor and stator determine the step angle that will occur each time
the polarity of the winding is reversed. Greater the number of teeth, smaller the step angle.

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Figure 6 Components of a PM stepper motor: (a) Rotor; (b) stator

When a PM stepper motor has a steady DC signal applied to one stator winding, the rotor
will overcome the residual torque and line up with that stator field. The holding torque is
defined as the amount of torque required to move the rotor one full step with the stator
energized. An important characteristic of the PM stepper motor is that it can maintain the
holding torque indefinitely when the rotor is stopped. When no power is applied to the
windings, a small magnetic force is developed between the permanent magnet and the
stator. This magnetic force is called a residual, or detent torque. The detent torque can be
noticed by turning a stepper motor by hand and is generally about one-tenth of the holding
torque.

Figure 7(a) shows a permanent magnet stepper motor with four stator windings. By giving
pulses the stator coils in a desired sequence, it is possible to control the speed and
direction of the motor. Figure 7(b) shows the timing diagram for the pulses required to
rotate the PM stepper motor illustrated in Figure 7(a). This sequence of positive and
negative pulses causes the motor shaft to rotate counterclockwise in 90° steps. The
waveforms of Figure 7(c) illustrate how the pulses can be overlapped and the motor made
to rotate counterclockwise at 45° intervals.

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Figure 7 (a) PM stepper motor; (b) 90 step; (c) 45 step.

A more recent development in PM stepper motor technology is the thin-disk rotor. This type
of stepper motor dissipates much less power in losses such as heat than the cylindrical
rotor and as a result, it is considerably more efficient. Efficiency is a primary concern in
industrial circuits such as robotics, because a highly efficient motor will run cooler and
produce more torque or speed for its size. Thin-disk rotor PM stepper motors are also
capable of producing almost double the steps per second of a conventional PM stepper
motor. Figure 8 shows the basic construction of a thin-disk rotor PM motor. The rotor is
constructed of a special type of cobalt-steel, and the stator poles are offset by one-half a
rotor segment.

Figure 8. Thin-disk rotor PM stepper motor.

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Variable-reluctance (VR) Stepper Motors

The variable-reluctance (VR) stepper motor differs from the PM stepper in that it has no
permanent-magnet rotor and no residual torque to hold the rotor at one position when
turned off. When the stator coils are energized, the rotor teeth will align with the energized
stator poles. This type of motor operates on the principle of minimizing the reluctance
along the path of the applied magnetic field. By alternating the windings that are energized
in the stator, the stator field changes, and the rotor is moved to a new position.

The stator of a variable-reluctance stepper motor has a magnetic core constructed with a
stack of steel laminations. The rotor is made of unmagnified soft steel with teeth and slots.
Figure 9 shows a basic variable-reluctance stepper motor. In this circuit, the rotor is shown
with fewer teeth than the stator. This ensures that only one set of stator and rotor teeth will
align at any given instant. The stator coils are energized in groups referred to as phases. In
Figure 9, the stator has six teeth and the rotor has four teeth. According to Eq. (1), the rotor
will turn 30° each time a pulse is applied. Figure 9 (a) shows the position of the rotor when
phase A is energized. As long as phase A is energized, the rotor will be held stationary.
When phase A is switched off and phase B is energized, the rotor will turn 30° until two
poles of the rotor are aligned under the north and south poles established by phase B. The
effect of turning off phase B and energizing phase C is shown in Figure 9 (c). In this circuit,
the rotor has again moved 30° and is now aligned under the north and south poles created
by phase C. After the rot or has been displaced by 60° from its starting point, the step
sequence has completed one cycle. Figure 9 (d) shows the switching sequence to
complete a full 360° of rotation for a variable-reluctance motor with six stator poles and four
rotor poles. By repeating this pattern, the motor will rotate in a clockwise direction. The
direction of the motor is changed by reversing the pattern of turning ON and OFF each
phase.

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Figure 9. Variable-reluctance stepper motor and switching sequence.

The VR stepper motors mentioned up to this point are all single-stack motors. That is, all the
phases are arranged in a single stack, or plane. The disadvantage of this design for a stepper
motor is that the steps are generally quite large (above 15°). Multistack stepper motors can
produce smaller step sizes because the motor is divided along its axial length into magnetically
isolated sections, or stacks. Each of these sections is excited by a separate winding, or phase.
In this type of motor, each stack corresponds to a phase, and the stator and rotor have the
same tooth pitch.

Hybrid Stepper Motors

The hybrid step motor consists of two pieces of soft iron, as well as an axially magnetized,
round permanent-magnet rotor. The term hybrid is derived from the fact that the motor is
operated under the combined principles of the permanent magnet and variable-reluctance
stepper motors. The stator core structure of a hybrid motor is essentially the same as its VR
counterpart. The main difference is that in the VR motor, only one of the two coils of one phase

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is wound on one pole, while a typical hybrid motor will have coils of two different phases
wound on one the same pole. The two coils at a pole are wound in a configuration known as a
bifilar connection. Each pole of a hybrid motor is covered with uniformly spaced teeth made of
soft steel. The teeth on the two sections of each pole are misaligned with each other by a half-
tooth pitch. Torque is created in the hybrid motor by the interaction of the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet and the magnetic field produced by the stator.

Stepper Motor Applications

Stepper motors are used in a wide variety of applications in industry, including computer
peripherals, business machines, motion control, and robotics, which are included in process
control and machine tool applications.

5.3 Servo Motor | Servo Mechanism | Theory and Working Principle

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This is nothing but a simple electrical motor, controlled with the help of servomechanism. If the
motor as controlled device, associated with servomechanism is DC motor, then it is commonly
known DC Servo Motor. If the controlled motor is operated by AC, it is called AC Servo Motor.

Servo Motor Theory

There are some special types of application of electrical motor where rotation of the motor is
required for just a certain angle not continuously for long period of time. For these applications
some special types of motor are required with some special arrangement which makes the motor
to rotate a certain angle for a given electrical input (signal). For this purpose servo motor comes
into picture. This is normally a simple DC motor which is controlled for specific angular rotation
with help of additional servomechanism (a typical closed loop feedback control system). Now
day’s servo system has huge industrial applications. Servo motor applications are also commonly
seen in remote controlled toy cars for controlling direction of motion and it is also very
commonly used as the motor which moves the tray of a CD or DVD player. Beside these there
are other hundreds of servo motor applications we see in our daily life. The main reason behind
using a servo is that it provides angular precision, i.e. it will only rotate as much we want and
then stop and wait for next signal to take further action. This is unlike a normal electrical motor
which starts rotating as and when power is applied to it and the rotation continues until we
switch off the power. We cannot control the rotational progress of electrical motor; but we can
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only control the speed of rotation and can turn it ON and OFF.

Now we come to the specific answer of the question " what is servo motor?" Servo motor is a
special type of motor which is automatically operated up to certain limit for a given command
with help of error-sensing feedback to correct the performance.

Servo Motor Working Principle

A servo system mainly consists of three basic components - a controlled device, a output
sensor, a feedback system. This is an automatic closed loop control system. Here instead of
controlling a device by applying variable input signal, the device is controlled by a feedback
signal generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal. When reference input
signal or command signal is applied to the system, it is compared with output reference signal
of the system produced by output sensor, and a third signal produced by feedback system.
This third signal acts as input signal of controlled device. This input signal to the device
presents as long as there is a logical difference between reference input signal and output
signal of the system. After the device achieves its desired output, there will be no longer logical
difference between reference input signal and reference output signal of the system. Then,
third signal produced by comparing theses above said signals will not remain enough to
operate the device further and to produce further output of the system until the next reference
input signal or command signal is applied to the system. Hence the primary task of a
servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the desired value in the presence of
disturbances.

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Working Principle of Servo Motor
A servo motor is basically a DC motor(in some special cases it is AC motor) along with some
other special purpose components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, you will find
a small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear arrangement and an intelligent circuitry. The intelligent
circuitry along with the potentiometer makes the servo to rotate according to our wishes.

As we know, a small DC motor will rotate with high speed but the torque generated by its
rotation will not be enough to move even a light load. This is where the gear system inside a
servomechanism comes into picture. The gear mechanism will take high input speed of the
motor (fast) and at the output, we will get a output speed which is slower than original input
speed but more practical and widely applicable.
Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such that
there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer . This output port of
the potentiometer is connected with one of the input terminals of the error detector amplifier.
Now an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now
difference between these two signals, one comes from potentiometer and another comes from
external source, will be amplified in the error detector amplifier and feeds the DC motor. This
amplified error signal acts as the input power of the dc motor and the motor starts rotating in
desired direction. As the motor shaft progresses the potentiometer knob also rotates as it is
coupled with motor shaft with help of gear arrangement. As the position of the potentiometer
knob changes there will be an electrical signal produced at the potentiometer port. As the
angular position of the potentiometer knob progresses the output or feedback signal increases.
After desired angular position of motor shaft the potentiometer knob is reaches at such position
the electrical signal generated in the potentiometer becomes same as of external electrical
signal given to amplifier. At this condition, there will be no output signal from the amplifier to
the motor input as there is no difference between external applied signal and the signal
generated at potentiometer . As the input signal to the motor is nil at that position, the motor
stops rotating. This is how a simple conceptual servo motor works.
Servo Motor Control
For understanding servo motor control let us consider an example of servomotor that we have
given a signal to rotate by an angle of 45° and then stop and wait for further instruction.
The shaft of the DC motor is coupled with another shaft called output shaft, with help of gear

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assembly. This gear assembly is used to step down the high rpm of the motor's shaft to low
rpm at output shaft of the servo system.

The voltage adjusting knob of a potentiometer is so arranged with the output shaft by means of
another gear assembly, that during rotation of the shaft, the knob also rotates and creates an
varying electrical potential according to the principle of potentiometer . This signal i.e. electrical
potential is increased with angular movement of potentiometer knob along with the system shaft
from 0° to 45°. This electrical potential or voltage is taken to the error detector feedback amplifier
along with the input reference commends i.e. input signal voltage.

As the angle of rotation of the shaft increases from 0° to 45° the voltage from potentiometer
increases. At 45° this voltage reaches to a value which is equal to the given input command
voltage to the system. As at this position of the shaft, there is no difference between the signal
voltage coming from the potentiometer and reference input voltage (command signal) to the
system, the output voltage of the amplifier becomes zero.

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As per the picture given above the output electrical voltage signal of the amplifier, acts as input
voltage of the DC motor. Hence the motor will stop rotating after the shaft rotates by 45°. The
motor will be at this rest position until another command is given to the system for further
movement of the shaft in desired direction. From this example we can understand the most
basic servo motor theory and how servo motor control is achieved.

5.4 DC Servo Motors | Theory of DC Servo Motor

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As we know that any electrical motor can be utilized as servo motor if it is controlled by
servomechanism. Likewise, if we control a DC motor by means of servomechanism, it would
be referred as DC servo motor. There are different types of DC motor, such shunt wound DC
motor, series DC motor, Separately excited DC motor, permanent magnet DC motor,
Brushless DC motor etc. Among all mainly separately excited DC motor, permanent magnet

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motor and brush less DC motor are used as servo.

Separately Excited DC Servo Motor

DC Servo Motor Theory

The motors which are utilized as DC servo motors, generally have separate DC source for
field winding and armature winding. The control can be archived either by controlling the field
current or armature current. Field control has some specific advantages over armature control
and on the other hand armature control has also some specific advantages over field control.
Which type of control should be applied to the DC servo motor, is being decided depending
upon its specific applications. Let's discus DC servo motor working principle for field control
and armature control one by one.

Field Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The figure below illustrates the schematic diagram for a field controlled DC servo motor. In this
arrangement the field of DC motor is excited be the amplified error signal and armature
winding is energized by a constant current source .

The field is
controlled below the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve. At that portion of the curve the
mmf linearly varies with excitation current. That means torque developed in the DC motor is
directly proportional to the field current below the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve.

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From general torque equation of DC motor it

is found that, torque T ∝ φIa. Where, φ is field flux and Ia is armature current. But in field
controlled DC servo motor, the armature is excited by constant current source , hence Ia is
constant here. Hence, T ∝ φ

As field of this DC servo motor is excited by amplified error signal, the torque of the motor i.e.
rotation of the motor can be controlled by amplified error signal. If the constant armature
current is large enough then, every little change in field current causes corresponding change
in torque on the motor shaft.

The direction of rotation can be changed by changing polarity of the field.

The direction of rotation can also be altered by using split field DC motor, where the field
winding is divided into two parts, one half of the winding is wound in clockwise direction and
other half in wound in anticlockwise direction. The amplified error signal is fed to the junction
point of these two halves of the field as shown below. The magnetic field of both halves of the
field winding opposes each other. During operation of the motor, magnetic field strength of one
half dominates other depending upon the value of amplified error signal fed between these
halves. Due to this, the DC servo motor rotates in a particular direction according to the
amplified error signal voltage.
The main disadvantage of field control DC servo motors, is that the dynamic response to the
error is slower because of longer time constant of inductive field circuit. The field is an
electromagnet so it is basically a highly inductive circuit hence due to sudden change in error
signal voltage, the current through the field will reach to its steady state value after certain
period depending upon the time constant of the field circuit. That is why field control DC servo
motor arrangement is mainly used in small servo motor applications.

The main advantage of using field control scheme is that, as the motor is controlled by field -
the controlling power requirement is much lower than rated power of the motor.

Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor Theory

The figure below shows the schematic diagram for an armature controlled DC servo motor.
Here the armature is energized by amplified error signal and field is excited by a constant
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current source .
The field is operated at well beyond the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve. In this
portion of the curve, for huge change in magnetizing current, there is very small change in mmf
in the motor field. This makes the servo motor is less sensitive to change in field current.
Actually for armature controlled DC servo motor, we do not want that, the motor should
response to any change of field current.

Again, at saturation the field flux is maximum. As we said earlier, the general torque equation
of DC motor is, torque T ∝ φIa. Now if φ is large enough, for every little change in armature
current Ia there will be a prominent changer in motor torque. That means servo motor becomes
much sensitive to the armature current.
As the armature of DC motor is less inductive and more resistive, time constant of armature
winding is small enough. This causes quick change of armature current due to sudden change
in armature voltage. That is why dynamic response of armature controlled DC servo motor is
much faster than that of field controlled DC servo motor.

The direction of rotation of the motor can easily be changed by reversing the polarity of the
error signal.

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5.5 Universal Motor - Construction, Working And Characteristics

A universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run on either DC or single
phase AC supply. These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in
series), and hence produce high starting torque (See characteristics of DC motors here). That
is why, universal motorsgenerally comes built into the device they are meant to drive. Most of
the universal motors are designed to operate at higher speeds, exceeding 3500 RPM. They
run at lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same voltage, due to the
reactance voltage drop which is present in AC and not in DC.
There are two basic types of universal motor : (i)compensated type and (ii) uncompensated
type

Construction Of Universal Motor

Construction of a universal motor is very similar to the construction of a DC machine. It

consists of a stator on which field poles are mounted. Field coils are wound on the field poles.
However, the whole magnetic path (stator field circuit and also armature) is laminated.
Lamination is necessary to minimize the eddy currents which induce while operating on AC.
The rotary armature is of wound type having straight or skewed slots and commutator with
brushes resting on it. The commutation on AC is poorer than that for DC. because of the
current induced in the armature coils. For that reason brushes used are having high

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resistance.

Working Of Universal Motor

A universal motor works on either DC or single phase AC supply. When the universal motor is
fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor. (see working of a DC series motor here).
When current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same current
also flows from the armature conductors. When a current carrying conductor is placed in an
electromagnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force, or
torque, the rotor starts to rotate. The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule.
When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque. Because, armature
winding and field winding are connected in series, they are in same phase. Hence, as polarity
of AC changes periodically, the direction of current in armature and field winding reverses at
the same time.
Thus, direction of magnetic field and the direction of armature current reverses in such a way
that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors remains same. Thus,
regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motor works on the same principle that DC series
motor works.
Speed/Load Characteristics

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Speed/load characteristics of a universal motor is similar to that of DC series motor.

The speed of a universal motor is low at full load and very high at no load. Usually, gears
trains are used to get the required speed on required load. The speed/load characteristics are
(for both AC as well as DC supply) are shown in the figure.

Applications Of Universal Motor

 Universal motors find their use in various home appliances like vacuum cleaners, drink
and food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.
 The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders etc.

536 Brushless DC Motors

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Brushless DC motor may be described as electronically commuted motor which do not have
brushes. These types of motors are highly efficient in producing large amount of torque over a
vast speed range. In brushless motors, permanent magnets rotate around a fixed armature
and overcome the problem of connecting current to the armature. Commutation with
electronics has large scope of capabilities and flexibility. They known for smooth operation,
and holding torque when stationary.

Working Principle of Motor

Before explaining working of brushless dc motor, it is better to understand function of brushed
motor. In brushes motors, there are permanent magnets on the outside and a spinning
armature which contains electromagnet is inside. These electromagnets create a magnetic
field in the armature when power is switched on and help to rotates armature. The brushes
change the polarity of the pole to keep the rotation on of the armature. The basic principles for

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the brushed DC motor and for brushless DC motor are same i.e., internal shaft position
feedback. Brushless DC motor has only two basic parts: rotor and the stator. The rotor is the
rotating part and has rotor magnets whereas stator is the stationary part and contains stator
windings. In BLDC permanent magnets are attached in the rotor and move the electromagnets
to the stator. The high power transistors are used to activate electromagnets for the shaft
turns. The controller performs power distribution by using a solid-state circuit.

Types of Brushless DC Motors

Basically, BLDC are of two types, one is outer rotor motor and other is inner rotor motor. The
basic difference between the two are only in designing, their working principles are same.

Inner Rotor Design

In an inner rotor design, the rotor is located in the center of the motor and the stator winding
surround the rotor. As rotor is located in the core, rotor magnets does not insulate heat inside
and heat get dissipated easily. Due to this reason, inner rotor designed motor produces a large
amount of torque and validly used.

Outer Rotor Design

In outer rotor design, the rotor surrounds the winding which is located in the core of the motor.
The magnets in the rotor traps the heat of the motor inside and does not allow to dissipate
from the motor. Such type of designed motor operates at lower rated current and has low

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clogging torque.

Advantages of Brushless DC Motor

1. Brushless motors are more efficient as its velocity is determined by the frequency at which
current is supplied, not the voltage.
2. As brushes are absent, the mechanical energy loss due to friction is less which enhanced
efficiency.
3. BLDC motor can operate at high-speed under any condition.
4. There is no sparking and much less noise during operation.
5. More electromagnets could be used on the stator for more precise control.
6. BLDC motors accelerate and decelerate easily as they are having low rotor inertia.
7. It is high performance motor that provides large torque per cubic inch over a vast sped
rang.
8. BLDC motors do not have brushes which make it more reliable, high life expectancies, and
maintenance free operation.
9. There is no ionizing sparks from the commutator, and electromagnetic interference is also
get reduced.
10. Such motors cooled by conduction and no air flow are required for inside cooling.

Disadvantages of Brushless DC Motors

1. BLDC motor cost more than brushless DC motor.
2. The limited high power could be supplied to BLDC motor, otherwise too much heat
weakens the magnets and insulation of winding may get damaged.

5.7 Reluctance motor

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Cross-section of switched reluctance machine with 6 stator and 4 rotor poles. Notice the
concentrated windings on the stator poles.
A reluctance motor is a type of electric motor that induces non-permanent magnetic poles on
the ferromagnetic rotor. Torque is generated through the phenomenon of magnetic reluctance.
There are various types of reluctance motor:

Synchronous reluctance motor

Variable reluctance motor
Switched reluctance motor
Variable reluctance stepping motor.
Reluctance motors can deliver very high power density at low cost, making them ideal for
many applications. Disadvantages are high torque ripple (the difference between maximum
and minimum torque during one revolution) when operated at low speed, and noise [clarification
needed]
caused by torque ripple. Until the early twenty-first century their use was limited by the
complexity of designing and controlling them. These challenges are being overcome by
advances in the theory, by the use of sophisticated computer design tools, and by the use of
low-cost embedded systems for control, typically based on microcontrollers using control
algorithms and real-time computing to tailor drive waveforms according to rotor position and
current or voltage feedback. Before the development of large-scale integrated circuits the
control electronics would have been prohibitively costly.

Design and operating fundamentals of reluctance motors

The stator consists of multiple projecting (salient) electromagnet poles, similar to a wound field
brushed DC motor. The rotor consists of soft magnetic material, such as laminated silicon
steel, which has multiple projections acting as salient magnetic poles through magnetic
reluctance. For switched reluctance motors, the number of rotor poles is typically less than the
number of stator poles, which minimizes torque ripple and prevents the poles from all aligning
simultaneously—a position which cannot generate torque.
When a rotor pole is equidistant from the two adjacent stator poles, the rotor pole is said to be
in the "fully unaligned position". This is the position of maximum magnetic reluctance for the
rotor pole. In the "aligned position", two (or more) rotor poles are fully aligned with two (or
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more) stator poles, (which means the rotor poles completely face the stator poles) and is a
position of minimum reluctance.
When a stator pole is energized, the rotor torque is in the direction that will reduce reluctance.
Thus the nearest rotor pole is pulled from the unaligned position into alignment with the stator
field (a position of less reluctance). (This is the same effect used by a solenoid, or when
picking up ferromagnetic metal with a magnet.) In order to sustain rotation, the stator field must
rotate in advance of the rotor poles, thus constantly "pulling" the rotor along. Some motor
variants will run on 3-phase AC power (see the synchronous reluctance variant below). Most
modern designs are of the switched reluctance type, because electronic commutation gives
significant control advantages for motor starting, speed control, and smooth operation (low
torque ripple).
Dual-rotor layouts provide more torque at lower price per volume or per mass. [citation needed]
The inductance of each phase winding in the motor will vary with position, because the
reluctance also varies with position. This presents a control systems challenge.

Types of reluctance motor

Synchronous reluctance
Synchronous reluctance motors have an equal number of stator and rotor poles. The
projections on the rotor are arranged to introduce internal flux “barriers“, holes which direct the
magnetic flux along the so-called direct axis. Typical pole numbers are 4 and 6.
As the rotor is operating at synchronous speed and there are no current-conducting parts in
the rotor, rotor losses are minimal compared to those of an induction motor.
Once started at synchronous speed, the motor can operate with sinusoidal voltage. Speed
control requires avariable-frequency drive.
Switched reluctance or variable reluctance motor

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a form of stepper motor that uses fewer poles. The
SRM has the lowest construction cost of any industrial electric motor because of its simple
structure[citation needed]. Common uses for an SRM include applications where the rotor must be
held stationary for long periods, and in potentially explosive environments such as mining
because it does not have a mechanical commutator.
The phase windings in a SRM are electrically isolated from each other, resulting in higher fault
tolerance than inverter-driven AC induction motors. The optimal drive waveform is not a
pure sinusoid, due to the non-linear torque relative to rotor displacement, and the highly
position-dependent inductance of the stator phase windings.

Applications

Analog electric meters.

Some washing machine designs.
Control rod drive mechanisms of nuclear reactors.
Hard disk drive motor.

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The Dyson Digital Motor used in some products produced by the Dyson company.[1]

5.8 Hysteresis Motor

Defination: A hysteresis motor is a synchronous motor without salient (or projected) poles and
without dc excitation which starts by virtue of the hysteresis losses induced in its hardened
steel secondary member by the revolving filed of the primary and operates normally at
synchronous speed and runs on hysteresis torque because of the retentivity of the secondary
core.
It is a single-phase motor whose operation depends upon the hysteresis effect i.e.,
magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic material lags behind the magnetizing force.

Construction:

It consists of:

(i) Stator: A stator designed to produce a synchronously-revolving field from a single-phase

supply. The stator carries main and auxiliary windings (which is called split phase hysteresis
motor) so as top produce rotating magnetic field as shown in Fig. 1 (a). The stator can also be
shaded pole type (which is called shaded pole hysteresis motor) as shown in Fig. 1 (b).

(b)
(a)

Fig. 1 Different type of hysteresis motor

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(ii) Rotor: The rotor of hysteresis motors are made with magnetic material of high hysteresis
losses. i.e. whose hysteresis loop area is very large as shown in Fig. 2. The rotor does not
carry any winding or teeth.

Fig. 2 Hysteresis loop for rotor material.

Hysteresis Motor

One type of rotor, invented by H. E. Warren and used in the Warren Telechron electric clock, is
as shown in Fig. 1(b). It consists of two or more outer rings and crossbars, all made of
specially selected heat-treated hard steel. Steel that has a very large hysteresis loop is
chosen. When a rotating filed moves past the rotor, this hysteresis effect causes a torque to be
developed and the motor starts to run. As synchronous speed is approached, the crossbars
presents a low reluctance path to the flux thereby setting up permanent pole in the rotor and
causing the motor to continue to rotate at synchronous speed. The Telechron motor has a
shaded-pole stator as shown in Fig. 1(b).

Another type of rotor is smooth cylindrical type. Hysteresis rings of special magnetic material
like chrome , cobalt steel or alnico or alloy are carried on supporting arbor made of a
nonmagnetic material such as brass; the assembly is carried out on the shaft. The rotor is also
design to obtain high resistivity to reduce eddy-current loss.
The hysteresis ring is affected by the rotational hysteresis causes by the stator windings and
the direction of the magnetization of each element of the ring is different from that of the
magnetic field or magnetic flux density. That is to say, the thicker the hysteresis ring becomes
the larger the rotational hysteresis increases and to make matters worse, the output of the
thicker ring motor becomes less than that of thin rotor motor.

Working Principle

When stator is energized, it produces rotating magnetic field. The main and auxiliary, both the
windings must be supplied continuously at start as well as in running conditions so as to
maintain the rotating magnetic field. The rotor, initially, starts to rotate due to eddy-current
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torque and hysteresis torque developed on the rotor. Once the speed is near about the
synchronous, the stator pulls rotor into synchronism.
In such case, as relative motion between stator field and rotor field vanishes, so the torque due
to eddy-currents vanisehes.
When the rotor is rotating in the synchronous speed, the stator revolving filed flux produces
poles on the rotor as shown in Fig. 3. Due to the hysteresis effect, rotor pole axis lags behind
the axis of rotating magnetic field. Due to this, rotor poles get attracted towards the moving
stator poles. Thus rotor gets subjected to torque called hysteresis torque. This torque is
constant at all speeds.
When the stator field moved forward, due to high residual magnetism (i.e. retentivity) the rotor
pole strength remains maintained. So higher the retentivity, higher is the hysteresis torque.
The hyteresis torque is independent of the rotor speed.
The high retentivity ensures the continuous magnetic locking between stator and rotor. Due to
principle of magnetic locking, the motor either rotates at synchronous speed or not at all. Only
hysteresis torque is present which keeps rotor running at synchronous speed.

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H
y
s
t
e
r
e
s
i
s

M
o
t
o
r
Fig. 3 (a) Stator poles induce poles in the rotor, (b) Torque developed on the rotor due to
residual magnetism of the rotor, (c) Hysteresis loop of the rotor material.

The starting and running torque is almost equal in this type of motor. As stator carries mainly
the two-windings its direction can be reversed interchanging the terminals of either main
winding or auxiliary winding. The torque-speed characteristics is as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Torque-speed characteristics of hysteresis motor

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Advantages

The advantages of hysteresis motor are:

1. As rotor has no teeth, no winding, there are no mechanical vibrations.
2. Due to absence of vibrations, the operation is quiet and noiseless.
3. Suitability to accelerate inertia loads.
4. Possibility of multispeed operation by employing gear train.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of hysteresis motor are:

1. The output is about one-quarter that of an induction motor of the same
dimension.
2. Low efficiency
3. Low power factor
4. Low torque
5. Available in very small sizes

Applications

Due to noiseless operation it is used in sound recording instruments, sound

producing equipments, high quality record players, electric clocks, teleprinters, timing
devices et.

PART A

1. What is meant by the term regulation of an alternator?

2. Why is the field system of an alternator made as a rotor?
3. Compare Synchronous motor and Induction motor.
4. Draw the phasor diagram for constant load under excited condition of a
synchronous motor.
5. List the types of stepper motor
6. Draw the torque/speed characteristics of PM synchronous motor.
7. Draw the phasor diagram of PM synchronous motor.
8. Give the expression for the reluctance torque.
9. What is step angle and resolution of stepper motor?
10. Write the expression for 3-phase e.m.f. of a permanent magnet synchronous
motor.
11. What is two-phase servomotor?
12. Bring out the differences between A.C.and D.C. servomotors.
13. Mention applications of stepper motors.
14. Explain the principle of operation of permanent magnet synchronous motor.

PART B

1. The open circuit and short circuit test results for 3 phase, star connected, 1000
kVA, 1905 V, 50 Hz alternator are:

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Open circuit 760 1500 1700 1905 2300 2600

terminal
voltage (Voc
Line)
Short circuit - 220 - 335 - -
current Isc (A)
Field current If 10 20 25 30 40 50
(A)
The armature resistance per phase is 0.2 ohms. Find the voltage
regulation on full-load 0.8 p.f. lagging by Ampere turn method.

2. Explain the constructional details and working principle of synchronous generator

3. A 3 phase, 25 MVA, 13.8 kV alternator delivers rate load at rated voltage and 0.8
p.f. lagging. The values of armature resistance, direct and quadrature axes
synchronous reactances are 0.15 Ω, 7.6 Ω and 4.5 Ω per phase respectively.
Compute percentage regulation of the machine for the above condition

4. Explain how synchronous motor can be used as a synchronous condenser. Draw

the phasor diagram. (4)

5. Explain the working Principle of 3 phase synchronous motor.

6. A 6600 V, star connected, 3 phase synchronous motor works at constant voltage

and constant excitation. Its synchronous reactance is 20 ohms per phase and
armature resistance negligible when the input power is 1000 kW, the power factor is
0.8 leading. Find the power angle when the input is increased to 1500 kW.

7. Explain the construction and principle of operation of synchronous reluctance

motor.
8. Derive the expression of e.m.f equation of permanent magnet synchronous motor.
9. Derive the Torque equation of permanent magnetic synchronous motor.

10. Draw the speed torque characteristics and phasor diagrams of permanent
magnetic synchronous motor and explain.

11. Explain the construction and working principle of permanent magnet stepper
motor

12. Explain the construction and working Principle of

i. DC servomotor
ii. AC servomotor

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