CHAPTER 3 GASES

LECTURE NO. 1
PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Properties of Gases,
 Introduction  Boyle’s Law
Liquids and Solids
 Charle’s Law
LONG QUESTION
State Charles’s law. Explain its experimental verification (LHR 2021, SWL 2021-K.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• Why do we get straight line, when pressure is plotted against inverse of volume?
(LHR 2019-U.B)
• Write down the quantitative statement of Charle’s law (LHR 2021, FSD 2022-K.B)
INTRODUCTION
States of Matters:
1. Gas 2. Liquid 3. Solid 4. Plasma
PROPERTIES OF GASES, LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Properties Gas Liquid Solid
Molecules are widely
Molecules are close to Molecules are very close
Spaces separated by large empty
each other. to each other.
spaces.
Very weak intermolecular Strong intermolecular Strongest intermolecular
Forces
attractions. attraction. attractions.

K.E High kinetic energy. Moderate K.E Very low K.E

Shape No fixed shape No fixed shape Fixed shape

Occupy all the available

Volume Volume is fixed. Volume is fixed.
space.
Restricted translational,
Translational, rotational and
Motion rotational and Vibrational motion only.
vibrational motion.
vibrational motion.

Diffusion High rate Low rate No diffusion

Particles arrange
Particles arrange
Arrangement Particles are not arranged themselves in a particular
themselves in row
pattern
Joule’s Thomson effect is
Cooling effect Absent Absent
shown
Effusion Present Absent Absent
Collision Effective collisions Effective collisions Absent

Example Air, Methane, Ammonia Water, Alcohol. Oil Diamond, Rock Salt

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CHAPTER 3 GASES
• Pressure: (one atmosphere)
Pressure of air that can support 760mm Hg column at sea level
Units of Pressure: atm, mmHg, torr, Nm-2(SI Units), Pascal, kPa, psi (engineering work), bar,
millibar (meteorologists)
BOYLE’S LAW
Statement:
Volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to applied pressure at constant
temperature.
• Derivation
1
V (at constant temperature and fixed no. of moles)
P
P1V1 = P2V2
• Experimental Verification

• Graphical Explanation
Volume (dm )

Volume (dm )
3

Isotherm at 0oC o
T=0 C
o
T=25 C

X X
0 0
Pressure (atm) Pressure (atm)
CHARLE’S LAW
Statement:
Volume of the given mass of a gas is directly proportional to absolute (Kelvin) temperature at
constant pressure.
• Derivation
VT (at constant pressue and fixed no. of moles)
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
• Experimental Verification
Movable
Piston

Volume = V1
Temperature = T1

Volume = V2
Temperature = T2

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CHAPTER 3 GASES
• Derivation of Absolute Zero
Volume of gas at 273oC Volume of gas at -273oC
Vo = 546cm3 at t = 0°C Vo = 546cm3 at t = 0°C
Vt =? t = 273°C Vt =? t = –273°C
 t( C) 
o
 t( C) 
o
Vt = Vo 1 +  Vt = Vo 1 + 
 273   273 
 273   −273 
V273oC = 546 1 +  V−273oC = 546 1 + 
 273   273 
 546   0 
V273oC = 546   V−273oC = 546  
 273   273 
V273oC = 1092 cm3 V−273oC = 0 cm3

V
Volume (cm3) Temperature(°C) Temperature (K) =k (cm 3 K -1 )
T

1092 273 546 2

746 100 373 2

546 0 273 2

• Graphical Explanation
Absolute Zero: 746
646
Hypothetical temperature at which volume of gas is supposed 546
V (cm3)

446
to become equal to zero, if a gas remains in gaseous state. Its 346
246
value is –273. 16 C or 0 Kelvin.
o
146
46
Conclusion: -300 -200 -100 0 +100 +200

Temperature (oC)
It is apparent that –273.16oC will be attained when the volume of gas -273.16 C
o

becomes zero. But for a real gas, the zero volume is impossible which shows that this temperature
m < m < m cannot be
1 2 3

attained for a real gas. This is how we recognize that –273.16 C must represent the coldest temperature.
o m 3

746
Scales of Thermometry: 646
m 2

5 o
• Centigrade Scale C = ( F − 32)
o 546 m 1
V (cm )
3

446
9 346
9 246
• Fahrenheit Scale o
F = C  + 32 146
5 46
• Absolute or Kelvin Scale K = oC + 273 -300 -200 -100 0 +100 +200

-273.16 C
o Temperature (oC)

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. The relationship between pressure and volume at same temperature is called (K.B)
a) Isobar b) Isotherm
c) Isotone d) Isochore
2. If absolute temperature of a gas is doubled and the pressure is reduced to one half, the
volume of the gas will (GRW 2019, LHR 2017, 21-K.B)
a) Remain unchanged b) Increase four times
c) Reduce to 1/4 d) Be doubled
3. Which of the following is the less common state of matter around us? (K.B)
a) Solid b) Liquid
c) Gas d) Plasma
4. One atmosphere is equal to (U.B)
a) 27.4 psi b) 76 cm Hg
c) 17.4 psi d) 101.325 Pa
5. The temperature at which Centigrade and Fahrenheit are equal is (K.B)
a) 0 b) 100
c) 40 d) – 40
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Why the graph plotted between pressure and volume moves away from pressure axis at
higher temperature (LHR 2021-U.B)
Ans: Effect of temperature:
If the temperature of the system is increased then isotherm will move away from both the axis.
This shifting is due to increase in volume and pressure with the temperature.
Y
T2 > T1

T1 T2

Volume (dm3)

Pressure (atm) X
2. States Charles’s law. write down its mathematical form? (GRW 2021-K.B)
Ans: “The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature if pressure and
the number of moles of the gas remain constant.”
V  T (if P and n are constant)
V = kT
= k
If the temperature changes from T1 to T2 then the volume also changes from V1 to V2. We can
V1 V2
write = k and =k
T1 T2
Hence:
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

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CHAPTER 3 GASES
LECTURE NO. 2
PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Dalton’s law of Partial
 General Gas Equation  Avogadro’s Law
Pressures
 Diffusion and Effusion  Graham’s law
LONG QUESTION
State and explain general gas equation. Calculate value of ‘R’ in SI units.
(GRW 2017, 21-K.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• Derive an expression to calculate density of a gas form (LHR 2017-U.B)
• Why does pilots feel uncomfortable breathing at high attitude? (LHR 2021-A.B)
GENERAL GAS EQUATION
Derivation and its different forms:
PV PV
PV = nRT , 1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2
• Ideal Gas Constant (R):
PV
R=
nT
• Units of R: (at STP)
1. 0.0821 atm dm3 K-1 mol-1 2. 62.4 torr dm3K-1 mol-1
3 -1 -1
3. 62.4 mm Hg dm K mol 4. 62400 cm3 torr K-1 mol-1
5. 8.3143 J K-1 mol-1(S.I units) 6. 1.987 cal K-1 mol-1
• Density of an Ideal Gas:
PM
Derivation d=
RT
Conclusion:
1
1. d  P 2. d  M 3. d 
T
AVOGADRO’S LAW
Statement:
Equal volumes of all ideal gases at same temperature and pressure contain equal number of
molecules.
V  n (at constant temperature and constant pressure)
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
Statement:
Total pressure exerted by mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to sum of their individual partial
pressures.
Pt = p1 + p2 + p3
Derivation:
PVt = nt RT

• Partial Pressure: Pressure exerted by gas in mixture of gases

• Calculation of Partial Pressure:
pA = X A Pt and pB = X B Pt

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CHAPTER 3 GASES
• Applications of Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures:
1. Partial pressure of dry gas
Pmoist = pdry + pw.vap
Pmoist = pdry + aqueous tension [ pw.vap = aqueous tension]
pdry = Pmoist - aqueous tension
2. Respiration
Process of respiration depends upon difference in partial pressures. Partial pressure of oxygen in
air is 159 torr while partial pressure of oxygen in lungs is 116 torr.
3. At higher altitudes
Pilots feel uncomfortable breathing because partial pressure of oxygen in un-pressurized cabin is
low as compared to 159 torr.
4. Deep Sea Divers
Divers take oxygen mixed with inert gas like Helium (He) and adjust partial pressure of oxygen
according to the requirement.
DIFFUSION AND EFFUSION
Diffusion Effusion
The effusion of a gas is movement of gas
Spontaneous intermixing of molecules of one molecules through an extremely small
gas with molecules of other gas due to collision. opening into a region of low pressure without
collision.
Example: Mixing and spreading of perfume Example: Escape of hydrogen gas from tiny
molecules with air in a large room. holes in walls of rubber balloons.
GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
Statement:
Rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to square root of its density or
molecular mass at constant temperature and pressure.
1 1
r , r
d M
Derivation:
r1 M2
=
r2 M1
• Experimental Verification:

HCl (g) NH3(g)

40.5cm 59.5cm
white fumes of NH4Cl

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Density of an ideal gas can be calculated by the formula (LHR 2021, SWL 2021-U.B)
PM
a) d=nRT b) d=
RT
m PV
c) d= RT d) d=
M M
2. The order of the rate of diffusion of gases NH3, SO2, Cl2 and CO2 is
(LHR 2019, MTN 2019-K.B)
a) NH3 > SO2 > Cl2 > CO2 b) NH3 > CO2 > SO2 > Cl2
c) Cl2 > SO2 > CO2 > NH3 d) NH3 > CO2 > Cl2 > SO2
3. Equal masses of methane and oxygen are mixed in an empty container at 25oC. The
fraction of total pressure exerted by oxygen is (FSD 2021, SGD 2019, BWP 2022-U.B)
1 8
a) b)
3 9
1 16
c) d)
9 17
4. Number of molecules in one dm3 of water is close to (SGD 2019, 21-U.B)
6.02 12.04
a) x1023 b) x1023
22.4 22.4
18
c) x1023 d) 55.6 × 6.02 × 1023
22.4
5. Pressure remaining constant, at which temperature the volume of the gas will become
twice of what it is at 0°C
(FSD 2021, LHR 2021, SWL 2019, RWP 2019, BWP 2019, GRWP 2019, 2021-A.B)
a) 5846°C b) 200°C
c) 546°K d) 273°K
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. State Grahm’s law of diffusion also write its mathematical form (LHR 2019-K.B)
Ans: “The rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to square root of its
density or molar mass.”
1
Rate of diffusion 
d
k
Rate of diffusion =
d
k
Similarly, Rate of diffusion =
M
Greater the molar mass, less rate of diffusion will be of the gas.
r1 M2
=
r2 M1
2. What is Avogadro’s law? Give example (GRW 2020, 21-A.B)
Ans: It is defined as, “equal volumes of all the ideal gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain equal number of molecules”.
By Avogadro’s law,
Vn (If P and T are constant)
3
One mole of any gas occupies 22.414dm volume at STP
Example: 22.414 dm3 of an ideal gas = 1 mole of gas at STP

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
LECTURE NO. 3
PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Kinetic Molecular Theory  Explanation of Gas laws
 Liquefaction of Gases
of Gases from KMT
LONG QUESTION
Derive Boyle’s and Charles’s law with the help of kinetic theory of gases.
(LHR 2018, MTN 2021-K.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• State Joule-Thomson effect. (LHR 2019, FSD 2022-U.B)
• Write down false points in Kinetic molecular theory of gases. (SGD 2021, GRW 2019-U.B)
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
Postulates:
1. Gases consist up of large number of very small particles called molecules.
2. Molecules move haphazardly and change their directions.
3. Pressure exerted by gas molecules is due to collisions and they are perfectly elastic.
4. Molecules of gas are widely separated.
5. Molecules of a gas have no forces of attraction.
6. Actual volume of gas molecule is negligible as compared to total volume of gas.
7. Motion imparted by gravity is negligible as compared to the effect of continuous collision.
8. Average kinetic energy of gas molecules directly proportional absolute temperature of gas.
K.E  T
• Kinetic Equation of Gases:
1
PV = mNc 2
3
• Mean square velocity:
n1c12 +n 2c22 +n 3c32 +.........
c2 =
n1 +n 2 +n 3 +.........
n1 + n2 + n3…… = N
• Root Mean Square Velocity:
Crms = 3RT
M
EXPLANATION OF GAS LAWS FROM KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Derivation of gas laws from kinetic molecular theory:
1. Boyle’s Law
2. Charles’s Law
3. Avogadro’s Law
4. Graham’s Law of Diffusion
• Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature:
1. Derivation
3RT
EK =
2N A
3 R
EK  T (since is constant)
2 NA

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
2. Idea of Heat Flow:
When heat flows from a body at high temperature to a body at low temperature, molecules in the
hotter body give up some of their kinetic energy to molecules of colder body through collisions.
(iii) Temperature of Gases and Liquids:
Temperature is measure of average translational kinetic energies of molecules.
3. Temperature of Solids:
Temperature is measure of average vibrational kinetic energy of molecules because solid
molecules show only vibrational motion.
4. Absolute zero:
Temperature at which molecular motion ceases.
LIQUEFACTION OF GASES
Principle of Liquefaction:
1. High pressure 2. Low temperature
Favours the liquefaction process
• Critical Temperature (Tc):
Highest temperature at which a substance exists as a liquid.
• Factors:
If greater the size, shape of gas molecules and intermolecular forces present then easier will be
the liquefaction
• Critical Pressure (Pc):
Minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
• Critical Volume (Vc):
Volume occupied by one mole of a gas at critical temperature and critical pressure.
METHODS OF LIQUEFACTION OF GASES
Joules Thomson Effect:
When compressed gas is allowed to expand suddenly into region of low pressure, it gets cooled.
• Linde’s Method of Liquefaction of Gases:
Principal: Joules Thomson Effect
1. Compression
2. Cooling
3. Expansion
4. Collection
5. Re-pumping

Note: Only H2 and He cannot be liquefied by this method.

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Correct relationship between Crms and temperature is (U.B)

a) Crms  T b) Crms  T
1 1
c) Crms  d) Crms 
T T
2. Which one of the following correctly represents kinetic equation? (K.B)
1 1
a) P = m c2 b) PV = m c2
3 3
1 1
c) PV = m Nc 2 d) PV = Nc 2
3 3
3. The root mean square velocity is equal to: (U.B)

3RT 2RT
a) b)
M M
8RT M
c) d)
M 3RT
4. Which of the following has least critical temperature? (A.B)
a) NH3 b) H2O
c) O2 d) CO2
5. Which gas cannot be liquefied by using Linde’s method of liquefaction? (K.B)
a) O2 b) N2
c) He d) Ne
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define critical temperature and critical pressure (GRW 2019-U.B)
Ans: Critical temperature: The highest temperature, at which a substance can exists as a
liquid, is called its critical temperature (Tc).
Example: Critical temperature of ammonia = 405.6 K or 132.44 oC
Critical Pressure: Minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
Example: Critical pressure of ammonia = 111.5 atm
2. Derive Avogadro’s law from KMT. (LHR 2021-K.B)
Ans: Equal volumes of all the ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules. For equal volumes of two gases at the same temperature and pressure, the
number of molecules should be equal as N1 = N2
According to kinetic equation:
For gas 1:
1
PV = m1N1 c12 ----------------- (i)
3

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CHAPTER 3 GASES
For gas 2:
1
PV = m 2 N 2 c 22 ----------------- (ii)
3
Equating eq. (1) and eq. (2)
1 1
m1 N1 c12 = m 2 N 2 c 22
3 3
m1N1 c12 = m2 N2 c22 ---------------- (iii)
For gas 1:
1
Kinetic energy = m1 c12 ------------------- (iv) per molecule
2
For gas 2:
1
Kinetic Energy = m 2 c 22 ----------------- (v) per molecule
2
When temperature of both the gases is same, their average kinetic energy per molecule will also
be same.
1 1
m1 c12 = m 2 c 22
2 2
m1 c12 = m2 c22 --------------- (vi)
Dividing eq. (iii) by eq. (vi)
m1 N1 c12 m 2 N 2 c22
=
m1 c12 m 2 c22
N1 = N2
Hence, Number of molecules of gas 1 is equal to number of molecules of gas 2, which is
Avogadro’s Law

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
LECTURE NO. 4
PREVIEW OF TODAY’S TOPICS
 Non-Ideal Behaviour of  Cause for deviations  Van der Waal’s
Gases from ideality Equation for Real Gases
 Plasma
LONG QUESTION
What is plasma? How it is formed? Also give its characteristics. (BWP 2021-K.B)
SHORT QUESTIONS
• Give two reasons of deviation of real gases from ideal behavior (LHR 2019-U.B)
• Write down two characteristics of plasma. (LHR 2019, 21, GRW 2021-U.B)
NON-IDEAL BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
Compressibility Factor:
Graph is plotted between pressure on x-axis and PV/RT on y-axis for ideal gas. The factor
PV/RT is called compressibility factor. Its value is unity for 1mole of an ideal gas.
1. Behaviour of Real Gases at 0oC:
o
T = 0 C or 273K
2.00
CO 2
N2

1.50
H2
He
PV Ideal
1.00
RT gas

0.5

0 200 400 600 800 1000

P(atm)

2. Behaviour of Real Gases at 100oC:

o
T = 100 C or 373K
2.00
CO2
N2
1.50

H2
PV He Ideal
1.00
RT gas

0.5

0 200 400 600 800 1000

P (atm)

• Conclusion:
1. Gases are ideal at low pressure and non-ideal at high pressure.
2. Gases are ideal at high temperature and non-ideal at low temperature

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CHAPTER 3 GASES
CAUSES FOR DEVIATIONS FROM IDEALITY
Two faulty Postulates of KMT:
1. Forces of attraction 2. Actual volume of gas molecules

Volume of the
molecules of a
gaseous state

(a) (b)

VAN DER WAAL’S EQUATION FOR REAL GASES

• Volume Correction:
Vfree = Vvessel – b
b = 4 Vm
‘b’ is called excluded volume or effective volume. ‘Vfree’ is the that volume which is available
for gas molecules. Which depends upon size of gas molecules.
• Pressure Correction:
Inward Molecular attractions Wall of
vessel
pull on A are balanced

B B
Velocity of A
reduced B

A B B A B
A B

B
B B

P = Pi – P/
Pi = P + P/
P/ is true kinetic pressure, whereas P is real pressure of gas. P/ is amount of pressure lessened
(decreased) due to attractive forces. P/ is expressed in terms of a constant ‘a’ which accounts for
attractive forces. That is why ‘a’ is called Co-efficient of attraction for one mole of gas. P/ for
1mole of a gas can be represented as.
a
P/ =
V2
For one mole of gas
a
(P + 2 ) (V - b) = RT
V
For n mole of gas
a n2
(P + 2 ) (V - nb) = nRT
V
 an 2 
• Units of “a”: atm dm6mol-2 and Nm+4mol-2 Hint:  P' = 2 
 v 
• Units of “b”: dm3mol-1 and m3mol-1 Hint:  v − nb = 0 

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
PLASMA
Definition:
Ionized gas mixture which consists of ions, electrons, and neutral atoms is
called plasma.
Example: Conduct electricity in neon signs.
• Formation of Plasma:
When heat is supplied to atoms or molecules, they loose electrons and
develop net positive charge. This mixture consisting of ions, electrons and
neutral atoms.
• Where is plasma found?
1. Found from sun to quark (smallest particle in universe).
2. It is stuff of stars.
3. Majority of matter in inner-stellar space is plasma.
4. On earth, it occurs in limited spaces as in
(a) Lightning bolts (b) Flames (c) Auroras (d) Fluorescent lights
Type of Plasma
1. Natural Plasma
(a) It is naturally occurring. Example: shining stars.
(b) It exists only at very high temperature or low temperature vacuums.
(c) It does not break down or react rapidly but is extremely hot. (minimum 20,000oC for stars)
2. Artificial Plasma
(a) It is created by ionization of gas Example: Neon signs.
(b) It exists only at high temperature.
(c) It reacts rapidly with any molecule it encounters at low temperature.
• Characteristics of Plasma:
1. Shows collective response to electrical and magnetic fields.
2. Macroscopically neutral.
• Application of Plasma:
1. They are used where special sources of energy or radiation are required.
2. A fluorescent bulb and Neon signs.
3. Plasma processing of semi-conductors.
4. Sterilization of some medical products and Pasteurizes foods.
5. Diamond coated films.
6. High power microwave sources.
7. Pulsed power switches.
8. Drive lasers and particle accelerators.
9. Help to clean up the environment.
10. Make tools corrosion resistant.
11. Plasma light up our homes, offices and display of computer and electronic equipment.
12. Generation of electrical energy and removal of hazardous chemicals from fusion pollution
control.
• Future Horizons
Low energy plasma in presence of magnetic field is metastable state. This low energy plasma do
not react until they collide with another molecule just with right energy. Scientists are trying to
make a mixture of gases which can act as metastable agents on polonium and uranium.

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 CHAPTER 3 GASES
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONSQ
1. The deviation of a gas form ideal behaviour is maximum at
(MNT 2019, BWP 2019, FSD 2022-U.B)
o o
a) -10 C and 5.0atm b) -10 C and 2.0atm
c) 100oC and 2.0atm d) 0oC and 2.0atm
2. A real gas obeying Van der Waal’s’s equation will resemble ideal gas if
(MTN 2019, BWP 2019-U.B)
a) Both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are large b) Both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are small
c) ‘a’ is small and ‘b’ is large d) ‘a’ is large and ‘b’ is small
3. Plasma is estimated to constitute more than ______ percent of the visible universe.
(K.B)
a) 90% b) 95%
c) 99% d) 97%
4. The molar volume of CO2 is maximum at (SLW 2019, SGD 2021, LHR 2022-A.B)

a) STP b) 127°C and 1 atm

c) 0°C and 2 atm d) 273°C and 2atm
5. Temperature of a natural plasma is about (LHR 2021, FSD 2022-A.B)

a) 20000°C b) 1000°C
c) 5000°C d) 10000°C
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Why is SO2 comparatively non-ideal at 273K but behaves ideally at 327°C
(LHR 2018, GRW 2018-U.B)
Ans: SO2 is comparatively non-ideal at 273K but behaves ideally at 327°C due to prominent
forces of attraction at 273K or low temperature. SO2 is non-ideal at 273K because of low
temperature and much prominent forces of attraction but ideal at 327°C or 600K because of high
temperature and very low forces of attraction.
2. Water vapours do not behave ideally at 273K? Explain it. (LHR 2022-K.B)

Ans: Water vapours do not behave ideally at 273K due to prominent forces of attraction at
273K=0°C. At a low temperature, the forces of attraction between the molecules become prominent
and the gas deviates from the ideal behavior. At 273K or 0°C, the water changes into solid i.e. ice.
Due to forces of attraction, the water vapors do not behave ideally.

KIPS REVISION LECTURE NOTES – 1st YEAR (PUNJAB BOARD) 34