N BETWEEN

REVENUE MECHANICS

ESIGN
ESIGN
ESIGN
DESIGN
MODELS
MODELS
MODELS
MODELS
N BETWEEN
N
N BETWEEN
EMENTS
BETWEEN
REVENUE
MECHANICS
NREVENUE
BETWEENMECHANICS
MECHANICS
REVENUE MECHANICS

BUSINE
SS MOD
ELS
GAME DESIGN
BUSINESS MODELS
The correlation between key design elements and
revenue mechanics in free-to-play video games

University: Aalborg University

Date of delivery: 30.06.2014

Scope of the thesis: 451.200 with spaces, 188 standard pages

Field of study: Master of Science in Information Technology, Interactive Digitale Media, 10th semester

Counselor(s): Claus Andreas Foss Rosenstand and Nikolaj Hyldig

Authors:

Kasper Hurwitz:

Kristian Wulff:

Nikolaj Frølund Jensen:

Thomas Lykke Larsen:

This report and/or appended material may not be partly or completely published or copied without prior written
approval from the authors. Neither may the contents be used for commercial purposes without this written approval.
Copyright 2014
ABSTRACT
This master’s thesis in Information Technology, Interactive Digital Media, at Aalborg University, focuses on the use
of revenue mechanics in the emerging field of free-to-play games. The free-to-play market are redefining how we
perceive video games, both in terms of how we play them, and how the games intend to generate revenue. Free-to-
play games are becoming increasingly more present in our everyday lives, as the business model is becoming more
dominant on both the PC and mobile market. This evolution has led to many discussions and reflections regarding
the current state of the video game market, which have resulted in the following research question:

“What is the optimal correlation between game design and game business models when the purpose
is to create an entertaining player experience with a sustainable business model and how are revenue
mechanics applied into the design of a game?”

In order to understand the correlation of the two domains of game design and business models, data were collected
from six state-of-the-art games, four expert interviews and literature studies regarding the two domains of business
models and game design.
The empirical research led to the construction of a Game Design Model and Revenue Mechanics Framework with
the purpose of both analysing existing games, and potentially aid developers in creating better free-to-play games
by mapping the connection between key design elements and revenue mechanics. In order to contribute further
to the development of free-to-play games, the master’s thesis presents a set of Guiding Principles concerning the
conclusive subjects of the research.

Keywords: Free-to-play, PC platform, Mobile platform, Game balance, Game session length, Player engagement,
Retention, Game business models, Video game development, Player life cycle, Digital creation cycle, Case study
research, Exclusivity, Core loops, Microtransactions, Virtual goods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank the game designers, directors and business developers who have contributed with invaluable
information and insight during the writing of this master thesis:

Thomas Lund, Full Control

Rune Vendler, Square Enix
Paul Barnett, EA Mythic Games
Jonas De Freitas, King.com

Special thanks goes out to our two supervisors, Claus Andreas Foss Rosenstand and Nikolaj Hyldig, for
always giving constructive and sharp criticism, as well as general sparring throughout the project. Also a
big thanks to our family and loved ones for always being there for us and support. A big thanks also goes
out to Thor Buur for proof-reading our master’s thesis.
PREFACE
This master’s thesis is the result of a one-and-a-half year research and study of the connections between the do-
mains of game design and business models in video game development.
The master’s thesis was developed and written in 2014 as the final project on the master’s degree of the Master of
Science programme in Information Technology, Interactive Digital Media at Aalborg University.

ABOUT US
The incentive behind the master’s thesis is based on our 8th semester study project, where we explored the
relationship between game design and business models from which we developed the first iterations of the Game
Design Model presented in the master’s thesis.

On our 9th semester, each group member participat-

ed in the DADIU course of 2013 as respectively; level
designer, project manager and game designers. Here
we had the privilege of being part of two game pro- DADIU
ductions; The Printer Guy and Saviour of Asgard, and
The National Academy of Digital, Interactive
experience the triumphs and downfalls of game de-
Entertainment is a collaboration between uni-
velopment. Both games can be downloaded for free
versities and art schools in all of Denmark.
on Google Play store; currently both games are only
Six teams are formed each consisting of 18-20
compatible with Android devices.
people containing a Game Director, Game De-
signer, Project Manager, Level Designer, Art Di-
Through our own experience playing video games, we
rector, Programmers, Animator, CG artists and
have experienced how the game industry have kept
Audio composer, which purpose is to develop
developing new ways of monetizing in video games. A
a game from pre-production to release.
development that not only have shown new potential
ways of creating revenue, but also changed the way
we play video games today. Through the console-wave
in the 90’s, the uprising mobile games-market in 00’s
and present decade, we have played and enjoyed countless of video games: One of the first successful platformers
like Super Mario, first person shooter games like Doom and the wave of mobile app’s led by Angry Birds. All these
games have had a big influence on our childhood and cultural understanding of digital entertainment.

The members of the master’s thesis group have an extensive knowledge of the history of games as well as different
opinions on games and games business models.
THE GROUP CONSISTS OF:

Kasper Hurwitz

Favourite games: Half-Life, Counter-Strike, Baldurs Gate 2,

World of Warcraft and Heroes of Might and Magic 3.

Currently playing: Heroes of Newerth and Counter-Strike GO.

Kristian Wulff

Favourite games: Command & Conquer Red Alert, Dungeon

Keeper, Oddworld: Abe’s Oddysee and Warcraft 3.

Currently playing: Dota 2.

Nikolaj Frølund Jensen

Favourite games: Half-life, Tetris, Super Mario and Gone

Home.

Currently playing: Broken Age by Double Fine.

Thomas Lykke Larsen

Favourite games: Neverwinter Nights, Heroes of Might and

Magic 3, Hearthstone, Age of Empires II.

Currently playing: Wolfenstein: The New Order.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Area of concern 2
1.2 Research question 6

2 WORK METHOD AND FRAMING OF THE PROJECT 9

2.1 Work questions 10
2.2 Purpose of the project 13
2.3 Scope and limitation of research 13
2.4 Visualization of the logical coherence in the thesis 14
2.5 Research process 16
2.6 Epistemology 20
2.7 The case study as a research strategy 22
2.8 Implementation of case study 24
2.9 Prejudices against the case study method 29
2.10 Summary 34

3 THEORY 35
3.1 What is a video game? 36
3.2 What is an entertaining game? 40
3.3 Game design 46
3.4 Business models 54
3.5 The development of game business models 60
3.6 What is game revenue model and its revenue mechanics? 61
3.7 The correlation between game design and business models 80
3.8 What is a game creation cycle? 83
3.9 Rationale of the game design model - our theoretical framework 87
3.10 Summary 91

4 ANALYSIS 93
4.1 Interview 94
4.2 Selecting state-of-the-art mobile and PC games 102
4.3 State-of-the-art game analysis structure 102
4.4 State-of-the-art mobile games overview 105
4.5 Mobile games business model tabulation 110
4.6 State-of-the-art mobile games tabulation 114
4.7 Mobile games revenue mechanics tabulation 133
4.8 State-of-the-art PC games overview 141
4.9 PC games business model tabulation 146
4.10 State-of-the-art PC games tabulation 151
4.11 PC games revenue mechanics tabulation 165
4.12 Mobile and PC cross tabulation 172
5 SYNTHESIS 177
5.1 The important elements of the mechanic design 178
5.2 Context 180
5.3 The facilitation of the meta core loop 182
5.4 Three levels of engagement 182
5.5 Qualities of the revenue mechanic categorizations 184
5.6 The creation cycle and the implementation of game features and revenue mechanics 188

6
GUIDING PRINCIPLES 191

7 DISCUSSION 195
7.1 Reflection on the contribution of the thesis 196
7.2 The game design models possible contribution to our dadiu game development 200
7.3 Peer-review feedback 202
7.4 Reflection of method and process 205
7.5 Validity and reliability 206
7.6 Reflection on the selection of theory 207

8
CONCLUSION 211

A
APPENDIX 215
Bibliography 216
Articles 217
Web 219
Video Games 220
Annex 221
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The introduction outlines our primary area of concern:

a hypothesis on the importance of the integration of
game design and business models. This forms a broad
research question on practical applications of our
thesis, for game creators.

1. INTRODUCTION 1
 1 INTRODUCTION

This master’s thesis explores the correlation between the current state of video games and their business
game design and business models in free-to-play models. This section will be further clarified through
video games. The thesis examines how the two the presentation of our constructed hypotheses.
domains influence one another and what problems
may occur in the production of video games when
these two domains are required to collaborate. The 1.1 AREA OF CONCERN
thesis proposes to see the two domains as domains The video game market has undergone radical changes
that condition each other: a specific business model since its early days in the 1970s when players would
has an influence on which game design decisions are spend all their quarters on arcade machines, playing
considered best for the ultimate game product, and seminal video game titles, such as Pac-Man or Space
specific game design decisions have a similar influence Invaders. Most arcade games are designed for players
on which business models optimally fit the game to achieve a high-score and maintain it by improving
product. a set of skills that apply to the mechanics of a specific
How the two domains set up conditions for each other machine/game.
is formally explored through studies in monetization The business model used in the arcade game industry
methods and in-game microtransaction features. In is known as coin-op or pay per play (Perry, 2009, p.
order to further contribute to this particular field, the 50).
thesis introduces a new game design model for the The arcade hall’s of the 70s eventually lost terrain
development of games that has a particular focus on against the more convenient home consoles that
connecting the areas of game design and business allowed players to play their favorite video games
models for video games. privately and domestically.
It was the beginning of a new era when popular
Through this thesis, we have developed a method with home consoles, like the Atari 2600, NES (Nintendo
the ambition to improve praxis, in regards to creating Entertainment system) etc., started to sell physical
an entertaining game experience, with a sustainable copies of their games in retail stores - the retail
business model. business model. Following the lead of its home console
The purpose of the next section is to present our predecessors, Sony released the popular PlayStation in
area of interest through a quick historical overview, the late 1990s and Microsoft followed suit with their
of some the most significant changes that have led to

INTRODUCTION

2
 of $50 million dollars (Vogel, 2011, p. 391).

With the expansion and increasing bandwidth of the

internet, online digital release platforms began to
emerge, such as Valve’s Steam. The advancement in
bandwidth and release platforms were significant
factors for the development of smaller independent
companies (Indie developers) and the MMO (massively
multiplayer online) games both. MMO games like
RuneScape were some of the first games to utilize
Figure 1: Atari 2600 Wood-4Sw
the free-to-play business model; the model allowed
them to reach a large audience without having to
release of the Xbox in 2001.
deal with distribution and immense sums of money
for marketing. The Indie developers saw the same
With a combined estimated revenue of $20 billion
opportunity, which enabled them to develop small-
dollars (Vogel, 2011, p. 390), Sony’s PlayStation 2,
budget games, and to thus challenge the design of
Nintendo’s GameCube and Microsoft’s Xbox, were
the triple-A games, and their methods of finance and
showing the world how the video game industry had
development.
become a force to be reckoned with. The constant
advancement in technology, in terms of both video
The advantages of the free-to-play model were clear,
games and computers, lead to bigger production
which also helped it to obtain popular appreciation
value and more advanced video games, also known as
and spread. However, finding ways of earning money
triple-A games. These video games would have a high-
on free-to-play games, without harming the player
retail price and production value, e.g. Call of Duty:
experience, has proven to be a difficult task. Many
Modern Warfare 2, with an estimated production cost

Figure 2: Screenshot of Steam, Valve’s online platform, where other developers can distribute their games and
users can purchase digital game copies

1. INTRODUCTION 3
Figure 3: Screenshot of Zynga’s Farmville

of the new free-to-play games found that the easiest game is not entertaining, in other word, the user will
way to monetize their games came about through only pay if the product provides them enough value
restriction of player possibilities. As a result, the free- in regards to the price of the purchase. However, the
to-play model has become synonymous with a lesser consequences of the malpractice have begun to reveal
product, sometimes earning the epitaph, ‘free-to- themselves. As an example, we may refer to one of
play – pay-to-win’. A commonly seen, critical player Facebook’s pioneering free-to-play game companies,
response is one that feels exhorted, if not extorted, by Zynga. In 2013, Zynga went from 72 million daily users
a given free-to-play game to spend money that they to 39 million daily users, losing nearly half of their
did not bargain for, simply to keep on playing. The daily users in one year (McWhertor, 2013). This drop
directly criticisizable feature here is how players find indicates a short-termed focus on moneymaking,
themselves unwittingly confronted with ‘pay walls’ ignoring player satisfaction, and also a market with a
that stop them from playing an otherwise enjoyable lack of innovative game titles. However, this case is not
game. As such, many of these types of games rely conclusive evidence, as many other factors may have
more on the player’s willingness to use money rather influenced Zynga’s drop.
than a reward-mechanism based on actual problem
solving abilities (i.e. skills) in order to be an effective For obvious reasons, it is nonetheless clearly bad for
player. any game to be labeled as pay-to-win. Knowledge of
Despite the invasive nature of these ‘pay-to-win games’, such critical reception has resulted in another type of
many companies have recycled this type of business free-to-play games wherein players are given a way
model, which has led to a short-termed tendency in to work around the money system—this is of course
the market. A business model is not sustainable if the done to avoid resemblance with the ill-received

4
moneygrubbing games. However, in some cases this how the malpractices common to the free-to-play
attempt unintentionally facilitates a response where business model are, in consequences at least, similar:
the player gets a more challenging and engaging the success of a game is in the balance. Moreover,
experience from an attempt of avoiding the use of study of the two cases is grounds to substantiate our
money altogether. This, it follows, is not sustainable hypothesis: we have been lead to the assumption that
business-wise either, in this case due to a lack of it is possible to implement a business revenue model
revenue rather than disgruntled players. that does not harm the player experience and/or in fact
directly improves the overall player experience. The
The above concerns open the question of the manners hypothesis is an expression borne of player-reception
and circumstances under which it is possible to create observation as well as software revenue concerns.
a free-to-play game capable of balancing the two We will further qualify it through the application of a
domains: game design and business model. How theoretical perspective through our study of textual
does one successfully navigate the player experience sources, expert interviews, and a case study analysis.
alongside financial considerations? In the following hypothesis, we argue when a games
business model should be implemented to create the
To increase the overall value of a game, this thesis best possible correlation between the game design
proposes that there has to be a good balance between and game business model in a game:
the two domains. The domains are interconnected,
making the strengths and weaknesses of the domains
affect one another and thus the general quality of any By identifying and understanding the
given game. interconnection between game design and
business models, on a theoretical and practical
Through active participation in two game productions, level, game developers are able to ask
we have experienced some of the complexities questions which will improve their games in
involved in the development of a game design that regards to both designs and business models
laterally manages to create a suitable business model employed during the development process.
for its design.

The development in payment methods in video games Together the two hypotheses address aspects whereby
has led us to the following hypothesis: game design and business models influence each
other. However, the main function of the hypotheses
is to address the general need of identifying and
Through new payment methods, such as understanding the two domains and how they are
microtransactions, business models have a connected. Our main hypothesis connects as follows:
large influence on the gameplay in present video
games and the mechanics implemented—this
influences the overall player experience of a It is possible to create a better basis for the
given game. implementation of monetization features by
incorporating a game’s business model as part
of the beginning of the development phase.
This consideration arguably maintains a higher
Through careful study, we have identified the
quality of player experience.
correlation between the two domains and their
related problem: creating a successful game. The two
types of cases may each lead to different issues, as The aim of the thesis is to create the foundations
explained, but it is just as important to underscore needed to understand game development in

1. INTRODUCTION 5
regards to the relationship between game design
and business model alike; it is based on theory and Our assumption is that game design and business
practical knowledge from academia and experienced models related to a game are connected to one
professionals from the industry. The thesis contributes another, and in order to create an optimal product that
to the practical field of game development and to not only achieves financial success, but also becomes
academia also. a great player experience, game design and business
model domains have to function malleably.

1.2 RESEARCH But how can a company reach an optimal connection

of domain reciprocity? Furthermore, what is needed to
QUESTIONS create a development method that helps developers
The main hypothesis of the thesis suggests a clear
reach this goal of a positive interconnectivity between
rationale for game development that is founded
the game design and business model domains? What
on game design and game business models. The
kind of written description does an interdisciplinary
actual research deals with a number of problems
development team need in order to utilize the ideas
associated with such integration. The practical
proposed?
implementation of the theoretically perceived needs
for product optimization, these being a balance of
To guide the thesis through the aims of describing
user gratification and company revenue, is an area
and understanding the connections between the
that consist of a variety of problems ranging from
game design and the business model, and to create a
communicative issues to implementation issues;
formula for practical usage, the through-line for both
the former is concerned with different departments
theoretical and methodic research questions is as
of a given game production cooperating effectively,
follows:
whereas the latter is concerned with game design in
relation to the business model.
“What is the optimal correlation between
A lot has been written about game design and business game design and game business models when
models, from academics and practitioners both, but the the purpose is to create an entertaining player
two fields are in most cases found separately. Material experience with a sustainable business model
wherein the two domains are considered contiguously and how are revenue mechanics applied into
is rare and often non-academic, which makes it almost the design of a game?”
impossible to locate prior research of substance. Some
of the most profitable sources seem to be web articles
on game developer sites like Gamasutra, whereon
Our ambition is to create a method to help developers
developers give austere thoughts to the field yet fail to
incorporate game business models into their video
present the sufficient and comprehensive descriptions
game concepts in the most complimentary way.
that today’s game development climate needs.
However, before this can be accomplished a theoretical
approach is required.
The argument that there is both observable academic
need for our thesis and a relevance in value-for-practice
As such, our research question is divided into two
is thus a real one. On the basis of the theoretical and
parts:
methodical work that follows we have developed and
deployed a game design model that takes into account
Theoretical: “What is the optimal correlation
the whole interpretation of the subject-field regarding
between game design and game business models
the implementations of business models in video
when the purpose is to create an entertaining player
games.

6
experience with a sustainable business model?” in order to frame and answer the main research
question. The work questions are described in the
Methodic: “How are revenue mechanics applied into following chapter: Work method and framing of the
the design of a game?” project.

From this problem, a number of work questions arose

1. INTRODUCTION 7
Chapter 2

WORK METHOD
AND FRAMING
OF THE PROJECT

The work method introduces the reader to the

research strategy principles of Robert K. Yin and
philosophical reasoning of the Systems view, which are
the key elements of the overall methodic frame of the
project.

As such, the chapter clarifies the research approach

utilized throughout this master’s thesis and further
relates the methodic approach to its primary scientific
connection.
 2 WORK METHOD
AND FRAMING OF
THE PROJECT
Throughout this chapter, we will present our framing thesis. The chapter ends with critical reflections on the
of the project and the methodic approach. As different use of case studies for research.
research objectives require different research
approaches it is essential to create a very clear and
transparent structure of the chosen methodology (Yin,
2009, p. 53) throughout the documentation process. 2.1 WORK QUESTIONS
As such, the purpose of this chapter is to clarify the In order to answer the research question we have to
philosophical and methodological approach selected identify all the underlying components of the research
and applied in the thesis. Furthermore, the approach question and divide them into several problem areas.
is critically discussed in regards to the mitigation of In order to target each problem area, the areas are
possible pitfalls and drawbacks associated with the each assigned with related but independent research
chosen approach. questions. The larger targets are cohesively directed
toward answering the relative solubility of the main
The chapter is divided into six sections: the first research question.
section focuses on a framing the project by explaining
the purpose of the project, our scope and limitations By combining and comparing the knowledge gained
and the logic coherence in the project. The second through answering each of the related research
section describes the research process leading to the questions, we arrive at a better understanding of the
conclusion of the thesis. The third section describes the problem area as an expansive target, and therein lie
philosophical reasoning behind how we, as researchers, the argumentative grounds for answering the main
perceive reality (Abnor & Bjerke, p. 179). The fourth research question. The work questions are divided
section describes the chosen research strategy and into three categories, connected to the two primary
the methods and tools associated with this. The fifth problem areas of the research: the first category is the
section explains how the research strategy, methods questions connected to the area of game design, the
and tools are instrumental components in ensuring second area is questions to the field of game business
the credibility, reliability and validity of research of the models, and the third concerns the questions that
connect the two domains. These three categories

WORK METHOD

10
 how they can help solve social problems. McGonigal
introduces four traits, which she uses to define games.
These traits will help us to reach a definition on what
a video game is. Roger Caillois a French sociologist and
writer of the book “Man, Play and Games”, a work that
seeks out to define what play and game is and defines
games as something that is a voluntary activity as a
source of enjoyment and amusement. Roger Caillois
further explores what a game is by framing four types
of play, providing further insight into what types of
games exist.
Katie Zalen and Eric Zimmerman are the authors on
one the most significant books on game design in
resent time, “Rules of Play”. Their comprehensive work
on game design will be used to further support the
presented theory, and add to the overall understanding
of how we view video games.

Figure 4: The work questions provides an approach

to answering the research question and creates
2.1.2 WHAT IS AN
focus areas for the research. ENTERTAINING GAME?
This work problem seeks to understand what, exactly,
constitutes an entertaining game. This will help us
encompass the entirety of our method.
determine, by relative degrees, whether or not applied
monetization features in a given game development
Throughout this section, we will present the selected
have compromised the entertaining aspect of a game
literature for answering our work question. We have
experience. It also provides a foundation from which
received literature counseling from AUB (Aalborg
we can assess whether a given monetization feature
Universitets Bibliotek), in regards to optimizing key
is well functional in a given game development cycle.
search words, and where to locate relevant and
We are aware of the inconsistency in regards to the
recommended research sources.
terminology, when describing what we will determine
as an entertaining experience, e.g. fun, enjoyable
or engaging. We have selected Raph Koster (Koster,
2.1.1 WHAT IS A VIDEO GAME?
2013), as our primary source, as we believe his view
In oIn order to clarify video game definitions we adhere
can contribute to uncover this work problem. In his
to the attributes set by the scholars, Jane McGonigal
book, “A Theory of Fun For Game Design”, Koster
(McGonigal, 2011), Katie Zalen, Eric Zimmerman (Salen
explores the key elements of fun, and sheds lights
& Zimmerman, 2004) and Roger Caillois (Caillois,
on why some games are only fun to play for a couple
1958). Their framing of what constitutes games and
of minutes and why some are cherished for years or
how this translates into what a video game is are
returned to with more frequency.
important for how we, as a thesis group, collectively
define video games.
To gain a more in-depth understanding of what other
Through her book, “Reality is broken – why games
elements are keys to the creation of an enjoyable
makes us better and how they can change the world”.
game experience, and what makes players immerse
Jane McGonigal, highly appraised American game
themselves and stay in the game, we have included
designer, introduces an interesting view on games, and

2. WORK METHOD 11
theory regarding immersion and player engagement. Pigneur, 2010) business model canvas.
This theory is illuminated through Frans Maÿra’s Secondly, the work problem seeks to understand the
(Mäyrä, 2008) theory regarding three types of individual parts of the business model. This is done by
immersions; sensory, imaginative and challenged looking at the revenue model and connected revenue
based, and through Henrik Schoenau-Fog’s (Schoenau- mechanics.
Fog, 2011) article, The Player Engagement Process – An To uncover the work problem, we have selected Tim
Exploration of Continuation Desire in Digital Games. Fields and Brandon Cotton’s (Fields & Cotton, 2012)
book “The Social Game Design Monetization Methods
and Mechanics”. Furthermore we will use Oscar Clark’s
2.1.3 WHAT IS GAME DESIGN? (Clark, 2014) book “Games as a Service” and Will
In this thesis we explore the field of game design Luton’s (Luton, 2013) “Free-2-play: Making Money
through empirical studies, drawing on both a From Games You Give Away”.
theoretical and methodological basis. We draw The approach provides us with the foundations needed
upon published theory of game design to develop a to help us determine the correlation between a game’s
theoretical framework, to create a terminology and business model and the design of a video game.
general understanding of games. The framework
is essential to our research question—the field of This chapter provides a definition of our project’s
game design is one of the two primary fields of our use of the term: ‘game revenue model’ and ‘revenue
research. The theoretical framework draws upon mechanics’.
the work of the following game theoreticians, Franz
Mäyrä (Mäyrä, 2008), Katie Salen, Eric Zimmerman
(Salen & Zimmerman, 2004), Jane McGonigal 2.1.5 WHAT IS THE
(McGonigal, 2011), Jesper Juul (Juul, 2013) and CORRELATION BETWEEN GAME
Jenova Chen (Chen, 2006). DESIGN AND GAME REVENUE
However, the research of the thesis requires more MODELS?
than a theoretical understanding of games. We This work problem seeks to uncover what the
need to gain knowledge of how games are created interconnections between the two domains of game
in practice. Therefore, the study also draws upon design and revenue models consist of. In order to
knowledge obtained through interviews with game solve this we work on the basis of the answers of the
design practitioners and our own experiences creating previously stated work problems pertaining to game
and designing games. Through the knowledge design and revenue models.
obtained with this dual approach, the study analyzes This synthesis of related research issues leads to a
specific games towards the objective of a layered theoretical framework. Game design and business
critical understanding of their game designs, which models are linked to analyze games—in order to clarify
contributes to the study of the connections between the connections between game design and game
game design and game business models. business models.

2.1.4 WHAT IS A GAME BUSINESS 2.1.6 WHAT IS A GAME

MODEL? CREATION CYCLE?
The work problem is divided into two sub-sections. We seek to understand and define the game creation
Firstly, the objective is to understand ‘the business cycle. Therefore, we will explicate what constitutes the
model’ as a whole and what a sustainable business different phases of a game development process, both
model is. This is achieved through Alexander from a business and creative perspective.
Osterwalder and Yves Pigneur’s (Osterwalder & This work problem is directly linked to our second

12
hypothesis that concerns what production phase it The model presented throughout this thesis, will not
is most beneficial to implement a business model, be used in a real game production, however it will be
considering here a game creation cycle in its entirety. used to analyze selected video games.
It is essential to understand and define this work
problem in order to acquire the necessary knowledge
to profit from this thesis for actual production. We look 2.3 SCOPE AND
for optimal knowledge on the basis of our interviews.
Qualitative concerns may be addressed as founded
LIMITATION OF
on our ability to conduct interviews (data collection), RESEARCH
analyze the data and render it presentable. Over the years, researchers from different disciplines
have studied games from different perspectives (Mäyra,
The framing of the game creation cycle is based upon 2008, p. 2), ranging from sociological, neurological to
a combination of scholarly sources and practitioners: economical science etc. Therefore, the approaches to
Heather Maxwell Chandler (Chandler, 2014), Dan Irish studying games are manifold, and come with diverse
(Irish, 2005), Claus F. Rosenstand and Per K. Lauersen understandings and perspectives. When approaching
(Rosenstand & Kyed-Lauersen, 2013). Furthermore, such an interdisciplinary research field it is essential to
we will reflect upon this material on the basis of our outline the focus and limitations of the study.
personal experiences with developing games. This thesis focuses on the two domains of game design
and business models in video games.

Business
2.2 PURPOSE OF THE
Due to the fact that the term ‘business model’ can
PROJECT principally be used to cover every aspect of a business,
The following is a list that summarizes the overall we have chosen to limit the scope of our research.
approach of our project, the purpose of the thesis and Hence, we will not be focusing on estimating the
its contribution to the field: degree of success in regards to the financial aspect
of the business model in regards to marketing and
1. To identify the connections between game design advertisement.
and business models in a game development
process. Game design
2. To develop a model for game developers, both as The game design domain covers a wide spectrum of
a standalone tool and in relation to the business elements; to include all of these components would
models, based on theory and practical knowledge require a different timeframe. Therefore we will not
from industry veterans and academics alike. focus on exactly how a feature is technically produced
3. To test, review and revise the model iteratively or how the feature ought to be designed aesthetically
throughout the project by using it in our state- and narratively by a game developer. This is both in
of-the-art analysis and having it peer reviewed by regard to the aesthetics of sound design, visual design
active game developers. and the narrative structure of a game.

Through these three steps, the thesis develops a Ethics

method with the ambition to improve praxis, in Much has been criticized concerning the use of real
regards to creating an entertaining game experience, world money in free-to play games. Critics, gamers and
with a sustainable business model. developers alike are in a constant debate over how
to fairly monetize on free-to-play games. Sometimes
IIt is important to note the difference between using a the discussion is simply framed: “is a developer evil
model for an analytical purpose as opposed to praxis.

2. WORK METHOD 13
or good?” Although interesting, the proportionately context of use.
nonacademic quality of this general debate dictates its
exclusion here. Our focus is strictly on how to optimize
a game design and a games revenue model. However,
we recognize this debate as an important aspect of the 2.4 VISUALIZATION
social considerations that go into the development of OF THE LOGICAL
games. We have researched how the European Fair
COHERENCE IN THE
Trades Commission intends to change how developers
need to be more transparent regarding communication THESIS
of what “free” means. In this part of the introduction, we will try to sum up
the projects research question, area of concern, the
Technology primary literature to be used in the thesis as well
This thesis is only concerned with the analysis of PC as what we hope to contribute to the field of Game
and Mobile platform games. These two platforms are Design. This will be done through the use of Lars
currently the main areas where free-to-play games Mathiassens model (Mathiassen, 2010). The model
are released. Both platforms are also widely known to will serve as an overview of the thesis and is used
utilize microtransactions. However, we do recognize to visualize the logical coherence in the thesis. The
that other platforms do utilize these features, such as formal model (Figure 5 on page 15), clarifies the
video game consoles that have a completely different thesis elements and its dependencies and relations to
one another.

14
 Figure 5: The Mathiassen-model of the project visualizating
the locgical coherence in the thesis

2. WORK METHOD 15
2.5 RESEARCH PROCESS The vertical axis goes from ‘theory’ to ‘in practice’ and
The following is a description of the process of the the horizontal axis from ‘analysis’ to ‘synthesis’. The
project and the order of phases we planned in order horizontal axis indicates if we are in the process of
to reach our research objectives. analyzing or synthesizing and the vertical axis shows if
‘Research process’ is broad in scope and includes it is a theoretical or practical approach. The application
everything that must be determined before a project of the axes of this model divides our game based
can proceed. It provides the structure of what has to research into four sections:
be achieved, how to implement said structure and how
progress will be verified; it is also the starting point of 4. The process of analyzing theory:
a project cycle. a. Game design and business model theory.
Every project has to follow a series of phases, allowing 5. The process of analyzing practice:
the process to be guided from the moment a problem/ a. An exciting product like state of the art
task is identified until it is solved. This series of phases video games or development experiences
constitutes the ‘project cycle’ and can be described as (qualitative evaluation: e.g., our own
a way of identifying a hierarchy of project goals and experiences, expert interviews etc.).
objectives that are linked by causal relationships. 6. The process of creating a synthesis - designing
new theory:
The overall process and methodology of the thesis a. The correlation between game design and a
are guided by the model illustrated in the ‘Process games business model.
Compass’ (Figure 6 on page 16), the construction 7. The process of creating a synthesis - designing
of the model is inspired by a lecture given by Claus F. new concepts
Rosenstand. a. Construction of a new concepts/methods to
be used in practice.

Figure 6: The seven phases of our master’s thesis represents both our work process and structure of the thesis.
The model shows the main movement throughout the project, an iterative process between the different phas-
es.

16
Figure 7: The seven phases of our master’s thesis represents both our work process and structure, an iterative
process between the different phases.

2. WORK METHOD 17
The natural flow through the model is indicated by followed by the acquisition of practical insights that
the arrows: first a theoretical framework has to be came from developing our own games. Throughout
constructed through the analysis of known theory our DADIU semester, developing two games, we were
in order to analyze practice. Secondly, new theory is able to further peer review our Game Design Model
conceptually formed, which may now be practically and 8th semester hypothesis through short interviews
applied and tested. By combining the analysis of with game industry veterans and academic instructors
known theory and the analysis of new practices that who gave lectures at DADIU (See “About us” for more
are actively tested, a new theory is formed. As a final information about DADIU).
step, the synthesis of the knowledge from new theory Moreover, well-established and recognized interview
and the critical reflections on new practices leads to a sources like Gamasutra and Games Industry
new set of concepts/methods—a new design. International provide valuable insights for the probe
and learn segment.
During the process of our data collection and analysis
we gain new perspectives as investigators. We believe This testing of our hypothesis is completed through
it is important to utilize this flexibility. In order to critically trustworthy sources, pilot interviews, and
create the best possible result, we therefore work in an articles. Collectively, the probe and learn leads to a
iterative frame whereby we go back and forth between better understanding; hence our area of concern and
different phases, refining our theoretical framework research objective is scoped.
used to collect and analyze our data. As such, since we
work in an agile and iterative manner, some phases are
conducted simultaneously, others chronological. 2.5.2 PHASE 2 - PLAN
In the following pages we cover the research process In this phase we identify our research questions, which
of this thesis. This is described in seven phases: lead to decisions regarding our research strategy and
design and to a comprehension of its strengths and
1. Probe and learn limitations.
2. Plan
3. Theoretical framework
4. Data gathering 2.5.3 PHASE 3 - THEORETICAL
5. Data gathering and analysis FRAMEWORK
6. Synthesis Theory on business models and game design that
7. Discussion and conclusion we have found suitable for the illumination of our
area of concern is explained and clarified in this
phase. Moreover, it is consolidated into a theoretical
2.5.1 PHASE 1 - PROBE AND framework, which is used to perform our data
LEARN gathering and analysis.
The main purpose of this phase is to create the The construction of a theoretical framework should
foundation for the rest of the project in terms of be present whether a study is to be explanatory,
identifying and defining our area of concern and descriptive, or exploratory (Yin, 2009, p. 40). Using
research objective. The first step in the probe and learn theory is a contributing factor in designing the
process is to test some of the initial hypotheses of the appropriate research design and data collection (Yin,
area of concern at the very beginning of the project. 2009, p. 40). As such, the theoretical framework also
Having already engaged in a pilot project during becomes the main drive for generalizing statements
our 8th semester, our probe and learn phase was on the outcome of the study.
technically initiated before this thesis. This was Accordingly the main purpose of this phase is to create

18
a critically feasible/scientifically valid theoretical In this phase, our selected games are analyzed on the
framework for analyzing our selected games, basis of our theoretical framework. Each game analysis
interviews and literary sources. consists of three steps:
As previously described, an iterative approach allows
the team to learn more throughout our data collection 1. Business model analysis
and analysis. Redefining aspects of the theoretical 2. Game design analysis
framework for collection and analyzing our data 3. ‘Linkage’
maintains sagacity.
These steps should not be viewed as black and white,
i.e. absolute. There are overlaps and iterations between
2.5.4 PHASE 4 - DATA them. Because of given iterations we conduct the data
COLLECTION gathering while analyzing, which in turn serves the
In this phase we collect our data through selected construction of our synthesis.
games, interviews, and literary sources. As previously
mentioned, this phase contains a certain amount of
analysis, which is one of the characteristics of case 2.5.6 PHASE 6 - SYNTHESIS
study research wherein data gathering and analysis In this phase the synthesis for our project is described
are, more or less, conducted parallel (Yin, 2009). and discussed.
The first step is to conduct the cross-case analysis of all
our empirical sources, which will lead to the theoretical
and methodical construction (synthesis).
Next, the construction is peer reviewed from industry
veterans and academics alike.
Finally, we evaluate and refine our ‘constructions’ based
upon feedback from peer reviews. We then pivot back
and arrive at a newly refined construction—reviewed
and then again refined—until the overall synthesis of
the project is presented as our contribution to the
field.
Figure 8: An overview over
phase 3: Theoretical Framework. Theory Fi: sources
indenpendent of our main thery.
Theory Fa: sources directly related to our problem 2.5.7 PHASE 7 - DISCUSSION AND
statement and area of concern
CONCLUSION
This is a phase of reflection, where important
2.5.5 PHASE 5 - ANALYSIS issues and weaknesses of our constructed practical
Our respondent’s statements and points of views are framework are discussed. Part of this process is critical
categorized, analyzed and evaluated (on the basis of reflection on other cases. We draw on constructive
self-constructed matrixes). This is done to display a criticism, from within the group examination, and
user-friendly overview of our interview data, i.e. our from our peer reviews. A final discussion attempts to
results. establish how important issues may be solved and how
The interviews and study of literary sources serve as potential solutions could ostensibly be implemented in
ways of identifying areas of interest in relation to our a further iteration of the framework.
selected games. This identification of consequential The above describes the process of how we attempt to
interests thus results in a refinement of our theoretical review our project as a whole, what we have uncovered
framework for further analysis. through analysis and evaluation, and what we have

2. WORK METHOD 19
learned through practice. We strive to determine 2.6.1 THE SYSTEMS VIEW
the degree to which our goals and expectations have In the book Methodology for Creating Business
been met and try to provide backing for the reasoning Knowledge, Ingeman Arbnor and Björn Bjerke present
behind our conclusions. The conclusion as a whole three different methodological approaches to create
must be written with scientific validity and is therefore knowledge. Each view has its own empiricism and
carefully weighed against the principles that we have perspective of how to create knowledge. (Arbnor &
used methodically throughout the whole project. Bjerke, 2009, p. 48) Two views that the thesis does not
employ are the Analytical View and the Actors View.
However, since they are not part of the methodological
2.6 EPISTEMOLOGY approach of this thesis, we shall not go into detail
In the following pages we describe our philosophy of with these categories. Nonetheless, a brief difference
science and how we apply this in practice. In order between the three views can be seen in Figure 9 on
to be able to study the connections between game page 21. Instead the thesis focuses on explaining
design and business models and claim methodological The Systems View and its significance for the thesis.
validity, we must first explain our epistemic conception
of the field of video games, i.e. our approach to the The primary goal of the systems view is to explain or to
subject of the thesis. understand the facts of the perceived reality. (Arbnor &
This establishes grounds for a fundamental Bjerke, 2009, p. 50) One of the key parts to the systems
understanding of our collective perspective on video view, according to Arbnor and Bjerke, is that no parts
games and helps us distinguish between the lines of can be seen in isolation from the other parts. The parts
scientific method in relation to our selves as individual of a specific item of research are interconnected and
subjects. That being said, it is important to point out have to be seen as a system of parts.
that we do not omit, or completely disregard our own
subjectivities throughout the research. We believe that This way of perceiving reality is an ideal match for the
the preclusion of our own subjectivity for the research purpose of this thesis; a thesis where understanding
of this thesis is not only unfeasible but not useful. games’ monetization methods and explaining said
methods are of the highest importance. We cannot
Our subjectivity has an essential influence on our simply look at what monetization methods we
understanding of video games and on our empirical identify within the games, but have to look at how the
work; we are aware that this may result in misguided monetization methods are implemented in the games
predispositions and consequently results of a given through game features and how monetization fits into
study. However, the critical buffer of awareness of the game as a whole. The goal is to answer why the
subjectivity provides a better basis for the discernment monetization methods are included and why they
of when our subjectivity is positively contributive influence the game in a certain way.
and when it is an unfavorable factor. Immanuel Kant One of the key assumptions of the systems view is that
stated that there is no such thing as objective reality; the whole differs from the sum of its parts. This can be
we always perceive reality through our own cognitive explained through an illustration as seen in Figure 10
constructed framework (Kant, 2008, p.199). We explain on page 21.
our epistemic approach through Ingeman Arbnor and
Björn Bjerke’s methodological System View and define The example indicates how different components,
what this approach means for the research and its connected to the whole of a certain reality, shape
results. Lastly, this section functions as an explanation another result or explanation of reality than the
of a slightly more general group perspective on video components, in isolation, might suggest. In video
games and related approach, the latter being further games, there are easily a multitude of possible
explicated in the methodology chapter. components connected to the reality of the game

20
Figure 9: The focus of the systems view is to both explain and understand a certain
reality through both an objectivistic and subjectivistic conception of reality.

one is exploring. Monetization methods are often to gain knowledge that reflects the reality of a given
connected to microtransaction features, several other game, we have to look at each component connected
game features, the games’ genre and platform, as well to the specific knowledge that we aim to obtain from
as the player-base of the game and the market of the the reality of the game in question, and furthermore
game. consider the reality of the game’s context.

In order to explain why the reality of the specific game The systems view originates from general system
is successful or not, and whether the monetization theory, which is an interdisciplinary, multi-perspectival
methods of the game is a strength or weakness, we domain that draws on concepts from the fields of
have to look at all the connected components of the computer science, business, economics and sociology
game that influence this reality. To summarize: in order (Arbnor & Bjerke, 2009, p. 102). The systems
view affiliates itself with the traditional academic
perspectives of Structuralism and Holism that, in short,
results in the two main assumptions of the systems
view: Structuralism is the study of relationships
between elements, which when identified, can be
usefully explored to gain knowledge, and Holism
assumes that knowledge of reality is acquired by
looking at the whole of all the acquainted parts, which
Figure 10: The whole differs from the sum of its differs from looking at the sum of parts.
parts is one of the primary assumptions of the sys-
tems view.

2. WORK METHOD 21
2.6.2 CRITICISM OF THE 2.7.1 A CASE STUDY APPROACH
SYSTEMS VIEW Based upon our RQ, which we have framed (see 1.3
One of our main concerns of the systems view is that, Work questions), our case consist of two problems:
through its holistic view, it always aims to identify new what is game design (A) and what is a games business
components to contribute to the whole that might model (B) and the correlation between the two (A+B).
create a new knowledge of reality. More accurately, it We have chosen a case study approach to research our
might lead the study to a point where differentiation question in order to provide grounds for a new theory.
between factors that can be defined as components
to the whole and factors that cannot proves difficult: Choosing a research method is dependent on the
this occurs because of the amount of content that object of interest. According to Yin, three conditions
the systems view tries to include. Furthermore, the determine which research method is appropriate (Yin,
amount of components might result in the study 2009, p. 8):
containing so many contradictory conceptions that
it becomes impossible to distill a valid answer to the 1. The type of research question posed
research question at hand and confirm or demerit its 2. The extent of control an investigator has over
connected hypotheses. actual behavioral events
3. The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed
Nonetheless, we argue that the complexity of the to historical events
systems view is a necessity in order to ascertain
proper knowledge of the reality in which our area of From these three conditions the table in Figure 11 on
concern exists. By simplifying the study, we would page 23 was constructed. The table shows how each
impair the validity of the study. Rather than arriving at of the conditions are related to the five major research
indefensible conclusions, we admit to doubts regarding methods: experiments, surveys, archival analyses,
peripherals, and sometimes complexities, of making a histories, and case studies.
general case of the interrelated components of our
research. One of the ways the study adapts to this The first condition covers the research question(s),
decision is to sacrifice generalization in exchange for a basic categorization for question types like: who,
specificity. We do not wish to generalize on something what, where, how and why questions. According to
that is not generalizable according to our findings: Yin, posing questions like “how” and “what” leads
specifying elements of study is done instead. to either explanatory or exploratory exposition, in
either case, a case study method is applicable (Yin,
This section has covered the epistemology and 2009, p. 9). Additionally, the method is readily applied
ontology behind the study specifically connected to to investigate meaningful characteristics of real-
the study’s area of concern. The study now presents life events, such as organizational and managerial
the methodological approach which is used to obtain processes (Kohlbacher, 2006, p. 3).
the knowledge required to explore the research
question at hand and the connected hypotheses. Theoretical: “What is the optimal correlation
between game design and game business models
when the purpose is to create an entertaining player
2.7 THE CASE STUDY AS experience with a sustainable business model?”

A RESEARCH STRATEGY Methodic: “How are revenue mechanics applied into

This section describes and reflects upon the chosen
the design of a game?”
research strategy and the associated methods and
tools.
As described in the in section 1.2, our research

22
 3) Focuses on
1) Form of Research 2) Requires Control of Comtemporary
METHOD Question Behavioral Events? Events?

how, why? yes yes

Experiment

who, what, where, how no yes

Survey many, how much?

who, what, where, how no yes/no

Archival Analysis many, how much?

how, why? no no
History

how, why? no yes

Case Study

Figure 11: Relevant situation for different research methods (Yin, 2009, p. 8)

question is both theoretical and methodological: its research. This requires that we make use of several
focus is to understand “what” the optimal correlation methods for the collection of our data and related
between game design and game business models analyses; the challenge is how we structure a study
is—it is also seeks to answer the question of “how” whereby the results are reliable and valid. As such,
this is established in a game creation cycle. As this will choosing a case study approach is the most optimal
be answered through e.g. analysis, literature studies solution, because the methodology and procedures
and interviews, we as the investigators of the study, of case study supports the incorporation of multiple
will have little to no control of the outcome of the methods and has a strong focus on how to create a
research. Choosing case study as an all-encompassing reliable and valid study.
method, is according to Yin the right solution in such
an altering case (Yin, 2009, p. 13).
Because we seek to investigate, the two domains of 2.7.2 WHAT IS A CASE STUDY?
game design and business models and their causal l Case study research, as an approach, has the potential
links, which is done in order to couple the two and to deal with both simple and complex situations. The
achieve the most optimal correlation, the grounds for case study is often used as a research strategy to study
a case study are indeed sound. complex social phenomena (Yin, 2009, p. 4). Robert
K. Yin defines case study research as an “empirical
Before we may obtain knowledge about the whole, it inquiry” (Yin, 2009, p. 18), where the types of study
is necessary to investigate all the components (Arbnor can be exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive or a
& Bjerke, 2009, p. 52). Based upon our aforeknown combination.
theoretical and practical knowledge we initiate on Furthermore, he describes the distinguishing
the basis that there are many components in games characteristics of the case study as an attempt to
important to process in answering our research examine:
question. Furthermore, there are many possible
sources of evidence (literary sources, interviews, 1. A contemporary phenomenon in its real-life
state-of-the-art game analyses) to collect data for our context, especially when the boundaries between

2. WORK METHOD 23
 phenomenon and context are not clearly evident The method puts a big requirement on the
(Yin, 2009, p. 18). documentation process because there is a higher
risk for over-interpretation of the data to a degree by
As such, it is preferable to use case study as a which it is rendered invalid. Therefore, it is necessary
research strategy, if one seeks to obtain an in-depth to clarify when and where the analysis has been
understanding of a real-life phenomenon, which also conducted, creating a clear chain of evidence (Yin,
encompasses understanding the important contextual 2009, p. 122). To achieve this, it is essential to be clear
conditions that surround this phenomenon (Yin, 2009, about the goal of the project and how it is planned to
p. 18). For instance, a study of the decision making be executed.
(Baxter & Jack, 2008, p. 545) in game development.
It enables the researcher to answer “how” and
“why” orientated questions and to gather data from 2.8 IMPLEMENTATION
a multitude of sources and then contextualize and
narrate the data to illuminate the case.
OF CASE STUDY
In the following sections, we will explain from which
The type of design may be either single or multiple case
criteria we have created our research design, and
studies. The procedural characteristics of including
elaborate the methods selected as befitting to ensure
multiple sources of evidence provides the researcher
the validity and reliability of our data collection and
the ability to search for and identify more consistent
thesis product.
patterns of evidence across units (sources of evidence)
in a triangulating fashion. Case study does not imply
the use of a specific type of evidence and can be
2.8.1 COMPONENTS OF
conducted as either using quantitative or qualitative
RESEARCH DESIGNS
evidence. One of the big misconceptions with case
We have settled on the case study as our research
study research is that they are solely the result of
strategy. The next step is to consider how to construct
ethnographies or participant observation (Yin, 1983,
our research design. Yin emphasizes the need for
p. 59). Furthermore, it does not imply a specific data
a proper research design, as a way of assuring that
collection method but comprises an all-encompassing
the data of your empirical research is consistent
method. As such, it represents a research strategy
with the initial research questions (Yin, 2009, p. 24).
or set of guiding principles for performing research
Furthermore, this ensures that any conclusions drawn
that can be adapted to a multiple fields of study for
in the thesis emerge from the right foundations. The
different purposes (Yin, 2009, p. 4).
research design functions as both an overview of our
One of the main attributes that sets case study
research and an executable game plan that forces us to
research apart from other approaches is that the
consider key elements before conducting our research
data gathering process and analysis, generally, are
and changes along the way.
performed in parallel (Yin, 2011, p. 30). This is done for
When constructing the research design, Yin proposes
the purpose of:
five components that are important to consider (Yin,
2009, p. 27):
1. Managing the collected data, as the amount
gathered is often unmanageable if not analyzed
1. A study’s questions
as an ongoing process and rendered into a more
2. Its propositions
functional design.
3. Its unit(s) of analysis
2. Allowing the researcher to be more iterative in
4. The logic linking the data to the propositions
the design, preparation and data collection of the
5. The criteria for interpreting the findings
study.

Yin presents these components as a way of specifying

24
what data that needs to be collected and how to
handle it afterwards; therefore the following model
can be constructed:

RESEARCH DESIGN 2) Requires Control of Behavioral

COMPONENTS 1) Form of Research Question Events?

The thesis’s main research question, • Construct a theoretical and me-

which determines the type of thesis. thodical research question, resulting
in a explanatory and descriptive case
study.
• Probe & learn: (8th semester pro-
ject, DADIU developing games, pilot
A study’s questions
interviews, articles).
• Counselor meetings.
• Work questions (parts)
• Defined the area of interest.
• Defined the limitations of the thesis.
• Defined a roadmap of thesis.
Focuses on bringing attention to all • Probe & learn: (8th semester pro-
the parts that needs to be covered in ject, DADIU developing games, pilot
order to fulfill the research question, interviews, articles).
leading to the limitations and scope of • Counselor meetings.
Its propositions
the thesis. • Work questions.
• Defined the area of interest.
• Defined the limitations of the thesis.
• Defined a roadmap of thesis.
Defines the “case” of the study. Correlation between business models
and game design:
Its unit(s)
• People from the games industry.
of analysis
• State the of art video games.
• Literature studies.
The logic linking the Methods that will help process the • Pattern matching.
data to collected data in a logical way that will • Cross-case synthesis.
the propositions strengthen the analysis.
Focuses on assuring the interpretation • Identifying and addressing any rival
of the data is proper, that we do not explanations will contribute to the
omit any important details, if there are quality of the interpretations.
The criteria for
rival explanations on our findings. • Address the rival explanation as we
interpreting the
construct our theoretical framework.
findings
• Address them in our discussion
chapter, to illuminate any perspectives
they might bring to our thesis.

Figure 12: Components for the thesis research design

2. WORK METHOD 25
Figure 12 on page 25 gives an overview of how we you also can judge the quality of any
have utilized Yin’s five components in order to construct given design according to certain logical
our research design. Some of the components have tests.” - (Yin, 2009, p. 40)
already been explained through the thesis, whereas
others are expounded in the respective sections where Yin lists four tests that add to the quality of a case
they appear. study research shown in Figure 13 on page 26.

From Figure 13 on page 26 we have constructed

2.8.2 VALIDITY AND the model shown in Figure 14 on page 27, based
RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH on Yin’s terms and theory. The model shows what
In this section, we focus on how to establish the quality methods we utilize in order to obtain validity and
of our research. As Yin points out: reliability throughout this thesis.
In the following sections we explain why the selected
“…because a research design is supposed strategy is important for our project, and why we have
to represent a logical set of statements, chosen to utilize the method.

Phase of Research in
TESTS Case Study Tactic Which Tactic Occurs

• Use multiple sources of evidence Data collection

• Establish chain of evidence Data collection
Construct Validity
• Have key informants review draft Composition
case study report
• Do pattern matching Data analysis
• Do explanation building Data analysis
Internal Validity
• Address rival explanations Data analysis
• Use logic models Data analysis
• Use theory in single-case studies Research design
External Valididy • Use replication logic in multiple-case Research design
studies
• Use case study protocol Data collection
Reliability • Develop case study database Data collection

Figure 13: The four test Yin states will add to the quality of the case study research

26
 Phase of
Research in
Which Tactic Action Takenby
TESTS Case Study Tactic Occurs Investigator

Triangulation – use of Data collection Expert Interviews, Literature studies, state

multiple sources of of the art game analysis.
evidence.
Establish a chain of Data collection Thorough research design, that allows the
evidence. Data analysis reader to see how the conclusions were
derived from the gathered material and
Construct how the gathered material relates to the
Validity conclusions.
Have key personnel Theoretical Peer reviewed our theoretical framework
review our theoretical framework for analysis.
framework for analysis.
Have key personnel re- Synthesis • Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
view our construction • Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance
(contribution). Director on Candy Crush Saga, King
Pattern matching Data analysis Internal review of results by all the evalua-
cross-case synthesis. tors.

Internal
Validity Address rival explana- Data analysis Addressed in the theory and discussion
tions. chapter and throughout the thesis.

Application of replica- Research design The data gathered were focused on the
tion logic. same criteria, ex – same questions were
External
asked for all interviews. Furthermore, we
Valididy
tested our theory on different cases, ex –
selected video games.
Have key informants Data collection Done through counseling.
review draft case
study.

Reliability Construction of a case Data collection Creation of a shared folder on Dropbox,

study database. functions as the thesis group’s database. All
interviews were recorded and transcribed.
Recordings and transcriptions can be locat-
ed in the included data storage device.

Figure 14: Case Study Tactics for Four Design Tests (Yin, 2009, p. 81)

2. WORK METHOD 27
2.8.2.1 Constructing validity consider.
“Construct validity: identifying correct
operational measures for the concepts To further construct validity framework for the thesis,
being studied” - (Yin, 2009, p. 40) we have thus tried to provide the reader with ample
evidence about our interviews and other sources,
Constructing validity is relevant for any salient thesis. allowing any information to be examined and
Moreover, validity backing helps strengthen our data authenticated. This means that anyone who reads the
collection and analysis, and provides a better basis for thesis may follow a chain of evidence and logic to see
our framework and synthesis. Yin refers to the three how we have reached the presented results (Yin, 2009,
tactics for the construction of validity: p. 122). To make this possible, Yin proposes to correctly
and sufficiently use citations, and present the time and
1. Use multiple sources of evidence place of the conducted interviews (Yin, 2009, p. 123).
2. Establish chain of evidence This kind of documentation is common practice among
3. Have key informants review draft case study universities, and is also something we consider a given,
report but nonetheless important to be aware of.

In order to create valid conclusions and results we

have conducted expert interviews, not only to gain a 2.8.2.2 Internal validity
deeper insight to the field of game development, but “Internal validity … seeking to establish
also to see if the respondents share the same view on a causal relationship, whereby certain
different subjects. conditions are believed to lead to other
When required to approach multiple sources, critical conditions, as distinguished from spurious
afterthoughts on validity have given us the opportunity relationships” - (Yin, 2009, p. 40)
to better investigate our area of interest, and make use
of perspectives from a variety of people who works Internal validity is important to the thesis for several
in the same industry (Yin, 2009, p. 115). Reflecting reasons. We are dealing with a partially explanatory
critically on contexts and how they effect different and exploratory case study that seeks to establish the
perspectives and answers lead to research validity. If causal relationship between game design and game
one or more opinions converge on a given set of ideas business models. To establish this relationship, our
for a given subject, validity of any derived results are analysis attempts to consider every aspect of our data
arguably provided. This is the material we choose to material. This helps prevent inferences, and it assures
present throughout the thesis. that we did not dismiss considerations that might have
big impact on our findings; having done so might have
The expert interviews play an important part in reduced the validity of the thesis. We have approached
the creation of our theoretical framework, and this in the analysis phase by matching patterns in the
the development of our Game Design Model. To empirical data with our hypotheses (Yin, 2009, p. 43).
supplement the development of our framework and Conclusions of substance are more complete if/when
the GDM, we have conducted the critical study of the hypotheses, on a given subject, match patterns in
related theory. This has provided us with additional the gathered material.
sources to strengthen the validity of the results. In conducting several expert interviews, we have
matched the interviews with each other to see where
Having a variety of expert interviews and literature opinions coincide. This has been done through a
that complement each other is important for our data matrix, which consists of the different topics and the
collection and analysis. However, the correct usage of names of each respondent. On this basis we have been
any of our gathered material is equally important to able to form a cross-case synthesis that strengthens our

28
findings. Through our analysis, we have also addressed of the surrounding circumstances prior to the data
so-called rival explanations in our empirical data (Yin, collection and case study project (Yin, 2009, p.45). This
2009, p. 139). Due to the different backgrounds and grants the reader an overview that can help retrace
perspectives of individual respondents, answers might steps, which are vital if one is to repeat a similar case
contradict one another. If the contradicting opinions study. Also, if the study were to be repeated, we have
burden key elements in the construction of our created a shared folder by using the file sharing service
theoretical framework, we pursue these perspectives Dropbox. The folder is divided into several subsections,
towards confirmation or negation through expanded covering the different chapters of the thesis, to
research. sections containing our data collection, bibliography
etc. All the key elements of the development of our
master’s thesis are accessible from this folder, were
2.8.2.3 External validity such is required.
“The third test deals with the problem of
knowing whether a study’s findings are
generalizable beyond the immediate case 2.8.3 FROM CASE STUDY TO
study.” - (Yin, 2009, p. 43) NEW THEORY
As the thesis presents several hypotheses through
External validity is correspondingly important for section 1.1 (Area of concern), it is relevant to define
our thesis because we seek to construct frameworks the requirements that allow us to construct new theory
that can be used by anyone who wants to develop based upon our selected cases. These requirements
games that utilizes microtransactions. Therefore, must be meet in accordance to the case study method
the framework must be applicable to more than (Yin, 2009, p. 38), as they define the operationalizing
one situation (Yin, 2009, p. 43). To assure this the frame that we, as the conductors of this study, must
framework has been tested; it has been brought to adapt to.
analyze various video games. The video games have This means that we treat our selected cases as
been selected from the following two criteria: The experimental structures, where theory is tested on
video games must contain microtransactions, and be several cases, which allows to us to compare/contrast
of two different genres. the empirical results against each other (Yin, 2009, p.
Furthermore, we pose the same questions to all of our 38). In our case study research, the focus is to identify
respondents, which ensures that our results are not several cases that support the applied theory, as such
an outcome of questions that have been modified to following the proposition of an analytic generalization.
favor certain answers. Yin defines analytic generalization as comparing
empirical results with previously developed theory
(Yin, 2009, p. 38.)
2.8.2.4 Reliability
“The goal of reliability is to minimize the
errors and biases in a study.” 2.9 PREJUDICES
- (Yin, 2009, p. 45)
AGAINST THE CASE
Reliability is important to obtain for this thesis, as it STUDY METHOD
determines whether the study can be conscientiously In the following section the most common concerns
repeated. Providing a model adds to the overall quality and misunderstandings about case studies are clarified
of the thesis (Yin, 2009, p.45). Therefore, we have in order to obtain greater understanding of what case
made the case study protocol available for the reader, studies implies. Moreover, we, as investigators, believe
as it will help cover a large level of detail: a description it is important to be aware of the potential drawbacks

2. WORK METHOD 29
and risks associated with a specificity of method. We of maintaining/upholding rigor of the study, with the
strive to gain the necessary knowledge to potentially meticulous methodology implemented.
avoid and/or accommodate such risks. The second concern regards the matter that case study
As investigators we have previous experiences with research provides little basis for scientific generalization
using case studies as our research strategy during (Yin, 2009, p. 15). This concern stems from the
our 8th semester project. Thus a reflection upon the commonly posted question; “How can you generalize
different concerns and misunderstandings is provided, from a single case?”. To answer this, it is important to
when appropriate. keep in mind that Yin argues that case studies must not
When looking at the use of case studies, several be seen as samples, but rather experiments, where an
investigators (Yin, 2009, p. 14) (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 219) analytic generalization can be applied. As such, the
view it as a less desirable form of inquiry compared goal of case study research is to expand and generalize
to example experiments or surveys, although the case theories (analytic generalization) rather than to
study is a distinctive form of empirical inquiry. Yin enumerate frequencies, as it is when making statistical
(2009, p. 14 - 16) poses four main concerns regarding generalization (Yin, 2009, p. 15). However, as well as
case studies: with laboratory experiments, a theory is not proved
on the behalf of one single experiment, but through
1. Lack of rigor – the case study investigator has numerous iterations, each with a slightly different
been sloppy and has not followed systematic point of origin. Therefore Yin (2009, p. 15) propose
procedures, or has allowed equivocal evidence that the humanist investigator may utilize a multiple
or biased views to influence the direction of the case study approach in order to accommodate some
findings and conclusions. of these drawbacks.
2. Little basis for scientific generalization. In our experience, it was only when we started to
3. Conducting case study research takes too long, and collect data from multiple cases and conduct cross-
they result in massive, unreadable documents. case analyses that we were able to generalize theories
4. Unable to establish causal relationships. (analytic generalization). A single case study design
would have shortcomings due to the lack of such a
Lack of rigor is one of the biggest concerns of case study multifaceted procedure.
research in its ability to threaten aspects of research Compared to the primary research questions of the
credibility and quality. On numerous occasions thesis, we believe that the second concern can be
(Yin, 2009, p. 14) the investigators might have been summarized in regards to the validity and reliability of
either unable to follow systematic procedures or the thesis.
have allowed equivocal evidence or biased views
to affect the results of the research. Yin (2009, p. The third concern is that case studies are too time
14) argues that such lack of rigor is less likely to be consuming and swamp researchers with an overload
present when using other forms of research methods. of collectively unreadable documents. However,
Published methodological documents that can provide this misconception stems from the parallels drawn
investigators specific procedures to follow are far more between case studies and participant-observations or
available in comparison to other research methods ethnography. These data collection methods requires
and in contrast to the case study research. the conductors to spend a longer period of time in the
Previous experience in conducting formal projects field of research, whereas a case study is more flexible
allows us to recognize this concern about lack of in the sense that the study in theory can be performed
rigor. As Yin (2009, p. 14) states, such experience is merely through the use of telephone and/or the
generally applicable to all methods of use in studies. internet (Yin, 2009, p. 15). This flexibility has been of
As far as this case study proceeded, we experienced great importance in our case study, as many of our
nothing extraordinary in regards to the requirements respondents have a tight schedule, but through email

30
and video calls, it has been possible to collect our data.
Furthermore, it allowed us to widen our geographical
reach. TACIT
However, this approach might not be valid for every KNOWLEDGE
case study, as the topic of research will set the limits of
what is possible to achieve. Knowledge tied to the senses, tactile experi-
Furthermore, it can be questioned whether collecting ences, movement skills, intuition, unarticualt-
data only through telephone and/or the internet, has ed mental models, or implicit rules of thumb is
provided us with the best possible results. As such, “tacit” (Nonaka and Von Krogh, 2009, p. 636).
we are aware of the loss of tacit knowledge, which
can lead to an increase of misinterpretations, when
utilizing these two specific data gathering methods quickly lose track of all the data from our multiple
(Nonaka and Von Krogh, 2009, p. 642).
sources, when the documentation procedures were
The massive overload of unreadable documents might not followed. Throughout this project, we have
not be directly linked to the case study method. accommodated these potential issues by creating
However, because of the in-depth nature of researching a pipeline (Annex 8 and 9) from which we have set
the data, it is, in our experience, very important to be the documentation procedures for this project :
meticulous in following methodological procedures thoroughly documentation version numbers, Dropbox
of documenting a case study. As we experienced folder structure, chain of evidence, meetings, team
throughout our 8th semester project, we would document reviews and so forth.

Figure 15: Shows a part of how we documented our expert interviews into matrixes. Each matrix
had a categorization topic and with a sub-set of categorizations.

2. WORK METHOD 31
Figure 16: Every respondent were specifically color-coded to be easily recognized and time-stamped.

The fourth and last concern has emerged with the case research:
increased focus on establishing causal relationships, as
the case study do not have direct way of addressing 1. General, theoretical (context-independent)
these links, due to its non-experimental nature (Yin, knowledge is more valuable than concrete,
2009, p. 16). To accommodate this issue, Yin proposes practical (context-dependent) knowledge.
to utilize the case study as way of complementing 2. One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual
such experiments, as the case study offers a sufficient case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute
method in answering “how” and “why” questions. to scientific development.
3. The case study is most useful for generating
In the paper, “The Five Misunderstandings About hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total
Case-Study”, Bent Flyvbjerg also addresses some of research process, whereas other methods are
the concerns regarding the case study method. The more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory
five misunderstandings are not exactly the same, but building.
they are of similar nature in comparison to Yin’s four. 4. The case study contains a bias toward verification,
Flyvberg (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 219) poses the following that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s
five points as the most common misunderstandings of preconceived notions. It is often difficult to

32
 summarize and develop general propositions and the rest of the observations, the proposition must be
theories on the basis of specific case studies. revised or rejected. Flyvbjerg addresses this method
5. It is often difficult to summarize and develop as way of identifying “black swans”, in relation to the
general propositions and theories on the basis of example stated by Karl Popper; “all swans are white”
specific case studies. (Popper, 2002, p. 82).

In the first point, Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 223) “What appears to be “white” often turns
argues that if you want to develop your own skills as out on closer examination to be “black””
an investigator to a high level, then concrete, context- - (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 228).
dependent experience is highly useful. Flyvbjerg
(Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 223) further establishes the As previously mentioned the purpose of the case study
usefulness of case studies by referring to Harvard research is not to focus on frequencies and thereby
University which has realized the potential and generalize about populations, but to make theoretical
practical value of conducting both teaching and propositions (Yin, 2009, p. 15). Furthermore, in regards
research in relation to case knowledge as being central to the relationship between large samples and case
to human learning. studies, W. I. B. Beveridge has been quoted as saying
Furthermore, Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 223) (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 236):
explains that there cannot exist predictive theory
in social science. In other words, a ‘true’ theoretical “More discoveries have arisen from
construct is impossible. This is primarily based upon intense observation than from statistics
the fact that proofs in social sciences are difficult applied to large groups”
to come by because of the lack of “hard” theory
(Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 224). As mentioned, case study In regards to the above quote, Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg,
research is well suited to produce context-dependent 2006, p. 226) notes that this does not necessarily
knowledge. Therefore, Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. mean that the case study method should be selected
224) revises the first misunderstanding as follows: for handling larger sample studies, or these studies are
without value.
“Predictive theories and universals cannot Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 226) raises another
be found in the study of human remark that concerns formal generalization, being
affairs. Concrete, context-dependent viewed as a primary source for scientific progress,
knowledge is, therefore, more valuable which in his opinion is wrong. Flyvbjerg points to
than the vain search for predictive theories the researcher’s ability to carry out scientific work,
and universals.” as an important factor for obtaining knowledge.
Generalization is just one way doing this, and just
Like with Yin’s (Yin, 2009, p. 15) second concern, because some knowledge cannot be generalized,
Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 224) also addresses it does not mean it cannot contribute to the overall
the issue that one cannot generalize on the base of a knowledge accumulation of the research study.
single case, in his second point. Both describe how it
is possible to gain valuable knowledge and generalize In his third point, Flyvbjerg points to another criticized
from a single case. Because of its in-depth nature, aspect of the case study, which claims that case studies
case study research can be used to perform the are better for reviewing hypotheses than creating
generalization test, ‘falsification’. Falsification is a way them. However, this misunderstanding derives from
of testing the validity of scientific propositions, which the previously discussed misunderstanding that one
in its essence means that if one observation does not is not able to generalize on the basis of single cases
agree or shows an opposite result when compared to (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 227).

2. WORK METHOD 33
Flyvbjerg’s fourth point is concerned about how 2.10 SUMMARY
certain method contains certain bias towards the The above presented methodological approach will
verification of the preconceived notions that a serve as the foundation for how we intend to gather,
subjective investigator has. However, Flyvbjerg process, and utilize our empirical data. Through this
presents this bias phenomenon as a fundamentally chapter, we have presented the following:
human characteristic, and therefore argues that it
is not particularly related to case study research. • What work questions guiding the thesis, and
Though the case study research allows investigators purpose as well as scope and limitations.
to be more subjective when processing data, this is • The process of how we intend to reach our
a general danger for other research methods as well research objectives and the different phases that
(Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 234). However, because the case constitutes this process: The overall process is
study allows more subjectivity, it has been conceived iterative throughout the master’s thesis in the
as a less rigorous. following seven phases: Probe and Learn, Plan,
Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 235) points out that Theoretical Framework, Data Collection, Analysis,
many researchers have shown that the critique is Synthesis, Discussion and Conclusion.
dismissible, and the case study can contain equally as • The scientific philosophy we intend to apply in
much rigor as other methods. order to create knowledge. System view: The
whole differs from the sum of its parts, is one of
The fifth misconception of case studies is that they are, the primary assumptions of the systems view.
in general, difficult to summarize, which is considered • The selected research method and strategy we
a drawback, when comparing it to other research have utilized in order to answer our research
methods. This is more specifically aimed towards the question in the best possible manner: Case study
process of a case and not the outcome (Flyvbjerg, research as our research strategy.
2006, p. 241). When a case study increases in difficulty, • How to assure the quality of our research: Multiple
and therefore it incapability to be summarized, it is sources of evidence, four evaluators, review and
often due the nature of the subject of research, and revise, cross-case tabulation and peer-review.
less particularly related to the case study as a research • How to create new theory based on a case study
method (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 241). Flyvbjerg (Flyvbjerg, research: It is important to create a theoretical
2006, p. 241) claims that in most cases, it is not framework for analysis, on already existing and
desirable to summarize and generalize a case study, as established theory. These will be used to analyze
he believes that they should be read as narratives in praxis, in order to create new theory.
their entirety. • Critique of the case study method: One of the
greatest concerns in conducting case study
The focus of the four concerns (Yin, 2009, p. 14) and research is that procedures are not followed
the five misunderstandings (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 249) thoroughly, in regards to validity, reliability and
of case study research can be summed up as the usability.
ability to generalize, aspects of reliability, validity and
usability. This study remains aware about the main These points are all vital parts for understanding how
concerns and possible pitfalls of conducting case study. we have reached our results, and what measures that
Therefore, in relation to this thesis and its use of the have been taken to assure that academic standards
case study approach, the main concern is how we—as have been meet.
the researchers—intend to make the study valid and
reliable.

34
Chapter 3

THEORY

The theoretical chapter introduces the underlying

foundation of the theoretical frame, which is
constructed to explore the domains of game design
and business models in video game development.

From the theoretical framing, the thesis presents two

frameworks; the Game Design Model and Revenue
Mechanics Framework which purpose is to enlighten
the correlation between the two domains and have
pragmatic value for game developers.
 3 THEORY

3.1 WHAT IS A VIDEO The goal of a game can be to kill the mon-

GAME? GOALS
key that keeps throwing barrels at you and
save the princess (Donkey Kong and Mario
The purpose of this section is to obtain a perspective type of goal)

that will help strengthening the analysis of our games

(units of analysis). This will be done by including Jane The rules in said game is, do not get hit
by a barrel or you die, jump over them
McGonigal and Roger Caillois, in order to describe RULES
instead.
some of the most significant components that can help
define what a game is.
The feedback can be both visually and
auditively, to give the player a knowledge
3.1.1 DEFINING TRAITS AND FEEDBACK
of when they are doing it right and when
TYPES OF PLAY they are doing it wrong

Jane McGonigal describes that in order for a player

to freely participate in a game, four main principles The acceptance of the above first three el-
ements are required in order for the player
(elements) must be designed: goals, rules, feedback ACCEPTANCE
to accept the game.
and acceptance. These elements are what defines
games, McGonigal claims that e.g. narrative, graphics,
interactivity and other elements that are normally Figure 17: The Four traits needed for a video game
associated with video games, are merely an effort to
enhance the four defining traits. Figure 17 illustrates
In the following, we will describe the four traits that
the four core elements of a game.
defines a game.

THEORY

36
Figure 18: Title screen for the indie game Gone Home, released on PC in 2014.

Goals of a game are outcomes that players work to rules of the game, rules are what makes games unique,
achieve, this can be an overall goal in a game or sub it is how these rules are systematized that makes for an
goals like side quests in role playing games that keeps interesting and meaningful play (Zimmermann, Salen,
the length of the game going, as well as focuses the 2004, p. 33). Without rules games would cease to be
players attention and is a way of orienting the game games, and become play rather than a game. Rules are
(McGonigal, 2010, p. 374 of 7154 EBook). Goals what places limitation for how the player is to achieve
are essential for the making of a game, without a the goal of the game, they regulate the flow of how
goal there is no sense of purpose for the player. A the game is to be played.
goal is something that players want to get to, since
achievement of the goal creates value for the player However, Caillois states that the laws of ordinary
(Kampmann, 2013, p. 41). life in society is, when playing a game, replaced by
a fixed sense of place and time. In addition, strive
In the science of video games, one tends to focus on under the guiding rules (Caillois, 1961, p. 9) that are

3. THEORY 37
 AGON ALEA MIMICRY ILINX

Games of competition Games of chance Games of roleplaying Games of perception

VIDEO GAME EXSAMPLE: VIDEO GAME EXSAMPLE: VIDEO GAME EXSAMPLE: VIDEO GAME EXSAMPLE:

Dota 2 Hearthstone Neverwinter Nights Kinect Sports

Figure 19: The four types of play by Roger Caillois, and with examples from video games

unexceptional under the game that is played, and of games that exist (Caillois, 1961, p. 12).
must be accepted by players, in order to play the game
correctly. Yet, many modern video games, like Gone The four classifications of games will help in order
Home , do not imply a strict set of rules like a game to categorize video games, not just by genre, but
of FIFA soccer does. Gone Home is very much a game also what type of game is played and to select the
about exploration and is a defining concept of letting thesis units of analysis. This will give us a better
players improvise with play, yet still set within a play understanding of how the game and what the type of
space and time. audience the games are aiming for.

“Many games do not imply a role. No Looking at a classic approach to defining games, Eric
fixed or rigid rules exist…and the chief Zimmermann and Katie Salen, argues that only by
attraction lies within playing a role, playing something can a game instantiate, and only
of acting as if one were someone or by accepting, the rules of a game can play instantiate
something else, a machine for example” (Zimmerman, Salen, 2004, p. 83).
- (Caillois, 1961, p. 8)
Jane McGonigal states that a specific rule set designed
It is only the rules themselves that surround the by the game designer should foster and allow the
character (or machine) that a player role-plays as, player to think creatively and strategically in the way
which create the fictional story of that character or the they play. Of course, it is dependent on what type of
world of the characters (Caillois, 1961, p. 6). As long as play the game should be designed for, that ultimately
the player accepts the rules of the game, they have the creates rules that make most sense. Say that a game is
ability to play the game. This can be further backed up meant to be a shooter where players compete against
by Caillois’s statement of what play and rules are; each other, like Counter-Strike (Agon), it would not
“Above all, play is parallel, independent activity, make sense that the rules of the game, does not allow
opposed to the acts and decisions of ordinary life by players to shoot each other.
special characteristics appropriate to play” (Caillois,
1961, p. 63) Jane McGonigal defines feedback as a system or
multiple systems that tells the player how close they are
Play is something that players willfully and freely, by to achieving a goal (McGonigal, 2010, p. 374 of 7154
their own desire for pleasure participate in, but what EBook). A way to know how far players are towards
are games then? Roger Caillois further explores what achieving goals, is progress bars that for example show
a game is by framing four types of play, Caillois made how much experience is needed before the players in
the four definitions of play, and what type of game can game character increases in level. Feedback is crucial
become of said play, under the pretense of the amount in video games, since they serve as a promise for the

38
Figure 20: Battlefield 4, here a player has been promoted and there earned a new rank.

player that all goals in the game are achievable, not voluntary and pleasure seeking activity. It should be
knowing how far or how close the player is towards the noted that some video games, requires that the player
goals creates unmotivated players. It should be noted think ethically about their decisions (Sicart, 2013, p.
that feedback is many things in games, what McGonigal 7), yet this also requires a game design that treats the
describes is the most essential feedback given to the player as a moral being. In games like The Walking
player to feel a sense of progression. Feedback can be Dead, players are constantly met with decisions that
communicated through many channels, for instance are not pleasurable, like choosing which character
audio (Collins, 2013, p. 44). In a game of Battlefield should survive.
4, audio feedback can illustrate the impact of bullets
hitting the player, or the audio that plays when players Roger Caillois goes further and defines play as a space
reach a higher ranking, as visualized in Figure 20. wherein the play space is isolated from all other
elemental factors (Caillois, 1961, p. 6)
The last definition of what is required in order for
gameplay to exist within the game is player acceptance. “In effect, play is essentially a separate
If a game is not voluntary, or if the participant is forced occupation, carefully isolated from the
to undertake a certain action during the activity, the rest of life, and is engaged in with precise
act of playing would cease to exist, and the mystery of limits of time and place”
play would stop. The participant has to devote himself - (Caillois, 1961, p. 6)
or herself to the act of playing a game voluntarily
(Caillois, 1961, p. 6), it has to be for his or her own Think of a game of soccer, the rules of said game is
pleasure that they seek from playing the game. A relatively simple; two teams must compete against
participant must also be able to say, “Stop” when the each other to score the biggest amount of points in
game he or she is playing, for them, ceases to be a free the opposing team’s goal. Yet, what happens when the

3. THEORY 39
Figure 21: Games like FIFA are mediations of real life soccer and feature the same set of rules for
which the player plays

ball is kicked out of the playfield, the large grassy area, must contain all of the four defining traits; goals, rules,
does the game continue from where the ball is now or feedback and acceptance, and either one or more of
does it stop? No, if the ball is out of bounds the game the four types play; Agon, Alea, Mimicry or Ilinx.” The
stops and there might be appointed penalties in some next section will give the reader an understanding and
cases. definition of what entertaining a video games is, as
well as how video games engages players to continue
In order for play to exist, a set of agreed upon playing.
boundaries must be established (Caillois, 1961, p. 6),
before the free act of play can begin. Therefore, if the
ball is out of the agreed boundaries, it must be taken 3.2 WHAT IS AN
back to the playfield and the act of playing the game of
soccer can begin once more.
ENTERTAINING GAME?
Through this section, we seek to uncover the most
Players need to have a knowingness (McGonigal,
important parts that constitutes an entertaining video
2010, p. 374 of 7154 EBook) that establishes common
game. As described in our work question (section
ground and that the hard fun is a safe activity.
2.1), this will mainly be done through the literature of
Raph Koster. We believe Koster’s use of the term ‘fun’
suits the purpose of describing and defining what we
3.1.2 SUMMARY
believe an entertaining video game is. Furthermore,
The section attempted to give the reader an overview
we will include theory regarding the terms ‘immersion’
of what a game is, by introducing Jane McGonigals four
and ‘player engagement’, in order to cover additional
defining traits. Furthermore, a game can be either one
aspects that are important when discussing how the
or a combination of Roger Caillois’ four types of play.
game design facilitates entertainment.
As such, our definition of a game is as follows: “A game

40
3.2.1 FUN
Games offer safe boundaries, in which we can improve
our skills, without suffering any real-life consequences, COG•NI•TION
which consists with the previously mentioned theory
regarding what games are. Danish Ludoologish, Jesper Formal process of knowing, understanding and
Juul, points out the importance of losing in video learning something
games, as it helps us reflect on our behavior and makes
us consider new tactics and strategies for succeeding
in the game. their diversity and how they fail to explain what fun
is. Koster refers to games as patterns that are easily
Failing in video games is important, as it delivers a consumed for the brain, and includes cognitive
motivation to the player, to improve upon the skills theory to explain this. As newborns, the world is full
needed for being successful in a game (Juul, 2013, p. of new impressions that our brain wants to gather
9). Furthermore, it assures that the player does not get and process. When we grow up, our brain gathers
bored of the game, however, too much failing can also these impressions faster and faster, leaving out the
make the player abandon the game. unnecessary information. This is a term Koster refers
to as “chunking”. Chunking is something we do all the
Raph Koster, a veteran game designer in creative time, when our brain has to process information. The
writing from the University of Alabama, is recognized brain chunks up parts of the information, allowing us
throughout the world as one the top thinkers on game to digest the information more efficiently. However,
design, and has been awarded the title of Online Game chunking information also makes it harder for us
Legend at the Game Developers Conference Online. to recall details, as it requires a lot more thinking
power. Also, when we come across incomprehensible
Like Juul, Koster also addresses the issue of failing in patterns, we will often refer to these patterns as noise,
video games, when discussing the fun in games. Koster ugly or formless, these patterns are something we
explains that games that are too hard bores him, and resent and they frustrate us. According to Koster, the
quits them because they make him feel inadequate. noise or these patterns we do not understand, is not
Likewise, games that are too easy also bores him, “broken” patterns but merely patterns that we have
so he quits them as well. In relation to this, we will not figured out yet, as he states, it is almost impossible
briefly mention the well-known theory of Flow, by to find things that are patternless.
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. The theory addresses the Patterns that seems unpleasant to us at first glance
requirements for achieving the optimal experience, may become pleasant to us when we later start to see
when engaging in different activities. Flow is achieved a pattern. When patterns seems unpleasant to us, it is
through challenges that are neither too hard nor too most of the time caused by our chunked up patterns
easy. However, Koster clearly states that flow is not that has an iconic way of perceiving information, which
fun, as he argues that it is possible to achieve flow in makes it hard for us to see past that understanding.
things that are not fun. Furthermore, Koster explains In this way, the human brain has natural resistance
that flow is more likely to happen when exercising against patterns that deviates from our chunked up
mastery as opposed to having ‘fun’ in games. patterns.
To understand how Koster perceives ‘fun’, it is essential With this in mind, Koster elaborates further on his
to understand how he views games. perspective on games.

First of all, Koster acknowledges the academic “Games are puzzles to solve, just like
definitions on what games are, as he refers to Roger everything else we encounter in life. They
Callois, Johan Huizinga and Jesper Juul, but points to are on the same order as learning to drive

3. THEORY 41
 a car, play the mandolin, or multiply seven
times seven. We learn the underlying
patterns, grok them fully, and file them GROKKING
away so that they can be rerun as needed.
The only real difference between games “It’s a profound understanding
and reality is that the stakes are lower beyond intuition or empathy (though those
with games.” - (Koster, 2013, p. 34) are required steps on the way).”
- (Koster, 2013, p. 28)
As the above citation emphasizes, video games are
patterns that we can learn, and maybe utilize in another
context. Koster also equates the significance of video feeling, and by doing so, they prepare us to face these
games with real life activities, as he further explains challenges in real life. Koster elaborates further by
that they functions as valuable ways of learning. stating that he sees fun as the feedback the brain
When we stimulate the brain by learning, we have delivers when we are absorbing patterns for learning
fun, and video games that fails to do so are boring. In purposes.
relations to this, Koster points out that if a video game
is limited in its design, not providing enough choices Furthermore, Koster constructs a list of elements that
or alternative routes, players are likely to abandon are key to having fun in a game:
the game faster. Video games must offer difficult
mathematical problems and variables that make the • Preparation - Making a series of choices before
game less predictable, to facilitate longevity. taking on a given challenge that changes the
In evolutionary terms, learning is necessary for the player’s chance of success.
survival of our species, and therefore we receive • A sense of space – For example, the map in Dota
rewarding feelings from our brain, whenever we learn 2, where the players battle each other.
or master a task. The same goes for video games. • A solid core mechanic – For example, moving a
piece in chess.
“In other words, with games, learning is • A range of challenges – Enemy creatures in Diablo
the drug.” - (Koster, 2013, p. 40) 3 (content, that operates within the rules of a
game).
However, video games will only remain interesting, as • A range of abilities required to solve the encounter
long as the pattern have not yet been fully mastered. – Jumping, moving and fighting in The Legend of
Therefore, the fate of games is that they will eventually Zelda: Skywards Sword.
get boring, as they only have so much to offer. However, • Skill required in using the abilities – For example,
it also means that the challenge of the game has to managing resources (health points and ammo)
adjust to the player’s skill level simultaneous with the in Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, when
progression in the game. Koster therefore defines a encountering an enemy.
good game as:
These elements might not be as presented in every
“One that teaches everything it has to game that are ‘fun’, for instance a game like Gone
offer before the player stops playing.” Home has a large emphasis on exploration. As such,
- (Koster, 2013, p. 46) if a game includes the above-mentioned elements, it
is not necessarily guaranteed to be fun. However, the
In this sense, Koster equates fun with learning, and elements serves as a basis to a fun game, but many
defines games as teachers. Games have the ability to other elements must be considered if the player is to
learn us something about a given situation or get a fun experience. For instance, the game must also

42
facilitate the right components in order to address 3.2.2 IMMERSION AND PLAYER
the different player types. Players have different ENGAGEMENT
preferences, as presented in Richard Bartles article We believe Koster provides a reasonable basis to cover
“Hearts, Clubs, Diamonds, Spades: Players who suit the meaning of the word “fun”, and that the above
MUDs”, where Bartle classifies different players in listed questions creates a useful framework, to assess
multiplayer online games. Bartle divides the player fun in games. However, in regards to getting a more in-
types into four main categories: Achievers, Explorers, depth answer, not only to our work question, but also
Socializers and Killers (Bartle, 1996). Each of the player to our main research question, we believe that other
types seeks out different components of a game, in aspects must be covered. Thus, we have included
this sense; it is complicated to offer a fun experience theory regarding ‘Player engagement’ and ‘Immersion’,
solely on Koster’s above-mentioned elements. as we see both terms as valuable elements, to discuss
the use of revenue mechanics in video games.
Furthermore, Koster presents a list of questions that
has a more practical orientated focus. The list functions
as way for game designers to assess whether a system 3.2.2.1 Immersion
within a game lacks a fun aspect: In his book, “An Introduction to Game Studies, Games
and Culture”, Frans Mäyrä presents three types of
• Do you have to prepare before taking on the immersion: sensory, challenge-based and imaginative.
challenge? The three types of immersion represents the different
• Can you prepare in different ways and still gameplay experiences players have when playing
succeed? video games.
• Does the environment in which the challenge Immersion is the feeling of being present in a virtual
takes place affect the challenge? world, and acting like it is real. Throughout this
• Are there solid rules defined for the challenge you thesis, we will be utilizing the following citation as our
undertake? definition of immersion:
• Can the core mechanic support multiple types of
challenges? “The sensation of being surrounded by a
• Can the player bring multiple abilities to bear on completely other reality… that takes over
the challenge? all of our attention, our whole conceptual
• At high levels of difficulty, does the player have to apparatus” - (Mäyrä & Ermi, 2005, p. 4).
bring multiple abilities to bear on the challenge?
• Is there skill involved in using an ability? (If not, Sensory immersion
is this a fundamental “move” in the game, like Sensory immersion regards the audiovisual experience
moving one checker piece?) the player receives when playing a given video game.
• Are there multiple success states to overcoming The sounds within a video game be it environmental or
the challenge? (In other words, success should background music, plays an important role in making
not have a single guaranteed result.) the player immerse into its universe and overpowering
• Do advanced players get no benefit from tackling the surrounding inputs from the real world.
easy challenges?
• Does failing at the challenge at the very least make Challenge-based immersion
you have to try again? Challenge-based immersion regards the experience
a player receives when faced with a challenge that
If a game fails to answer yes to any of these questions, matches up to his abilities. This type of immersion
Koster claims that the game needs to reassess its has a lot in common with the previously mentioned
systems. flow theory that regards the most optimal experience.

3. THEORY 43
Figure 22: The player engagement process (PEP)

However, Mäyrä argues that it is more appropriate following section will address the player engagement
to talk about a challenge-based immersion, as most in video games, and the desire to keep playing them.
video games are designed with challenges that keeps
deviating from an already successful strategy or
skillset, and therefore deliberately chooses to remove 3.2.2.2 Player Engagement
the player from flow. As such, challenged-based The article from Henrik Schoenau-Fog presents a
immersion covers the ongoing challenge the player framework that seeks to illustrate the cycle players goes
experiences when faced with challenges that regards through, when processing in a video game. Schoenau-
either motor- or mental skills. Fog explains that the player engagement aspect can
be related to many different concepts, in relations to
Imaginative immersion playing games, and draws lines to namely flow, fun
Imaginative immersion regards the narrative of the and immersion. As such, Schoenau-Fog specifies that
world and characters in the video game. This kind of the focus of the article is to identify the components
immersion absorbs the player into the stories of a associated with the desire to continue playing.
given video game, and makes the player identify and The components, presented in Figure 22, consist of
empathise with the different characters, embracing four parts: Objective, Activities, Accomplishments and
the universe that surrounds the game. Affect. Through the following section, we will explain
In relation to Mäyrä’s three types of immersion, the each of the components, and their relations to the

44
model. also relates to players who wants to master the video
game, improving their skills and abilities to perform
Objectives even better.
The cycle consists of four components, and begins
with the objectives. These can either be extrinsic or Completion regards players that wants to complete
intrinsic. The extrinsic objectives are goals that is put every aspect of a video game, every task, quest,
up by the game, for example “rescue the princess”. raid, mission, or simply completing a single task e.g.
Intrinsic objectives are goal that the player has made defeating the end boss. The players will return to
up on his own, personal goals, for example, “I want to the video game as long as the game is not a 100%
explore the whole map”. (Schoenau-Fog, 2011, p. 7) completed.
Activities
The next component is activities, which relates to Affect
how the player wants to achieve the objectives. The last component, Affect, is the outcome the
Schoenau-Fog presents a wide range of activities that players feels from either performing an activity or the
can be performed in order to reach the objectives, accomplishment of something, or both. There can
and states that more activities can be utilized to do so. be three types of emotions, positive affect, negative
The activities consists of: solving, sensing, interfacing, affect or absorption. (Schoenau-Fog, 2011, p. 11)
exploration, experimentation, creation, destruction, The positive affect covers a wide range of positive
experiencing the story, experiencing the characters emotions that the player experiences when playing,
and socializing. (Schoenau-Fog, 2011, p. 8) for example:

Accomplishments • Enjoyment
The next step in the cycle regards what happens when • Fulfillment
the activities is accomplished, and whether the player • Surprise
decides to move on or not. Accomplishments can
either be achievements, progression or completion. The negative affect is the emotion the player feel when
Achievements regards the desire players have to getting disengaged to the video game (Schoenau-Fog,
achieve: 2011, p. 11). This can for example be caused by the
video game being too:
• New gear
• Items • Simple
• Boosters • Frustrating,
• Points • Dissatisfying
• New abilities
Absorption relates to the concepts of flow, immersion
They will keep playing as long as the video game and presence (Schoenau-Fog, 2011, p. 12). Absorption
offers new achievements or something to strive for. is the emotion that players experience when they
(Schoenau-Fog, 2011, p. 10). become fully immersed in the game. This can for
instance be caused by:
Progression regards the player wanting to keep playing
because there is clear indication of progression in • Story
the game. This can be in the form of new and better • Characters
weapons, harder challenges, points, score, levels, • Universe
stats, experience points, Xbox Gamerscore and/or
Steam achievement points. Furthermore, progression Depending on what type of affect the player

3. THEORY 45
experiences, the cycle will either start over with new game is to player engagement, we have given a
objectives or end here. theoretical overview of different opinions on the field
of video games. Here we have explored what video
As mentioned in the beginning of this section, player games are, what defines them, why players continue to
engagement is relatable to many different concepts, come back to them and how to theoretically define a
when addressing the experience of playing games. fun and engaging game. The next section will describe
Player engagement in regards to getting the user to the components that go into designing a game.
continue playing a given game was Schoenau-Fog’s
approach. On this basis, we will briefly address the
viewpoints of Tim Fields and Brandon Cotton in their 3.3 GAME DESIGN
book, “Social Game Design, Monetization Methods The section explores the creation of games from
and Mechanics” regarding ‘engagement’. As their a design perspective by describing the important
approach is slightly different, these points must be components in order to create rules and achieve
assessed with some consideration, however we believe meaningful play for the players. The section introduces
they raise some interesting points that are relevant to the workings of a game and what is essential to create
discuss for later chapters in this thesis. the rules of video games. Furthermore, the section
Fields and Cotton refers to player engagement, as way explores the player’s interaction with the game and
of measuring the amount of time the player uses on how this interaction creates a repeatable pattern
each game session in regards to social video games known as the core loop. The goal of the section is to
(Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 70). As such, they view give an understanding of how games are structured, to
engagement as tool for estimating how likely the game create a base to identify, how different components of a
is to earn money on its users. game influences the rules – and more importantly how
those rules emphasizes a certain type of play, which
“As a rule of thumb, the longer players serves as an additional component in the analysis of
remain engaged, the more likely they are the chosen games in the thesis’ analysis chapter.
to spend money.”
- (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 70)
3.3.1 CREATING RULES
Furthermore, Cotton and Fields presents the term The game design of a game plays a huge part in what
‘engagement currency’, which refers to e.g. gold makes a game fun. Essentially, it is through game design
or coins, which the players receives for completing that games achieve to make ‘play’ to ‘meaningful play’
tasks in the game. As it appears from the name, for the players. It establishes the frame in which the
engagement currency is a way to reward the player game is made through mechanics and systems that
for “just playing the game”, in order to prolong the together create the rules of the game. The rules
player’s engagement. decide how the player should play and interact within
Cotton and Fields also suggests that leaderboards the game. The rules of a game are universal and can
and high score mechanics, as a potent way of keeping be considered as limitations as to what the players can
players engaged in a game (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. and cannot do. In this way, the rules of a video game
133). Leaderboards and high score mechanics will is no different than the instruction manual to classic
encourage players to compete against other players, board games like ‘Chess’ and ‘Tick tack toe’. The rules
or to beat their own high score, and as such creating dictate (with Chess as an example):
an engagement loop fueled by the player’s desire to
improve in skills. • The game setup (Both the black and the white
player starts with 16 pieces on the board in
Throughout the sections, starting from what a video specific positions)

46
 player does the same until one of the players are
checkmate - which means he cannot move his
king to a square where his king is threatened by
an opponent’s board piece.

“... Game design is about designing rules

so that the actual strategies used by the
players are enjoyable to execute”
- (Juul, 2005, p. 91)

3.3.2 THE THREE LEVELS OF

RULES
There are many different rules in games and the rules
of two games might be entirely different. Therefore
Figure 23: Shows the connection between mechan-
a categorization of rules is necessary. Rules appear
ics, systems and rules and how the three game
elements works on three different levels. on different levels, whether they are the underlying
code for a video game to function, the instructions
• The player’s options (the specific movements of represented to the player or the way the players behave
every piece on the board and the rule of capturing and interact in connection to the game. Rules can be
the opposing player’s board pieces. The pawn divided into three levels; the constitutive, operational
piece can only move one square horizontally and the implicit rules (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004, p.
or one square diagonally if it can capture an 130):
opponent’s piece etc.)
• The win- and lose conditions (make the opposing The constitutive rules of a game are the mathematical
player checkmate) logic below the surface of the game that typically is
not represented to the player. In video games the
And finally: constitutive rules are implemented as the code
programmed to make the game work internally. The
• The sequence of play (The players takes turns constitutive rules are also the mechanics and systems
after each other, where one player moves one within a game as previously described.
of his pieces to a legal square, then the opposing
The operational rules are the games’ rules as
Figure 24: The white player’s King is checkmate and presented to the player and what people usually think
the black player wins the game. of, when talking about game rules, such as the rules
presented in a rulebook. These rules are related to
the player’s interaction with the game and what the
player perceives when playing the game. (Salen &
Zimmerman, 2004, p. 147)

The implicit rules are the unwritten rules concerning

a gaming experience and outside the actual action
of playing a game that is typically based on cultural
or context reasons: A certain behavior when playing
a game and interacting with other players on the

3. THEORY 47
platform used for playing the game etc.
In this research project we focus on the operational
and the implicit rules of our research objects.

3.3.2.1 Changing the rules

Since the style of play is dependent on the rules of
a game, we argue that changing the rules of a game
has a big influence on the play style of the game: If we
changed the movement of the pawn in Chess so that it
instead could move like a knight, the game emphasize
a completely new style of play, diminishing the original
hierarchy of the board pieces and opening up for even
more advanced strategies than the original Chess
game (which already has some very advanced tactics).
Not only can these rule changes heavily influence the Figure 25: Shows how the different mechanics of a
combat system is connected
play style, but also which players may find the game
enjoyable. In video games, certain rules might be common system within games is a combat system. A
changed through updates (also known as patches) simplified way of describing a combat system is that
that changes the rules of the game and therefore it contains an ‘attack’ game mechanic that drains the
emphasizes another style of play. opponent’s resource pool, when the opposing player
is hit by the attack.
These are some of the most important qualities of The rules of the game states that when a player’s
the rules as they dictate the very style of play within resource pool is empty, he loses and the player with
the game. In video games, these rules are upheld by a a remaining resource pool, wins. The players have
multitude of game systems. the ability to block each other’s attacks, reducing or
negating the attack or to avoid the attack by moving out
of the area in which the attack hits. In this simplified
3.3.2.2 Game mechanics example of a combat system, we identify four game
Game mechanics are the way for games to respond mechanics; the attack-, the block, the movement-, and
to the player’s actions and advancing the state of the the value-based resource pool mechanic. Through this
game. In traditional games, such as board games and example it becomes clear, how fast the elements of
card games, the game mechanics are often realized by game design becomes complex and how much depth
the players themselves: In a game of chess, a pawn there is to designing games.
has just moved into a square with one of the opposing
player’s pieces in it; the opposing player’s is, according
to the games rules, dead and is removed by the players 3.3.2.3 Systems in Games
from the game board. Systems are in many ways what determine the relations
In video games, the mechanics are technically between mechanics or other systems within a game.
implemented within the code of the game, thus the Systems are therefore what creates the structure
result of player actions is automatically processed and of a game instead of the game mechanics being
thereby advancing the game state. Even simple games isolated elements with different properties. Salen
can consist of many game mechanics and in order and Zimmerman define systems as “a set of parts that
to achieve a meaningful gameplay, many of them interrelate to form a whole.” (Salen & Zimmerman,
are connected, creating systems within the game. A 2004, p. 152) The interaction between game elements

48
 • Fixed systems: Systems that does not change at
any point in the game, and the relation between
the related elements.
• Periodic systems: Systems that endlessly repeat
the same pattern of interaction between the
related elements.
• Chaotic systems: Systems whose relation between
elements changes randomly throughout a game
and the outcome cannot be predicted.
• Complex systems: Systems that is neither
as predictable as periodic systems nor as
unpredictable as chaotic systems. Complex
systems often consist of dynamic relations
between a lot of elements where several factors
has an impact on the outcome of the system.
Figure 26: In order to create knowledge concern- - (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004, p. 155)
ing a system, we need to explore each mechanic
connected to the system in order to fully understand
the system. According to Salen & Zimmerman meaningful play
emerges from complex systems and therefore plays a
can be how game objects and player avatars are key role to define the game design of the game, which
affected by physics at different points throughout a is why most of the systems identified and analyzed
game, as in the Portal series (Valve), where the player later on in the thesis are complex systems.
has to takes advantage of in-game gravity in order to
progress in the game.
3.3.5 SEQUENCE OF PLAY – THE
A game system can also be how the game measures THREE CORE LOOPS
how much health a player loses when hit by different We have previously described the sequence of play in
projectiles; here the whole combat system is structured chess as a rule of the game. The sequence of play is
through a series of mechanics as mentioned in a what makes the game move forward and for the game
previous example in this section. Furthermore, it can to progress. When we describe the sequence of play
be when the game gives the player information about we talk about the game from the start until the game is
his or her opponent; e.g. “Fog of war” or the players over. However, in video games we see many games not
own advancement path; e.g. new abilities, items and having a definite ending; the games can continue for
area access. an infinite amount of time without the player neither
fitting the win- or lose condition of the game. Instead
In order to understand the systems of a game, it the term core loop is used to describe the player’s
is important to understand which mechanics are interactions within a game. Core loop are repeatable
connected to each system; as previously covered in the patterns within the game, which the player keeps
thesis’s methodology chapter of ‘the systems view’. repeating in the majority of the game (Clark, 2014, p.
45).
Game systems are therefore an element of games that Core loop is a common term used to describe the
covers a lot of different aspects that define a game, gameplay of games, however there is no clarification
but can be divided into four categories, that is defined of the term; some use it in the same sense as sequence
through how complex the systems are: of play, others use it to describe the specific actions
within the game that keeps repeating. Oscar Clark,

3. THEORY 49
 3.3.5.1 The mechanical core loop
The core mechanics of a game is essential to the core
loop; in a first person shooter, the core mechanics are
the shooting mechanic and the movement actions of
the player. The two core mechanics is the baseline of
the mechanical core loop; this is the core loop that the
player will repeat the majority of the time; moving the
avatar and pointing the scope at opponents, followed
up by the shooting mechanic to deal damage to them
and repeating this loop until the opponent is defeated.

Another example would be planting crops in farm

games like Hayday and Farmville, where the player
plants seeds in order to gain the resources needed
to progress in the game. Clark uses an analogy for
the mechanical core loop as the bones of the game
Figure 27: The three levels of core loops in relation (Clark, 2014, p. 55). The mechanic core loop has to
to one another.
fit the goal of the game and the player playing the
known game designer and frequent contributor to game. In connection to the bones, Clark describes the
debates regarding free-to-play games, describes three importance of the balance between success and failure
different types of core loops: as the muscles of a game that has to continuously
push and pull forward to keep the game active and
• The mechanical core loops the player feeling the game as a dynamic experience
• The context core loops (Clark, 2014, p. 47).
• The meta core loops
Motivational factors
The thesis uses Clark’s definition of the three core loops In order for the player to keep repeating these core
as a way to differentiate between the sequence of play loops, there needs to be a reason. This reason is more
and the core loops of a game, where the sequence of often than not a feeling; the sensation of winning,
play consists of multiple core loops. which is tightly connected to overcoming challenges
and progressing in the game. Players will be stimulated
to play by the use of rewards. The thesis previously

Figure 28: The mechanic core loop of farming games like Hayday and Farmville

50
mention how the player can have goals through psychology of the game; the context outside the
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic is when playing game that can influence the player experience. The
is reward enough in itself which is one of the most goal of the meta core loop is to create a deep player
important goals of a game; the player needs to feel engagement, and to evolve the game from being a
he is being rewarded through just playing the game. pastime activity to a valuable experience. The meta
Extrinsic rewards are rewards within a game; rewards core loop itself can be several things; it can be a certain
in the form of items or game mechanics improving behavior around the game or the context of which the
the player and makes him feel a sense of progression player plays the game. Where does the player play the
within the game that he has earned. Clark describes game? Do players identify themselves with certain
the rewards as the game’s nervous system (Clark, aspects of the game, a faction or specific character?
2014, p.50); the way the game gives feedback to the An example is how certain games are known to attract
player for repeating the core loops of the game. certain player types; within the MOBA -genre, games
like Dota 2 and League of Legends are known as
games, where the players have a rather harsh tone
3.3.5.2 The context core loop against each other and appeals to hardcore players.
However, repeating the mechanic core loop and This meta core loop connects the game to the rest of
getting rewards from it is rarely enough to keep players the world and not as an isolated experience, but a part
involved; they want a larger purpose to repeating of the player’s everyday lives as they come to identify
these patterns. By being able to see how their actions themselves with elements within the game. The meta
within the game affect the game world, they can core loop is tightly connected to the implicit rules of
gain a sense of change within the game without the a game; where the players invest more effort into the
mechanic core loop changing. This context core loop game than the game itself gives the player.
can be through a compelling story, which the player By combining Clark’s definitions of the mechanic,
has been involved in or by beating high scores within context, meta core loop with Salen and Zimmermans
the game. Clark describes the context core loop as the definitions of the different rules of games, we have
circulatory system of the game that keeps the game constructed the following model for analysis to connect
alive by bringing oxygen to the body of the game the relations between the core loops of a game with
(Clark, 2014, p. 51). The key element of context core the different consisting levels within a game:
loops is to give player a meaningful reason to repeat We have chosen to combine Clark’s definitions of the
the mechanic core loop. mechanic, context and meta core loops with Salen and
Zimmerman’s definition of rules in games, because
both theoretical sources specifically focus on three
3.3.5.3 The meta core loop levels of game design, which we believe allows them
Around the body of the game, Clark describes the to exist in cohesion.

Figure 29: Shows the different core loops of games and their relation to their affiliated game elements (Rules
in this case).

TYPE OF CORE LOOP AFFILIATED GAME ELEMENTS EXAMPLE

Mechanic core loop • The contitutive rules • A combat system
• The operational rules • Player movement actions

Context core loop • The operational rules • A narrative

• Highscores
• A dynamic game world

Meta core loop • The implicit rules • Player-generated content

• Socializing and creating communities
• Behaviour connected to the game

3. THEORY 51
Figure 30: The model below have been constructed in order to vizualize Oscar Clark's analogies of the elements
that forms a game.

52
This section has sought to describe the structure of coordinate, and communicate with employees more
games from a design perspective by exploring the cost-efficient and a lot easier. This provided the
structure of games and what constitutes the rules of companies with new possibilities, in terms of business
games and the patterns that players repeat throughout design choices.
the game.
Through the internet, it was made possible to
Next we will focus on business models in videogames, display a wide variety of products to an even bigger
and explore as a whole what constitutes business customer segment. The technology made it possible
models. for companies to deal with several industry sectors at
once. For instance: Software, online, hardware and
music (iTunes). The advancement in technology made
3.4 BUSINESS MODELS it a lot more complicated to create a unified term of
In the following section we will unfold the different what a business model consists of. As such, the word
perspectives on what constitutes a business model business model has become a cliché in today’s world,
and its definition. As explained in our work method, as it has been used to describe everything from how
our focus is aimed towards the games business model. a business makes money, explaining new products, to
However, it is necessary to cover the business model how a company is performing on the market etc. This
as a whole, in order to define what the parts of the has also created divergence in they way the term has
whole consist of (a games business model). We have been used by academics.
divided the following section into three parts:
“In the literature, the expression stands for
• The first part will cover what we mean when we various things, such as parts of a business
refer to a business model, and provide the reader model (e.g. auction model), types of
with a context, in which we will present the business models (e.g. direct-to-customer
different views of the definition. model), concrete real world instances of
• In the second part, we will make a presentation business models (e.g. the Dell model) or
of the BMC (Business Model Canvas), as it is a concepts (elements and relationships of a
tool we have utilized throughout this project to model).”
analyze and understand our units of analysis. - (Osterwalder et al., 2005, p. 8)
Furthermore, the presentation will explain the
individual parts of the BMC, and what constitutes This lack of consistency among authors, is often caused
a business model, in relations to our project. by the fact that they address separate parts of a
• In the third part, we will present some of the business model, as ”the business model”. In the article
critique the BMC has met, and elaborate on this “Clarifying business models: Origins, present, and
in relation to the thesis project. future of the concept”. Osterwalder et al. unfolds the
variety of the different definition of the term, in order
to reach a terminology that will clarify the domain of
3.4.1 WHAT IS A GAME BUSINESS business models:
MODEL?
Though the term ‘business model’ originally stems “A business model is a conceptual tool
from the 1950’s, it is not until recent times that the that contains a set of elements and their
term was fully utilized in relations to e-business relationships and allows expressing the
(Osterwalder, Pigneur & Tucci, 2005, p. 4). From the business logic of a specific firm. It is a
evolution of the internet, the companies gained a new description of the value a company offers
platform from which they could access information, to one or several segments of customers

54
 and of the architecture of the firm and model is, to understand the causality of the different
its network of partners for creating parts and how to redesign and display the business
marketing, and delivering this value and model of a given company. The BMC also encourages
relationship capital, to generate profitable discussions, as it provides an efficient way of evaluating
and sustainable revenue streams.” the individual parts of a business model. This makes up
- (Osterwalder et al., 2005, p. 17-18) for a powerful tool, but more important, it generates
a shared language between those who wishes to
The above definition will serve as our understanding improve, plan, discuss or describe a business plan.
of the term, whenever we refer to a “business model”
throughout the thesis. To gain a deeper insight of As it was mentioned earlier in the above section, there
the rationale behind the definition by Osterwalder has been an inconsistency when addressing the term
et al., we will expand upon the respective parts, also business model and the parts. The BMC is based upon
known as building blocks, of the BMC (Business Model the research of the most prominent literature on the
Canvas). The BMC is presented in the book “Business subject. As a result, Osterwalder and Pigneur has
Model Generation”, which is the outcome of the come up with “the nine building blocks”, which will be
previously mentioned article of Osterwalder et al., and explained in the following section.
research into the field of business.

3.4.3 THE NINE BUILDING

3.4.2 THE BUSINESS MODEL BLOCKS
CANVAS In the following section, we will explain the nine
The BMC is developed to provide the reader with building blocks and the rationale from which the BMC
a better way of understanding of what a business builds upon. The BMC consists of the following nine

Figure 31: The nine building blocks of the BMC as Osterwalder & Pigneur depicts the model.

3. THEORY 55
building blocks: • They require different types of relationships
• They have substantially different profitability
6. Customer Segments • They are willing to pay for different aspects of the
7. Value Propositions offer
8. Channels
9. Customer Relationships In regards to video games, the customer segment is the
10. Revenue Streams types of players the developers are trying to address
11. Key Resources their game towards. This could e.g. be the competitive
12. Key Activities player segment in Dota 2, or the social player segment
13. Key Partnership in Hay Day.
14. Cost Structure
When the customer segments are identified it is
These blocks stems from the following four areas of possible to determine what type of customer segment
business: customers, offer, infrastructure, and financial is at hand. Osterwalder & Pigneur presents the
viability, and can be divided further into a ‘left’ and a following examples for types of customer segments:
‘right’ section. The division of the BMC is designed
through the inspiration of the human brain, as the left • Mass Market
part of the brain is concerned with logic, and the right a. A large group with similar needs and
part with emotion. problems.
This is illustrated through the BMC by having the • Niche Market
blocks that are concerned with “efficiency” placed at a. A specific group with specific needs and
the left part of the BMC, and the blocks concerned problems.
with “value” at the right part. • Segmented
a. This segment have different needs and
problems, but cater to the same kind of
3.4.3.1 Customer Segments: product.
“The Customer Segments Building Block • Diversified
defines the different groups of people or a. A group with different needs and problems
organizations an enterprise aims to reach and caters to unrelated products.
and serve” • Multi-sided platforms (or multi-sided markets)
- (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 20) a. Two or more independent segments.

The customer segment constitutes, to whom the Defining your customers segment is important since
company is targeting their product(s). The identification it is the foundation of many other decisions regarding
of a company’s customer segment is important, as it for example channels and value proposition.
can be used to create a more targeted product, which
generates more satisfied customers.
To help identify the different customer segments, 3.4.3.2 Value Propositions:
Osterwalder & Pigneur have created the following list “The Value Propositions Building Block
of perspectives to consider when framing a customer describes the bundle of products and
segment: services that create value for a specific
Customer Segment”
• Their needs require and justify a distinct offer - (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 22)
• They are reached through different distribution
channels This block is concerned with the value that the

56
Figure 32: The five channel phases

company is delivering to its customer segment. This The choice of channels depends largely on your
can be in the form of a product, service or offers. customer segments and value proposition. You have to
This covers a wide variety of values both qualitative make sure that the channel you choose is in alignment
and quantitative, targeted to the specific customer with creation of value in relation to what and where
segment. It is basically the “solution” that the company you deliver the product. Osterwalder and Pigneur
is selling to the customer’s “problem”. Osterwalder presents five phases in which the channels must be
and Pigneur present the following common value considered:
propositions:
It is necessary to have channels that can cover each
• Newness of the five phases, however it is also possible to have
• Performance a single channel that can cover all of the five phases.
• Customization
• “Getting the job done” A good example of a channel that encompasses all
• Design of the five channel phases is Steam as mentioned in
• Brand/status the introduction. Originally developed to digitally
• Price distribute Valve only games, Steam has now become
• Cost reduction a platform for companies to publish, sell and promote
• Risk reduction their video games.
• Accessibility
• Convenience/usability
3.4.3.4 Customer Relationships:
The value proposition in video games can be a wide “The Customer Relationships Building
range of things, e.g. that a game is free-to-play, or that Block describes the types of relationships
it keeps providing new content, like the continuously a company establishes with specific
stream of hero skins, announcer packs etc. in Dota 2. Customer Segments”
- (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 28)

3.4.3.3 Channels: In this block, it is determined which kind of relationship

“The Channels Building Block describes a company wishes to offer their customers. These
how a company communicates with and relationships have been categorized as following by
reaches its Customer Segments to deliver Osterwalder:
a Value Proposition”
- (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 26) • Personal assistance
• Dedicated personal assistance

3. THEORY 57
• Self-service all of the other blocks, the choice also depends greatly
• Automated services on the choices made regarding revenue mechanics,
• Communities seen revenue model section for further exploration of
• Co-creation(user input for development, user subject.
generated content)
In regards to our thesis, this block is key for viewing
The selection of relationship does not exclude others, the different parts that generates revenue for a video
as different categories can co-exist. game, and thereby the in-game revenue mechanics.
In-game revenue mechanics comes in many different
The customer relationship in video games often occurs shapes and sizes, and can often be tied to an in-game
in the form of patches and bug fixing, as it assures currency that can be replenished with different real-
that the users experience a minimum of errors within life payment methods. The in-game currency makes
the video game. This kind of relationship is expected it possible for players to purchase features that for
in almost every game. Furthermore, the customer example can give the player a functional advantage or
relationship can also be a vital part for video games vanity items for personal expression.
that facilitates co-creation, which can increase the
overall value of the game. This requires some sort of
platform where the company can interact with the 3.4.3.6 Key Resources:
users. Another purpose of creating such platforms can “The Key Resources Building Block
be with the intention of gathering user feedback, bug describes the most important assets
reports or suggestions. These kind of platforms are in required to make a business model work”
many cases the foundation for the communities that - (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 34)
arise around a given video game, where players can
share experiences, discuss the universe and history of Key resources can cover many aspects of a certain
a game, creating both attention and value for the video business model, ranging from the resource that is
game. necessary in order to create the value proposition,
to the channel that is required in order to reach your
customer segment. Key resources can either be:
3.4.3.5 Revenue Streams:
“The Revenue Streams Building Block • Physical
represents the cash a company generates • Intellectual
from each Customer Segment” • Human
- (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 30) • Financial

The revenue streams can be one of two different types The resources can be something that the company
(Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 30): already has acquired, but also resources that needs to
be leased or obtained from key partners.
1. One-time customer payments In regards to video games, the human resources
2. Recurring revenues resulting from ongoing needed to make a business model work could for
payments instance be the development team, to design and
How you choose to generate revenue will often depend produce the video game. The physical resources
on what the customer is willing to pay for, how they needed could be computers and servers for both
want to pay and how they have been paying before. developing and making the video game available for
Some of the different types of generating revenue can players. Intellectual resources can regard acquiring an
be asset sale, subscription fees, advertising etc. As with IP (Intellectual Property) for your video game, in order

58
to assure any copyright inflictions. Financial resources games, for instance in the Candy Crush Saga, it is
could be the need for funding in order to gain enough possible to purchase gold bars with VISA, Master Card,
capital to pay employees and developing the video American Express, Discover, JCB, Paypal and through
game, through e.g. publishers. your mobile bill. These partnerships are vital for King,
in order to make it convenient for the users to make
purchases in their video game.
3.4.3.7 Key Activities:
“The Key Activities Building Block
describes the most important things a 3.4.3.9 Cost Structure:
company must do to make its business “The Cost Structure describes all costs
model work” incurred to operate a business model”
- (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 36) - (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 40)

This block is concerned with the key activities that a The last building block concerns the main costs of
company must carry out, in order to make the business running the company. In terms of video games, this
model function. The key activities, like key resources, could for instance include paying salaries, maintenance
can cover many aspects of a business model, as or marketing. These are overall things that are related
the type of business model the company utilizes to the key- activities, resources and partnerships.
determines this. The key activities can deal with:

• Production 3.4.4 CRITIQUE OF THE BMC

• Problem solving As one of the purposes of the BMC is to simplify business
• Platform/network models, in order to make them comprehensible and
easier to work with, there will be a certain loss of
In terms of video games, a company might have key detail. It is therefore arguable that the BMC does not
activities that regards data mining, customer contact give the full picture, and fails to deliver certain aspects
or designing new content for a specific product. of a business model that can have influenced decisions
in the development of a video game. For instance, a
company’s business strategy is a vital part of the
3.4.3.8 Key Partnership process that is required to obtain a desired goal. The
“The Key Partnerships Building Block business strategy must be planned out carefully, as it
describes the network of suppliers and determines how the company will act in regards to
partners that make the business model resources, competition etc.
work” Furthermore, the BMC does not consider the
- (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 38) corporate structure, who is the responsible part (i.e.
employee, business partner) and the best way to
For most companies it is unusual to handle all aspects manage the staff. A company must be able to evaluate
of a business themselves, and therefore a more its performance in order to react on possible threats
profitable solution, to form key partnerships. This or crises, and at the same time be able to assess when
can either be with the focus of: Optimization and things are going in the right direction. This is done
economy of scale, Reduction of risk and uncertainty through key performance indicators (KPI) and critical
or Acquisition of particular resources and activities. success factors (CSF), which allows the company to
For instance, it is common for most internet business set up goals necessary for achieving their main goals
to have partnerships with credit card companies to and at the same time having a way to measure the
handle payment services. This is seen with many video performance of the company.

3. THEORY 59
These are all aspects that can be vital when trying to 3.5 THE DEVELOPMENT
understand a certain company as a whole.
In this way, we acknowledge that there are many things
OF GAME BUSINESS
to consider, in order to obtain a holistic understanding MODELS
of a company and its business model. However, with The purpose of this section is to give a quick overview
the focus of this master's thesis in mind that obtaining of how the development of game business models
such understanding of our objects of analysis, is not affects the chain of distribution and subsequently the
within the scope of this project. way games are developed.
Furthermore, as we are trying to establish the optimal The cultural changes from the arcade halls, to retail box
correlation between the two domains of business versions and now digital only games have presented
models and game design, we are mainly focused on computer game companies with different challenges
understanding the individual parts of the two and their both in terms of distribution but also in development.
causality. This focus would not benefit from including As such, this has led to new ways of distributing games,
e.g. the strategy of the company, as it deals with the and alternatives for funding them. As a notable case,
strategic planning of reaching long-term goals, which we find Kickstarter, a crowdfunding platform where
is more a concern of the process that a company backers can support yet-undeveloped projects for
considers to undergo. Therefore, we see the BMC as future development.
a viable tool for visualizing and understanding the The three models in Figure 33 each illustrate different
complicated nature of business models in our selected distribution models for video games:
video games. The BMC provides us with a way of
viewing the separate parts of a business model and The first distribution model in Figure 33 illustrates
how these parts relates to one and another. the traditional retail distribution—a model that is
very costly and is usually reserved for AAA titles. The
second in the middle shows distribution through digital
only services, drastically shortening and cheapening

Figure 33: The chains of distribution

60
distribution since there is no physical retail supplier its revenue mechanics. The monetization strategies
wedged between game developers and the customers. and the ways of which this can be accomplished are
The third displays crowdfunding distribution, a numerous, and therefore the purpose of this section
process whereby funders get early access that allows is to describe the different ways to monetize users.
them to test and play the game before it is released Furthermore, the section argues for theoretical
to the general public. This is also viable way for the overlaps in relation to what constitutes a game revenue
developers to receive feedback, and accommodate model and its revenue mechanics and combine them
user suggestions and wishes. This model is quickly into a framework for analysis.
becoming the primary business and development The section is divided into four parts:
model for independent developers. Thomas Lund, CEO
of Full Control is currently developing a game using the 1. First we will describe what we define as a revenue
Kickstarter platform, where they have reached their model and go into detail with the common
350,000-dollar goal: revenue models within the gaming industry in
order to gain a better understanding of how the
“… It [kickstarter] is in parts a business models differs.
decision because it is a business model 2. In the second part, we will define what we
about sale, but it is also a way to kickstart believe to be the revenue mechanics of a revenue
the project...early access would give us model and delve into the most common revenue
longer time to develop [Jagged Alliance mechanics today with an emphasis on in-game
Flashback] and thereby make for a better microtransaction mechanics.
game when we eventually launch it on 3. In the third part, our revenue and mechanic
steam” framework for analysis will be described.
- Thomas Lund, CEO Full Control (Lund, 2014, 4. The last part will cover our a critique of this
Annex 2) monetization in games.

Digital only distribution led to many new titles, from

independent developers, which gained notable success 3.6.1 WHAT CONSTITUTES A
both in the form of reviews and financial success. Being GAME REVENUE MODEL?
independent has become a much more interesting Before describing and discussing what constitutes
opportunity for developers because it allows them to a game revenue model, it is necessary to describe
work on their own more personal games. Games like a broad definition of what we mean with the term
Bastion and Limbo are prime examples of games that ‘monetization’ in relation to this thesis.
not only merited high acclaim from gamers and game Tim Fields and Brandon Cotton, former game designers
journalists, but also achieved commercial success and business developers at Microsoft and Ubisoft
beyond what people originally anticipated. (Fields & Cotton, 2012), have contributed on the topic
of monetization in relation to video games. Fields and
Cotton provide the following definition, which is used
3.6 WHAT IS A GAME in this thesis as our understanding of such:

REVENUE MODEL “At its heart, we´re looking at games as

AND ITS REVENUE a business that is designed to provide
MECHANICS? entertainment to customers in exchange
As section, 3.4 reviewed what constitutes the whole of for revenue”
a business model, this section will explore the deeper - (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 21)
levels of what constitutes a Game Revenue Model and

3. THEORY 61
 136)

Chandler gives the premium and the freemium model

as examples of a revenue model (Chandler, 2014, p.
136).

Fields and Cotton describes the premium, subscription

and freemium model with the term “monetization
strategy” (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 151). The wording
and what Field and Cotton mean when using the term‘
monetization strategy’ shares strong similarities to
Chandlers definition of a revenue model.

Based upon these definitions by Chandler and Tim

& Fields we define a game revenue model as the
element that defines how a given video game intends
or generate its revenue.
Figure 34: Illustrates how the revenue model and its
connected revenue mechanics are a smaller part of
the whole business model In other words, the elements of which we believe the
game revenue models contains are the revenue model
From a business perspective, this describes the core itself and its connected revenue mechanics.
relationship between the business aspect and the
value propositions of a video game. It gives us a very This is because we see the revenue model as a small
pragmatic way of viewing that a video game in its part of the whole business model.
essence is designed to provide entertainment in order
for the business to be sustainable. As such the term But where the business model operates with
monetization in relation to video games is, at its core, expressing and outlining the business logic on main
the method, which the product intend or generate areas like product, customer interface, infrastructure
revenue (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 21). Fields and management and the financial aspect of the entire
Cotton describes four major types of monetization in business (Osterwalder et.al., 2005). We see a game
video games (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 21): revenue model as only being focused upon the
elements of the revenue model that define what
1. Retail purchases revenue mechanics are present or not present with
2. In-game microtransactions the in-game domain of a video game.
3. Digital downloads
4. Subscription models
3.6.1.1 Revenue models available today
Heather Maxwell Chandler uses the revenue model We have briefly previously listed the major types of
to define the highest level of how a game intend to monetization in video games. As such will take a more
generate revenue (Chandler, 2014, p. 136). in depth look of the different revenue models available
for video games today.
“The revenue model refers to how your The following list is some of the monetization options
game is going to make money, and we will describe in this section (Fields & Cotton, 2012,
ultimately a profit” p. 151):
- Heather Maxwell Chandler (Chandler, 2014, p.

62
 Figure 35: Screenshot from GameStop’s website

• Premium release platform. On the digital platforms, the users

• Subscription can download the games directly to any of their devices
• Freemium when they want. This is one of the major differences
• Combinations between the traditional premium model versus the
digital one in terms of value propositions to the user
and developer. The user get ease of access and it is
3.6.1.2 Premium significantly easier for the developer to release their
The premium model today comes in the form of a games on a multitude of platforms.
physical box copy, sold in retail stores and digital
download on the many available platforms today, Furthermore by choosing a digital release platform
like Valve’s Steam, Apple Itunes app Store, Google it is easier to address technical and logistic problems
PlayStore or a combination of the two. (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 153) associated in regards
The premium model generates its revenue stream to patches (software updates). In fact, one of the
through onetime payment by the users in order to first successful digital platforms, Steam, was initially
get access to the content of the video game. In this created to allow Valve to accommodate these issues
model, the user usually discovers the product through associated with updating their popular e-sport video
traditional marketing and PR or through word of mouth game Counter-Strike (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 153).
from their friends (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 151).

A few big game developing and publishing companies 3.6.1.3 Subscription

like EA and Blizzard have developed their own digital The subscription model of video games provides the

3. THEORY 63
users with continuous access to game content (the in expenditures (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 156). When
service) by charging a fee for the amount of time the applying such a monetization strategy, customer
users want to spend within the game (Osterwalder & retention becomes equally to or more important than
Pigneur, 2010, p. 31). The subscription model have customer acquisition (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 156).
been applied in many other services such as online Therefore, Blizzard employs thousands of customer
internet service providers (ISP’s) like SkyBoardband support positions around the world, which solves
from United Kingdom or other online services such as everything from payment issues, technical issues,
Spotify’s premium membership subscription option. mitigating disputes and to bugs within the game world.
If subscription models are used as the sole way of
The subscription model in video games are most monetizing the users, it can limit the total amount
commonly combined with the premium model. A of revenue, which is potentially possible to generate
MMORPG (massive multiplayer online role playing from a user within a given time frame (Fields &
games) such as World of Warcraft by Blizzard use Cotton, 2012, p. 156). For instance, Blizzard started to
this combination of premium following a monthly implement other revenue mechanics into their game
subscription fee. It allowed Blizzard to create fresh World of Warcraft in order to accommodate this. They
content for the users after the box release. This started to present paid services such as race changes,
resulted in the lifetime of users being very high, up name change, appearance change, faction change and
to many months or even many years (Fields & Cotton, server transfer as possible revenue streams. Fields
2012, p. 156). As such it allows Blizzard to obtain an and Cotton argues that even if you use a blended
ongoing revenue from their monthly payments. model like the combination of monthly fees with paid
services, there are still risks of limiting your potential
But charging and providing the service of new high loft of income pr. user (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p.
quality content doesn’t come without a cost. By using 156). This is based upon the claim that if you already
a subscription model like Blizzard do with World of employ a monthly fee, the users are required to pay up
Warcraft, it creates a very high demand on providing front and can therefore become resentful if they will
a quality customer service, which can be very costly have to pay for access and resulting in reducing the

Figure 36: Screenshot from Blizzard website shows the different subscription options

64
chance of which the users will utilize any of the extra the freemium concept gain a widespread recognition.
microtransaction available in-game. In the long tail pattern the focus is to offer a large
number of niche products, each selling in low volumes
(Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 69).
3.6.1.4 Freemium
“Get the Basics for Free, Pay for More” Freemium is primarily characterized by the sizable
- (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 96) number of users benefiting from the no-strings free
value proposition and with only a small percentage
Osterwalder and Pigneur defines the free business of users either subscribing to a premium service or
model as that at least one substantial customer generate high income through other services. For
segment is able to gain a benefit from a free-of-charge instance in-game microtransactions in video games
offer (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 89). Different requires a much larger customer base compared to
patterns make the free offer possible and is one traditional premium products in order to function
that is used as a model in a wide variety of different and generate revenue. Therefore, it becomes very
products. In video games that would be how the important to understand a wide variety of metrics in
video game chooses to monetize through different relation to the users. Below are just some of the key
microtransactions or advertisement etc. Therefore the metrics in a video game using the freemium model:
non-paying customers are financed by another part of
the business model or by another customer segment • The average cost of serving a free user,
(Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 89). (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 96)
As these patterns; microtransactions, advertisement • The rates at which free users convert to paying
or other makes a freemium model possible, there customers (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 96)
could be inferred that they have significant importance • The average income of a paying customer through
and influence on all the elements which they are microtransaction (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 66)
in connected to in a video game. As such there is • Daily active users (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 63)
therefore a direct interface between the business • Monthly active users (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p.
model and game design in relation to revenue model 156)
and its revenue mechanics and the game.
The term freemium was first coined by Jarid Lukin So in what ways can a video game using the freemium
and popularized by the venture capitalist Fred Wilson model or just in-game microtransactions generate
through his web blog. The term freemium is most revenue? In the third section we will describe the
commonly referred to as free-to-play within the games major types of revenue mechanics in video games.
industry (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. 3).

“Every industry that becomes digital 3.6.1.5 Metrics and freemium

eventually becomes free.” Evaluating metrics have become more and more
- Chris Anderson Editor-in-Chief, (Anderson, important in online and social games in order to
2008) balance the game and generate revenue (Fields &
Cotton, 2012, p. 63). MMORPG’s have recognized the
The commonly named freemium model have evolved importance of understanding metrics for years (Fields
and become popular (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, p. & Cotton, 2012, p. 71). The magnitude of the games
90) in line with the increasing digitization of services in regards to balancing the mechanics and systems
and products offered to customers through the of large raid encounters, player versus player combat
internet. The long tail (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010, and so forth require not only quality user testing, but
p. 67) is one of most significant patterns that helped also quantitative testing (metrics). With social gaming,

3. THEORY 65
especially in regards to the free-to-play monetizing McWilliams shares this concern towards the use of
strategy, analyzing metrics have become more familiar metrics when designing video games:
to the average developer.
“The point is that it’s a mix of logic and
Free tools have started to gain traction for instance emotion that goes into our decisions as
Game Analytics, which support a wide variety of game Designers,” she said. “That’s why
platforms such as Unity, Android, iOS, Flash and more. we can never design by metrics.”
Analyzing the games metrics will give an understanding - Laralyn McWilliams, the former creative lead
of the user behavior and its changes on minute basis, on SOE’s Free Realms (Handrahan, 2014)
making it possible to react quickly. Analyzing metrics
are not exclusively for optimizing your revenue, as McWilliams further points towards the complexity of
it can provide vital data for improving the game video games in regards to blindly following numbers in
experience for the players, as senior supervisor Teut order to determine the player’s happiness, as they do
Weidemann states: not give the whole picture (Handrahan,2014).

“People forget that we’re in the online “Retention is not the same as happiness -
games business, - People see the metrics There’s no measuring spoon for love. You
and only think about the monetization. can’t quantify it”
At Ubisoft we call players ‘fans’. It makes - Laralyn McWilliams, the former creative lead
you think differently.” on SOE’s Free Realms (Handrahan, 2014)
- Teut Weidemann, senior online game supervisor
at Ubisoft (Handrahan, 2014) Evaluation and metrics do no equal a successful game
(Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 71). It must be appealing,
Some developers voice a concern of possible pitfalls have fun interesting game mechanics. However, regular
in regards to the use of metrics as a primary driver, iteration and careful evaluation, based upon metrics
when designing video games today, because they are data, designers and business performance managers,
so focused on monetizing (Handrahan, 2014). Laralyn can make strategic decisions that transforms a good

Figure 37: Bioware’s Star Wars: The Old Republic uses the early access business model to create exclusive con-
tent to their paying customers.

66
games into a big hit (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 72). companies utilize early access, also triple-A companies
like Bioware and Blizzard uses it. In 2013, Blizzard
announced that by signing a one year agreement of
3.6.1.6 Early Access subscription to World of Warcraft, the player would be
A rising business model (Davidson, 2014) is the early given access to the beta of the upcoming expansion
access model where the publishers release their game ‘Mists of Pandaria’ and get the expansion for free once
unfinished to the public, giving access to the players released.
as early as the alpha stage in the creation cycle. The
early access business model is often connected to a BioWare has incorporated the early access model in to
subscription- or premium based model, which allows their business model of Star Wars: The Old Republic,
the publishers to create revenue in the creation phase that uses both a free-to-play - and subscription based
and get feedback from the players at a time where business model. Here the players that subscribes to
changes in the design of the game can still be made the game, gets early access to the upcoming DLC to
to better fit the wishes of the player base. Early access the game. Thereby, BioWare uses the early access
has recently been a popular business model for smaller model as a way of creating exclusive content to their
companies, whom often have a very small economic paying customers.
capital. If successful in funding, early access can give
economic capital and allow developers to finish and
polish a game. 3.6.1.7 Combinations
Choosing any of the described models do not exclude
Furthermore, early access has the possibility of combining them. For instance Star Wars The Old
exposing the game to the market, creating awareness Republic employ a combination of offering three
of the game on the game market. Not only do smaller different payment features; a subscription, free-to-

Figure 38: Screenshot from Star Wars - The Old Republic website, shows three different models: subscription,
preferred and free-to-play.

3. THEORY 67
play and preferred status model to their users, each what has been identified in our units of analysis:
presenting different value propositions.
• Sell time
To obtain the preferred model it requires the user to • Sell virtual goods
make purchases of at least $4.99. The preferred model • Currency
is a sort of “middle” way between the full subscription • Offer walls
model and free-to-play, giving less benefits than • Popup ads
subscription, but more than choosing the full free-to- • Ad placement
play. • Advertainment
• Game content unlocks and LDLC
Star Wars The Old Republic uses transparency of
communicating exactly what the user gets by choosing
the three different features. 3.6.2.1 Sell time
Time is one of the most commonly sold commodities
in many free-to-play video games available on social
3.6.2 REVENUE MECHANICS platforms (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p.157).
The following list is all the major types of revenue Sell time is often designed as some kind of energy
mechanics which will be described in this section, mechanic. For instance, the user will use 10 energy,
these have been chosen based on literary studies and performing an in-game action over 10 minutes, but

Figure 39: Screenshot from CSR Racing that show the player’s car tank being empty

68
Figure 40: Screenshot from CSR Racing that show how the game tries to facilitate/aid the immersion of their
gas and car part mechanics, by incorporating a car mechanic and delivery driver characters into the game
world.

the user is only able to generate 10 energy every one the reality that the game world is trying to portray/
hour. This means the game in some sense prevent the simulate. Perhaps it is easier for the player to accept
user from performing more actions, unless the user some of these sell time revenue mechanics, if they
want to avoid waiting the hour and purchases more are credible and well integrated into the fiction of the
energy. game and therefore facilitates/aid the immersion of
One example of this is CSR Racing developed by the player. CSR Racing tried to do this by using a real
NaturalMotion Games, where the energy mechanic of life mechanics in the form of their gas and car parts
the game comes in the form of gas. When you have mechanics.
completed a race, the car runs empty of gas. The
user is then presented with the option to buy more
in order to continue playing, or unless you wait for it 3.6.2.2 Virtual goods
to refill automatically. NaturalMotion Games received Monetizing on selling virtual goods is referred to as
substantial critic for the way of monetizing their game, microtransaction. Microtransaction is any purchase
but were one of the highest-grossing iPhone and iPad
games in 2012 (Yin-Poole, 2012).
WHALES, DOLPHINES
There are many other examples of sell time such as
& MINNOWS
(Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 157):
The different customer segments within
• Resource spawn per day. freemium games are usually referred to as
• Leveling up tasks. being either minnows, dolphins, whales or
• Speed up “grind” type mechanics and many more. freeloaders (Lovell, 2011). This is based upon
the amount of revenue each of the individual
As a standalone revenue mechanic sell time usually customers of each group generate of revenue
do not “break” the game balance and is therefore per month. For example the minnows the
popular with many game designers (Fields & Cotton, smallest amount around $1, dolphins around
2012, p. 158) and arguably with the users if it fits the $5 and whales in average $20, but in some
context of play. The context play is not only relating to cases up to many thousands of dollars.
the everyday life of the different customer segments
(time available, place etc.), but also in relation to

3. THEORY 69
Figure 41: Shows the original avatar for the ‘Monkey King’ (to the left) and the personalized
character upgrade option (to the right).

done in a game, be it virtual goods or selling time etc of investing time into the experience of
(Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 3). Even though some of our game will we be able to provide the
these microtransactions can become quite ‘large’ and conditions where they will be willing to
with the aim to target, the so-called “whales” (Fields & pay” - (Oscar Clark 2014 p. 67)
Cotton, 2012, p. 219).
The users are usually presented with a wide variety Clark describes a category of virtual items to improve
the players performance temporary in one way or
of options to either provide a cosmetic effect on their
avatar, in-game character or different weapons in first Figure 42: Ethereal flame pink war dog in-game
person shooter games, that for instance can give the courier from Dota 2 by Valve.
player different strategic options or better fire power
(Clark, 2014, p. 126).

Before the rise of the free-to-play models and

microtransaction, players were selling virtual goods
in online multiplayer games like Diablo 2 and many
more. Here players were selling in-game items through
forums or website services like eBay. Users were
handling all the transactions and it was therefore only
the player that generated any revenue from it. Some of
the first video games to implement systems to provide
virtual goods, were the Korean based MMORPG Maple
Story in 2003 (Clark, 2014, p. 5).

There exists many categories to define the different

virtual goods today. Fields and Cotton define the two
major categories of virtual goods as being divided into
functional and vanity features (Fields & Cotton, 2012,
p. 189).

“Only if we have demonstrated the value

70
another to give them advantage for instance higher daily basis. Valve provide the platform from which the
power ammo for short amount of time (Clark, players can sell their items for a 10% fee (Community
2014, p. 268). Another improving the player actions Market FAQ, 2013). The highest vanity item ever sold
such as experience point boosts (Clark, 2014, p. in the steam marketplace is the “Ethereal flame pink
268) or other virtual items for instance providing war dog” in-game currier for the high sum of 38,000$
insurance against your crops withering in your farm (The Value of Dota2 Items, 2014) shown in Figure 42
in FarmVille. One could argue Clark’s categories for on page 70.
virtual goods all provide some form of function to
the player contributing to the play and therefore are One of the main reasons Valve only employ vanity
sub categories within the main category of functional goods opposed functional goods in their two video
goods. game titles Dota 2 and CS-GO is because such goods
Vanity items gives an aesthetic value to the player do not have any real effect on the game balance (Fields
and gives no functional advantages. Selling vanity & Cotton, 2012, p. 195). This is crucial for Valve as both
items is directly aimed towards the players desire to of the titles are competitive e-sport video games and
feel unique, look cool and give them status (Fields & any purchasable advantages could potentially ruin the
Cotton, 2012, p. 189), for instance a custom look for gaming experience.
a selectable character in Heroes of Newerth shown in
Figure 41 on page 70. An advantage of selling vanity items is the viral effect
they can bring. Even though a vast majority of players
Valve have had great success implementing vanity have not bought the newest vanity item, they are
items in their games Dota 2 and CS-GO (Counter- exposed to it, when watching streams of their favorite
Strike: Global Offensive), where players sell items on a e-sport team or play with or against players who have

Figure 43: Screenshot from Subway Surfers by Kiloo Games and Sybo Games, Subway Surfers uses a
dual currency system 1) the score 2) gold coins.

3. THEORY 71
acquired the item, making them more likely to desire and therefore creates a barrier toward the player
it (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 195). (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 206) and there is a real
chance of them being less inclined to spend any real
world money. Furthermore, it can be complicated to
3.6.2.3 Currency reward and motivate the user without compromising
Currency in games do not necessitate the use of the game, because you would have to give away
money as we understand in the real world. All video currency (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 206).
games need an economy (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p.
205) to function, consisting of key systems and key The definition of a dual currency model is one that are
mechanics. In a sport game points scored or the total commonly defined to consist of a “soft” and “hard”
player stats (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 205) often currency (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 205) (Luton, 2013,
measure the economy. As previously mentioned such p. 56). The soft currency consist of in-game player
an economy is tied to the “intrinsic” reward mechanics rewards, and “hard” currency is tied to real world
(Clark, 2014, p. 49), the player will be able to measure money and can therefore be purchased by the user as
achievements or as minimum create a meaningful he pleases.
comparison and therefore works as a motivator for
the player (Clark, 2014, p. 50). Both Fields, Cotton The dynamics between the soft and hard currency is
(Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 205) and Clark (Clark, 2014, often that the soft currency for instance the score in
p. 68) uses the currency term in relation implementing Subway Surfers (see Figure 43) is earned in-game, and
monetizing features within the in-game domain of a the hard currency is earned in very small numbers in-
video game to describe the functionality of the game game or purchased through a meta layer around the
economic model to generate revenue. in-game (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 207). It is common
practice that the most powerful or unique virtual goods
There exists different currency models like single and are bought with hard currency (Fields & Cotton, 2012,
dual currency. In regards to creating a viable currency p. 207), in Subway Surfers you can buy boosters for
model for monetizing on microtransactions in video instance extra life in-game, head start, coin multiplier
games, a single currency model can be fairly limited etc.
(Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 206). For example if a game
uses a single currency system in the form of lumber in
a FarmVille similar game, the lumber is tied directly to 3.6.2.4 Offer walls
real world money. The game essentially requires the Offer walls is one way to attract many users to play a
player to spend real world money in order to proceed free-to-play video game. When using offer walls, the

Figure 44: Screenshot that shows how the developer have implemented an offer wall into their game.

72
Figure 45: Screenshot from Zynga’s FarmVille that shows product placement

developer gives money away for the chance that users such as free in-game consumable or cosmetic items.
will install and play their game (Fields & Cotton, 2012, However, they will have to choose to play the popup
p.161). add in exchange. Video game developer and publisher
Square Enix tried to employ a similar model in their
The way the offer wall functions can be exemplified online service Core Online (Gera, 2014), where playing
as, developer B (in figure X that would be Zynga) old and new titles such as the Hitman franchise is free,
integrates the offer wall of the new game or product but at the cost of watching advertisements between
from developer A (in figure ProFlowers, Discover, levels.
Netflix and Gamefly) into their successful game,
resulting in a high exposure to a large volume of users
(Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 161). For instance in Figure 3.6.2.6 Ad placement
45 Zynga then offer their own users with $0.50 (used Ad placement is another form of advertisement within
as an example) worth of in-game currency, if the use video games which is more commonly referred to as
choose to click and install or signup to any of the other product placement.
companies offers. If the user chooses to accept and
sign up or install the different offers, the companies This form of product placement is not new within
will pay Zynga money. Hereafter Zynga will pay the advertisement and is often seen in big hollywood
user the $0.50 worth of in-game currency and keep movies, like Mission Impossible 3 where actor Tom
the rest (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 161). Cruise drives a specific BWM that is tied to the
narrative of the movie.

3.6.2.5 Popup ads

Popup ads allows the user to gain virtual goods,

3. THEORY 73
 Screenshot from Coca Coca’s The Coke Zero
Figure 46:

Game.

Figure 47: Screenshot from Call of Duty : Black Ops 2 home-

page

3.6.2.7 Advertainment offers an option to buy extra songs for 3$ or the Call of
Advertaintment are companies that chooses to Duty franchise from Activision and Infinity Ward, which
advertise by developing a video game for the sole provides PDLC content in the form of map packs.
purpose of giving exposure to a specific product (Fields
& Cotton, 2012, p.163), for instance the Coke Zero The above revenue mechanics represents different
Game in Figure 46 on page 74. ways for games to generate revenue. In the next
section, we will present a critical view of the use of
in-game monetization, as the free-to-play model has
3.6.2.8 Paid downloadable content been the root of a lot of controversy in the video game
Paid downloadable content (PDLC) is as the term industry.
simply states, new content the user can choose to
purchase and download. Where games like Rock Band

74
3.6.2.9 A critical view of in-game ‘What? This is ridiculous. I just want to
monetization make a dungeon. I don’t want to schedule
With the development in free-to-play and distribution it on my alarm clock for six days to come
developers have found various ways of earning back for a block to be chipped “
money in-game. We have seen both good and bad - Peter Molyneux, creator of the original Dungeon
examples of games that utilize microtransactions. The Keeper from 1997 (Ward, 2014)
developments in games that utilize microtransactions
have become a pivot of debate in many video game “It’s free to wait, but not to play anything,
communities. There’s nothing to actually play “
- Jim Sterling (Sterling, 2014)
The debate centres around how, and to what extent,
different games intend to make money on in-game EA argued that they were relying on already known
purchases. While some games monetize on purely features, which have proven their worth in other free-
cosmetic items, other games monetize on features to-play titles. Furthermore, they emphasized that
that have a larger impact on the game play. The players are not required to spend any money in the
implementation of such features have not only changed game:
how games are played but also raised an important
question: what is “fair” to monetize? Witnessing “We believe we’ve designed an experience
how games like Dungeon Keeper mobile teaches the wherein players don’t have to spend money
player how to spend money within the first minutes, if they don’t want to….We specifically
right after the game has finished downloading, has built Dungeon Keeper around typical
left many players and game critics questioning the mobile play patterns, that is checking in
business ethics of free-to-play games. a few minutes here and there…”
- EA spokeswomen (Ward, 2014)
Creators of the original Dungeon Keeper from 1997,
and critics gave their take on some of the problematic It is interesting to see how leading developers, such as
issues facing EA’s mobile version of Dungeon Keeper: EA, follow the mobile play patterns from other free-
to-play games. This shows that these patterns must,
“I felt myself turning round saying, at least to some extent, work, and that some players

Figure 48: EA’s mobile version of Dungeon Keeper

3. THEORY 75
enjoy spending substantial amounts of money on in- to-play games. The commission has published a press
game features. However, it is also clear that not every release where they highlight the four major issues
game will have the same degree of success. In the regarding the subject, as raised through consumer
case of Dungeon Keeper mobile it is also important complaints:
to consider the context of the original game, and the
nostalgia and feelings people associate with that game • Games advertised as “free” should not mislead
when evaluating its critical reception. consumers about the true costs involved;
With the development of monetization features of • Games should not contain direct exhortations to
many free-to-play games following an often negatively children to buy items in a game or to persuade an
perceived model it is interesting to consider what adult to buy items for them;
consequences it has for the design of future games. • Consumers should be adequately informed about
One might argue that monetization as it currently looks the payment arrangements and purchases should
is just a natural evolution of everything being online not be debited through default settings without
as opposed to inserting coins into a video game in an consumers’ explicit consent;
arcade hall but the complexity of this thesis suggests • Traders should provide an email address so that
otherwise. consumers can contact them in case of queries or
complaints.
The European Commission (European Commission,
2014) has also contributed to the debate regarding the With the increasing trend of monetizing in-game and
concerns of the use of monetization features in free- its related debate, developers have tried to give their

Figure 49: Screenshot from the official Dota 2 website, displaying the current price pool of
The International 4, 16-06-2014

76
take on what they believe creates the most positive our Revenue Mechanic Framework. The framework
gaming experience in a free-to-play game with is constructed through the presented theory on game
monetized features. At a talk given in 2014, Kyle Davis design and revenue mechanics.
from Valve (Davis, 2014) spoke of five elements that he
recommended developers to follow in order to simply By reviewing literature, analyzing state-of-the-art
achieve a positive gaming experience through the video games and conducting expert interviews with
free-to-play model. These five elements are applied in practitioners from the gaming industry from our 8th
two of Valve’s most popular free-to-play games, Dota semester project and throughout this master's thesis,
2 and Team Fortress 2: we have constructed the following model of what we
believe to constitute a revenue mechanic framework.
1. Focus on persistent customer value. The presented theory from Clark, Luton, Fields and
2. Create positive externalites Cotton have provided the foundation for coining the
3. Make everything tradeable different terms used in the framework, and helped
4. Distribute value randomly to construct and clarify categories. Furthermore, the
5. Let users make value for each other Revenue Mechanics Framework is inspired by the
practical use of Osterwalder and Pigneur’s BMC that
The five elements in Valve’s model, are the elements facilitates discussions concerning future and present
they believe make a great gaming experience in free- stages of a business model.
to-play games.
In his talk (Davis, 2014), Davis points out that the use of The model functions as a table, where the constructed
a game designer, rather than a business developer, was categories will guide the user to classify the different
an important factor for developing their monetization revenue mechanics in a game and provide a quick
features. overview of how video game intends to make money.
The two games are currently the most played free-to-
play games on Steam. The popularity is also reflected Furthermore, it will serve as a pragmatic way to obtain
by this year’s biggest Dota 2 tournament, as the a ‘common’ language between the team members of
current price pool is well on the way towards reaching the thesis project group. As such, it allows for facilitation
10 million dollars, mainly funded by the community of both descriptions and discussions before we go into
itself: a more detailed analysis of the different components
of the revenue model’s revenue mechanics.
This section intended to present the reader with an
understanding of some of the current tendencies
of free-to-play games. However, it is important to 3.6.3.1 Structure
remember that the domains of game design and The first thing the user must do in order to determine
business models are constantly evolving and new a revenue mechanic, is to assess whether it is a
patterns and concepts keep arising. functional- or a vanity mechanic. Functional revenue
Through the gathered theory and knowledge, we have mechanics can have an effect on the game balance,
seen the value of constructing a Revenue Mechanic this can been in various forms, e.g. experience boosters
Framework, which will be presented in the next will make the player level up faster. Vanity revenue
section. mechanics is personalized aesthetics in regards to the
player’s character as mentioned in section ‘3.6.2.2
Virtual Goods’, the game world and around the game
3.6.3 REVENUE MECHANIC that do not affect the game balance.
FRAMEWORK The next step is to see whether the revenue mechanic
In this section, we will explain the rationale behind is permanent or non-permanent. Permanent revenue

3. THEORY 77
mechanics are features that are constantly active once
purchased, e.g. in form of new and improved weapons,
whereas non-permanent revenue mechanics can be
resources or short-term boosters that are limited to
certain time period after the purchase. The next step
for the user is to determine in what part of the game
the revenue mechanic operates. The game is divided
into three parts, in the core game, around the core
game and outside the core game. These parts are
inspired by data gathered from interviews on our 8th
semester project (Annex 12).

Figure 50: Revenue mechanic framework – The framework is constructed to analyze and facilitate discussions
in regards to the selected state-of-the-art games. The framework is divided into three main categories of reve-
nue mechanics: functional, vanity or other revenue mechanics.

78
Within each of these three parts are placed new sub- through user-to-user interactions e.g. unlocking a
categories to determine and specify the nature of the new content or feature through help from other
revenue mechanics even further. players.
As these sub-categories are based upon the presented 6. Additional activities: Features around the core
theory, we will only explain these briefly, to avoid game that potentially can give the player a reward
redundancy. or advantage in the core game. For example mini
games, events, gambling and wagering.

3.6.3.2 Currency
Currency is unique in our framework, as it is isolated 3.6.3.2 Other revenue mechanics
from the rest of the framework. This division is made to 1. Premium / VIP access: Some games offers VIP/
emphasize the importance of currency in video games. Premium subscriptions features, which provides
As the revenue mechanics all depends on some sort of the player with additional features. These features
currency to function, be it an in-game resource or real- could for instance be more storage capacity,
world currency (dollars, euros etc.). Currencies can be increased experience/currency rate or a new
divided into two categories: deluxe and main currency. game mode.
Sometimes these two merge into one, however main 2. Advertising: Some games features in-game
currency is often obtainable by playing the game, and advertising of specific products, e.g. a special
is utilized frequently in game sessions. The deluxe type of beer, food or car. Some games have also
currency is often what the players purchases through implemented a specific section, where they player
various payment methods (VISA, MasterCard, Paypal is offered rewards for playing other games, this is
etc.). Deluxe currency is therefore resources that are known as an offerwall.
obtained through microtransactions.

3.6.3.3 Vanity components

3.6.3.3 Functional components 1. Personalize character: Aesthetic features only
1. Booster advantage: Booster advantages provides affecting the player character. This could be new
the player with a power upgrade/making them pants, hats or shoes for the player’s character.
more efficient. This could be a weapon with 2. Personalize game world: Aesthetic features only
increased damage stats. affecting the game world around the character.
2. Convenience advantage: Advantages making the In a building game, this could for instance be
player core loops more convenient/automated decorative plants, flags or monuments, which
player input. An example of this could be an only have symbolic value.
automatic refill of ammunition in a war game. 3. Personalize around the game: User generated
3. Rapid progression advantage: Advantages vanity features. These are often seen as fan art
allowing the player to skip constraints and gain that is created in the community around a game.
access to content faster. This is often seen in Some games allows user to get their creations
the form of time walls, for instance building in implemented in the games.
Farmville takes time, but can be skipped with
currency. Rapid progression also occurs when the
player buys experience boosters, which allows
them to unlock features faster.
4. Expansion: Increased resource storage or access
to new area/maps.
5. Inter-play: Features which are only obtainable

3. THEORY 79
3.7 THE CORRELATION However, one thing is to give players the opportunity
to save time by buying in-game goods, another is to
BETWEEN GAME give players access to goods that give them advantages
DESIGN AND BUSINESS against each other. Fields and Cotton points toward
MODELS there being a big difference between PvE (Player versus
In order for the thesis to find the optimal connection environment) - and PvP (Player versus player)-oriented
between game design and business models, it is games (Fields & Cotton p. 193). As mentioned in the
required to study the elements of which the two introduction to the thesis, players are quick to mark
fields are connected. In order to do this, the thesis certain games based on their business model: In the
explores the works of other researches on the field case of PvP-oriented games, players are known to call
of connecting game design and business. This is certain games ‘Pay-to-win’, which often is a result of
done to create an understanding of how previous an unhappy customer. Fields and Cotton address that
studies connects the two fields of study and to create one of the consequences of failing to implement an
a framework that can compare the results of the optimal business model is that players are “alienated”
thesis to other studies. The following section seeks (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 193) from the game.
to describe some of the game elements that are both
influenced by the design and the business model of
games and some of the challenges that emerge when 3.7.1.1 The purchase of exclusive content
the two areas are connected. It has been stated that there is a challenge in selling in-
game goods to the customers, since it influences the
game balance and that there is different ways of giving
3.7.1 THE DILEMMA OF GAME players advantages. For now, it has been assumed
BALANCE that the buyable content is the same as the content
One of the main challenges of giving players access to that players can achieve by simply playing the game,
buyable upgrades in a game that gives the player an making it a matter of time versus money. However,
advantage is the fact that they have a great impact on one of the big subjects between game designers is,
the balance in the game. What are the consequences whether buyable content should be exclusive; content
of a player being able to buy his way to functional that is only obtainable by buying the content with real
advantages? Tim Fields and Brandon Cotton notes money. Fields and Cotton (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p.
that designers have to be very careful by using such 213) mentions that designers, and players alike, are
advantages as they might result in an unbalanced split in the opinion on whether it is “right” to make
game that alienates the players (Fields & Cotton, players able to purchase their way to functional
2012, p. 193). Their approach to the challenge is that advantages.
designers have to price the functional advantage Further notes because the games and player base is
accordingly to how big an advantage the player gets rapidly expanding, there is a need of a flexible business
for buying upgrade. Their approach to the subject of model (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 213) that caters to
game balance and purchasable upgrades is to consider both players that favor time over money and those
the subject through a “money-for-time”-equation. who favor money over time. They point towards that
Their solution is to price the upgrades according to games should implement a dual currency system
how much time the player has ‘saved’ by buying the where one currency system caters to the players who
functional advantage; the more time the player saves favor time over money and one that caters to the
by buying the advantage, the bigger the price of players who favor money over time. They come to the
the advantage should be. In this way the functional following conclusion:
advantage is seen as a “time accelerator” (Fields &
Cotton, 2012, p. 193). “The more you are able to indulge

80
 both types of players simultaneously,
selling advantage to those who seek it The three core loops have different qualities,
while offering alternative avenues of contributing in different ways to the game, but they
advancement and uses for hard currency all have the same goal; to set goals for the players that
for those who don’t, the broader your make them want to play the game and keep playing it.
appeal and the greater your overall
success.” - (Fields & Cotton, 2012 p. 213)
3.7.2.1 The Minute-to-minute core loop
The minute-to-minute core loops are, in style with
3.7.2 IN-GAME PURCHASES AND Clark’s mechanic core loop, the loops the player keeps
THE CORE LOOPS repeating multiple times during a game session (Luton,
The thesis has previously covered the importance 2013, p. 32, Ebook). It is the fundamental core loop
of the mechanic-, context- and meta core loops for that makes the game enjoyable to the player when
players to find a game enjoyable from the moment playing the game for the first time, rewarding the
they start playing and throughout a longer time scale. player for his actions. If the minute-to-minute core
The core loop is of vital importance to the quality of loop is not enjoyable to the player, the player often
a game and is one of the core elements of designing loses the motivation to keep playing the game. Luton
a game. describes a general pattern of the minute-to-minute
core loops as:
“Their job is to provide something
compelling for the player to do every Action (a certain player activity) → Reward (a virtual
second, but also to provide an exit point good in form of currency or items) → Upgrade (The
in a session, a reason to return, and self- player boosts himself by buying something with the
modification to create long-term goals.” gained currency or uses the item given).
- (Luton, 2013, p. 33, Ebook) - (Luton, 2013, p. 33, Ebook)

However, the core loops also play a key role when it However, many games using a free-to-play business
comes to generating revenue on a game; especially model uses an additional step in the minute-to-minute
to games that features in-game purchases as a part of core loop: The wait step. The wait step is a way for the
their game business model. game to prolong the time between the player action
and their reward, giving the player something to look
Will Luton presents another perspective on the forward to in the basis core loop, making the steps of a
core loops of the game that has similarities to the minute-to-minute core loop look the following:
core loops described by Oscar Clark that has been
presented earlier, but focuses more on the time spend Action → Wait → Reward → Upgrade
by the player and how a game generates revenue on - (Luton, 2013, p. 34, Ebook)
the core loops of the game (Luton, 2013, p. 32, Ebook).
Luton presents three levels of the core loops where he The use of the wait step in the core loop is used in
categorizes the levels by the amount of time it takes many successful free-to-play games, such as Farmville,
the player to go through the core loop. Luton’s three Hayday and Clash of Clans. The wait step creates a
core loops are: natural point in a game session for the player to leave
the game, which is important for the player to not get
• Minute-to-minute tired of the game. Ben Cousins, general manager at
• Hour-to-hour Scattered Entertainment, states the important quality
• Day-to-day of creating a clear ‘exit point’ for the player:

3. THEORY 81
 37, Ebook). Return triggers are the many ways a game
“Add mechanics to make sure players can motivate a player to come back playing the game;
don’t binge on content. Players who play creating a connection to the player and the game while
too much in one session are less likely to the player is not actually playing the game. Luton lists
come back for more sessions.” the following return triggers:
- Ben Cousins (Luton, 2013, p. 34 Ebook)
• Appointment Triggers
3.7.2.2 The Hour-to-hour core loop • Competitive triggers
The hour-to-hour core loops are focused on making • Social commitments triggers
a game session enjoyable as a whole. Their role is • Location triggers
to create a compulsion for the player to come back, • Sales and events triggers
wanting to play the game again. According to Luton, • Nudge triggers
the hour-to-hour core loop is tightly connected to
what he describes as return triggers (Luton, 2013, p. Games are very different and certain return triggers

Figure 51: Type of trigger and description of trigger

TYPE OF TRIGGER DESCRIPTION OF TRIGGER

Appointment • A future reward at a specific time that is the result of a player action.
• Often connected to the wait core loop.
• The player has an influence on the time of the reward of his action.

Competitive • Uses the natural competitive appeal of games to triumph over other players.
• Connected to the competitive features within a game such as score leader-
boards and every other PvP-aspect.

Social commitment • Makes the player feel obligated to return to the game for other players to
proceed.
• A direct or indirect trigger that connects the playing of different players with
each other.
• A very powerful return trigger, but difficult to implement successfully.
• Often requires an asynchronous gameplay.
Location • Activates on the player’s current location where the player gets certain goals
such as competing with other player’s in his/her area.
• Often connected to the competitive- and social trigger.

Sales and events • Creates awareness of the game by introducing exclusive content only availa-
ble within a fixed timeframe also known as ‘seasonal content’.
• Is often connected to real life events such as holidays.
• There has to be a balance in the use of sales and event triggers: Too many
sales and events triggers reduces the value of the trigger and too few results in
lost opportunities.
Nudge • Directly contacting the player to remind them of the existence of the game.
• Generally the weakest return trigger.
• Often used through the ‘push notification’ options available on mobile devic-
es.
• Often used as a ‘last resort’ to get nonactive players back in the game

82
Figure 52: The free-to-play mobile game, Hay Day, uses an achievement system to create different
goals for the players to reach.

fits to different games based on the style of the game

and the game’s player base. The return loop that Luton Throughout this section we have described a theoretical
describes is: framing for how game design and business models
influence each other. The next section will give the
Return (new session) → Session → Leave (Finish reader an understanding of how games are developed
Session) → Return Trigger → Return and how development of games are changing due to a
- (Luton, 2013, p. 38, Ebook) business models impact. This is essential to answering
the methodic part of our research question.

3.7.2.3 The Day-to-day core loop

The day-to-day core loop has the role of creating 3.8 WHAT IS A GAME
longer term goals for the player to look forward to,
in the form of giving the player a bigger reward or a
CREATION CYCLE?
The problem statement of the master's thesis deals
sense of progression through the game (Luton, 2013,
with what the optimal correlation between a game
p. 32, Ebook). The key to the day-to-day core loop is
design and a business model. This section seeks to
to create systems where the players can decide their
understand what a digital creation cycle is, with a focus
own goals for the game. This is done by creating a goal
on both the creative- as well as a business perspective.
system with a wide variety of goals that are appealing
in different ways. A widely used goal system in games
is the achievement system that rewards the player
3.8.1 THE DEVELOPMENT
for reaching specific goals and combinations of goals
PHASES OF VIDEO GAMES
within the game, giving the player a specific (often
Every game that has been and is being developed has
bigger) reward for completing the set of goals.

3. THEORY 83
Figure 53: Digital Media Creation Cycle

its own production cycle, all projects in many ways different goals. The preproduction phase is where
differs from one another making the development of the team, over weeks or years, creates a game plan
video games so challenging. (Chandler, 2014, p. 5) for the game. The game plan
usually consist of a roadmap for how the game is to
“One developer might have a small team be finished and what elements needs to be made
of 15 people working on a mobile game, (Chandler, 2014, p. 5). Elements that need to be
but another developer could have more defined during the product formation (Rosenstand &
than 100 people working on a console Lauersen, 2013, p. 83) are the games concept. The
game based on a well-known movie concept phase is generally where a group of leads
license”- (Chandler, 2014, p. 3) comes together to form the idea of what the game
is going to be, ideas can come from anywhere. If the
Nevertheless, Heather Maxwell Chandler believes that game company has a Game Director, he or she might
there is a basic framework that all developers work have a broad vision for what the game is supposed to
from, regardless of size of team, scope of game or be (Rosenstand et al., 2013, p. 83).
the budget. Most video game productions starts with
the initial game concept and ends with a Master copy During the concept phase, elements such as genre and
of the game (Chandler, 2014, p. 3), this is usually a the platforms for which to release the game on will
golden disc where the master file of the game is on also be done. This is important since it will define what
which is then send to production. Heather Maxwell shape the concept will become.
establishes four phases (Chandler, 2014, p. 3) of a Therefore the concept phase is crucial for stating
game development process, as being; the criteria of the design for the game (Rosenstand
et al., 2013, p. 84), something that is normally done
• Preproduction through a game design document as well as a technical
• Production document. Once the concept is approved the core
• Testing design of the game has to be made;
• Postproduction
“The core design constitutes the essential
A more in-depth view of the four phases can be found design principles – including the
in the creation cycle model, made by Claus Rosenstand interactivity principles where interactivity
and Per Kyed shown in Figure 53 on page 84. is defined as” … a measure of a medias
potential ability to let user exert an
influence on the content and/or the form
3.8.2 PREPRODUCTION of the mediated communication”
Within these phases, several goals must be - (Jensen, 1998, p. 201)
accomplished before moving on to next phases or

84
The design of the game has to fit the interactivity up; if during production it is discovered that the game
that the media is capable of. Yet, if the director and simply is not fun to play, the game’s release might have
the game designer wants a game that immerses the to be postponed.
player in, with incredible visuals and 5.1 surround
sound then releasing the game on mobiles is simply Through the production phase and through numerous
not viable. Chandler calls this type of decision making testing, an alpha build of the game can be made. The
for ‘constraints’. alpha phase means the game is feature complete
(Rosenstand et al. 2013, p. 85).
“Constraints should be considered when
determining the feature set priorities.
For example everyone may agree that 3.8.4 TESTING – AND MOVING
building a new graphics engine is a must FROM BETA TO MASTER
have feature, but if there is not ample When the alpha is completed and it is decided that
time to build the engine, this feature will no new features can be implemented into the game,
be dropped down to a would be nice to Heather Maxwell argues that testing is a crucial
have feature” phase in the games development (Chandler, 2014, p.
- (Chandler, 2014, p. 7) 12). Together with QA (Quality Assurance), the team
makes sure that the functionality of the game works as
The team then has to figure out how to design the intended. QA is an ongoing process through the entire
game to better fit the desired platform and its mediated production cycle of a game, also after the release
communication. This can be done through prototypes of the game. The main idea behind testing with QA
to avoid releasing a game that does not work. during the alpha phase of the creation cycle is for the
Prototypes also makes it possible to meet potential game to reach a state of asset complete, and thereby
high risk challenges during the main production, advancing the game into what is called beta. Asset
thereby avoiding them to occur in the master phase. complete means that the game itself is done, in the
sense that all levels, audio and visuals is completed
Once the team has successfully made the concept and that the entire game can be played from start to
into a working prototype, Claus Rosenstand and Per finish.
Kyed discusses the importance of a 1st usable, where
audiovisual parts of the game or system or mechanics
work, as a proof of concept (Rosenstand et al., 2013, 3.8.5 MASTER AND
p. 84). POSTPRODUCTION
Once the game has reach a state of feature completion
and reach the goals set in the contract (Rosenstand
3.8.3 PRODUCTION et al., 2013, p. 85), the game enters the final phase
The production phase or realization phase (Rosenstand the in creation cycle called Master. Master means
et al., 2013, p. 84) is where the team can start producing that the game is finished and ready for distribution.
assets and code for the game. The further the team After this it is important for any production that they
gets in the process, the better the understanding of conduct a thorough postmortem in order to bring a
the pipeline and the qualities of the game become. sense of closure for the team (Chandler, 2014, p. 257).
The pipeline made by the project manager is an Postproduction is particularly interesting in regards to
iterative process that should be open to prioritizing a modern way of developing games. Some developers
the assets and features according to the new and might want to patch a game or release content updates
better understanding (Rosenstand et al., 2013, p. 84). for the game in the future. (Chandler, 2014, p. 265).
This is potentially where high risk challenges can rise

3. THEORY 85
The next section will explore how developers mold
and adapt the games to the player’s experience and Games that are made in the traditional structured
how changing maturity effectively making the games a cycle will more than likely not be able to sustain the
service for the players (Clark, 2014, p. 62). users over extended periods of time, since many do
not take into consideration the users evolving maturity.
Triple-A products are as Clark describes dangerous,
3.8.6 GAMES AS A SERVICE – economically speaking, where a service product has
HOPE IS NOT A STRATEGY the ability to change the evolving nature of its users,
Games as a service (Clark, 2014), this expression stems through data mining. We find this truly interesting as it
from the increasing trend in making and releasing completely changes the view of how games are made,
free-to-play games, Oscar Clark believes that game what games are and why users play them.
companies can no longer develop expensive games
hope for it to be successful. “Considering games as a service also
allows us to look at production as a
“…we can no longer afford to simply build Journey” - (Clark, 2014, p. 61)
a game, throw it over to the marketing
team, and then hope someone buys is” Games as services, however, still consists of
- (Clark, 2014, p. 16) developing a concept and thereby try to figure out
what consumers desires (Clark, 2014, p. 62). Therefor
Clark states that the old approach to how developers it is important to understand many of the traditional
make and release “box-products” is an ineffective and phases in game development, but the game has the
to some extent dangerous business model (Clark, potential to go through many more stages of iteration
2014, p. 16) and that developers need to rethink and prototyping where data can be mind.
their approach to this. Clark proposes that developers
start need to look at the way players consume media, For instance, by giving the users early access to the
more precisely video games, and use the data to game, developers could be able to gather data from
shape and build a service oriented product. Looking early adopters (Clark, 2014, p. 62). Potentially, if the
at Osterwalders Business model canvas, the value of game has a strong social games connection (Fields &
products is essential towards the success of a given Cotton, 2012, p. 25), this can help the developers to
product. shape their game, since it allows players to interact
and help drive adoption of the game:
Oscar Clark has the same mentality, and describes
it as: ”Lifetime Value” (Clark, 2014, p. 62). Lifetime “A social game is one in which the user’s
value is crucial for the success of a product, that is interactions with other players help drive
developed as a game service product as most game adoption of the game and help retain
service product are about sustaining relationships with players, and that uses an external social
users through the game. network of some type to facilitate these
goals”
“That means that it is not good enough - (Fields & Cotton, 2012, p. 25)
that a game have sufficient materiel
to play in principle for the lifetime of Games like Rust and Subway Surfers are prime
the player, it has to adapt that content examples of games that have been release to early
to the player’s changing needs as their adopters, and used the hype garnered by these users
experience and commitment evolves” to successfully reach a growth state (Clark, 2014, p. 62)
- (Clark, 2014, p. 62)

86
Figure 54: Rust was released as an Early Access Alpha version on Steam in 2013 and has been in the
top 10 list of most downloaded games on Steam since 2013.

Interestingly, Oscars Clarks definition of Lifetime value of games as a service, we are able to further understand
can be summarized into being: how games are made and shaped by the evolving
experiences players have with a product. A product
• Develop Concept that is usually release in the early stages of production
• Release game to early adopters and then uses early adopters to gather steam and
• Use hype and social media to gather new audience hype to successfully reach a stage of growth. The next
• Broaden brand appeal, thereby prolonging the section will focus the rational of the master's thesis
growth stages Game Design Model

The idea of releasing games early, not just games

like Rust, but also more complete games like Subway 3.9 RATIONALE OF THE
Surfers, and then using data gathered from users to
shape the development of features based on users
GAME DESIGN MODEL
evolving experience with the product is interesting. - OUR THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
In this section, we will explain the rationale of our
3.8.7 SUMMARIZATION theoretical framework, the Game Design Model. This
This section gave an overview of the traditional will illuminate how the framework is intended to be
development cycle that many software products go used when analyzing and developing video games.
through, yet this form of production is slow, costly Throughout the process, the components and structure
and dangerous and therefore requires a new more of the GDM has undergone numerous iterations, as
innovative way of development. With the introduction such we have gained new insights while conducting

3. THEORY 87
literature studies, analyzing our expert interviews and The GDM is constructed from known theory on game
state-of-the-art video games. Which made it possible design, the analyses of state-of-the-art video games
to review and refine the theoretical framework. and our interviews with experts from the industry, who
have contributed with both theoretical discussions as

Figure 55: Shows the Game Design Model.

88
well as peer reviews during the last three semesters. centered around the user, according to our general
understanding of UCD (Buxton, 2007). The focus
the right side consists of the “interface” with a user
3.9.1 STRUCTURE AND FLOW interaction (see Figure 56 on page 89).
In this section we will explain and visualize how the
GDM is meant to be used and understood in order The left side represents the most important mechanics,
to utilize the model as our theoretical framework for systems and technology to create the intended user
analysis. The structure of the GDM is based on our experience. The right side represents the user-to-
general knowledge of user-centered design (UCD) and computer and user-to-user relationship that creates
human-computer interaction (HCI) (Norman, 2013 p. the play pattern interactions which results in the
306). perceived user experience.

Structure Flow
The left side of the model consists of the “interface” The first step of a game development starts with the
without a user interaction (see figure xx). Each box is vision and concept. The design is created from the
vision of the game, which is intended for a specific
technology to give an intended user experience.
Figure 56: Shows the structure of the GDM
When the user interacts with the design/technology in

Figure 57: Shows the flow of the GDM

3. THEORY 89
a context of use, the interaction creates the core loops 3. Context design: The purpose of this box is to show
of the game on a mechanic, context and possible meta the context core loops of a given game. These
level, which results in the perceived user experience. systems often indicate what the game is about,
how the player is supposed to progress in the
game and the different game modes could be an
3.9.2 COMPONENTS example of this.
In the above section, we described the structure and 4. Meta design: The meta design box contains
flow of the GDM. The GDM consists of boxes with elements that revolve around the core game. This
different functions and purposes. Some are purely for can be forums, community sites, or elements that
guiding the user to see where in the game the model let players discuss, share experiences or create
operates, others are made for the user to fill out with content about the game. These aspects often
information regarding the respective game, others are constitute the culture that surrounds the game.
a mix of both. The user in this case can either be a 5. Technology: The technology box shows which
game development team or simply anyone who wishes technology is required to play the game. In most
to dissect a certain game in order to gain a deeper cases this show the platform the game has been
understanding about its different parts. It is important released on, e.g. PC, X-box or Playstation. However,
to note the difference between using the GDM as a some games suggest additional technology is
development tool and an analysis tool. required in order to get the best experience out
of the game. This could be a headset to optimize
Furthermore, each component of the GDM is, like the communication with your teammates in
Osterwalder’s BMC, a simplification of reality and Battlefield 4. The choice of technology is also
therefore represents an overview of more detailed important, when considering the possibilities and
and complex information. As such the purpose of limitations of the platform and software engines
the GDM in the thesis is to identify and extract key used.
information of state-of-the-art games in the form of an 6. Intended user experience: The purpose of this
“as-is” model. box is to let the developers aim for the kind of
user experience they want their players to have.
The following order is presented to give the reader an The content of this box is determined by what
understanding of the framework: the team decides to aim for at the beginning of
development, and can be hard to answer in an
1. Vision: The vision box contains the vision of the analysis without an interview with said developers.
game, this is usually a few short sentences that 7. Mechanic core loop: The mechanic core loop is
describes the type of game and the most important the pattern and method of play. It is constituted by
aspects of the game. The accuracy of the content the mechanic design (system) and the interaction
in this box depends on the user, as a development of the user. This could be the combat loop in a
team might have their own private vision for their first person shooter game like: locate → perform
game, which is not necessarily available to the action → reload/wait for timer → win/lose → xp/
public. As such, if the model is used for analyzing reward.
different games, the vision must be filled out in 8. Context core loop: The context core loop box
accordance to the conviction of the user. shows how the player interacts with the system
2. Mechanic design: The mechanic box placed under from the context design. An example of a context
the design headline, is where the core systems of core loop could be a game session loop in first
the game are detailed. A mechanic core system in person shooter game: Select game mode → Select
a FPS game could for instance be a combat system, class → game goal → Win / lose receive xp/reward
which allows the player to move, aim and shoot. → end game session → use xp/currency.

90
9. Meta core loop: Through the mechanic level, affects all the three levels of core-loops.
context level and the context of use a frame of the 11. Perceived user experience: This box shows the
game is created, which constitutes the meta core actual user experience the user receives by
loop of the game. The meta core loop sets the playing the game. The content of this box is meant
conditions in relation to the interaction between to show how the intended user experience differs
player and computer (system+technology+context from the perceived user experience. This focus
of use) to make the meta core loops around stems from notion that one thing is to design a
the game. As such, the meta core loop details video game towards a specific user experience,
the culture and mentality around the game. An another is what is actually being perceived by the
example of a meta core loop could be the interplay, user.
strategy and knowledge that were required
to gain and maintain control of rare resource
nodes in World of Warcraft. The mechanic for 3.10 SUMMARY
collecting the resource and the resource system The above presented theories will function as the basis
itself is within the mechanic and context level of for the analysis of the state-of-the-art video games. As
the game. However, it became a meta core loop, such, we have gathered theories on:
when the players had to set up an entire external
community tool, protection alliances through • Fun in games
social interaction and surveillance systems in • Game design
order to maintain control and be able to succeed • Business models and revenue models
in gathering the rare resources. • Revenue mechanics
10. Context of use: The usage situation is constituted
by the technology, game genre, time and place. These theories have contributed to the construction
The technology, game genre, time and place of our theoretical frameworks; the game design model
is important when considering how the user and revenue mechanic model. Alongside with business
intends to make use of the specific game. For model canvas, these models will function as our main
instance, some players have a limited time for theoretical frameworks for analysis. Next, the analysis
game sessions, and therefore enjoy quick short will focus on key findings from our interviews, and a
game session on their way to work on the bus detailed analysis of the selected units of analysis.
or whenever it is convenient. The context of use

3. THEORY 91
Chapter 4

ANALYSIS

The following chapter presents the process and results

of the collected and observed empirical research data,
following the research strategy principles of Robert K.
Yin and philosophical reasoning of the Systems view.

Here the theoretical framework of the master’s thesis

consisting of the Business Model Canvas, Game Design
Model and Revenue Mechanics Framework function
as analytical tools for six free-to-play video games
divided into two categories.
 4 ANALYSIS

Following the theoretical construction, the purpose analysis) is introduced and completed through the
of this chapter is to present our findings from expert explained method of analysis. Furthermore, each
interviews and a state-of-the-art game analysis of section presents models designed to bring an
three mobile games (Clash of Clans, Boom Beach, overview and finally, each section of our key findings
Dungeon Keeper) and three PC games (World of Tanks, and corresponding part conclusion is presented.
Team Fortress 2, Loadout). In each of the two primary
sections of this chapter; ‘Interview’ and ‘State-of-the- This is in order to provide structure and therefore
art analysis’, the method of collecting and analysing make it easier for the reader to evaluate and compare
the data will be explained, and subsequently, the the different units of analysis.
respondents or games will be introduced and Furthermore, according to Yin (Kelly and Yin, 2007,
completed with the analysis of these. p.137) it is important for the reader to understand
how the theoretical framework for analysis is
The analysis of games is highly complex, since the operationalized in order to comprehend and evaluate
study of games is an interaction between many fields the results of the research.
of study and mediums. Based on our philosophy of
science and methodological approach of examining
the whole system and all its parts for cohesion, the 4.1 INTERVIEW
analysis is comprehensive in both the working process This section describes the process of which the
and documentation. interviews were conducted and furthermore describes
how data was categorized and subsequently analysed.
Therefore, in each of the two primary sections of this
chapter, the method of collecting and analysing the
data will be explained. Subsequently, the respondents 4.1.1 INTERVIEW PROCESS
(Interview section) and games (State-of-the-art When conducting our interviews, it is vital that we are

ANALYSIS

94
able to interpret the meaning of the data we collect,
as we are looking to gain the subjective opinions of
our respondents. Through our interviews, we will also
be able to ask our respondents to elaborate on new
subjects that might rise along the interview, adding
flexibility to the method (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009,
p. 100). This will also allow us to gain a more nuanced
picture of our domain of interest, as opposed to an
objectified one that does not consider the context of
the interview (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009, p. 45).
The criteria for selecting the respondents for our
expert interviews, is based upon the focus of this
thesis. We wanted our respondents to have either a
practical or a theoretical area of expertise in either
one or both of these domains. In relation to the usage
of in-game revenue mechanics, we wanted to have
game companies that made use of in-game revenue
mechanics in their games, but also game companies
that deliberately have chosen not to. In this way, we
will assure that we have respondents that can help Figure 58: The data processing of our interviews.
clarify both pros and cons for utilizing in-game revenue
mechanics. Addressing rival explanations is also a part for how we understand the field of game design and
of obtaining internal validity (Yin, 2009, p. 40), as business models.
mentioned in our validity and reliability section. This
has led to the following main criteria for selecting our From these two defining knowledge phases, we are
respondents: able to refine a new area of interest, shown by ‘initial
area of interest’ for the 10th semester.
• A practical or theoretical insight in development Having established the area of interest we made the
of games new and improved ‘interview guide’ which is based on
• If practical, having either implemented in-game Steiner Kvales interview guide principles, and with the
revenue mechanics in a published game or made new knowledge gathered through the initial master’s
a choice to deliberately not to implement in-game thesis research phase. After the pilot interview, with
revenue mechanics in a published game. Thomas Lund CEO of Full Control, we ‘reviewed and
refined’ the interview guide and created a new for the
following interviews.
4.1.2 INTERVIEW ANALYSIS
METHOD After finishing the interviews, we initiate the
It is important to have an iterative approach for our transcription of interviews, however some interviews
interview process; therefore we have created the where conducted via emails. Furthermore, we have
model below (iterative interview process) illustrating to simplify the respondent’s statements into smaller
the course of our interviews Figure 58. Since the phrases and connect them to new subcategories.
thesis builds on collected data, from our 8th and When the transcription phase is completed, we start
9th semester’s projects, these should be considered to categories statements seen in Figure 59 on page
as pilot projects for the master’s thesis. The data 96, this gives us a new insights and knowledge of
gathered during the previous two semesters are vital the two domains of game design and business models.

4. ANALYSIS 95
Figure 59: Affinity diagramming the categorized interviews, helped discovering key findings and
systematization

Condensing the interviews into categories helped keep the first categorization process, where transcribed
track of statements and data in general. data will be categories in main and sub categories.
This process gives us a new and refined understanding
of our data, and reviews our area of concern to get a
4.1.2.1 Interview categorization deeper theoretical understanding of the field as well as
Ensuring that we in the thesis group have a consistent practical knowledge, whilst enabling us to get a refined
understanding of the data gathered, each group area of interest. Figure 61 on page 97 represents an
member evaluates the transcript before the actual on-going evaluation of conducted interviews.
categorization begins. All the transcript interview data
is printed and broken down into smaller bits. Doing Throughout the process of evaluating the data, it
so enables a categorization of the different data into is necessary to condense the data even further.
themes that correspond to our areas of concern. Here, newly categorized data goes through a second
Respondents will be colour coded, clear separation evaluation procedure by group members. Having
of the various statements is vital for how we will done so, the extraction of key points, through a
categorize statements. Figure 60 on page 97 shows meaning condensation process will take place and be

96
Figure 60: An example of the categorization phase.

written into a matrix. Condensing interview material occurring topics to become the focus of the interview
will further refine our area of interest, as we will be to avoid directing the respondents into forced topics
working through the data again. As shown in figure xxx, and questions. This open structure supports the dialog
the categorized empirical data is pasted on a wall and between the conductor and the interview respondent.
can therefore be hard to grasp, a computer version of It is important for us to have the open research
the wall will be made used as a tool throughout the interview structure, since we want our respondents to
case analysis process. be able to talk freely about the subject of video games
and business models.

4.1.3 INTERVIEW GUIDE By letting our respondents talk freely, enables us to

As with any project that relies on interviews to gather follow up on statements and delve further. Since some
data concerning a specific area, an interview guide of our interviews is done through Skype and over
is made (see annex 13 for guide) that approaches E-mail, it is important for us to make a detailed agenda
interviews from a research perspective (Kvale and which is sent to each respondent. This is done prior
Brinkmann, 2008, p. 119). Our reason for doing to each interview, allowing interview respondents to
research interviews is based on the open structure have a chance to prepare.
that encourages the respondents answers and During the start of every interview, we briefly explain

Figure 61: Shown is the interview categorization model, showing different phases of the interview process.

4. ANALYSIS 97
 RESPONDENTS COMPANY JOB POSITION

King.com Business Performance Director,

Jonas De Freita primarily in charge of the performance
in Candy of Crush
Full Control CEO, Producer, Game designer, Software
developer,
Thomas Lund
currently working on Jagged Alliance -
Flashback
Square Enix owned studio Haptico Game Director
Rune Vendler currently working on three free-to-play
games
Mythic Games at EA Games General Manager of Mythic Games,
currently working on: on demand cable
Paul Barnett streaming technology
Background as a creative game
designer, also a stint at running a studio

Figure 62: Respondents of our interviews

the agenda of the interview to facilitate a sense of 4.1.5 KEY FINDINGS FROM
safety for the respondents. Since we are working in INTERVIEWS
an iterative manner, the interview guide is reviewed The subcategories are based on themes that have a
and refined between each interview based on the larger presence during the interviews, as well as some
knowledge of the field we have gathered. of the main themes that we have found relevant
to discuss. One of the main points discovered in
the interviews is the respondents’ opinion on the
4.1.4 INTERVIEW RESPONDENTS development of free-to-play games. Another main
During the planning of our interviews, we have point through the interviews is the optimal time
started by emailing various game companies and to monetize on in free-to-play games in relation
academics that has led to the following list of people to the player life cycle and development life cycle.
as respondents for our expert interviews. The Furthermore, the interviews address which specific
respondents have been colour coded to track who says monetization features are the most advantageous to
what, specifically for key findings. monetize on for both the developer and user.

98
 RESPONDENTS Platform Method of development

Business model: Depends on the No method: There is no specific meth-

customer the game is being developed od for development (like GDM or MDA).
Jonas De Freita, for. Needs to be a fun game and sticky, Working iteratively in smaller scrumm
King.com, afterwards an appropriate business teams and using sprints is effective. It
Annex 1 model can be integrated. should not be directed what and how
a team should work, they will discover
that on their own
Business models: A platform of choice No method: Generally Full Control does
Thomas Lund,
depends on what genre, target audi- not use a specific method for devel-
Full Control,
ence and funding a developer has. opment, rather relies on “what feels
Annex 2
good”.
Business Model: Uses free-to-play, No method: There is no specific meth-
Rune Vendler,
since it fits genre and playform the od used in development of features,
Habtico,
most. rather focus on the creative and busi-
Annex 3
ness aspects.
Business model: Depends on the No method: There is no specific meth-
platform and genre. Some platforms od for developing a feature (possibly
Paul Barnett, are better suited for specific business misunderstood question).
EA Mythic models. Business models are dependen
Annex 4 on hardware. In this case, EA picks the
model that has highest market penetra-
tion.

Figure 63: Main categories are displayed at the top in bold. Respondents names are colour coded. Annex num-
ber shows which number in the annex the full transcription of the interviews can be found. Subcategories are
displayed with “: in bold” . If a respondent does not discuss a specific main category, “No data” will be written.

RESPONDENTS Early access User generated content

Jonas De Freita, No data. No data.

King.com,
Annex 1
Definition: Early access is both a busi- Retention: Content generated by users
Thomas Lund,
ness model and development model. is a good way to establish retention, as
Full Control,
well as market a product virally. Mod-
Annex 2
ding community is important.
Rune Vendler, No data. No data.
Habtico,
Annex 3
Paul Barnett, No data. No data.
EA Mythic
Annex 4

Figure 64: Early and user generated content

4. ANALYSIS 99
 RESPONDENTS Creation cycle Revenue mechanics

Balance/fun: Focus on how a new Teaching players: Hook the player and
feature can increase audience levels, be open about how the game intends to
if its not good enough they iterate and monetize. Explain and let users try out
Jonas De Freita, release new features. Social features: all the various revenue items, before
King.com, An important focus is also to design they have to purchase with real money.
Annex 1 features that increases the social con- The custormer needs to know what
nectivity, having friends play the game they are paying for.
increases retention over short and long
term
Balance/fun: Fullcontroll has an itera- Engagement: Revenue mechanics
Thomas Lund,
tive work process, if they think its fun to should come late, after hooking players.
Full Control,
play the feature is selected. Then monetize heavely on both me-
Annex 2
chanic and vanity
Experience first: A game designer Engagement: Hook the players first, and
should think of the experience first, be open about how the game intends to
before thinking about money of how to monetize. Teaching players: Let players
monetize on players. try all features, including features that
Rune Vendler, are reveneu based, a good way to teach
Habtico, Defining business models: It is vitally players the game.
Annex 3 important to know what model the
game is developed for, many elements Balance: No problem with monetizing
in regards to game design have to be on player progress, as long as it does
change if a business model differs not ruin the fun experience establish in
through a production. the beginning
Business model: How is the new fea- Business model: The market decides
ture reflected in the business model how much a player should be able to
pay to progress.
Paul Barnett,
Defining Buisness models early: Has
EA Mythic
experienced the need to change a Balance: A free-to-play game most al-
Annex 4
business model late in prodcution, a low players to pay to progress from the
business model has to be defined early start, a subscribtion based game should
in a production have a reason for players to return.

Figure 65: Creation cycle and revenue mechanics.

100
 RESPONDENTS Play pattern Customer segment

Player retention: Social connectivity No data

Jonas De Freita,
is important for some games. But not
King.com,
necessaraly for games focused on single
Annex 1
player.
Thomas Lund, Player retention: Hook the player with- Defining players: Focus on what games
Full Control, in 5 minutes, before they start playing players consume, rather then traditional
Annex 2 others games. player types such as, killers/explorers
Player retention: Player has to be Defining players: What does the player
entertained, achieving something every need in order to have fun in the game,
Rune Vendler,
session. Player needs something to no specific player type.
Habtico,
look forward to when leaving a session.
Annex 3
Involve playes with others to establish a
social bond.
Paul Barnett, No data. No data.
EA Mythic
Annex 4

Figure 66: Play pattern and customer segment

The following is an overview of the key findings scrum teams that all have their own development
extracted from the interview: method.

• A business model should always be made at the

start of a games production, since changing a 4.1.6 GAMES ANALYSIS PROCESS
business model late in the production will require AND METHOD
substantial changes in the core gameplay. When beginning the process of analysing selected
• In order to keep users engaged over short and long games we began with Osterwalders BMC. Doing so
term, the core mechanics of the game have to be makes it possible for all members to test and play each
fun before employing specific revenue mechanics, game extensively, whilst placing sticky notes analysing
such as boosters or deluxe currency. the games business model.
• User generated content is a strong way to establish
retention. Having players come back for either After analysing with the BMC, a dynamic two-part
game specific forums, or if the game features a process is begun where revenue mechanics and game
game editor, keeps a steady income of revenue. design of selected games will be analysed with the use
• Regarding platform of choice, respondents of sticky notes. Following, a more in depth analysis
believed that this choice depends on the games of games business and revenue mechanics and game
genre and revenue model. design will give us a detailed overview for the primary
• In general a developer should not overwhelm analysis. During this phase, we will also be conducting
players with monetization from the start, only a cross tabulation of game design and business within
after “hooking” them into the game. platforms and genres. Doing so enable us to see
• Interestingly, none of the developers we correlations between different genres and platforms,
interviewed used any specific method, like a game and specifically how they are designed and if there are
design model, for developing games. Rather, similarities.
they rely on what feels good and work in smaller Hereafter a cross tabulation (analytical generalization)

4. ANALYSIS 101
within each genre of the selected games is conducted, genres. We have therefore decided to choose two
which allows us to identify certain correlations different video game genres that operate on both the
between the two domains, which can further help the mobile platform and PC. As such, the following list
understanding of how they interplay (pattern matching of criteria have been created for the selection of our
+ first step of the cross-case analysis). units of analysis:
In the next step a cross tabulation of genres of all
the analysed games is conducted (pattern matching • The game is free-to-play
+ second step of the cross-case analysis). The cross • The game features microtransactions
tabulation further enhances our ability to identify and • The game is state-of-the-art
understand the patterns between the two domains

Figure 67: This model shows the process of the ‘State-of-the-art’ games analysis method.

of game design and business models. Furthermore, it From these criteria, we have chosen the following
strengthens the reliability and validity of our results. video games as the units of our analysis:

Finally, we perform method triangulation (Yin, 2009, • Clash of Clans by Supercell

p.116) by combining our results from the analysed • Boom Beach by Supercell
interviews and literature studies with our analysed • Dungeon Keeper by EA and Mythic Entertainment
games, where a cross-case synthesis (construction) is • World of Tanks by Wargaming.net
conducted. • Team Fortress 2 by Valve
• Loadout by Edge of Reality

4.2 SELECTING STATE-

OF-THE-ART MOBILE 4.3 STATE-OF-THE-
AND PC GAMES ART GAME ANALYSIS
The criteria for our units of analysis (the selected STRUCTURE
games) are constructed from the focus of our thesis. In order to give the reader an overview of the ‘State-
We have chosen to focus on how in-game revenue of-the-art’ analysis chapter, this section explains the
mechanics are implemented into video games and the general structure. The chapter begins with an overview
effect they have on the player experience. Therefore, of the selected mobile games after which a combined
it is necessary to examine video games that utilize Business Model Canvas-analysis of the mobile games
in-game revenue mechanics. Furthermore, the video is conducted. Thereafter an analysis of the design
games should display current in-game monetization elements is presented that is conducted through
methods and should there be recently released the structure of the Game Design Model presented
games or games have a substantial amount of success: earlier in the thesis. Afterwards, an in-depth analysis
Success, in the form of downloads on the various app- of the revenue mechanics in the mobile games is
sites or best in class in regards to users and reviews. In conducted using the Revenue Mechanic Framework,
relations to the use of in-game revenue mechanics, we which is constructed from presented business theory
have focused on video games that contain multiplayer regarding revenue streams. The Revenue sections,
aspects, or social connectivity. while connected to the business model tabulation
To give a more varied picture of the different revenue sections, are presented after the state-of-the-art game
mechanics, we need to cover different platforms and analyses, since the Revenue sections connect the

102
revenue mechanics to the game elements presented to create a framing of the findings from our units of
in the state-of-the-art analyses. analysis, which is utilized to compare the results with
The analysis procedure is hereafter repeated for the the presented theoretical and empirical interview
three selected PC games. Lastly, the cross-platform results in the synthesis chapter.
tabulation combines the key findings of the analyses

Figure 68: The model shows the structure of the ‘State-of-the-art analysis chapter.

4. ANALYSIS 103
4.4 STATE-OF-THE-ART
MOBILE GAMES OVERVIEW

Clash of Clans overiew:

Developer:
Supercell.

Release date:
2012.

Game description :
Clash of Clans is an online mobile only free-to-play multiplayer
game. The game has players build up large bases from which
they both defend the base from other players and attack play-
ers from, by building up large armies. Like many mobile games,
Clash of Clans is a war game with a humorous tone and car-
toonish violence. The game is designed for tablets and was re-
leased in 2012 for iPad and later iPhone. Clash of Clans uses
revenue patterns such as; pay to skip time and the purchase of
in-game deluxe currency.

Active users:
Clash of Clans has estimated daily active users of over 3,719,746
million, the game is currently ranked number one as the top
grossing app and top free app on the iOS App Store.

Estimated revenue:
Clash of Clans has an estimated daily revenue of $1,086,047.

Revenue model:
Free-to-play with microtransaction.
Boom Beach overview:

Developer:
Supercell.

Release date:
2014.

Game description :
Boom Beach, is a mobile only free-to-play game that heavily
focuses on strategic combat. In the game, players take on the
role of a commander who has to defeat the evil Hammer forces
that have enslaved the native villagers of an island region. The
game was designed and made for tablets and smartphones,
and has so far only been released on Apples iOS platforms.
Boom Beach was released in 2014. Like many other mobile
free-to-play games, these patterns range from time constraints
to faster progression. Boom Beach features one type of deluxe
currency; purple diamonds that are used to speed up progress
of buildings and other game elements.

Active users:
It was not possible to find data regarding Boom Beach active
user, however as of the master’s thesis writing the game has
24,397 daily installs.

Estimated revenue:
Boom Beach has an estimated daily revenue of $212,077.

Revenue model:
Free-to-play – with microtransaction, however all features are
available if the player does not want to pay real currency.
Dungeon Keeper overview:

Developer:
EA, EA Mythic.

Release date:
2012.

Game description :
Dungeon Keeper Mobile is a new take on the original Dungeon
Keeper by Bullfrog. The new Dungeon Keeper is developed by
EA Mythic and released on smartphones and tablets in 2013.
Dungeon Keeper is a free-to-play mobile game that is focused
on strategy and building up a base where players place traps
to hold off NPCs and other players. Dungeon Keeper features
deluxe currency that can be used to progress faster and avoid
time constraints.

Active users:
It was not possible to find active users base, however the game
has a daily install rate of 2,615.

Estimated revenue:
Dungeon Keeper has an estimated daily revenue of $6,333.

Revenue model:
Free-to-play with microtransaction.
4.5 MOBILE GAMES side of the Business Model Canvas. The right side of
the Business Model Canvas aims at describing the
BUSINESS MODEL product, customer interface and financial aspect of
TABULATION the revenue streams of each game. We assess these
This section of the analysis will focus on the core components to be essential for our analysis of the
business model of the three mobile games in the correlation between the game design and the revenue
following order; Clash of Clans, Boom Beach and models of each game in relation to the thesis research
Dungeon Keeper. The purpose of the BMC analyses is objective, since we need to understand the context
to grant an overview of the games business models in of the revenue mechanics in order to assess their
a video game context, indicating the differences and functionality and contribution to the games’ business
similarities of the three games of each platform. In the models.
analysis, our primary theoretical model for outlining
the business model of the companies is Osterwalder’s Since most of the games have a very similar business
Business Model Canvas. model, it would be redundant to present the analysis
of each game separately. The section will first present
Throughout the analysis, we have analysed the right an overview of the right side of the business model and

Figure 69: ”As-is” model of Clash of Clans’ (Green BMC) Customer segment,
Value Proposition, Customer Releationship, Channels and Revenue Stream.
The shapes outline colors illustrates the linkage between the different
elements in the model (for full resouletion see apendix 14-15-16).

110
Figure 70: “As-is” model of Boom Beach’s’ (Yellow BMC to the left) and Dungeon Keeper’s (Teal BMC to the
right) Customer segment, Value Proposition, Customer Relationships, Channels and Revenue Stream

secondly the tabulation of the three mobile games.

The value proposition and revenue stream segments One game that could potentially have had another
is briefly described, since a further exploration of the customer segment was Dungeon Keeper. As this
elements of these segments is presented through particular game is the only none original title, in the
the Game Design Model tabulations and Revenue mobile games analysis, building on the foundations
mechanic tabulations and redundancy is therefore of the original PC game, the game could have tried
avoided. appealing to the original Dungeon Keeper fans; PC
gamers, who grew up with the original PC version,
wanted a game that was similar to that version. Many
4.5.1 CUSTOMER SEGMENT PC gamers in general feel that the game did not have
All three mobile games aim at the smartphone and the same skill based gameplay, but was warped by
tablet market with males as the primary demographic. the standards of the mobile economy . The customer
This is due to the genre and general themes of the three segment that EA was making Dungeon Keeper Mobile
games that regards war and violence, but yet with a for was for players familiar with games like Clans of
humorous twist. In a recent article on Newzoo.com Clans, not the original customers of Dungeon Keeper.
(Warman, 2013), the age and gender differentiation of Many questions have been raised concerning Dungeon
Clash of Clans users shows that 77% are males ranging Keeper’s economy system and the amount of time
from 10- 35 years of age. players have to wait.

Yet, the games seek to achieve a broad customer “How can waiting be fun? … How can
segment, since it is a very small percentage of the paying your way through a task feel
users that the games earn revenue on. Therefore they rewarding?”
need a much larger user base in order to make the - (Sage, 2014)
product profitable.

4. ANALYSIS 111
Figure 71: Clans are one of the main value propositions of Clash of Clans, as it allows users to help each oth-
er out and compete against other Clans whilst keeping all social activity within the game

Therefore, if companies take existing intellectual and are currently some of the most downloaded games
properties, they need to understand the original and on iOS, with Dungeon Keeper having a substantially
new customer segment, not to alienate people from lower revenue and user base than Clash of Clans and
playing the game. Boom Beach. The reason for Dungeon Keeper’s lower
One could argue that it would have been in EA’s interest revenue is further explored in the synthesis chapter.
to build a game that would encourage that segment of
gamers in order to make a better experience for both Clash of Clans and Dungeon Keeper utilizes a social
casual and hardcore audiences. network system that is directly connected to each
game’s independent ecosystem. The social network
systems are called “Clans” and “Guilds”, which is the
4.5.2 VALUE PROPOSITION developer’s solution to create social connectivity
Clash of Clans is one of the most downloaded games on among users, which deepens the engagement of the
both iOS and Android, and is marketing itself as a ‘best players and increases the chances of the players to
in class’ free-to-play game. Boom Beach and Dungeon purchase items within the game.
Keeper is also exclusively for smartphones and tablets

112
4.5.3 CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP allowing for a very broad audience to play the games.
In regards to the customer relationships in the three Boom Beach has not been released as a multiplatform
mobile games, we see a very similar pattern. All of product and has so far only been released on iOS,
them establish a customer relationship by providing however Supercell have announced that the game will
communities that players can both get support from, be released on Android as well. Since all games are
as well as talk about the game(s) in general. free-to-play, companies do not necessarily earn money
by installs. Therefore, they all have channels within the
The communities for the games, are facilitated by the games that set up microtransaction features.
companies own websites where players discuss the
game in various forums. The communities allow users
to become more engaged with the product, describing 4.5.5 REVENUE STREAM
and showing tactics of how to solve various quests and Having these various mechanisms that help garner
defeat bosses. The forums also make it possible for the attention and sustainability means nothing if the
developers to give personal customer support and for business model does not have a proper revenue
customers to support each other. stream based upon the value you are selling. Clash
of Clans, Boom Beach and Dungeon Keeper employ
As with any gaming-affiliated forum, users are able to the same exact revenue streams; make the game
lend their voice regarding elements within the game, freemium and focus on selling virtual goods through
be they good or bad. This is definitely a strength, microtransactions. None of the mobile games have
especially for free-to-play games, since these games fixed revenue, such as a subscription model etc., but
never end and new content is regularly launched. It relies on small to large one-time customer payments
can be argued that utilizing the customer feedback (Osterwalder, 2010, p. 36).
would help the companies to better understand their
customers’ needs and improve the game and player All three games sell in-game currency; gems, that are
life cycle. then used to speed up progress of various elements
in each game. Interestingly, this is the only actual
component that players can purchase. The exact
4.5.4 CHANNELS revenue mechanics are further elaborated in the
All three games try to reach their customer segments section ‘Mobile games revenue mechanics tabulation’.
and communicate their respective value propositions
through their own websites. Social media, such
as Twitter and Facebook are used extensively to 4.5.6 KEY FINDINGS FROM THE
create awareness as well as give updates regarding BMC TABULATIONS
maintenance or if the game has a game balance • All three games have similar customer segments,
problem. On the websites, and social sites the designed for users who have smartphones and
companies in general have a lot of screenshots and tablets and for people who like free-to-play games.
videos of the games and sometimes have users submit • Clash of Clans can be seen as the predecessor
videos of them playing the game. This helps new to Dungeon Keeper and Boom Beach and lays
customers to evaluate the value propositions of the the foundation for the general business model
game, before they download or start to purchase in- patterns for free-to-play mobile games. Namely,
game currency. to engage the player with long-term game
lifecycles, by making new free-content available
The primary channel is, however, the platform where at a consistent pace.
the games are released. Clash of Clans and Dungeon
Keeper’s distribution channels are Android and iOS

4. ANALYSIS 113
4.6 STATE-OF-THE-
ART MOBILE GAMES
TABULATION
This section analyses the game design of the three
mobile games, what constitutes their core-loops and
how the three games incorporate revenue mechanics
into the design. The tabulation uses the Game Design
Model earlier presented in the thesis and focuses on
the core design components and the components
influenced by revenue mechanics. The core-loop
tabulation analysis is divided into three sections that
each focuses on the three different levels of core-
loops.
Figure 72: Illustrates what part of the GDM this
section contains.
Firstly, the tabulation examines the mechanic
core-loops connected to the most common player We define the three systems as prime systems of
interactions within the three games. Here the the game, since every other mechanic and system
tabulation focuses on the core systems, mechanics and is connected, or influences, one or more of these
revenue mechanics that constitute each games core systems. The three systems have a mutual influence
gameplay. The second part of the tabulation examines on each other and together create the basis for the
the context core-loops of each game which focuses mechanic core-loop of the three games.
on how each game sets up goals that gives the player
a reason to come back for multiple game sessions. Resource system
Finally, the tabulation examines the meta core-loops Clash of Clans uses a triple currency resource system
of the three games, focusing on how the games makes that creates the foundation for a player’s progression
the player value the games. within the game. The resources are used to build and
upgrade structures, to produce units and to attack
Through the three sections, the three games are enemies. The resource system is therefore tightly
compared to each other. Since the three mobile games connected to the two other primary systems.
are very similar in their design, the tabulation mainly
emphasizes on the differences between the three
games in order to avoid repetition.

4.6.1 MECHANIC DESIGN

TABULATION
The core design of Clash of Clans, Boom Beach and
Dungeon Keeper mobile consists of three primary
systems that constitute every other mechanic within
the games. The three primary systems are:

12. The Resource system

13. The Building and upgrade system
Figure 73: The three interconnected primary sys-
14. The Combat system tems of Clash of Clans.

114
 of resources to be built.

Gems
Instead of spending the other resources in the games,
the player can spend gems to replace the resource
cost of the construction, upgrade or production in

Figure 74: The triple currency resource system in

Clash of Clan as presented in the in-game GUI.

The Resources in the three games

The three resources in Clash of Clans are (Presented in
the order of Figure 74 from top to bottom):

1. Gold
2. Elixir Figure 75: Screenshot from the Gem-Currency
3. Gems showing how the gems can accomodate for missing
resources.

Gold and elixir are the common currencies within

question. The gems can also be used to accommodate
Clash of Clans. Every build, upgrade or unit production
for missing resources; the amount of missing resources
requires either gold or elixir. As the player progresses
is converted into a specific cost in gems based on the
in the game, more and more resources are required to
amount of resources missing to start the production
play the game. The player collects resources through
in question.
specific resource buildings that either produces gold
or elixir. Dungeon Keeper has very similar resources;
Another function of gems is to skip the production
instead of elixir, they have stone as a resource, but
time on constructions. The amount of gems required
the functionality is the same. Boom Beach has five
to skip the production time is based upon the amount
resources:
of time it takes to finish the construction. This means
that the player can complete a production that is only
1. Gold
2. Wood
3. Stone
4. Iron
5. Gems

The resources are similar to Clash of Clans and are used

for the same actions within the game. Stone and iron
is, however, introduced as the player progresses in the
game. Building structures and upgrades, requiring the
new resources. This means that the resource system of Figure 76: An example of how the player can in-
Boom Beach progressively becomes more advanced, stantly skip the waiting time of his action in Dun-
since the player’s action begins to require several kinds geon Keeper.

4. ANALYSIS 115
halfway completed by spending half of the gems that 1. Resource efficiency and capacity
it would take to complete the construction instantly. 2. Army production
In Clash of Clans and Dungeon Keeper, gems can be 3. Army power
used to defend your base, directly preventing other 4. Defense power
players from attacking you and stealing your resources.
Applicable to all functionalities are that production or
It should be noted that Dungeon Keeper has more gem upgrade costs a certain amount of resources and takes
features, which players can purchase. Since these do a certain amount of time to complete. As mentioned
not affect the mechanic core loops, these gem features earlier, the amount of resources required for upgrading
will first be presented in the revenue mechanic section structures and units increases for each level of the
of Dungeon Keeper. upgrade. This applies to the completion time as well
and is seen in most strategic games with completion
Building and upgrade system timers. We believe this to be a common element of
The three games each have a build- and upgrade the progression of the strategy game genre in general.
system that contains different structures and units that
each has certain functionalities. The functionalities of From these four categories of functionalities for the
these productions can be arranged into the following building system, it is evident that the system is tightly
four categories: connected to the two other primary systems of the
three mobile games. This is further clarified in the

Figure 77: (Example from CoC) A defense building; the archer tower can be upgrades to improve its damage
and health in combat.

116
Figure 78: The four statistical values of the Zooka unit in Boom Beach. The unit has a very high damage and a
long attack range, but has a very low amount of health and therefore dies very easily if taking damage.

mechanic core-loops. have a range of different statistics that has different

values attached. These values are measured based on
In Boom Beach the player can only build or upgrade the type of unit/building and the level of said unit/
one building at a time, whereas Clash of Clans and building.
Dungeon Keeper give the player the opportunity to
build two to six at a time. The range of the statistics for each unit type is almost
identical across the three mobile games. It is only
Combat system their values that are different. However the games
One of the main goals of Clash of Clans, Boom Beach differ from each other in the behaviour of the artificial
and Dungeon Keeper is to become more powerful. The intelligence (AI).
power level of a player is generally measured by how
strong his attack and defense is. In the three games, Unit Artificial Intelligence
the strength of a player’s attack is measured by the size The AI of each unit type in Clash of Clans and Dungeon
of his army and each army unit’s level upgrades. The Keeper acts in a specific way, where each unit type has
strength of a player’s attack and defense results in a certain priorities to which of the defender’s buildings
player’s efficiency in combat and means that he can they attack. These priorities make different strategically
overcome bigger challenges (stronger opponents). compositions of an army possible in addition to the
The same goes for the strength of a player’s defense, strategic depth of the unit types’ different statistical
but instead of size and level upgrades of the army, it values. The unit AI is an important factor to the combat
is the amount and level of his defense buildings that system of the games, since the only control of the units
measures the strength of his defense. the player has, is the deployment point for each unit
group. After the deployment of the units in specific
Unit and building statistical values deployment areas, the player has no control of the
Both the attacking units and the defense buildings units other than the priorities of each unit type. Boom

4. ANALYSIS 117
Beach’s lack of priorities is accommodated by special attacking player made a poor attack strategy.
player commands, the player has at his disposal during
the attack.
4.6.2 MECHANIC CORE-LOOPS
Attack Commands TABULATION
In Boom Beach the player has a certain amount In the following section, we explore the core-loops
of action points at his disposal to make different that the primary systems of the three mobile games
actions while attacking. Each command has a specific cause to emerge. The mechanic core-loops facilitate
cost that increases for each use of the command. the basic player interaction patterns that the player
The cost increase encourages the player to use a continuously repeats to reach the intended goals of
combination of the different commands instead of the games.
only using one of the commands. The functionality of The core-loops are explained through the actions
the attack commands range from giving units a new of which the player takes and which systems are
target to attack, healing damaged units in an area, connected to each loop.
to damaging and shutting defense structures down
for a limited duration. Dungeon Keeper has a similar
system with ‘mana’ instead of ‘action points’ and the
‘attack commands’ instead being ‘spells’. However,
all the attack commands in Dungeon Keeper have
the functionality of dealing damage to the defense
buildings.

The Win and lose conditions

What defines whether a player wins or loses combat
depends on whether he is attacking and defending.
The constitutive rule of the games, as mentioned in
our theoretical section on game design, means that
the attacking player has to destroy defense buildings
of the defending player in a certain amount of time.
Which defense building the player has to destroy Figure 79: Illustrates what part of the GDM this
is different in the three games. In Boom Beach, the section contains.
attacking player only has to destroy the headquarter
building in order to win, but in Clash of Clans and Figure 80 on page 119 present the systems that
Dungeon Keeper the attacking player has to destroy constitute the different mechanic core-loops that have
over 50 percent of the opponents buildings in order been identified in each of the three games.
to win.

In each of the games, the attacking player has three Build loops
minutes to reach the winning objective. If all of the The build loops of the games are very similar. They do
attacking player’s units are destroyed the attacking however have some differences, which are elaborated
player loses the combat. This rule applies to all three through the explanation of identified actions
games, but during combat, attacking players also throughout the core-loops.
have the opportunity to retreat and end combat. This
feature means that a player can minimize his unit Each build loop begins with a collection action. Here a
loses if the defense showed to be too difficult or the player collects the produced resources of his resource

118
Figure 80: The mechanic design and interaction of Clash of Clans (yellow, top), Boom Beach (green, middle)and
Dungeon Keeper (teal, bottom).

buildings. Tapping on the touch screen collects the the player taps on the icon, the collected resources are
resources on the resource icon above the resource added to the player’s total resource count.
buildings. The icon only appears when the resource
buildings have resources available to the player. When When the player has enough resources, he can choose

4. ANALYSIS 119
to use the resources to construct a new building or Attack loop
upgrade an existing building. Each building has different In order to attack other players, the player needs to
properties and gives the player different rewards. produce an army. The first step of the attack loop is
However, before the player receives the rewards, the therefore to produce units. The production of units
player has to wait for the building to complete its follows the same pattern as the building loop, where
construction. We have previously mentioned how the the reward is the produced unit. All three games have
resource cost and wait time increases as the player a limit as to how big an army a player can have at a
progress through the game. The increase of wait certain time. The army capacity is, however, increased
time in Clash of Clans and especially Dungeon Keeper as the player progress through the games, increasing
escalates a lot faster than in Boom Beach, meaning the strength of the player’s army.
that the progression of each individual building is When the player has produced an army, the next step
slower than in Boom Beach. This is connected to the of the attack loop is to find an enemy. The three games
build system of the two games, where the player can use an internal matchmaking system to decide which
build several buildings at a time. opponent the player is matched against. Boom Beach’s
matchmaking differs from the other two games by
When the construction of the building is completed, presenting the defending player on a neighbouring
the player receives a certain amount of experience island to the player’s home base. The player can see
points and gain access to new units, new buildings, the level of the opponent beforehand, giving him an
attack commands or upgrades to these. idea of how powerful the opponent is. The opponent
stays on the player’s map for 24 hours, after which the
Through building loops, the games become player has the option to find a new opponent for the
progressively more complex, as the player gains more given island.
possibilities within the game.
The player can see the defending player’s base before

Figure 81: The map where enemy player’s appear.

120
Figure 82: The Deployment phase in Clash of Clans. Here the player can see how many units he has at his dis-
posal and where he can attack from.

attacking; we call this the ‘scouting’ phase. Here the strategy for the attack, and decides whether he wants
player looks for advantageous attack positions and to attack the player or not. In Clash of Clans and
is informed of the specific reward for defeating the Dungeon Keeper, the player can decide to not attack
enemy player. Here the player can form a general the defending player, and can spend a small amount

Figure 83: The victory screen after winning an attack in Dungeon Keeper. The player is informed of how many
resources he has gained from the attack and the amount of units he used to gain it.

4. ANALYSIS 121
of resources to find another opponent or to exit the
combat for free.
Once the player attacks, he deploys his troops in any
of the appointed deployment areas. Once the unit is
deployed, the unit immediately moves forward and
attacks. In Dungeon Keeper and Boom Beach, the
player can use his commands as part of his strategy
to win the combat. When combat is resolved, the
units in Clash of Clans and Boom Beach that were
deployed, but survived the combat, is again at the
players disposal to launch another attack. The two
games reward the player for taking as few unit loses
as possible. In Dungeon Keeper, the deployed units are
lost whether or not the unit survived, making the player
aiming to win the attack with as few units as possible, Figure 84: Illustrates what part of the GDM this
section contains.
since he has to replace the units used in combat
and therefore returning to the unit production loop
again before launching another attack. If the player
wins, he receives a reward immediately. The reward
consists of the resources the player was informed of
in the scouting phase or a percentage thereof, based Figure 85: The mechanic and context design of Clash
on how much of the opponent’s base was destroyed. of Clans (yellow)
In Boom Beach, the player only gets the reward if he
destroys the headquarter building. The player also
gains a certain amount of high score points, which will
be explained in the context design section.

Defense loop
Just as the player finds other players to attack, other
players can find the player and attack him as well. An
important difference between the raid loop and the
defense loop is that the player only actively engages
in the attack loop. The player through his placement of
defense structures only influences the defense loop.
Just as the attack loop, this is a common strategic
element of the tower defense genre that lets a player
personalize his own strategy and gives the player room
for making different strategic choices.

4.6.3 CONTEXT DESIGN

TABULATION
In the following section, we explore the core loops in
the context design. The context core loops are goals of
the game, what challenges the games has, as well as

122
Figure 86: The mechanic and context design of Boom Beach (green, left) and Dungeon Keeper (teal, right).

narrative elements in a game. The core loops are completing an objective within the game. The system
explained through the actions of which the player has a wide range of objectives that are connected with
takes and which systems are connected to each loop. both the mechanic- and context design systems of the
game. The objectives in the achievement system are
Figure 85 on page 122 and figure 86 present the all connected to an internal counter that tracks the
systems that constitute the different context core player’s progression to the specific system connected
loops that have been identified in each mobile game. to each achievement objective, automatically keeping
track of how far the player is from completing the
Achievement System achievement.
TThis first section, concerning Achievement System,
will give an overview of how this system works in all The objectives can either be connected to the
three mobile games, a more detailed describtion of resource, combat, building or progression system of
how each games utilizes the system is dedicated to the game; the player is rewarded gems for collecting
the respective games. All of the three games utilize 100,000 gold etc. or successfully defending his base
an achievement system that is connected to Apples five times.
Game Center. The achievement system rewards the
player with deluxe currency resource in the game. Each achievement has different levels of completion.
The achievement system can be considered as a goal When a player completes one achievement, another
system in the sense that the player is rewarded for achievement turns active that has the same objective

4. ANALYSIS 123
as the achievement he has just completed, but just players have to either engage with the combat system
requires more of the player, depending on which or resource system. Both will reward the player with
system the achievement is connected to. As the specific resources.
challenge increases, so does the reward.
The second main system, the game mode system,
As mentioned in the theoretical chapter on the meta consists of two sub-systems; asynchronous player
level of the core-loops, the general idea behind vs. player or clan vs. clan and strategic base defense.
an achievement system is to create a goal system Since Clash of Clans is not a real time strategy game,
where players can personalize their goals within the like Command and Conquer, Clash of Clans focuses on
game. However, the analysis of the achievement game modes that are asynchronous. Meaning that only
system in the three mobile games shows a general one player is able to interact and do a specific action
lack of personalization for the player. Comparing the within the game during an attack. The asynchronous
achievements to each other and across the three system is reminiscent of other games like Sid Miers
games, the rewards are almost identical and the Civilization where players do a specific number of
objectives are normally completed through the natural actions before ending their turn and giving it over to
progression of the player. The achievements are more the other player or computer. The asynchronous game
of a way to reward the player for having played the mode, comes into fruition when a player decides to
game for a long duration than helping the player set attack another player.
goals within the games.
The strategic base defense game mode, is the on-going
In Clash of Clans, there are two main systems that are mode within Clash of Clans. Through the use of Jane
essential for the core context of the game, the player McGonigals four steps to what defines a video game,
progression system and the game mode system. all four elements are clear. The goal is to build up a
defense and attack others, do to the asynchronous
As seen in Figure 86 on page 123, the player game style rules prohibit other players for interacting
progression system features a subset of systems that with the game. The game gives players feedback for
constitute the context of the game: the resource how well or poorly they are doing, by giving rewards
management system, highscore system and quest like resources or gems.
system. As a multiplayer free-to-play game, Clash of
Clans does not have a specific point where the game It is important to note that in some mobile free-to-
ends as normally seen in games, but rather a subset of play games, there is a slight disconnect between game
main goals; both intrinsic and extrinsic. goals and achievements. An example of this in Clash
of Clans is to attack ten bases and get a reward. This
After completing the main goal, a subset of other can be seen as a traditional achievement system, like
game goals will take effect and the game can continue that of Halo 4 for Xbox 360 that has players kill 20000
indefinitely. Returning to the progression system, players in order to get an achievement. However,
players progress by completing quests, building the there is no actually function for the achievement in
main base via the resource management system Halo 4 other than bragging rights. Getting a particular
and ultimately increase the player’s highscore on achievement in Clash of Clans is also a goal in the
leaderboards. These systems are directly linked to game, as it rewards the player with gems that can be
the mechanic design of the game, as seen in Figure used to progress in the game and is directly tied to the
86 on page 123. In order for the players to progress resource management system.
in the game and increase their highscore, they have
to use the combat and resource system. An example BBoom Beach has an almost identical context as Clash
of the progression system is to get a certain resource; of Clans and features many of the same systems.

124
Figure 87: Boom Beach’s map system, here players can through enough gold and correct radar level, reveal
more islands and opponents.

Namely a player progression system and a game mode on resources and what level the player’s radar is. The
system. The player progression system is divided into radar in Boom Beach is used to expand the player’s
three sub-systems, achievement, highscore and map map, where users can explore the various islands
progression. In Boom Beach three layers shows how and find new real life opponents. In order to explore
far the player is. One shows the current general level a specific area, users remove clouds that hides the
a player is, this is based on how much they have build. user view, reminiscent of fog of war seen in games like
This system is directly tied to the mechanic of resource Command and Conquer.
management, in that players first gather a substantial
amount of resources before they can get experience Removing clouds cost gold, the game restrics how much
points. A second progression system are Victory Points, exploration can be done as clouds have a specific level
representing success rates a player has in defeating that needs to correspond to player’s radar. Meaning,
none player characters (NPC) or real life players (RLP) that users need to upgrade their radars in order to
in the campaign. Victory Points are used in the Boom progress in the game, by finding more opponents.
Beach’s matchmaking system, in order to find players Boom Beach’s dynamic map system, allows player
that are of same power level or skills. Victory points to play more frequently by virtue of having access to
are subtracted from players, if a player is attacked. The more levels to play at any given time.
victory point system depends on the player’s skills in
controlling troops, and strategically using the attack The achievement system in Boom Beach works the
command mechanics. In addition, the third and last same way as Clash of Clans. Allowing the player to set
progression system is the map system. intrinsic goals.

The map in Boom Beach can be explored depending The last main system in Boom Beach is Game mode.

4. ANALYSIS 125
Boom Beach relies on a more traditional story on gathering resources and in general do not need to
structured campaign, where multiplayer is integrated worry about other players, even though the only game
into the main ‘singleplayer’ campaign. Meaning, mode is an online only multiplayer mode. Like in Clash
players who play Boom Beach online can play the game of Clans and Boom Beach, the primary game mode of
as a singleplayer experience but the asynchronous Dungeon Keeper is asynchronous PvP where players
multiplayer continues in the background. can attack each other based on the amount of victory
points and experience level.
Dungeon Keeper, by EA Mythic, has the same context
designs as the previous two games. It also features
a player progression system that has three subset of 4.6.4 CONTEXT INTERACTION
systems. A resource management system, highscore TABULATION
and questing system.

Dungeon Keeper, by EA Mythic, has the same context

designs as the previous two games. It also features
a player progression system that has three subset of
systems. A resource management system, highscore
and questing system.

In Dungeon Keeper, the users progress by gathering

resources, through the resource mechanic, hereafter
they build their base in a square layout dungeon as we
have mention in the mechanics section.

The highscore system in Dungeon Keeper has much

similarity to the other two mobile games. Players with Figure 88: Illustrates what part of the GDM this
the most victory and experience points are placed at section contains.
the top of the leaderboards, and other players can
view their bases. This section of the analysis will focus on how the
three mobile games context come to action though
The achievement system in Dungeon Keeper, is directly the players interaction with the game, we define this
linked to a quest-like system that can be seen in the as the context core loop; What are the players goals?
other mobile games. These goals range from the basic core interaction a
The extrinsic goals in Dungeon Keeper can for example player has with a context system, as we previously
be the “Bring it!” achievement where the objective showed in the analysis, to more complex reasons for
is to win one exclusive survival raid in order to gain why they should return to the core interactions with a
a small amount of deluxe currency. But in order to game. Due to there being a large amount of ‘steps’, the
complete this, players have to gather resources and analysis will be broken in to a step by step structure.
amass a large army, making Dungeon Keeper a game
that has multiple goals, sub goals and player chosen 1. In Clash of Clans a game sessions starts when the
goals (intrinsic). player enters the games, here he or she has the
freedom to choose what areas of the game they
Dungeon Keepers last main system, game mode system, want to play with, making for a various of play
allows users to both play alone where they build up a styles.
stronghold and attack NPC’s. Here players focus more 2. Once the player starts the game, the core mechanic

126
Figure 89: The context design and interaction of Clash of Clans (yellow, top), Boom Beach (green, middle) and
Dungeon Keeper (teal, bottom).

loops begin i.e. farming for resources and building finish them and get a reward or to leave the game.
or upgrading the base. As the model shows, once 4. If and when a player leaves a game, various forms
the mechanic core-loop is engaged, numerous of return triggers will appear in order to draw the
side goals begin; known as the achievement or player back into the game. We will explore these
quest system in the context design. Here players in the steps bellow.
can choose what extrinsic goals they want to 5. When a player returns to the game, because of a
complete in Clash of Clans, before they continue return trigger, a new game session starts and the
playing the main campaign. player is again free to set his or her own goals and
3. The next step is to follow goals set by the player, the player game cycle continues.

4. ANALYSIS 127
 the resource management part, and increase
Return triggers are in used to draw the player back their experience level or venture out and play
into the game. Clash of Clans has many different return multiplayer to increase their victory points.
triggers ranging from the competitive return triggers 3. Players can also focus on the intrinsic goals,
to standard smartphone return triggers like push based on the achievement system in the core
notifications, known as nudges (Luton, 2013, p. 66). design of Dungeon Keeper. Following these goals
The triggers help draw attention towards the game’s can result in various ways to play and progress
core mechanics, such as the resource and building through the game, but will always result in either
mechanics. This is known as the appointment trigger. single player (farming of resources) or multiplayer
Players are informed before and after a building have (asynchronous PvP)
finished completion and quickly enable them to 4. As the player starts to finish his or her goals,
continue playing and build more. In the process the leaving the game will result in return triggers
player is returned to the core revenue mechanic where informing players of what is happening within the
they can purchase more functional goods like gems. game. Exactly like Clash of Clans and Boom Beach.

1. Boom Beach’s game session loop begins when the

player enters the game. 4.6.5 META DESIGN
2. When the player starts to play, the mechanic core- TABULATION
loop also begins as well as the side goals. Side
goals are, e.g. in Clash of Clans, intrinsically set by
the player. He or she has the freedom to choose
what parts of the games core mechanic they want
to focus on.
3. Once the player has completed his or her goals,
i.e. start construction on a building, they can
leave the game and return triggers will start
informing the player of various elements of what
is happening within that particular game session
they just played as well as inform of what is
happening within the game.
4. If players return to the game, a new game session
begins and the cycle continues.

Figure 90: Illustrates what part of the GDM this

Boom Beach has many of the same return triggers as
section contains.
Clash of Clans, but since the game does not feature
a clan or guild system means that no social return
triggers within the game can be found. Rather, players The purpose of the meta design systems is to facilitate
get information about bases they have conquered and a deeper level of engagement between the player and
if another player has retaken the base. Resulting in a the game that keeps the game interesting for the player.
very competitive focused return triggers centric style. All three mobile games contain these systems, however
the analysis of the games identifies differences in the
1. Dungeon Keepers core-loop starts with the players design of this ‘long term engagement design’. The
initial opening of a game session meta design is constituted by the lower levels of the
2. When the player starts to play, the core mechanic games, which is depicted within the following figures
loop begins. Here players can either focus on from the thesis analysis framework.

128
Figure 91: The context and meta design Clash of Clans (yellow, left), Boom Beach (green, middle) and Dungeon
Keeper (teal, right).

Guild system player connectivity that the guild system offers by

The guild system is an exclusive aspect to Dungeon rewarding all the participating players. There are no
Keeper and Clash of Clans, containing many of the disadvantages of joining a guild in the game and the
same features within the system. advantages are huge, making it less of a choice for the
In order to join a guild, the player has to build a specific player, as it would only hinder his progress within the
guild building, which is first unlocked to the player later game to not join a guild.
through his progress in the game. The guild system
gives the players within the guild the opportunity One could argue that the player’s goal with joining a
to chat with each in game, which is not an option guild is not to be part of a community or to get a social
otherwise. Here the player is able to visit the other experience, but rather a way to gain exclusive benefits.
guild members’ bases. Building the guild building is Clash of Clans features ‘Clan wars’ between guilds that
a natural part of the progression system in Clash of
Clans and Dungeon Keeper as it unlocks several new Figure 92: The guild building in Clash of Clans.
features for the player.

The system offers advantageous benefits to the

player. In both games, joining a guild gives the guild
members the ability to donate units to each other.
The units are donated to the guild and any guild
members can use these units in combat, giving them
a larger army capacity and thereby making them more
powerful in combat. The player donating the units
receives an experience reward for each unit donated.
The guild system thereby encourages the player-to-

4. ANALYSIS 129
Figure 93: The functional advantages of being a member of a guild in Dungeon Keeper increases as the mem-
bers progress through the game, earning experience points to the guild.

take place over duration of two days, where the players base and see their progression in each games, but
within the guild attack a limited amount of the enemy cannot interact further with each other through Game
players bases, aiming to win as many of the battles as Center.
possible. The winning clan receives huge rewards for
winning, while the losing guild loses nothing. Clash All three games are naturally connected to the App
of Clans encourages players to be a part of a guild by Store, as it is the primary distribution platform of
having no disadvantages to the guild system. However, the games. The games also feature an in game rating
in order to win, the game requires each participating function, where players can rate the game on the App
member to do well, making the clan wars a team effort. Store with one to five stars. The player’s rating of the
From this perspective, the ‘Clan Wars’ give a sense of game is then shown under the ‘Review’ tab on the
community through certain guild-exclusive challenges games’ App Store site. However in Dungeon Keeper,
that rewards the player with functional advantages. the rating function separates reviews from one to
four stars and five-starred reviews. The five starred
Game Center and App Store connection reviews goes directly to the game’s review tab, while
All three games are connected to Apples Game Center, the one-to-four-starred reviews directs the player to
which is a meta system across mobile iOS games EA’s support site where the player is asked questions
applications. The Game Center connects the player’s toward what his rating is based on.
App Store profile to each game, keeping track of the These results are not shown in the on the App Store.
player’s achievements and points within each game. This filtration of reviews gives Dungeon Keeper a higher
Game Center also allows players to connect with each average review score than it would have otherwise. It
other, functioning as a cross platform for player’s to is however possible to rate the game directly through
connect with each other. Players who are friends on the App Store, resulting in Dungeon Keeper having
Game Center can, in all three games, visit each other’s an average of 3,5 stars, which is low considering the

130
brand and developers behind it and would probably and the ladder system lets players see each other’s
have been even lower where it not for the review bases. This feature allows the player’s to inspire
filtration function. each other to share defense strategies and see how
more progressed players are structuring their base
defenses (Faurholm, 2014). The feature results in the
4.6.6 META INTERACTION players being able to form new goals within the game
TABULATION by aiming towards specific defense structures that
strengthens their defense.

Clan wars in Clash of Clans

This social engagement loop is also present in Clash
of Clans, but is an inferior loop to the loop created by
the clan wars feature. The feature is exclusive to the
members of the guild and creates end goals for the
players and encourages the players to keep playing the
game. A clan war spans over two days and is divided
into three phases; the preparation phase, battle phase
and an end phase.

In the preparation phase, the guild members can

prepare their defenses and send units to support each
other in the upcoming attacks on the enemy guild.
Figure 94: Illustrates what part of the GDM this The preparation phase lasts one day, where after their
section contains.
defenses and support possibilities are ‘locked’. When
the preparation phase is done, the defense of each
For this part of the tabulation, we will focus on the participating players are then available to the enemy
meta core loops which purpose is to generate long guild for scouting and strategic planning. This starts
term engagement and social engagements, thereby the battle phase, where players each find an enemy
prolonging retention for the game. to attack. The guilds have one day to battle each other
and after the one day, the guild who have destroyed
(Meta design and interaction models see Figure 95 on the most of the other guilds defenses have won and
page 132) receives a common reward. This can then be shared by
the guild leader with the other members. The reward
Social engagement loops is huge amounts of resources that would normally take
The purpose of meta core loops are to create player a lot of time to acquire and points in the ladder system
engagement by giving the player ways to set long term that ranks the guild as a whole. The reward for winning
goals within the game and a sense of community and a clan war is the biggest reward available in the game.
activity within the game. In the three mobile games,
the social aspect of the meta core-loops are inferior to However, it also requires the guild members to work
the game engagement loop. Clash of Clans stands out together, creating a strategy and coordinate the battle.
from the two other mobile games through the ‘Clan Overcoming such a difficult challenge can give the
Wars’ feature that results in social engagement loop players a sense of community, since they would not
being a bigger factor in the meta core-loop of Clash of otherwise be able to achieve such rewards in the game
Clans than identified in the two other games. and aiming towards being the best guild in Clash of
The friend connectivity feature of the Game Center Clans.

4. ANALYSIS 131
Figure 95: The meta design and interaction of Clash of Clans (yellow, top), Boom Beach (green, middle) and
Dungeon Keeper (teal, bottom).
features social engagement that retains players
The guild system of Clash of Clans is therefore more into playing with each other. Whereas social
complex than the guild system in Dungeon Keeper and engagement in Boom Beach is restricted,
constitutes a new element of gameplay to the game on currently, to PvP.
both a game- and social level. • The three mobile games features experience point
This concludes the mobile games analysis, some of the system and currency system, and allows players to
key findings from this section where: purchase in order to progress.

• Since the three mobile games, genre wise, many Next, the PC analysis and tabulation will focus on how
of the mechanic core loops have been identified the three chosen free-to-play games are designed and
to be identical in patterns. how they have incorporated the free-to-play games
• Clans of Clans features and Dungeon Keeper business model.

132
4.7 MOBILE GAMES Clash of Clans and Dungeon Keeper uses the same
way of communicating where the purchases of these
REVENUE MECHANICS resources can be made, through either dedicated user
TABULATION interface buttons or an in-game shop.
The analysis of revenue mechanics in mobile games
will focus on the relationship between the previous Clash of Clans offers two options for purchasing these
mentioned core loops and how revenue mechanics resources. A) The player buys a predetermined amount
affect these and what this means for the player. of resources in accordance to a given unit or building.
Tabulation between, mechanic core loop and context B) The player buys an amount that is specifically
core loop will therefore be made in order to fulfil the determined by the current levels of the resource
focus. It is important to note that mobile revenue storage buildings. Option A is available when the
mechanic tabulation will not focus on vanity features player taps on a building and buys the specific amount
and Premium/VIP, as these features are not relevant of resource required to build a given building, without
to discuss in regards to the mobile games. However, ever entering the actual store (See figure XX). Option
these features will be relevant to analyse in the PC B, is accessed by either tapping on the gem icon or
games tabulation, as they have a larger present in the the shop icon, in the game’s user interface. This will
PC games. then present the player with the options to fill up the
storage building by either 10% or 100%. Depending
(Revenue mechanics models see Figure 97 on page on the ‘size’ of the storage buildings, and how much
134) is already available to the player, these prices will vary.

4.7.1 CURRENCY Allowing players to purchase resources is a way to

All three games have revenue mechanics that make speed up the process of both Clash of Clans and
it possible for the player to purchase currency within Dungeon Keeper. It takes a substantial amount of time
the game for real money. This currency can be used to get enough resources to build buildings and other
to purchase different items within the game. All defenses like canons and mortars. Boom Beach, on
mobile games allow users to not only purchase the the other hand, only allows players to use option A
aforementioned ‘deluxe’ currency, but also resources when purchasing resources. However, Boom Beach is
that are used on upgrading buildings. very subtle at informing the player of this feature. The
player has to first touch a building he wants upgraded,

Figure 96: Screenshot of option A and B in Clash of Clans. Illustrating how the player can either buy resources
through the in-game shop or when upgrading or building buildings.

4. ANALYSIS 133
 Figure 97: The revenue mechanics of Clash of Clans (yellow, top),
Boom Beach (green, middle) and Dungeon Keeper (teal, bottom).

134
and then press the upgrade button and a display will spending resources, by using resources to build armies
inform then amount missing in order to build it. and buildings. This is an essential part of the gameplay,
and it makes player retention longer lasting. The same
It should be noted that the resources in all three structure is applied in Boom Beach and Dungeon
games are elements that the player gets on a regular Keeper.
basis. How much he or she gets, however, depends
of what level the resource building is. Players also
get resources for completing tasks and for defeating 4.7.2 BOOSTERS ADVANTAGE
enemies. Even though it can take some time to get Some of the ways players can boost their progress
resources, each mobile game has a regular income in all three mobile games, is with purchases of non-
of resources. In the three mobile games, players are permanent resources. Each purchase of a given
not allowed to purchase resources if they do not have resource, in Clash of Clans for example, is a one-time
storage for it. This means, that in order to upgrade the purchase. Boom Beach has a similar non-permanent
‘Town hall’ in Clash of Clans; players need to have the advantage, which again are rooted in the purchase of
gold capacity required to make the purchase. In terms deluxe gems and resources. Dungeon Keeper, on the
of the context core-loop and mechanic core-loop, this other hand, has these exact same features but also
also means that players cannot wait for seven days has three tires of boost that increases gold and gem
and then harvest seven days of resources. The player income for players, as well as increases the power
has to come back to the mechanic of gathering and stats of units. Seen Figure 98 on page 135 players

Figure 98: Overview of the different boosters in Dungeon Keeper, ranging from player insurance to boost that
change unit and structure stats.

4. ANALYSIS 135
Figure 99: The first strike booster advantages, directly gives a seven day statistic boost to all minions.

can buy boosters for deluxe gems giving them a large increases stats on various gameplay elements that
advantage against other players. change the balance of a multiplayer match.

In Dungeon Keeper, players are also able to insure that Both games from Supercell, does not feature any
their wealth does not get robbed by other players, by booster advantage where players can increase power
buying fortification boosters. The booster, ‘First Strike’, stats for units.
gives the player a seven-day boost to all minions However, Clash of Clans does have a feature that
effectively increasing and giving the player advantages increases resource production. By paying a small
over other players. The last booster in Dungeon Keeper, amount gems per resource generating building, players
‘Scouting’, allows users to see any traps laid out by the boost the income of both gold and elixir for a day. This
opposing player. Since the games defense mechanism is an effective revenue mechanic, as it encourages the
is to build traps, and place them strategically so other player to spend more time in the game, and therefore
players will have to skilfully manoeuvre them. As such, possibly spend more gems on wait timers, because of
the scouting boost diminishes a large portion of the increased resource income throughout that period.
core design.
Boom Beach does not allow players to purchase
This is where the rules of the game become so unclear boosters, as players can only rely on the chance to be
that the game becomes more about paying for cheats, rewarded with highly rare gems, by playing the game,
than skills. The main element of the context core loop which then be can used to buy statues that boost
of Dungeon Keeper is to upgrade troops, and thereby various elements within the game. This provides Boom
increasing their overall value in combat. This we see Beach with an interesting feature both in regards to a
as a direct change of the rules in a game, with real game design and revenue mechanic standpoint, as the
money a player can purchase insurance that prevents game requires the player to make an effort in order to
other players for attacking the player´s base, but also achieve this feature.

136
As mentioned, in order to get the statues players 4.7.3 CONVENIENCE
need special gems that are even rarer than the deluxe ADVANTAGE
currency in Boom Beach. This approach and with the In regards to advantages that can be seen as a
mechanic core-loop of directing troops with flares, convenience, all three mobile games have elements of
allows for a game that is much more skill based by this; mainly, pay to clean. In both Clash of Clans and
design. Whereas Clans of Clans and Dungeon Keeper Boom Beach, small obstacles have been strategically
asks very little of a players skills to strategically move placed around the map of where the player builds
units, and rewards players for simply sending in units the base. These obstacles can for instance be stones
that can gather gold. Boom Beach only rewards the and trees that hinder the player from building on
player if they fully succeed in completely destroying a particular spot. In Clash of Clans, players need to
the enemies base, but also randomly rewards them spend resources on removing trees and stones. The
with special gems that can be used to build statues bigger the obstacle, the more resources are needed in
that help the player in various aspects. This makes it a order to remove them.
game more about winning, as it supports the mechanic
combat system of the game by not only focusing on Boom Beach has a similar system of strategically placed
progressing through ranks, but also improving the obstacles that can be removed for a price, but requires
players strategic skills. the player to have a specific headquarter level in order
to do so. Dungeon Keeper is different, in that the entire

Figure 100: Screenshot of the statues and rare gems in Boom Beach.

4. ANALYSIS 137
Figure 101: In Dungeon Keeper it can take alot of time to remove obstacles.

game revolves around removing obstacles in order to players cannot attack the player’s base for a given
build on a specific spot. Each time a player wants to amount of days. However, if the player attacks another
remove a block, imps will rush and start to remove player the shield will cease to work and the player is
the obstacle. This usually takes around 15-20 second open for attacks. This relates to the context of use,
to over three hours, but players have the possibility to since many of these mobile games are a hybrid of
speed up this process with gems effectively making it a singleplayer and multiplayer functionalities, Clash of
convenience, but a rather expensive one. Clans and Dungeon Keeper allows has integrated the
invulnerability insurance as a way for players not to
Another convenience advantage, in Clash of Clans get attacked. If for example a player knows he cannot
and Dungeon Keeper is the invulnerability insurance. play the game for a long period, and has a substantial
The function of invulnerability insurance is that other amount of resources, the purchase of these “shields”
is a way to avoid losing them.
Figure 102: The three different shields that players
can purchase with gems, lasting a variety of days. This revenue mechanic directly influences the core
context of Clash of Clans and Dungeon Keeper, since
both games are designed around gathering and
conquering resources from other players. From a game
design perspective, it allows for players to change the
rules of how the game is meant to be played. However,
purchase of insurance that strictly only insures the
protection of a player’s amassed wealth might not
change the rules of a given game.

As seen in Figure 102, Clash of Clans has three different

invulnerability insurance. Dungeon Keeper has both, as

138
well as fortification that increases damage and health advertise for their own intellectual properties within a
of various elements. Boom Beach does not feature game. None of three selected mobile games does this.
any such invulnerability insurance, as such making the Rather, the three mobile games tend to use traditional
players open for attack whenever they are not in the advertisement such as commercials on other mediums
game. In Boom Beach, this means that an online player like YouTube and Television. These commercials
cannot be attacked, only when the player exists the range from in-game footage to high production value
game, is it possible for other players to conquer their computer generated images (CGI) videos.
precious resources.

4.7.6 INTERPLAY
4.7.4 RAPID PROGRESSION Interplay features are only obtainable through user-to-
ADVANTAGE user interactions. At present time, Boom Beach does
Rapid progression is one of the most present revenue not have any social connectivity, and therefor does
mechanics in all three mobile games. Players are able not feature interplay. However, Clash of Clans and
to buy the deluxe currency ‘gems’, which functions as Dungeon Keeper features interplay, allowing for a wide
one-time purchases that allows them to effectively range of added features that are tightly connected to
skip all time walls in each game. In order for us to know the respective games guild systems. In Clash of Clans,
all the various mechanics in the game, we had to buy if a player is a member of a clan he or she can send
gems with real money. By doing so, we were able to and receive gold and elixir from other clan members.
see, in for example Boom Beach that in a matter of Dungeon Keeper also has a clan system that allows
minutes, we were able to progress from a rank nine to players to send and receive units to each other, which
a rank sixteen. Something that otherwise would have can help in combat situations.
taken days to achieve.

In Boom Beach, it is very important to reach a high 4.7.7 KEY FINDING AND PART
level headquarter in order to clear the map of trees. CONCLUSION
Clearing trees and obstacles allow buildings to be The analysis of the revenue mechanics in all three
placed more strategically. With the combination of mobile games, have given us a better understanding
purchasing resources with gems, and skipping time of how developers use revenue mechanics at specific
walls with gems, players can rapidly progress in the areas in the core-loops of both context and game
game and get an advantage over other players. Clash design mechanics.
of Clans and Dungeon Keeper also builds on this What we have discovered are many similarities, of
concept, where players must clear territory in order to what and where developers monetize. Common for all
optimize their base. three games is the ability to boost the progress; this
is done via the deluxe currency that all three games
operate with. This has small to larger consequences for
4.7.5 ADVERTISING how the games are played. Ranging from convenience
In regards to advertisement, all three mobile games boosters that make it impossible to get attacked, to
have very little to none in-game advertisement, that more game changing elements, such as Dungeon
are seen in some free-to-play games. In general, Keeper’s boosters that have a directly affects how the
there is a tendency for mobile games publishers to game is meant to be played making.

4. ANALYSIS 139
4.8 STATE-OF-THE-ART PC
GAMES OVERVIEW
In the following pages, the selected PC games for analysis
is presented after which the analysis of the three PC games
is conducted. The analysis is structured to firstly present a
combined Business Model Canvas-analysis of the PC games,
which is followed an analysis of the design elements using the
Game Design Model constructed on the basis of the presented
design theory in the theory chapter. Afterwards, an in-depth
analysis of the revenue mechanics in the PC games is conduct-
ed using the Revenue Mechanic Framework, which is con-
structed from presented business theory regarding revenue
streams.

World of Tanks:

Developer:
Wargaming.net.

Release date:
First released in Russia 2010 (China 2011, Europe 2011, north
America 2011, Singapore 2012, Vietnam 2012, South Korea
2012 and Japan 2013).

Game description :
World of Tanks is a free-to-play MMO (Massively Multiplay-
er Online) game, where the player can choose between first
person and third person view. The game is available for PC and
X-box 360. In World of Tanks, an essential part of the game is
advancing in levels and getting new tanks, as it provides new
and different player experiences. This is done by playing the
game and by acquiring the four types of currency, “battle xp”,
“free xp”, “credit” and “gold”.

Active users:
Several millions.

Estimated revenue:
No data.

Revenue model:
Free-to-play with microtransactions. The game is playable
without the use of payments, as it is possible to earn currency
through playing the game. However, some aspects of the game
is only achievable with real-world currency.
Team Fortress 2:

Developer:
Valve.

Release date:
2007.

Game description :
Team Fortress 2 is a fast-paced first person shooter that has
a strong emphasis on humour and team play, the game is
only available through the PC Steam platform. Different game
modes and character classes allow for a wide variety of plays
styles. With a unique costumer co-creation aspect, where play-
ers can create in-game items that can be sold and bought for
real money. Team Fortress 2 features only real world currency.

Active users:
59,181 (09-05-2014) 50,000 to 60,000 concurrent players.

Estimated revenue:
139 million dollars (2013).

Revenue model:
Free-to-play with microtransactions. The game is playable with-
out the use of payments, as the game drops random items
when sessions is done.
Loadout:

Developer:
Edge of Reality.

Release date:
2014, January 31.

Game description :
Loadout is a third person shooter, where you team up or play
solo against other players and/or bots. Loadout shares many
play-style similarities with Team Fortress 2, and focuses on
humour through wacky outfits and provocative animations.
Blutes is the main currency in the game and is earned through
game sessions. Furthermore, the game has a deluxe currency,
“Spacebux”, which can only be purchased with real-world cur-
rency.

Active users:
3,296 (09-05-2014)

Estimated revenue:
No data.

Revenue model:
Free-to-play with microtransactions. The game is playable with-
out the use of payments, as it is possible to earn currency in-
game that allows the player to purchase upgrades for weapons.
Real-world currency purchases is restricted to things that does
not give a direct advantage on the gameplay.
4.9 PC GAMES BUSINESS of the male/female ratio in the three PC games, but a
study found that as many as 30% of women play more
MODEL TABULATION violent types of games like Halo, but other FPS games
As previously described, the business model tabulation
like Call of Duty only counts around 20% females
will only focus on the product, customer interface
(Graser, 2013).
and financial aspect of the revenue streams of each
PC game. In this section a short introduction to each
One of the primary customer segments of all three
PC game will be presented in order to provide a quick
games is the players that find the tactical aspect of
overview, before conducting the tabulation analysis.
shooter games enjoyable. Another common customer
segment is players that like immersive action packed
games.
4.9.1 CUSTOMER SEGMENTS
World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout all aim at
Furthermore all three games aim toward attracting
a broad PC market audience, and arguable males being
players that like to compete against other players in
the primary demographic due to the genre and theme
teams or individually and to socialize with your fellow
of the games. It is difficult to find the exact numbers
comrades.

Figure 103: “As-is” model of World of Tanks’ Customer segment, Value prop-
osition, Customer relationship, Channels and Revenue Stream. The shapes
outline colors illustrates the linkage between the different elements in the
model (for full resouletion see apendix 17-18-19).

146
 Figure 104: “As-is” model of Team Fortress 2’s Customer segment,
Value proposition, Customer relationship, Channels and Revenue
Stream.

4. ANALYSIS 147
One of World of Tanks’ primary and unique customer time periods are mixed. Therefore, they are able to
segments is all the WWII military aficionados, players catch some of WWII military aficionados as previously
that simple love military equipment, armoured warfare mentioned.
and all the details that comes with it. Furthermore,
World of Tanks aims at MMO players that are tired of All three games are multiplayer player versus player
the long game sessions of the more traditional MMO’s. and therefore set the condition to give the player a
Team Fortress 2 and Loadout both aim towards players very diverse gaming experience, as no match is ever
that like a cartoonish violence in a more light and the same. Furthermore it also creates a great basis for
humorous tone. social connectivity both in-game and on each of their
community forums. As each of the games is within
the multiplayer shooter genre, there is a competitive
4.9.2 VALUE PROPOSITION element to it.
World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout is built World of Tanks shares this emphasis on the competitive
upon a freemium business model meaning they all element, but have an even stronger focus on this.
offer a free-of-use value proposition to the user. World World of Tanks have on their website a whole section
of Tank also offer the option of a premium subscription dedicated to the e-sport. Furthermore, Wargaming.
feature as the only of the three making it a combination net arranges different player versus player events with
business model; this is a strength both in relation to prices. Being an e-sport game means that the game
the value proposition and the potential extra revenue have enough users and the game play to support it.
generated.

One of the primary value propositions of all the three 4.9.3 CUSTOMER
games is customization. Customization gives the RELATIONSHIPS
player value, because it presents them with a wide In regards to the customer relationships of World
variety of options to choose from and heavily affect of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout they follow a
the gameplay experience. The customization features similar model. All of them tries to establish a customer
are further elaborated through the section ‘State-of- relationship by providing communities and to co-
the-art PC games tabulation’ in both the context and create value with the customers.
meta section. The communities is facilitated through their own
website and forum. It utilizes the user communities
World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout all aim in order for them to become more engaged and
towards creating an action packed challenge based exchange knowledge about the games. This could
immersion, where each battle or match is never the potentially create the basis for users to help each
same and the player has to make hard tactical choices other with various problems. Here users can address
in order to prevail. Team Fortress 2 and Loadout as their concerns and problems about the game and give
opposed to World of Tanks is two games full of humor, the developer’s useful feedback on the game that
both of them aims to create the best cartoonish can help them to better understand their customers
violent FPS game on the market. World of Tanks also (Osterwalder 2010, p. 29).
tries to get in on the value proposition of being one of Many PC games usually feature co-creation in some
the best action packed shooter games on the market degree and these three games are no exception. All
and is therefore a competitor to Team Fortress 2 and games feature suggestion forums, where the players
Loadout. However, World of Tanks also tries to target can come with game related suggestions to new
a specific audience that like a new take on war games, content.
where reality and fiction are mixed together. In World
of Tanks the details are extensive and the different The common goal of the companies’ customer

148
Figure 105: Screenshot from Loadout’s download website, here the customer quickly creates a new user, down-
load, install and play the game free of charge.

relationships is to create a foundation for customer 4.9.4 CHANNELS

acquisition and customer retention in order to boost All three companies try to reach their customer
sales (Osterwalder 2010, p. 28). segments and communicate their value proposition
through their own website, social media and streaming
services in order to create awareness and therefore

Figure 106: Screenshot of World of Tanks’ premium shop, where the customer can buy in-game currency for
real money.

4. ANALYSIS 149
help the customers to evaluate the value propositions. on Team Fortress 2 as a business, they have already
developed the item, drop and trading systems that
The primary channel for obtaining the games is facilitate this revenue stream. The operational costs
primarily done through their own website. In the are minimal, making the cost-benefit ratio substantial.
case of World of Tanks and Team Fortress 2, another Additionally, since the users themself set the desired
channel would be Xbox live Arcade, AppStore etc. price, the risk of negative publicity often related to
Both games support multiple platforms. Normally the these substantial micro-transactions, is either reduced
channel where the customer obtains the product, the or avoided completely.
company generates revenue in the same moment, but
as this is free-to-play, no real revenue is generated As briefly mentioned in the previous section, World
from the install alone. Therefore, the primary channel of Tanks and Team Fortress 2 supports multiple
to purchase specific products and services in freemium platforms, which is a strength compared to Loadout’s
games are done through in-game microtransaction single platform, because it have the potential to reach
features that are either handled directly in-game or a broader market and therefore get more customers
redirected to a website constructed to handle the resulting in more revenue generated. A detailed
customers transactions. exploration of each of the three games revenue
mechanics will be explained in the section ‘PC games
4.9.5 REVENUE STREAM revenue mechanic tabulation’.
All three games sell both functional and vanity virtual
goods. However, World of Tanks offers a premium
option to their customers, essentially making it a 4.9.6 KEY FINDINGS AND PART
combination model. This is a strength compared CONCLUSION
to Team Fortress 2 and Loadout and it presents • All three games share the customer segment of
the customer with another value proposition and players that like the tactical aspect of shooter
furthermore creates the potential for more revenue games and action packed challenge based
than the other two companies generate. immersion.
• World of Tanks tries to capture a part of the
Team Fortress 2 does however, facilitate the user with MMO customer segment, by presenting the value
the option to sell in-game virtual goods to his peers proposition of getting high value for time spent
for whatever price the other user is willing to pay. This compared to the long game session of traditional
creates both value for the customer as they have the MMO’s.
potential to earn real money by playing the game, • Team Fortress 2 and Loadout are in close
therefore generating engagement and motivation of competition for players that like cartoonish
play, and furthermore generates revenue for Valve violence and humorous games.
as they cash in a percentage of the transaction. Valve • World of Tanks is the game that offers the most
collects a 5% transactions fee Community Market features in regards to the more competitive player
FAQ each time a trade is completed between two and is an official E-sport game.
users in any game on Steam. The developers of the • All three uses a freemium revenue model.
individual games such as Dota 2 or Team Fortress 2 World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout all
then collects additionally 10%. Since Valve developed generate revenue both on functional and vanity
those two games, it gives them the total sum of 15% virtual goods.
as a transaction fee for completed trades in these two • World of Tanks, and Team Fortress 2 both uses
games. This is obviously a huge strength for Valve as a multiple platforms, which is a big strength to
company, because they are able to monetize on games Loadout, which only uses one.
they have not produced themselves. Looking strictly

150
As a part conclusion in all of the cases, the games 4.10.1 MECHANIC DESIGN
seem to follow the same overall pattern in their TABULATION
business model. All of them focuses on creating long
term engagement and a strong customer relationship
(acquisition and retention) through community
building (forum, streams, events etc.), continuously
releasing new content, high level of customization
options and co-creation in order to make their
freemium model work.

4.10 STATE-OF-THE-ART
PC GAMES TABULATION
In the following section we analyse the game design
of the three PC games that constitute their core
loops and how the three games incorporate revenue
mechanics into the design the influences the core Figure 107: Illustrates what part of the GDM this
loops. The tabulation uses the game design model section contains.
earlier presented in the thesis and focuses on the core
design components and the components influenced by
World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout in the
revenue mechanics. The core loop tabulation analysis
core design of the mechanic level are very similar in
is divided into three sections that each focuses on the
key systems and related mechanics.
three different levels of core loops.

The reason for the almost identical key systems and

Firstly the tabulation examines the mechanic core-
mechanics can be found in the genre of the three
loops that are connected to the most common
games. All shooter games will have similar key systems
player interactions within the three games. Here the
and mechanics in their core, but the difference lies
tabulation focuses on the core systems, mechanics
within how the constitutive rules are coded/designed
and revenue mechanics that constitute each games
and how the operational rules are designed (Salen
core gameplay.
& Zimmerman, 2004, p. 130). For instance, the rules
that define the player movement and physics of
The second part of the tabulation examines the context
moving a human versus moving a heavy tank define
core-loops of each game which focuses on how each
the difference in the user experience of the mechanic
game sets up goals that gives the player a reason to
level.
come back for multiple game sessions. Finally, the
tabulation examines the meta core loops of the three
The core design of the mechanic level of all three games
games, focusing on how the games makes the player
consists of three primary systems that constitutes
value the games.
every other system and mechanic in the games. The
three systems are shown in Figure 108 on page 152.
Through the three sections, the three games are
compared to each other. Since the three PC games
These key systems and mechanics have mutual
are very similar in their design, the tabulation mainly
influences on each other and together provide the
emphasizes the differences between the three games
frame for the mechanic core-loops of World of Tanks,
in order to avoid repetition.
Team Fortress 2 and Loadout. The core-loops will be

4. ANALYSIS 151
 resource system.

Aim and attack mechanic

The functionality of the aim and attack mechanic
makes the player able to move the crosshair to a
desired target and perform an attack with a weapon
on an enemy player. Each time the player performs an
attack command in World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2
or Loadout it requires the use of a unit source in the
Figure 108: Illustrates the three primary systems of form of bullets and timer that is present in between
World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout. each bullet.

explained after a tabulation of the primary systems Furthermore, the attack mechanic links to a weapon
and their related mechanics and sub-systems. or item swap mechanic in all three games, making the
A main goal of the mechanic level in all the three player able to switch between different weapons or
PC games is to become better at playing the game; bullets with statistical variety that therefore have an
mastering the three primary systems. The mastery impact on the attack mechanic. In Team Fortress 2 and
level of the player is measured by how well the Loadout there is a multitude of different weapons,
player is at controlling his in-game character and the ranging from pyro weapons, rocket launchers, riffles,
interaction with other players and objects. guns and many more. In World of Tanks the player can
swap through different types of ammunition in game
Combat system gaining specific advantages or disadvantages.
The combat system of the three PC games consists of
an attack mechanic, defense mechanic, health system Defense mechanic:
and specifically in World of Tanks and Loadout also a In Team Fortress 2 and Loadout the defense mechanic

Figure 109: In-game screenshot of World of Tanks in first person mode, where the player has aimed at his op-
ponent and is ready to use the attack mechanic.

152
Figure 110: Shows the defense mechanic of World of Tanks.

mostly consists of dodging enemy attack commands to upgrade your tank to remove fire faster and thereby
by using the movement mechanics to move arguably healing your personal health pool. But in
your character; for instance, forward or jumping. the more traditional sense of actively healing your
Additionally, Loadout’s defense mechanic also contains teammates, it is only Team Fortress 2 and Loadout that
a roll feature specially intended to dodge attacks. features this. In Team Fortress 2 it is the ‘Medic’ class
A part of the defense mechanic in World of Tanks, is that has the primary objective of healing teammates
the players ability to positioning the tank when getting in battle, therefore providing the team with healing a
attacked by enemies. Not only in a strategic manner, clear advantage, but other classes such as the ‘Heavy’
but also in regards to angling the armor of the tank, in can also heal allies. In Loadout the player can modify
order to receive as little damage as possible. The tanks
have different weak spots on their armor, therefore Figure 111: Shows two friendly players in Loadout
positioning the tank with its stronger sides is key for where one of them is using his customized gun to
heal his brother of arms.
surviving attacks. (see figure Figure 110 for the tank
positioning system).

Health system
The health system consists of a set number of hit
points, determining how many times a player can be
damaged before dying. Each game has a health system
and other sub health systems with different statistics
for each of the different classes or tanks.
The three games’ health system all contains some form
of a healing mechanic. In World of Tanks it is possible

4. ANALYSIS 153
their weapon to heal friendlies instead of doing Team Fortress 2 and Loadout.
damage, essentially changing the role of the player
the same way as the medic does in Team Fortress 2.
By having a healing mechanic like Team Fortress 2 and 4.10.2 MECHANIC INTERACTION
Loadout provides opportunities for more different TABULATION
ways to play the game compared to World of Tanks in
regards to the core mechanics.

Movement system
The movement systems of World of Tanks, Team
Fortress 2 and Loadout consist of a movement
mechanics that makes the player able to move the
“camera view” (in eyes or 3rd person view) around
and move the position of their character. The different
movement possibilities is a big part of what defines
the three games and therefore have large impact.
The movement is very much depended on the physics
system as each movement is influenced accordingly to
that system.

Figure 112: Illustrates what part of the GDM this

In World of Tanks the player can’t jump or change
section contains.
direction of the tank as fast and in the same way as the
other two PC games. As the core design of the mechanic level is almost
identical of the three PC games and because these
As mentioned Team Fortress 2 and Loadout movement systems create the basis and frame for the interaction
is more fast paced, because of the movement between the user and computer, it results in similar
possibilities, players can easily choose to jump or mechanic core loops as the three models illustrates
change directions whenever they want to, creating a below.
basis for a more constant flow of action compared to
World of Tanks. As previously described, the mechanic core-loop is
the pattern and method of play (Clark, 2014, p. 55). In
Physics system World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout it is the
The last primary system is the physics system. It is combat loop, which is as follows:
related to both the combat and movement system.
It dictates each movement that changes the position 1. The first step in the mechanic core loop is for the
of the character or other in-game objects such as player to locate an object. For example to locate
the travelling line of bullets. Furthermore the physics an enemy target or a control point in World of
system of World of Tanks somewhat simulates realistic Tanks.
physics, at least if it is compared to Team Fortress 2 2. The second step is for the user to perform the
and Loadout’s. This creates a slower paced gameplay action as in using an item. In Team Fortress 2
for World of Tanks, but fits well into the design and e.g., the player can heal an ally or attack with a
vision of the game. weapon.
These key systems and mechanics have a mutual 3. The third step (Reload/wait for timer) can both
influence on each other and together provides the happen before and after the fourth step that is
frame for the mechanic core loops of World of Tanks, to either win or lose the action. This is because

154
Figure 113: The mechanic design and interaction of World of Tanks (purple, top), Team Fortress 2 (orange, mid-
dle) and Loadout (red, bottom).

it is not definite that the player will have to wait player gain experience, high score stats (kill/death
for a reload or another item timer to successfully ratio etc.) and credits as a reward. In Loadout the
perform an action. player is rewarded with experience, high score
4. The fourth step entails that the performed action stats and blutes (currency).
is either a win or lose scenario. The player either
managed to successfully take over a control point The element of winning a match is one that is related
or deal more damage to the enemy than received. to the context loop of the three games, but it is the
5. 5The last step of the mechanic core loop provides mechanic core-loop that dictates who is wins or loses a
the player with a reward, before the pattern match. Winning in World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and
of play is repeated again. In World of Tanks the Loadout is really about mastering the mechanic core-

4. ANALYSIS 155
loop by out smarting and out aiming your opponents.
This requires intimate knowledge of the game (stats,
classes, map layout etc.), tactical abilities and motor
skills in order to succeed in mastering the mechanic
loop.

4.10.3 CONTEXT DESIGN

TABULATION

Figure 114: Illustrates what part of the GDM this

section contains.

This section of the analysis will focus on how the three

mobile games context come to action though the goals
set by the game.

The three PC games shares two main systems in the

context design; the player progression system and
game mode system. The player progression system
consists of the three sub-systems in each game,
however these vary from game to game. The player
progression system in World of Tanks and Loadout
is the same, as they consist of a Tech tree system,
Highscore and XP system and Customization system.
Team Fortress 2 does not have a Tech Tree system,
however it features an achievement system.

In all three games, there is a highscore and XP system

that allows the player to track the number of kills and
deaths the player has received during a game session.
Figure 115: The mechanic and context design of
The player can evaluate his progress when looking at World of Tanks (purple), Team Fortress 2 (orange)

156
 the different currencies in World of Tanks, is used to
purchase new things that can be utilized in-game.

Both World of Tanks and Loadout have a Tech tree

system, which allows for customization, upgrading
and unlocking of features in the two games. In World
of Tanks, this allows the player to track his progress
in the game, as unlocking new modules, tanks, items
etc. in the tech tree- and customization system, is
an implicit indicator of how much the player has
achieved and played the game. The same is applicable
for Loadout, as a new player will have a limited Tech
Tree as opposed to a more experienced one. The Tech
Tree system in Loadout allows the player to research
specific branches of the four different chassis types:
rifle, launcher, pulse, beam and the equipment section.
Each of the four chassis types contains between six
and nine branches, which allows the player to research
different aspects of the featured weapon e.g. barrel
and scope.

If the player receives an item drop, in Team Fortress 2,

it can be utilized in the customization system. These
Figure 116: The mechanic and context design of
Loadout (red, bottom). drops can be weapons, tools, action items, Mann Co.
supply crates or cosmetic items. In the customization
the highscore and XP system, at the end of each game, system, the player may choose to use the item or
as it reveals information about his performance. As not. In this sense, the player can track his progress by
the player becomes familiar with classes, maps and viewing the amount of items available in his backpack.
opponents, the play will learn to prioritize and make However, as items are purchasable through the shop,
better decisions in the game, and thereby improve on it is not conclusive.
his highscore.
In World of Tanks and Loadout, the Tech Tree system is
In World of Tanks and Loadout, this system allows the tied together with a part of the customization system.
player to see how much XP and currency (Blutes and Customizing and improving weapons and tanks in the
Credits) is rewarded, at the end of a game session. two games are vital parts of the player’s progression.
In Team Fortress 2, the player is not guaranteed to Furthermore, World of Tanks and Loadout feature
receive a reward. a cosmetic customization system that deals with the
appearance of the characters and tanks in the game,
In World of Tanks and Loadout, the earned currency is these are not important for the player progression.
assigned to different aspects of the game. In World of In Loadout, these items are only achievable through
Tanks the credits, battle XP and free XP all functions as real-world payment methods and in World of Tanks
a resource for acquiring new items. In Loadout the XP the amount of cosmetic changes that can be made is
is used for progressing in levels to a max of 40, which limited.
will unlock new features and continuously improve the
percentage of blutes gained in-game. Blutes, as with In Team Fortress 2 and Loadout, the player can watch

4. ANALYSIS 157
his progression in the game through an achievement loop, and utilizes different return triggers in order
system that is connected to Steam’s achievement acquire the player back to the game.
system. Through this system the player can earn item These loops contain a different number of phases,
and weapon drops. An example of an achievement in which the player goes through in order to either stop
Team Fortress 2 is the “Hard to Kill” achievement that or repeat the loop.
requires the player to get five kills in a row without
dying. 1. In World of Tanks, the game session loop begins
with selecting a tank and the desired equipment.
The game mode system consists of two sub-systems The choice of tank and equipment is vital for
that are shared by all three games: game mode and the player’s performance in the game, and is
win/lose condition. World of Tanks has seven game important to coordinate with teammates when
modes, in Loadout there is also seven game modes playing co-op modes. In Team Fortress 2 and
including the custom game mode, and in Team Fortress Loadout, the first phase is to select game mode,
2 there are 11 game modes including the training- and this will start the game session.
co-op mode. 2. The second phase for World of Tanks 2 must be
considered in accordance to the first phase, as
These game modes have different win and lose the choice of game mode is important for the
conditions, which are key to understand if the player is choice of tank and equipment. The different
to succeed in a game session. game modes have different goals and objectives,
where the efficiency of one specific tank will vary.
4.10.4 CONTEXT INTERACTIONS The second phase in Team Fortress 2 requires
TABULATION the player to select his preferred class for the
particular game mode. This can be either one of
the nine different classes, who all have different
strengths and weaknesses in the different maps
and modes. In Loadout the player must select his
preferred ‘loadout’ for the particular game mode.
Selecting the ‘loadout’ means choosing weapons
for the game session. The loadouts consists of two
player customized weapons and a hand grenade.
3. The third phase of all three games is to either
follow the extrinsic goals set up by the game, or
make personal intrinsic goals/objectives for the
game session. An intrinsic goal in Loadout could
be collecting both red and green vials in order
to both score points and deny kills in the game
mode, “Death Snatch”. An intrinsic goal could for
Figure 117: Illustrates what part of the GDM this
instance be focusing on a specific enemy tank/
section contains.
player in the “Tank Company Battle”, where
players team up against opposing teams.
This section of the analysis will focus on how the 4. The fourth phase of all three games is to either
three mobile games context core loops come to action win or lose the game session, which in World of
though the players interaction with the game Tanks and Loadout will determine the amount of
XP and currency (credits and blutes) the player is
All of the three PC games consists of a game session rewarded at the end of a session. In Team Fortress

158
Figure 118: The context design and interaction of World of Tanks (purple, top), Team Fortress 2 (orange, middle)
and Loadout (red, bottom).

2, this will trigger the item drop system, which is using earned XP and currency on the different
will provide the player with a chance of receiving features in each game. In World of Tanks and
a random item. When the player has either won Loadout, the player can unlock or upgrade
or lost the game session, he will have different weapons and tanks, which can be used for a new
reasons for wanting to return to the game. These game session loop. In Team Fortress 2, the player
reasons will be described after the last phase. can either equip the new items or use it to craft
5. The fifth phase ends the game session for all three or trade for other items, if he was lucky enough
games, which will either result in the player being to get a drop.
directed to the main menu. This will provide the
player with the option to start the game session There can be several reasons for returning to the
loop again, quit the game or proceed to sixth games. These choices depend on the preferences of
phase. the player and the type of engagement established.
6. The sixth and last step in the game session loop The player can have a social commitment with a

4. ANALYSIS 159
friend, who expects the player to fulfil some sort of
agreement of playing the game at a certain time. This
social commitment trigger is facilitated by systems in
each game that allows friends to team up and play
together. This means that the player can utilize a bigger
aspect of the game as it allows the players to better
coordinate and set up strategies, which will give the
player a deeper level of engagement and experience.
The player can also choose to return to the games as
they facilitate competitive play, which caters to players
who enjoy player versus player encounters. This
means that the player can challenge and test his own
skills and abilities against other players. The player can
choose to return to the game as it provides in-game
boosts in certain periods. Figure 119: Illustrates what part of the GDM this
section contains.

In World of Tanks, the player gains rested XP, which

is a system that boosts the player income in-game if
the player have not been active for a while. Loadout
offers daily prizes, where players have the opportunity
to earn additional blutes after a game session. In Team
Fortress 2, the player can choose to return to the game
Figure 120: The context and meta design of World
due to special arranged double drop-rate weekends. of Tanks (purple.

Another reason for returning to the game could be

if the player is very close to completing a goal in the
game, or just a few credits short of unlocking a new
item. This is especially seen in World of Tanks and
Loadout, as they allow the player to earn and save up
currency or xp, which allows the players to create goals
for achieving specific items, consumables, tanks etc.

4.10.5 META DESIGN

TABULATION
Around the core game we find the meta design
of World of Tanks, Team Fortress and Loadout. As
previously described the meta design is connected to
both the mechanic and context design.
The meta design and its related core-loop is constituted
by the “frame” of the mechanic and context design
and very much the context of use. As such, the meta
design and core-loops details the culture and mentality
around the game.

160
Figure 121: The context and meta design of Team Fortress 2 (orange, left) and Loadout (red, right).

Forum players to create their own vanity items through the

World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout shares a Steam Work shop.
need to bring their users to their forums. This facilitates
both company-to-user and user-to-user interactions of Clan system
all three mobile games. Company-to-user is in regards World of Tanks is the only of the three PC games to
to giving customer support, but also user feedback on feature an in-game clan system. The clan system
upcoming patches or current content. The user-to- allows the players to form a community, chat with
user interaction is often about game balancing issues, clan members, use the clan game mode, and progress
new content, asking for help (bugs, guides etc.), clans/ through the ranking system and it makes teaming up
guilds looking for new members or any other topic against other players very accessible. On their official
relating to the features of the specific game. website, they even facilitate a recruitment station for
active clans looking for new members to join their
In-game shop system ranks.
The in-game shop system in World of Tanks, Team
Fortress 2 and Loadout facilitates the user transactions World of Tanks also features unique clan match events
of items. In Team fortress 2 players have options hosted by Wargaming.net, where it is possible to win
for upgrading their inventory space through their special prices such as gold or an in-game tank. As
inventory system. previously mentioned, World of Tanks have a clan only
As previously mentioned, Team Fortress 2 allows game mode, where each clan tries to control as much

4. ANALYSIS 161
Figure 122: Screenshot from World of Tanks of their recruitment station service

land as possible on the global map either defending or feature.

attacking against enemy clans.
Streaming services
Besides the unique in-game events, Wargaming.net Streaming services such as Twitch or YouTube are used
also host their own Wargaming.net Esport League for a lot of in regards to PC games both by the developers
the best and most serious clans/Esport teams. and by the users and we believe it plays a part in
generating some of the meta core-loops in PC games
Here each clan battle each other to conquer as much today. The role of streaming services are especially
territory as possible of the world map. present in World of Tanks as it is an E-sport game, but
Clan matches do happen in Team Fortress 2, but are Loadout also manages to utilize some the medium’s
done in a more traditional way, where everything to potential.
setting up the clan and matches are done outside the
game. It is possible to team up with your friends in
Loadout, but have yet to implement an in-game clan

162
Figure 123: The left screenshot: The 2014 Wargaming.net League Grand Finals where the professional Esport
team Natus Vincere won the first place.
The right screenshot: The global clan vs. clan map in World of Tanks. Here each clan battle each other to con-
quer as much territory as possible of the world map.

4.10.6 META INTERACTION new maybe unforeseen meta core-loops are created.
TABULATION
Social engagement loops
The first social engagement is present in all three
games and is about users teaming up with their
friends or forming clans/gaming communities to set
longer term goals for them self and their respective
group. It is long-term goals that supersede the more
mathematical part of winning the match and getting
a better high score. It is goals that are personal and
follows the following steps:

1. Here the users team up with likeminded individuals

forming a shared bond and goal of the game.
2. The difficult challenges that is only possible to
beat as a team is overcome in the second step.
3. The third step the team/clan get acknowledgement
Figure 124: Illustrates what part of the GDM this from the other players participating in the match
section contains.
or the community surrounding the game.
4. The winning team/clan gets an exclusive reward
The meta core loop purpose is to create a long term for their accomplishments.
engagement of the user. As previously mentioned the 5. It has a sense of purpose to it; the feeling of
mechanic, context and other services/systems around reaching a higher goal together, by performing
the game creates the foundation of the meta core- complicated strategies or interesting combinations
loops But one element that is unique to the meta core of classes, it all connects the players, as they are
loop is when the human computer interaction happens co-dependent on each other’s success and failure.

4. ANALYSIS 163
Figure 125: The meta design and meta interaction of World of Tanks (purple, top), Team Fortress 2 (orange,
middle) and Loadout (red, bottom).

social connectivity between the users.

The second social engagement is present in all three 3. The third step is to setup the discussed event or
games, it entails social connectivity through the games arranged clan match. To use the same World of
respective forum activity and community building Tanks example this step would entail that the users
between the users and from the developers/company here would plan how to setup user generated
to the customers. The second social engagement loop scenarios simulating these famous historic events.
follows the following steps: 4. The last step is to live out the discussed event or
arranged clan match.
1. In the first step the user navigates the respective
game forum to find specific topics such as best A forum therefore works as a communication channels
strategies or converse on different item usage. for user-to-user and company-to-user, as such it
2. The second step is the active participation itself, leads to community building, a basis for the users to

164
share knowledge and possible generate events that the culture and user mentality surrounding World of
transcend the frame build by the developers. Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout.
The third social engagement loop is one Loadout really
emphasis on. The developers of Loadout live stream
about new content coming to the game in new patches 4.10.7 KEY FINDINGS AND PART
or other game topics. CONCLUSION
The mechanic core-loops in all three games are almost
1. The first step of this meta core-loop is for the identical in pattern and mastering it requires that
users locate the live stream. player becomes proficient with the three primary
2. The users have found the live stream and is now system that makes up the mechanic core-loop: combat
watching the developer’s present new content. system, movement system and physics system.
3. In the third step, the users can ask questions
directly to the developers. What makes them unique within their genre in relation
4. In the last step, the users get answers from the to the mechanic level is the way the attack mechanic
developers. works (rate of fire, reload timers), character movement
possibilities and the physics.
The fourth social engagement loop is present in Team
Fortress 2 and is a big part of how they engage the World of Tank and Loadout’s features a comprehensive
user to contribute to the game and its culture by progression system and therefore have the potential
letting them use the Steam Workshop to create their to give the largest feeling of progression and extend
own vanity items. the player life time cycle (retention).

1. First, the user uses the Steam Workshop feature Team Fortress 2 is as mentioned the only game of
to create their own vanity items. the three not to feature an experience system or a
2. In the second step the users upload the content currency reward system.
/ rate content available on the Steam Workshop.
3. The highest rated content gets implemented into All three games mechanic and context design plus
Team Fortress 2. other relevant features or services around the core
4. In the last step the users that successfully got their game like community for a, streaming or other, has
content into the game, gets acknowledgement created a frame/foundation that has made it possible
from the other users and get revenue whenever to built a culture around the game that have allowed
it is sold. the creation of meta-core-loops. Arguably, these
meta have loops have a high impact on the long term
One of the features that set World of Tanks apart from engagement of the users in all three games.
Team Fortress 2 and Loadout is its focus on being an
Esport game.
All the meta loops result in the user feeling a sense of 4.11 PC GAMES
activity (Clark, 2013, p. 53) and sense of community
(Clark, p. 268) of the game, which have a high chance
REVENUE MECHANICS
of increasing the long term engagement level of TABULATION
the user. This will make it more likely for the user to In this section, we will tabulate between the three
return to the game and increase the life time cycle of PC games, in order to compare the usage of revenue
the game and its players. This social connectivity and mechanics. This is done with the focus of how the
sense of community between the users and from the games create revenue and how this affects the game
developers to the users strongly benefits to shaping design.

4. ANALYSIS 165
 Figure 126: The revenue mechanics of World of Tanks (purple, top),
Team Fortress 2 (orange, middle) and Loadout (red, bottom).

166
4.11.1 CURRENCY Blutes can only be used to purchase and unlock new
All of the three games makes it possible to use some parts for weaponcrafting, whereas the Spacebux can
sort of currency in order to buy different items in their only be used to buy xp/blute boosters, cosmetic items,
respective shops. However, Team Fortress 2 stands gunslots and loadouts. This mean that the player
out from the two other games on this matter. In Team cannot as directly pay to win, as it is possible in World
Fortress 2, the player can choose to either just play the of Tanks. This provides Loadout with a more “honest”
game and rely on the random item drop, in order to brand, as the game signals that its main monetizing
receive new items or make purchases through real- source focuses on parts that will not affect the game
world currency. This means that the only currency balance. As such, the game encourages the player to
available in Team Fortress 2 is the real-world currency play the game in order gain Blutes and thereby new
of the player. options and better weapons, but if the player wants to
express himself personally, it will cost him money.
World of Tanks and Loadout rewards the players with
currency for every game session they play. In Loadout, In Team Fortress 2, the player only uses real-world
there are two currencies, Blutes are the main currency currency to purchase specific items. If the player
and is earned by playing the game, and Spacebux is the chooses to do so, it can give him an advantage in-game,
deluxe currency that can be bought with real-world as some items can counter different classes. Relying on
currency. In World of Tanks, there are four different the random item drop system can be a lengthy method
currencies, battle XP, free XP, credits and gold. Gold is for achieving a specific item. The choice of currency in
the deluxe currency and can be gained through Clan Team Fortress 2 is very frank, which at the same time
Wars and payment methods like PayPal or credit cards. can seem a bit greedy. The choice tells people to either
The player earns credits, battle XP and free XP when make a direct payment or play the game a bunch of
playing the game, however the amount of free XP times and hope that you will get the desired item.
earned depends on the amount of Battle XP earned. As such, the player has no certain way of obtaining a
specific item by only playing the game, however Valve
The different currency systems is seen in the game tries to make up for this by letting the player collect
session loop of the context interaction, as they are a crafting items, which can be used to make specific
part of the sixth phase that allows players to customize items.
their game experience. The currency system in World
of Tanks is the most complex of the three, which means
that the player will have to use some time on figuring 4.11.2 BOOSTER ADVANTAGE
out how the different currencies are earned and what In World of Tanks, the players can boost their
their specific purpose is. As all of the three currencies performance by purchasing new modules, equipment
are achievable through gold conversion, it is very and consumables. The modules are applied before the
lucrative to purchase a premium account or an elite battle to improve stats, and is usually seen in the form
tank that can help boost the income from each game of a new engine, gun, suspension etc. The equipment
session, as the player will easily fall short from one of is also applied before the battle, and will improve
the currencies. This behaviour encourages players to the performance of the player in-game, picture XX
buy improvements that will give them an advantage shows some of the equipment available in the game.
in-game. This can make game sessions unbalanced, as Consumables are a way of boosting the performance
players with large amounts of currency, can boost their of the tank crew, for instance the player can buy a case
performance and acquire an edge against players who of cola that boosts the crew skill with 10% during the
has not made such purchases. battle. Boosting the performance of the tank crew, will
give the player an advantage in battles. These boosters
In Loadout the currency system is rather simple, as the are purchased through the context design systems,

4. ANALYSIS 167
Figure 127: A screenshot of the shop in World of Tanks, showing some of the equipment available in the game.

but will have a great impact on the mechanic core This will give the player and edge versus unsuspecting
loop, as they are tied to the performance of the player opponents, as seen in figure 52 the Beggar’s Bazooka
in the game. allows the player to load up three rockets as opposed
to the standard of one rocket. This kind of purchase
In Team Fortress 2, the player has the opportunity of will affect the mechanic core-loop, as it will influence
acquiring new guns and weapons with either better or the outcome with enemy encounters in-game.
new abilities, through the usage of real-world money. In Loadout, it is also possible to obtain better stats

Figure 128: A screenshot of the in-game shop in Team Fortress 2, highlighting “The Beggar’s Bazooka”.

168
and abilities, but as mentioned, this is only achievable the game session is either won or lost.
through the usage of Blutes, as such; this means that
the player does not have an as direct way of purchasing In Loadout the player can buy XP and Blute boosters,
booster advantages as the other two games. However, this will allow the player to gain levels faster in order
the player has the possibility of purchasing XP and to unlock new play modes and features in the game.
Blutes boosters, which will increase the rate of how Furthermore, the increase in Blutes will also let the
much Blute and Xp the player earns during game player unlock and upgrade weapons more frequently,
sessions. This means that Loadout offers a way of and as such boosting the player’s progression in the
gaining an advantage in the game, but in order to game. These features are tied to the context core-loop
do so, the player must make an effort to achieve the in the game, as they will affect how the player will
maximum output of his purchase. The player can boost select and prepare for matches.
his performance by upgrading and unlocking weapons
in the Weaponcrafting menu or in the Tech Tree. In Team Fortress 2, the player got no options for
progressing faster in the game.
Customizing weapons in Loadout will a have big impact
on the mechanic core loop, as it will provide new ways
of playing the game. For instance, it is possible to 4.11.4 EXPANSION
change parts of a gun that reduces the firing range, In World of Tanks, there is a garage at the player’s
but makes the projectiles bounce. This changes how disposal to store tanks and vehicles. The garage has a
the player would act in combat, as the customized limit of five slots available to store tanks or vehicles
weapon now could be more efficient in close combat when the player signs up for the first time, however
as opposed to a more ranged style of combat. extra storage space is purchasable for gold. Depending
on to what degree the player utilizes the storage
As described under the currency section, these functionality, this will make it easier to select and buy
purchases are a part of the game session loop in the tanks, as the need for logistic planning will diminish.
context interaction. This will make the context core loop more comfortable
for the player, as he will be able to buy new tanks
and vehicles more freely, as he can be less concerned
4.11.3 RAPID PROGRESSION about using all of the storage room in the garage.
ADVANTAGE
In World of Tanks, the player can buy a non-permanent In Loadout, the player can create and customize
Premium account, which gives the player both an XP his own guns. If the player decides that he is done
and Credit boost when playing the game. This allows customizing a weapon, it can be saved into a “gunslot”.
the player to gain faster access to items and tanks, and The player has three available gunslots at level one,
in this sense progress faster in the game. Furthermore, and can unlock three more when advancing further
the player can also buy “elite” tanks, which is a in levels. However, if the player is not satisfied about
special kind of tanks, only purchasable through the deleting his customized guns in order to free up space
deluxe currency gold. These tanks will also boosts the to create new ones, he can purchase more gunslots
percentage of how much XP and Credit the player with Spacebux. Customizing weapons and saving them
gains in game sessions. Purchasing a premium account to gunslots, are a part of the context core loop of the
will act as kind of return trigger in the game, as the game. The number of gunslots available to the player
player will waste his purchase by not playing the game. therefore limits the context core loop, as he will not be
Furthermore, purchasing elite tanks or premium able to freely create and customize new guns, without
accounts will also affect the context core-loop, as it will destroying old creations. Buying more slots will make
increase the amount of XP and credits received when the context core loop more comfortable for the player,

4. ANALYSIS 169
Figure 129: Differences between a free-to-play account and a premium account in Team Fortress 2.

as he can assemble a variety of different weapons, player can upgrade his account to non-permanent
which can be selected prior to battle. premium account In World of Tanks. A premium
account gives several advantages in the game, XP and
In Team Fortress 2, the same thing goes for storing credit boost being of most significance. The player has
items in the “backpack”, which stores both cosmetic eight choices when purchasing a premium account
items and weapons. The player starts with a 50 slots through the premium shop: a day, three days, a week,
backpack that is automatically upgraded to a 300 slots two weeks, one month, three months, six months
backpack when upgraded to premium account. The or one year of premium. In this sense, the premium
backpack can be further upgraded to a maximum of account acts similar to the subscription model,
2000 slots. Purchasing extra storage space in Team where the player can pay for periods of time. Buying
Fortress 2 will also have a positive effect on the context a premium account will have a significant impact on
core-loop, as the player will not have to worry about the context core loop in World of Tanks. The extra 50%
items being deleted if the backpack is full. XP and credits after each game session, will allow the
player to research stronger tanks faster than before.
This will give the player a bigger selection of vehicles
4.11.5 ADVERTISING before entering battle.
As Team Fortress 2 is only available through the
Steam platform, players will automatically be met In Team Fortress 2, there are two types of accounts:
by offers and news about other games. As such, we free-to-play and premium. As long as the player has
see this as a kind of offer wall, as Team Fortress 2 is not used any money on the game, the account stays
advertising for other games on the Steam platform and free-to-play. However, if the player chooses to spend
thereby strengthening the revenue stream of Valve. any amount of money in the game, the account will
Furthermore, Valve has a history of making deals with automatically upgrade to a premium account. The
other game companies on steam, in order to promote premium account unlocks a couple of extra features
the respective games through Team Fortress 2. If the for the player, as seen beneath in figure XX. Upgrading
Team Fortress 2 players agree to try and play the to a premium account in Team Fortress 2 will affect
games, they will receive unique promotional items both the context and meta core loop of the game. As
that are only achievable through the different games described in the expansion paragraph, gaining more
on Steam. storage space in the backpack will make the context
core-loop more comfortable for the player, however it
will also allow the player to get new types of drops,
4.11.6 PREMIUM/VIP which is also tied to the context core-loop. The meta
As mentioned under rapid progression advantage, the core loop will also be affected, as the premium account

170
will allow players utilize the full trading system. The down this exact player when he respawns again. The
limited trading system only allows free accounts to cosmetic item makes it easy for the player tells the
trade tools, items given by a premium player and items enemy player a part and to pursue his vengeance.
received through a Steam Promotion. In Loadout,
premium accounts is not an option.
4.11.8 KEY FINDINGS AND PART
CONCLUSION
4.11.7 PERSONALIZE Team Fortress 2 makes it difficult for players to obtain
CHARACTER: items, as it is not possible to earn and save up currency,
In World of Tanks, it is possible to customize the like World of Tanks and Loadout.
looks of the player’s tanks. This is done through non-
permanent emblems, inscriptions and camouflage. Loadout offers the least direct way for players to pay to
The player can choose between different settings in win, which can have a positive influence on the game’s
order to determine the specific amount of time for reputation. World of Tanks offers more options for
the effect to last. The higher amount of time, the players to pay to win, in comparison with the other two
bigger the cost. As the tank is what the player controls games, as the game consists of several monetization
in-game, it becomes the avatar of the player, and is features that allows players to boost their performance
therefore categorized as character personalization. in-game. This can create an imbalance between players
These personalization options are a part of the context that plays the game without spending money, and the
loop, but will also influence the mechanic core-loop, players that does. Furthermore, World of Tanks has
as they will give the tanks a distinct look that will either very little emphasis on purely cosmetic features, in
increase or decrease their visibility in-game. comparison with the other two games. Team Fortress
2 also allows players to get advantages in-game, but
In Team Fortress 2, the character personalization because of its crafting materials and implementation
has become one of the traits of the game, as it has a of the steam workshop, the game is less likely to have
large emphasis on hats. Therefore, a large part of the ungratified players.
cosmetic items deals with hats or other items related
to the head-area. However, suits, ties and other items Team Fortress 2 has chosen to limit the free-to-play
are also available in the game. Acquiring these items is accounts a great deal, as such making it very lucrative
also a part of the context loop, and will in some degree for the player to make any kind of purchase, and
be able to affect the mechanic core loop in the game, thereby upgrading to premium.
as the players will be able to tell you a part from the
rest. However, as stealth and hiding is not essential The progression system in World of Tanks (tank tech
parts of the game, this is only a minor effect. three) serves as great foundation for implementing
revenue mechanics and as such strengthening the
In Loadout, the player can choose between three revenue stream.
characters, and customize them from top to bottom.
The game is equipped with a big arsenal of cosmetic The three games have almost identical game session
items that allows the player to express himself many loops, these loops allow players to make tactical
different ways. As with Team Fortress 2, this is also a decision before they engage in battle (selecting tank,
part of the context loop, and will also influence the class or weapon). Furthermore, all three games offers
mechanic core loop to some degree. An example of different game modes that allows for different ways
this could be that the player gets killed by another of playing the games. All three games have highscore
player with a pink thong equipped on his character, systems that allow players to track their progress
this could provide a motive for the player to focus during game sessions. This caters to competitive player

4. ANALYSIS 171
types, as it provides an overview of who is leading with 4.12.1 REVENUE MECHANIC
most kills. This can strengthen the desire to obtain PATTERNS
advantages in the three games. Through our analysis of mobile and PC games we
have identified several revenue mechanics. This
section compares these patterns with each other, its
4.12 MOBILE AND PC comparisons work across different genres.
The Figure 131 on page 173 illustrates the usage of
CROSS TABULATION
the different revenue mechanics in the six selected
This section is divided into two parts, where the first
games. On the left side, the six games are listed
part covers the revenue mechanic patterns, and the
with each of their individually connected revenue
second part covers how design and core loops are
mechanics. On the right side, the different types of
connected to revenue mechanics.
revenue mechanics categories are listed. Each category

Figure 130: Screenshot of the customization possibilities in the ‘outfitter menu’ in Loadout.

172
Figure 131: Illustrates the identified mobile and PC revenue mechanics pattern of Clash of Clans, Boom Beach,
Dungeon Keeper, World of Tanks, Team Fortress 2 and Loadout.

4. ANALYSIS 173
shows the total amount of the selected games that advantages may result in an unbalanced gameplay,
use a specific revenue mechanic. The larger a “block” as players would be able to stack up an unreasonable
is the more prevalent the use of a given mechanic is. amount of boosters.

PC
4.12.2 PATTERNS BETWEEN THE The tendency on the PC platform shows that the
GENRES AND PLATFORMS three games contain permanent booster advantages,
expansion and character personalisation revenue
Mobile mechanic.
The tendency within the games on the mobile
platform is that they all contain some sort of booster, Permanent character personalisation: Vanity goods in
convenience and progression revenue mechanic. the form of character personalisation are only present
in the PC games.
The mobile games are asynchronous. An important
detail to note is that other players influence the state In the PC games, the player is represented by an
of an individual’s game even though that individual is avatar, which can be customized in appearance. In
not online in the game. When the player has finished the mobile games, the players are represented by
a game session and exits the game, the state of the the design of their base or dungeon. Monetizing on
game will still be active independently of the player’s character personalization is thus more relevant in the
presence. The players of Clash of Clans and Dungeon PC games as it provides the player with the possibility
Keeper have the option of buying immunity against to stand out from the other players in synchronous,
the influence of other players. Thus the convenience competitive games.
mechanics is linked to the player’s context of use: if the Avatar appearances provide value to players because
player is prevented from playing the game for a while having a special look often results in acknowledgement,
this option might be desirable. i.e. prestige. This is possible due to the strong social
connectivity the games facilitates, where players are
As the genre of the mobile games revolves around constantly able to interact with each other, both on
building, upgrading and producing more and more a gameplay level and a communicative level (in and
powerful units and buildings, the goal of these games outside of the game). This type of sociality is not as
is to progress. This design relates to the genre of the equally supported in the mobile games, because the
games, and it therefore becomes natural to implement player-to-player interaction is asynchronous. The
and teach the player that certain revenue mechanics PC games are more apt to benefit from vanity based
allows for faster progression. This makes up for an revenue mechanics.
easily communicable revenue mechanic; the player
will be able to quickly assess the value of the purchase. This revenue mechanics supports the design of each
PC game, as they all contain elements that allow for
The non-permanent booster advantages have two storing items or weapons in the player’s inventory.
distinct traits that make them beneficial to implement This makes it natural for the player to make purchases
in mobile games. The first is the fact that because the that increases the storage capacity. This revenue
mechanics are non-permanent, the players will be able mechanic therefore relates to the permanent booster
to purchase the booster several times. The second has advantages.
to do with game balancing, as non-permanent booster
advantages will make the player’s power-level more Both World of Tanks and Team Fortress 2 allow the
even in regards to the challenges the player will meet. player to buy new and better weapons. This function
Continuous implementation of permanent booster is also present in Loadout, but is tied to an indirect,

174
rapid progression advantage revenue mechanic that in the game. This adds flexibility to the games, which
increases the income of currency in game sessions, enables them to reach a broader audience; it allows
thus allowing the player to buy better weapons and more player types to engage in the games.
upgrades more frequently. As Loadout does not
monetize directly on this feature as a permanent Expansion: Expansion revenue mechanics are a more
booster advantage. long-term orientated mechanic. This is a mechanic that
will only generate proper value to the player when,
In the three PC games, the achieved weapons and after a certain point, the need for more storage space
upgrades are the main measurements of the player’s is present. This is a way for the free-to-play games to
progression. Here we find an important connection introduce meaningful and valuable revenue mechanics
between the permanent booster advantages and the later in the player life cycle, in a given game.
expansion revenue mechanics, seeing as the player
needs more room for storing the different weapons When looking across the two different genres and
and items. platforms, we have seen and identified similarities
in the revenue mechanic patterns. In regards to the
PC and mobile amount of revenue mechanics featured in each game,
All the games, with the exception of Team Fortress it does not indicate a specific pattern. However, we
2, monetize on non-permanent rapid progression have noticed that the two most recently released
revenue mechanics. games (Boom Beach on mobile and Loadout on PC)
have the lowest amount of revenue mechanics.
All the games, with the exception of Boom Beach, On one hand, this may be indicative of the current
monetize on expansion revenue mechanics. tendency in usage of revenue mechanics. On the
other hand, this tendency might also be a result of
All the games, with the exception of Loadout, monetize several factors unrelated to their release date, such
on either permanent or non-permanent booster as customer segment concerns and/or what type of
advantages revenue mechanics. revenue mechanic that is most suitable/optimal for
the individual game design.
Permanent and non-permanent booster advantages:
The booster advantages are very tangible to players
as the value of the purchases is easy to understand 4.12.3 REVENUE MECHANICS IN
and creates perceptible advantages. The booster THE DESIGN AND CORE LOOPS
advantages are therefore easy to introduce at an early On what loop do the revenue mechanics in the two
point in a player´s life cycle. platforms monetize and are there any specific revenue
mechanics that are more used in a specific loop than
Non-permanent rapid progression: These revenue others?
mechanics have a clear value for use in the respective
games, which makes them easy to understand for the On the mobile platform the very act of purchasing a
player. This makes for a strong revenue mechanic in functional virtual good is on the mechanic core loop
regards to the context of use for each player. This must level (see Figure 132 on page 176). On the PC platform
be seen in regards to the individual purposes players the purchase is made in the context core loop.
have for purchasing these revenue mechanics. As it is, The function of the purchased revenue mechanic
there are a variety of reasons for using the features affects the mechanic design in both the PC and mobile
(independent to the game itself). On reason might games (see black arrows in Figure 132), consequently
be not having the necessary time to achieve a certain affecting the mechanic core loops.
goal in the game, another to become more powerful

4. ANALYSIS 175
Figure 132: Illustration of where each genre facilitates their purchases, and which design system it affects

This means that the player has the opportunity to their current game session. Furthermore, the revenue
make purchases when playing in the mechanic core mechanics are also presented at relevant points during
loop of the game, whereas the PC games only facilitate the player life cycle: this clarifies the purpose(s) of the
purchases from an in-game menu - a menu where the different revenue mechanics.
player is not engaged in a game session.
In regards to the three PC games, the designs of the
We believe this tendency is connected to the types games force the player to strategically consider each
of revenue mechanics that are used in, respectively, purchase. Each purchase will have an impact on the
PC and mobile games. Where the mobile games next game session: they will provide new advantages
make use of non-permanent revenue mechanics to a and possibilities for the player, and as such, also alter
much larger degree, the PC games utilize permanent the player’s current play-pattern. Purchases within the
revenue mechanics. The mobile games present the game sessions would diminish the pleasurable element
player with the possibility of making more frequent of strategic preparations for the games ahead.
purchases, and doing so without forcing them to leave

176
Chapter 5

SYNTHESIS

In the synthesis chapter, we introduce the results

of our analysis in cohesion with the empirical
data collected through the conducted respondent
interviews.

“If you don’t have a really good game that is fun to play
in itself it’s very hard to add on any kind of monetization
and think you’re going to make money”
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director on Candy Crush Saga, King (annex 1)
 5 SYNTHESIS

In this reflective chapter the knowledge gained 5.1 THE IMPORTANT

through our theoretical and empirical research is
pieced together. More specifically, the chapter focuses
ELEMENTS OF THE
on the revenue patterns and key design components MECHANIC DESIGN
identified through the analysis tabulations, which are The mechanic design of the selected games consists of
in turn compared to the theoretical framework and the three primary systems. The three primary systems are
knowledge from literary sources and expert interviews. genre dependent, where the three mobile games, all
The chapter is divided into six sections identified as freemium strategy games that use the same systems
our principal findings, which plainly connect to the (for resources, building and combat).
research question of the thesis. The six sections are: PC games consist of a movement, physics and combat
system, and these three ‘primary systems’ are
5. The important elements of the mechanic design commonly the systems that are somehow monetized.
6. The context design and goals Thus they are affected by functional revenue
7. The facilitation of the meta core loop mechanics.
8. The three levels of engagement Each of the six games shows that revenue mechanics
9. The qualities of the revenue mechanic influences their primary systems, which affects ‘game
categorizations balance’. Especially on PC platforms this repercussion
10. The creation cycle and the implementation of may turn out as counterproductive in regards to players
game features and revenue mechanics mastering the primary systems of a given game.

SYNTHESIS

178
5.1.1 GAME BALANCE - Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
The essential factor of game balance in this context is: (annex 3)
how big of an influence does a player’s mastery of the
game have on the ‘successful game experience’? “..I think that if players pay to progress to
complete levels that’s totally fine if that’s
“I have no problem with monetization a choice they want to make. I think it
mechanics that affect game balance as much more problematic in a multiplayer
such, but of course they can ruin a game game, where you risk making your most
if it just removes all skill, and especially if valuable customer hate the community
it does so in a competitive game.” so a pay to win mechanic is definitely
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico detrimental there”
(annex 3) - Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
on Candy Crush Saga, King (annex 1)
The empirical study shows how multiplayer aspects
are more dominant in the PC game genre; here the Another of our respondents directly states that rapid
direct interaction between players is the focal point progression mechanics is a requirement for every free-
of the primary mechanic systems. A key component to-play game:
of competitive games is a player’s sense of mastery.
Therefore, the functional revenue mechanics have a “…A free game must be instantly available
bigger impact on the individual player experience. This and allow you to progress with payments
is the case because a player’s improvements in game to speed it up.”
mastery are crucial to the player’s engagement in the - Paul Barnett, Creative Game Designer at Mythic
game. Thus a use of functional revenue mechanics— Entertainment (annex 4)
one that diminishes the importance of player
mastery—is very likely to hurt a player’s engagement The empirical study indicates that there is a connection
in competitive multiplayer games. between game balance, player mastery and functional
The mobile games do feature a competitive aspect revenue mechanics, where the importance of a
as well. However, it is generally secondary to the player’s mastery diminishes along with the decrease
importance of player progression. While functional in the importance of the competitive aspects of a
revenue mechanics in less competitive games have game—this, in turn, further increases the potential
the same impact on game balance it is thus, for the value of functional revenue mechanics for the player’s
most part, possible to claim that the value to player engagement. However, there still is a limit to how big
progression that functional revenue mechanics are of an impact revenue mechanics can have on a game.
able to grant outweighs the consideration of negative Arguably, there still needs to be an element of mastery
impact on player mastery in favour of the player’s in the game to keep the gameplay enjoyable.
ability to progress successfully. This statement is
supported by two of the qualified respondents on the Our empirical research shows that mastery is a big part
subject of game balance: of each and every game, despite the prevalent use of
functional revenue mechanics. It is thus important
“Obviously it’s hard to state an answer to emphasize that these revenue mechanics are also
that goes for all games, but in general applicable to competitive PC games. We have observed
I believe that as long as people are well that the types of functional revenue mechanics in
entertained and not ruining the game for competitive PC games try to mitigate their impact on
other players, they should be allowed to the game balance by also making them obtainable
pay to progress as much as they want.” without the use of real-world currency. Problems

5. SYNTHESIS 179
typically occur when the functional revenue mechanics technology of the specific game.
breach this tryst and become exclusive, meaning that
they are restricted to real-world currency purchases,
and can no longer be obtained solely by playing the 5.2.1 GAME SESSIONS
game. The mobile games are designed around short game
sessions, ended by wait loops, promising a player-
“but its also about making sure you don’t reward upon return. This connection between a wait
make the game boring by introducing a time and reward constitutes one of the most essential
pay to complete button, we can do that return triggers to mobile games: the appointment
and just sell quick you know pay a dollar trigger. One of our respondents confirm the importance
and you progress through the next level, of appointment triggers:
that’s not fun either. So you should try to
still make the game…make the users play “Make sure the player has something
the game, have fun but you can still pay concrete to look forward to when they
to get ahead if you’d like.” end a session.”…”setting things in motion
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director that the player know will be waiting for
on Candy Crush Saga, King (annex 1) him or her when they start their next
session. Appointment mechanics (timers
on buildings, harvests, etc.) is a classic
5.1.2 WAIT LOOP example, as is energy/life refills.”
A key component to the mechanic core loop of the - Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
mobile games is the wait loop. Wait loops in the (annex 3)
mechanic core loops have a huge impact on game
session durations. It constrains the player’s freedom The mobile game sessions focus on the time between
to play the game without using deluxe currency to skip game sessions through several return triggers that
the wait loops. The constraints set by wait loops thus emphasizes short but frequent sessions of play
have the potential to become a hindrance to positive compared to the PC games. The PC games focus
player engagement. However, the mobile games are alternately on the content of the game sessions. Here
specifically designed to have short game sessions the goal is to create player engagement from within
where the wait loops function as an exit point, the game, through generally longer game sessions.
effectively ending the player’s current game session. The primary return trigger is instead the competitive
This specific function of the wait loop is elaborated on experience inside the game.
in the next section: context.

5.2.2 PLAYER PROGRESSION

5.2 CONTEXT AND THE EXTRINSIC GAME
The six games have revealed that the context core GOALS
loops are constituted by the primary systems of the The empirical study shows that the primary player
mechanic design. The purpose of the context design goal of the mobile games is progression, and this even
is to give meaning to repeated player patterns in the though the games feature PvP features which advocate
mechanic core loop. The study further indicates that competitive aspects. However, it is important to note
the context design focuses on three factors: player that the multiplayer part of the games is still a key
progression, game session length and extrinsic goals factor for the player engagement albeit diminished.
(goal of the game). The design of the three factors The player’s ability to compare his power level to
is further influenced by the context of use and other players gives a lot of value to the importance of

180
progression and enjoyment. games are more indirect. The mobile games utilize the
properties of the mobile platform by using the push
An example where it becomes evident that progression notification feature available in the operating system.
is more important than competing, and winning, The player is presented with push notifications on
against other players, is in Dungeon Keeper. In Dungeon the operating system’s start interface, whereas the
Keeper it is a common strategy to lose battles against PC games convey return triggers through the Steam
other players. The intrinsic goal of the strategy is to platform (Loadout and TF2) or emails.
steal as many resources from the opponent without
reaching the 50 percent base destruction point that The fact that the mobile games have an ongoing player
decides whether you have won or lost the battle. The progression independent of the player being online is
reason behind said strategy is to avoid getting match connected to the contextual use of mobile devices: the
points. Since the match points decide who the player mobile device is generally available to the player (we
can attack and who can attack the player, the risk of carry our phones around), and therefore mobile games
being invaded and losing a lot of resources grows “support” the ongoing player progression, since it is
alongside the increase in player match points. Winning easy for the player to start and end short game sessions.
a lot of matches thus becomes counterproductive to When a wait loop is over, the player can immediately
the players ability to progress. The fact that this play start the game and continue progression; the return
style is a common strategy indicates a prioritization of triggers inform the player when a wait loop is over. The
game progression. return triggers give the player a purpose to come back
This relational value between progression and to the game at a specific time. Our argument is that
competition in mobile games is mentioned in one of this “purpose” explains the effectiveness of the return
our expert interviews:

“.. there is definitely a very strong

connection between players that compete
and I don’t think we have fully tapped
into it with the game [Candy Crush] where
it is right now. I know in the office we
compete all the time in terms of how far
along you are and what type of score you
have and where you are in the top list. But
yeah, I don’t think it’s the primary thing,
not for acquisition not for progressing in
the game, I could be wrong though. But
our studies show that its primarily about
progressing”
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
on Candy Crush Saga, King (annex 1)

5.2.3 THE USE OF RETURN

TRIGGERS
Our empirical study shows a difference in the use
of return triggers on the two platforms. The mobile
games use more direct return triggers, whereas the PC Figure 133: Nudge return trigger in Clash of Clans

5. SYNTHESIS 181
triggers in the mobile games. They are so effective of creating long-term player engagement and social
because they are aligned with the player’s own desire connectivity.
to progress and, ultimately, succeed in the game.
These are further supported through the facilitation
of game community forums, streaming services, game
5.3 THE FACILITATION developer competitions and user-generated content.
Furthermore, the context of use affects the meta core
OF THE META CORE loop as well.
LOOP
The empirical study of PC and mobile games indicates
that the PC games have a stronger meta core loop than
5.4 THREE LEVELS OF
the mobile games. The complexities of the mechanic
and context core loops constitute the possibilities for ENGAGEMENT
the meta core loop. The mechanic and context core Through conducted empirical study we have
loops of the PC games create a higher complexity than discovered an indication of three levels of engagement
that of the mobile games. The consequence of the in regards to the three levels of design and interaction
PC’s stronger meta core loop results in a better chance in the GDM: the mechanic, context and meta level. We
argue that it is important to understand how a specific
game can engage the players on each of the three
levels in order to develop a complimentary design and
implement revenue mechanics that suit the different
engagement levels.
One of our respondents highlights how to create
engagement on the three levels the following way:

“Make sure the player is entertained and

achieves something with every session.
Make sure the player has something
concrete to look forward to when they
end a session. Try to involve players with
other players on a social level.”
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
(annex 3)

The first sentence refers to the entertainment value

of the ‘act of play’. This is translated to the mechanic
level, which is the bottom foundation for creating an
enjoyable game in the GDM. The second sentence
refers to creating extrinsic player goals for the player
and creating a purpose for the player to keep playing,
which creates a progression-based engagement.
However, our empirical study indicates that a
competitive engagement is also present through the
context design. The third sentence refers to the social
Figure 134: Illustrates what components connectivity between players that creates long-term
constitutes the meta core loop engagement. We have thereby added three different

182
levels of engagement to the levels of the GDM: will migrate towards the end of the game,
and if you don’t cater to that audience
1. Game interaction engagement on the mechanic you’re going to miss out on your most
level. dedicated players. So we try to cater to
2. Competitive & progression-based engagement on those, by providing new content and new
the context level. things to experience and also go back and
3. Social engagement on the meta level. tweak the existing content”
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
We are aware that multiple types of player engagement on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 1)
exist and some of the engagements identified cover
more than one type of engagement. We therefore The empirical study shows that the development
refer to these engagements as engagement categories of free-to-play games is iterative, constantly adding
present in free-to-play games. and changing their designs and content to improve
quality. This is a way of maintaining player interest
“I think the primary thing to keep in mind and it also communicates a sense of activity. However,
is that the game always comes first and since the games cater to a large group of players, a
that’s were it’s hard to get lost. If you part of the player segment might respond negatively
don’t have a really good game that is rather than positively to certain changes. Therefore,
fun to play in itself it’s very hard to add developers have to take precautional measures to
on any kind of monetization and think avoid the consequences coming with negative player
you’re going to make money, so you need experiences.
to have a great game that is sticky and
that people play and then you can figure The meta level is formed from social engagement.
out a way to monetize it.” Here, the social appointments and user generated
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director content/co-creation are some of the main factors
on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 1) that contribute towards achieving the player’s social
engagement.
Game interaction engagement emerges from the
player’s interaction with the mechanic primary “And as the game matures, elements are
systems of the six games, which creates the mechanic sorted out they are sticking around, you
core loop. Game interaction engagement is the basis move on to another case of how can we
for the engagements on context and meta levels. This make sure that people can connect with
makes sense since the player has to find the mechanic friends their first couple of sessions. Back
core loop enjoyable for the design of the two levels and to the social bond, that they have some
the connected revenue mechanics to gain transparent friends in the game that they can send
importance. lives to and so on”
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
The context level is centered on competition, on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 1)
progression and content. A respondent clarifies the
importance of new content: One of the key factors to creating long-term
engagement is through social connectivity. Interaction
“if you think of the game as a big funnel between users lets players create social bonds,
where people install the game and compete with each other and generate intrinsic goals.
continue through the game, at one point This notion is sustained in the following quote:
or another your most dedicated players

5. SYNTHESIS 183
 “(Point 3) Try to involve players with
other players on a social level”.. “Point
3 is about building social ties through
the game. Players will lift each other up,
help out, battle, or some other type of
interaction. Human interaction is a strong
motivator for most people.”
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
(annex 3)

Furthermore, another of our respondents described

the following in regards to long-term engagement:
Figure 135: Illustration of where each platform and
genre facilitates their purchases, and which design
“..the key to longevity is, first off you need system it affects.
to have a really fun game and the second
is, of course, content, you need to keep
updating the game with new levels, new In the PC games the purchase is made in the context
game modes, new mechanics anything to core loop, which means that the purchase happens
keep it fresh” through a sort of in-game shop menu, and not
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director during a game session. As described in the cross-
on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 1) case tabulation this supports the strategic element of
preparing for each battle. The player is presented with
a larger selection of choices, in regards to revenue

5.5 QUALITIES OF THE mechanics, which forces the player to consider options
before making a purchase. The purchase will affect the
REVENUE MECHANIC primary mechanic systems and, subsequently, have
CATEGORIZATIONS a noticeable influence on the player’s current play-
Through our analyses of the selected state-of-the-art pattern. As the purchase is made in the context core
games, we have observed a difference between the loop, and it affects the mechanic core loop, it is possible
two platforms in regards to which core-loop the games that the player does not fully grasp the implications of
utilize for purchase implementation. the purchase until a game session is engaged.
To illustrate this tendency, we have constructed the
model in Figure 135. In Loadout this is accommodated through a test-mode,
a mode wherein the player can test the customized
Figure 135 seeks to explain in what core loop the player weapon on NPC’s before making the purchase. Though
purchases things (i.e. revenue mechanics), and the this is a convenient tool for understanding the applied
system design it affects, in regards to the two genres. parts, it does not provide the player with an all-
In the mobile games the player makes purchases in encompassing knowledge of how to use the weapon
the mechanic core loop, which means that purchases as the various maps and player encounters provide
are made during a game session. These purchases different scenarios with different outcomes.
will affect the primary mechanic systems, which also
means that player will see the effect instantaneously. As most of the purchases concern new things for the
This is often seen when time skipping in, for example, player’s inventory in each of the games, the context
Clash of Clans: here a finished building will change systems are also affected to some degree. However,
both in appearance and in functionality right away. as this latter condition is more of a side-effect, and not

184
the purpose of the respective items, it is not illustrated player’s life cycle. An observation supported by the
on the above model. following quote:

To briefly expand the consideration that the usage of “You’ll never want to overwhelm the
the inventory becomes more evident and relevant as player, I think. It shouldn’t feel like
the players progress in each of the three PC games, walking down a busy market with
we may observe that the need for additional storage salespeople pulling at your arm all the
space increases as the player gathers bounteous items. time.”
As such, the use for purchasing extra storage room - Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
increases exponentially with time. This observation is (annex 3)
interesting when considering the player life cycle in a
game a point that industry quotes emphasize: In order to gain value for the player, the player
needs to learn the use of each revenue mechanic,
“What retains people will also vary by increments, as the mechanics are introduced
depending on how far they have made it unobtrusively throughout the player’s “life cycle”.
into the game. Beginners need a different Therefore by having too extensive revenue mechanics
set of things than veterans in their it becomes harder to “invisibly guide” the player and
experience.” accept the revenue mechanic. However, a respondent
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico elaborates that free-to-play games should not need to
(annex 3) explain the value of certain revenue mechanics, since
the value should be self-explanatory and appealing to
“…so you can’t just add on or show what the player:
you can buy without explaining to them,
what it is how to use it …it makes for a “Good revenue generating games never
poor experience. It is more important need to bother explaining the value
to make the user engaged in the game, proposition because the player is happy
playing it, liking it and holding off those playing and paying.”
types of mechanics until you actually - Paul Barnett, Creative Game Designer at Mythic
have the user, coming back and playing Entertainment (annex 4)
the games. So I don’t think you can say
there is an optimal point, but rather a bit
lately then a bit to early” 5.5.1 THE ROLE OF THE DELUXE
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director CURRENCY
on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 1) The deluxe currency facilitates purchases in the games,
which enables the player to use real-world currency.
What this means is that the individual revenue The value of deluxe currency is highly connected to the
mechanics will be more relevant to introduce as the axiom of time in each game. This is especially evident
player moves between the different phases of the play in the mobile games, where the time it takes to build
cycle. a structure, correlates with the price for skipping
the build time. As the time for building construction
This observation is also valid for the mobile games as increases, so too does the price for time skips.
the players will learn, from an early point, that time In the PC games, the player must decide on the amount
skips are relevant to progress faster in the game. of time he/she is willing to spend on the acquisition of a
Arguably, it is suboptimal to use an extensive amount certain item. The price remains the same whether the
of revenue mechanics from the beginning of the player buys the item now or later, and will therefore

5. SYNTHESIS 185
provide value relative to the sooner or later the player balance whereby the game features and the revenue
makes a given purchase. mechanics keep the game enjoyable in unison.
However, the importance of deluxe currency is not
equally as important in the beginning of the games. “Make sure the player is entertained and
The longer the player stays in the game, the more achieves something with every session.”
attractive it becomes to make use of deluxe currency. - Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
This observation is two-sided: as an example, the (annex 3)
reasons for making purchases in World of Tanks
compared to doing so in Loadout are quite different. In
World of Tanks the action is connected to the expenses 5.5.2 FUNCTIONALITY VS.
for repairing high tier tanks, and in Loadout it relates VANITY
to the amount of time a player has spent in the game, A certain tendency was observed in regards to
which influences the desire to purchase vanity items. what revenue mechanics were deemed suitable to
In the mobile games the goal is to progress, which the different platforms. This tendency was further
becomes increasingly time-consuming. However, the supported by our expert interviews.
growth of time walls is avoidable through the usage Each of the three PC games contains vanity features
of time skips. In a typical usage situation the player that allow the players to change the appearance of
commences a 10-hour building upgrade, before going their in-game avatar. Of the three PC games, Loadout
to work, for example. When the user gets home and and Team Fortress 2 disclose the biggest emphasis
returns to the game, the upgrade might still be missing on vanity features, which is consistent with the
2-3 hours to completion. However, dinner needs to cartoonish violence theme in the two games, which
be prepared soon, which forces the user to skip the caters to users desiring more creative interpretation of
remaining hours, in order to make the available time a character’s appearance. As World of Tanks aims for a
more effective. more “realistic” experience, the player is restricted to
In the PC games, we mainly see how Tech Trees are a limited selection of customization possibilities, which
used to gradually introduce more and more expensive are monetized. However, World of Tanks allows players
upgrades, which results in the player needing to use to make and implement aesthetic modifications, which
more money or time to gain the later rewards in the results in the community creating their own content of
game. Here, it is important that the games does not aesthetic augmentation for the game.
monetize too extensively and/or aggressively in the
beginning of a player’s life cycle. “There is a lot more [complexity] on the
The functionality and value of the deluxe currency PC, if you are able to get a good retention
must be “taught” to the player from the beginning. because you have good gameplay, it is
This has been illuminated through our interviews, and possible for you to go vanity only. And
analyses of our state-of-the-art games. this works for a lot of people, there is tons
The games provide the player with a sample of the of examples where it functions great for
deluxe currency, which is done in order to teach the free-to-play PC games.”
player the value of its functionality. By playing the - Thomas Lund, CEO and Game Director at
game, the player can earn small amounts of the deluxe Fullcontrol (annex 2)
currency (chests, events etc.).
In the three mobile games the only vanity items
A general theme of our expert interviews is the priority available to the player are the decorative items in Clash
of creating an enjoyable experience for the player. It of Clans. The difference between the two genres’ use
is not beneficial to monetize on a dissatisfying player of vanity items is relatable to the user interactions
experience. It is therefore important to create a in each game. As the three mobiles games only

186
have an asynchronous user-to-user interaction, the In Team Fortress 2 this is not an implemented feature;
players cannot as easily show their decorative items this relates to the fact that the game has neither an XP
to other players. In Clash of Clans the player can only nor a currency system.
display the decorative items when an enemy player In regards to the permanent functional boosters, all of
is either scouting or attacking their home base. Thus the three PC games make use of such features. This is
it is the case that even if the enemy player wants to seen through weapons, upgrades and new tanks, all of
“acknowledge” the player’s base, the game does not which allow the player to become more powerful and/
support such observation-to-communication feedback or effective in the games.
between players. This indicates that it is not favorable In the mobile games, there is clear emphasis on the
for the three mobile games to implement monetization non-permanent booster advantages, as the player
on vanity features. They are asynchronous and have learns the benefits of progressing fast at a very
a lack of social engagement, which obviates matters early stage in all three games. To get access to more
of vanity altogether. This is quite different in the PC features, gain a higher income, obtain larger storage
games where players interact directly with each other, capacity, etc., the player must constantly advance in
in each game session. Our respondent, Rune Vendler, terms of building and resource levels. To streamline
supports the statement: this progression the player can skip time walls, and
buy additional resources without having to wait for
“A single player social game is likely to obstacles (i.e. items) to be produced.
have some asynchronous interaction with As the player progresses in the mobile games, other
other players, but it rarely makes up the needs will appear in order to progress more efficiently.
bulk of the gameplay. Creating “human
vs. computer”-style entertainment is “The key question is what a player’s
typically quite different from “human vs. needs are. A person who has just started
human”-style. As I mentioned, since there out might be looking for a starter pack
are much weaker competitive interaction special offer to get going quicker, repeat
in our games, monetizing difficulty is players who are comfortable with the
much less of an issue. mechanics might be looking for ways to
On the other hand, monetizing personalize their experience, and very
personalization/vanity is much harder if experienced players might be more into
you can’t show off what you bought to clan mechanics, for example.”
other players.” - Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico (annex 3)
(annex 3)
As the above quote describes, these needs are related
In regards to the use of functional revenue mechanics, to the player life cycle. This is seen in Dungeon Keeper
all of the six games have features that allow the and Clash of Clans, two games wherein the players can
player to be more effective. However, the analyses buy permanent functional boosters. These permanent
show a tendency when looking at the games’ uses of functional boosters are seen in the form of additional
functional revenue mechanics, permanent and non- workers, which allows the player to take more actions,
permanent. expand a dungeon faster and upgrade more buildings
On the PC platform, the three games utilize both all at once. As these features are permanent they will
permanent and non-permanent functional boosters. have on-going effect on the gameplay in each game,
World of Tanks and Loadout both contain non- and are therefore a good investment. However, as
permanent functional boosters, which is seen in the additional workers will give the player a notable
form of XP and currency boosters of varying temporality. advantage, the feature is expensive and increases

5. SYNTHESIS 187
exponentially for each new worker. In Boom Beach it Furthermore, each of the PC games has several
is not possible to buy permanent booster advantage— permanent revenue mechanics, functional and vanity,
here the player is only allowed one worker. which when accrued and combined, function together
By allowing players to buy additional workers, we and generate further player value-for-money.
would argue that there is a risk of creating a negative This also means that the price of the permanent
player experience. Because of the above-mentioned features is often significantly more expensive.
incremental costs of the added worker feature, it may
eventually feel more like a constraint than an option ”…the first game we worked on was
to players. The reason for this is the increasingly long called Bubble Which Saga and was one
waiting times in the mechanic core loops that slow of the biggest games on Facebook at
the player’s progression immensely coupled with the the time”… “…and in that game we had
fact that a feeling of true progression may indeed something called “Charms” and charms
considered as fast progression—exactly what the were a booster but you kept it forever”…
mechanic taught the player, while it was still cheap, “…so after having been live for a year we
to begin with—which indirectly forces a player to buy had you know 17 different charms”… “so
additional workers at a price that feels inequitable. when we launched Candy Crush we had
Thence follows criticism that the game is extorting charms in that as well but we phased
money. The long wait timers and lack of progression those out and we removed them and we
might finally result in the player leaving the game had the boosters, where you buy one, use
altogether feeling unwilling to pay the price of the them and if you want to use them again
worker, and unwilling to accept slow progress. you buy them again but you buy them for
a much smaller amount then what the
original charms costs.”
5.5.3 PERMANENT VS. NON- - Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
PERMANENT REVENUE on Candy Crush Saga, King (annex 1)
MECHANICS
From our state-of-the-art games analyses we have
observed that the use of permanent revenue 5.6 THE CREATION
mechanics is more present in PC games, as opposed
to the mobile games, which are more likely to utilize
CYCLE AND THE
non-permanent revenue mechanics. IMPLEMENTATION OF
This means that the users in the mobile games can GAME FEATURES AND
make more purchases of non-permanent revenue
REVENUE MECHANICS
mechanics - these are ably repeated.
The empirical study shows the importance of outlining
However, the functional permanent revenue
the business model from the beginning of the creation
mechanics provides more value for the player, having
cycle in order to synergize with the game design. Since
an, often, bigger influence on the gameplay. Arguably,
there is a strong correlation between the game design
this means that these revenue mechanics may
and business model of a game, the consequences of
constrain the game design since the developers cannot
not considering the business model from the beginning
easily modify an already purchased item without also
of development, have vast potential negative impact
causing a bad player experience to ensue. An extensive
from the quality of the game design, to potential
use of functional permanent revenue mechanics is also
revenue, development time and development costs.
more likely to create game balancing issues because it
One of our respondents highlighted one of the
might create gaps between the player’s power-level
consequences of changing the business model in the
and the difficulty level of challenges in the game.
development process:

188
 “It [changing the business model in and some of the mechanics and retention
development] meant redesigning parts of there is in the beginning “to ease people
the game to work with the new model, and in.””
incorporating a new monetization model - Thomas Lund, CEO at Fullcontrol (annex 2)
to the game. It was a lot of work, as the
game was quite far into development.” The above quote reinforces once again, that the game
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico design and the business model are tightly correlated.
(annex 3) The consequence of changing the business model
becomes more severe through the creation cycle.
Furthermore, one of our respondents mentions a All the key game design elements of the game are
consequence of not outlining a business model from specifically designed to fit a specific business model.
the beginning of the development process: Suddenly changing it to a free-play-model, creates
heavily negative impact on: development costs,
”… For Frontline we didn’t choose a prolonged development time and incoherent game
business model before very late in the design in relation to the business model.
development and one of our biggest
teachings from that experience was that The synthesis outlines the key findings of the
we should have thought it in from the empirical study of the thesis, explaining the reason
beginning”…”…We had almost build all and consequence of the identified findings. The next
the content and when we chose a free- chapter derives from these key findings in order to
to-play model, we couldn’t go back and present a set of guiding principles to help developers
start reconstructing the things so that in praxis.
they would fit better progression-wise,

5. SYNTHESIS 189
Chapter 6

GUIDING
PRINCIPLES

The following chapter presents a set of Guiding principles

concerning the conclusive subjects of the research. The
chapter explains the following guiding statements:
• Consider how big an impact a player’s mastery of the game has on his ability to
succeed, i.e. progress in the game.
• Let the benefits of virtual goods be obtainable through playing the game.
• Consider what length a game session should have and what impact it has on
the intended style of play.
• Learn the advantages of wait timers.
• Make return triggers a helpful service to the player, not a way to get the
player’s attention.
• Engagement is key to increasing revenue.
• Prioritize the short term engagement in the mechanic core loop, the other levels
can wait.
• Consider the time of which the player is introduced to new revenue features.
• Revenue features should be considered as rules of the game.
• Permanent revenue features constrain the design, but they can be very
powerful.
• Incorporate the business model from the beginning.

The purpose of the guiding statements is both to summarize the key findings of the
master’s thesis and to provide developers with a set of useful advices in accordance
with the Game Design Model and Revenue Mechanic Framework.
 6 GUIDING
PRINCIPLES

The purpose of this chapter is to convert the key typically require player mastery to be a key motivator
findings of our research into a list of principles that for the players.
heightens the practical value of our research. Through
the previous synthesis chapter, we presented the key Exclusivity
findings of our research on free-to-play games by Let the benefits of virtual goods be obtainable
comparing our theoretical and empirical findings. On through playing the game.
the basis of these findings this chapter presents advice Players should be able to obtain everything in the
in the form of a list of considerations concerning the game by simply playing the game. Purchasing virtual
area betwixt game design and business models in goods should be a faster way of obtaining a wanted
free-to-play games. The principles are created with benefit, but not the only way to do so. However, this
the intention of compiling some main points that mainly applies to functional virtual goods, as opposed
developers should address when developing free-to- to vanity items. Since a lot of the vanity items’ values
play games. derive from player’s feeling a sense of uniqueness or
status, it is certainly something best maintained by an
Game balance item’s exclusivity.
Consider how big an impact a player’s mastery of the
game has on his ability to succeed, i.e. progress in Game session length
the game. Consider what length a game session should have
If player mastery is a key motivational factor there are and what impact it has on the intended style of play.
limitations as to what virtual goods should be available The platform of the game is of huge importance when
as purchases to players. Virtual goods can have a huge considering the length of game sessions. The context
impact on game balance and be a decisive factor as within which a developer evaluates creative directive is
to whether or not a player is having fun. We suggest heavily platform-dependent. Mobile games are often
that developers with a mastery-focused design focus used as an “in-between”-activity, where the player will
on how vanity-based virtual goods may have social only be playing the game for a few minutes at a time.
appeal (status) to players. This applies especially to It is therefore important for the design and revenue
PvP-oriented games wherein competitive aspects model for the game to fit these short game sessions.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

192
The main priority for a design is therefore to create what the return trigger offers the player and not first
a fun experience and let the player feel that he/she and foremost what it might offer developers.
accomplished or got something from playing the
game. It is therefore important to create goals that Engagement
can be completed in a very short amount of time, Engagement is key to increasing revenue
optimally allowing the player the ability to complete In order to make players spend money in a game they
several worthwhile goals in a short game session. The have to be engaged in the game. The more engaged
revenue mechanics of a game have to make it easier they are, the more likely they are to spend money
for the player to obtain goals within the game sessions, on virtual goods. In order to increase engagement a
which leave the player with a “time saved” impression. game can attempt to offer players a variety of different
This is arguably the best reason for a player to spend types of engagement: game interaction engagement,
money on a game, especially in games with short game progression & competitive engagement and social
sessions. engagement. However, in order for the game’s
progression and competitive aspect to engage the
Learn the advantages of wait timers. player and lead to purchases (i.e. revenue) the mechanic
Wait timers constrain the possible length of a game level related to game interaction per transaction has
session, seeing as a player has to wait for the timer to to engage the player. Social engagement is the most
finish in order to continue to play. In games designed powerful engagement, but also requires the player to
for short game session the wait timers function as be engaged on both a mechanic and context level to
natural exit points for players, which is important be successful.
to keep players interested in the game. Typically,
making the player wait might diminish the player’s Prioritize the short term engagement in the mechanic
engagement, but by giving the player a reward as a core loop, the other levels can wait.
direct result of the wait timer completion wait loops It might be simple, but still important: Playing the
can create a ‘joy of anticipation’ and actually improve game itself has to make the player engaged. This is
player engagement in a game. The longer the player generally achieved by creating a play pattern that is
has played the game, the more engaged he/she will enjoyable even when repetitive. This pattern is what
generally be, which makes it possible to increase the will get the player interested in the game and keep
wait of the wait timers. However, wait timers can also coming back the first (decisive) times during the player
be too long, which results in a diminishment of player life cycle. It must thus follow as a priority for the
engagement. It is therefore important to not create developers that they optimize the mechanic core loop
“wait-walls” whereby the wait time leads to frustration. before focusing on how the context and social core
loops may create engagement. When the mechanic
Make return triggers a helpful service to the player, core loop successfully engages the players, the context
not a way to get the player’s attention. engagement can begin.
Return triggers ought to be helpful tools to the player We argue that the common way of creating context
such as information-deliveries on when a wait timer engagement is by imbuing the player experience with
is over, so that a player may claim his/her reward and a sense of progression in the game: primarily a ‘power-
start something new in the game, making it a positive based’ progression.
experience to get notifications from the game. Return
triggers can easily feel invasive and just a way for The final level is social engagement, which is perhaps
developers to promote the game and get attention. most difficult to design, since the social engagement
This might hurt player engagement in the game and emerges from both the mechanic and context core
it may result in players that do not come back, i.e. lost loops, but also from the real life meta-gaming context
revenue. It is therefore important to always consider in which the player plays his/her game. However,

6. GUIDING PRINCIPLES 193

facilitating the opportunity for players to interact with accept the rules so-to-speak, i.e. the revenue features
each other a potential main key for social engagement, that the game sets up. We therefore propose that
e.g., community forums, streaming services, developers consider how they might most aptly ensure
arranging competitions. Forums additionally allow that all players accept the rules of play. Here, one of
for a regulatory process for developers to screen and the first steps is to introduce and teach the players the
evaluate player desires for further implementations. reasons for the revenue mechanics being in the game.
A healthy sign of successful social engagement is user- In other words, why something is “fair” must be made
generated content. transparent.

Revenue features Permanent revenue features constrain the design,

Consider the time of which the player is introduced but they can be very powerful.
to new revenue features When implementing revenue features, it is important
Different revenue features appeal to different players, to consider the impact each revenue feature has on
depending on where a given player is in his/her life the game, not just now, but also in the future. Will
cycle; experienced players might find a certain revenue the feature diminish the appeal of other revenue
mechanic more appealing than it would to a beginner. mechanics? Does it bring something new to the
Therefore we advise developers to determine their game? To whom does it appeal? Especially permanent
revenue features on the grounds of the three levels revenue mechanics are important to deliberate on
of engagement: mechanics, context and meta. A before any drastic implementation occurs. Since
developer must then consider the revenue feature players are spending real money it is difficult to change
that appeals, in a given context of production, most the function of revenue features without resulting in
adequately to the imagined player. Good revenue very negative player experience/feedback. However,
features never lose their value and appeal to the if implemented correctly such features can prove
player, but some of them might not have much appeal to be powerful tools that always appeal to players
until the player is sufficiently socially engaged in the throughout their life cycles. Here we emphasize one
game. Some revenue features generally appeal to of previous principles of making revenue features
players from the beginning though, such as time exclusive: because permanent revenue features have
skipping features in builder-games. a big impact on a game in general, it is not advisable to
make features of this kind exclusive.
Revenue features should be considered as rules of
the game The digital creation cycle
By teaching the player the value of the application of a Incorporate the business model from the beginning
given revenue feature, the player understands the use There is a strong correlation between the game
of the revenue feature. In many ways, revenue features design and business model of a game. Indeed, the
can be considered as having the same requirements consequence of not considering the business model
as the ordinary rules of a game. In this case, the most from the beginning of development negatively
important requirement is that all players accept the influences the quality of the game design, potential
rules. This is one of the common reasons to why revenue, development time and development costs.
some players criticize free-to-play games. There are Such a negative impact cannot be ignored. Likewise,
abundant examples of players blaming defeat on the potential benefits of a well-wrought development
the fact that the other players “bought their way to strategy cannot be ignored.
victory”. This is an example of how not all players

194
Chapter 7

DISCUSSION

Concluding remarks on the master’s thesis and holds

general summaries of main parts of the thesis and
propositions for future studies in the field of game
design and business models.
 7 DISCUSSION

This section serves as an instance of reflective practices scenarios of the two frameworks. This is followed by
on process, selected theory and the contributive value a reflection on the contributive value of the Guiding
of the thesis. By critically viewing the project thusly, Principles, which entails a discussion of the various
the discussion seeks to uncover possible strengths, principles.
weaknesses and uncertainties. The section is divided
into six main parts: During our 8th semester, we focused on analysing
the business model and design of games through the
1. Reflection on the contributive value of the thesis use of Osterwalder’s Business Model Canvas and our
2. The Game Design Model’s functional contribution own Game Design Model. This foundation clarified
to our DADIU game development our understanding of the types of revenue models
3. Peer-review feedback certain free-to-play mobile and PC games use, and
4. Reflection on method and process why a variety of types of revenue models are effective
5. Evaluation of the validity and reliability of our in free-to-play games. The research led to a macro-
research level comprehension of game design and the domain
6. Reflection on chosen theory business model in a free-to-play game. For our master’s
thesis, we wanted to employ a more what we consider
a more pragmatic contribution.
This 10th semester master’s thesis builds on a one-
7.1 REFLECTION ON THE and-a-half year research period, looking into the
CONTRIBUTION OF THE correlations of game design and business models.

THESIS Through our combination of state-of-the-art games

analyses, source-based studies of both game design
The first part of the discussion focuses on the master’s
and business development, and peer reviews from
thesis’ contribution. The Game Design Model and the
accredited game developers, the development of
Revenue Mechanic Framework are initially discussed
the Game Design Model has undergone numerous
to review the theoretical construction they comprise.
iterations, i.e. revisions.
Subsequently the focal point is that of practical usage

DISCUSSION

196
Figure 136: An overview of the mapping of the Game Design Mode, Revenue Mechanic Framework and
Business Model Canvas, displaying the elements of each model in the Team Fortress 2 analysis.
During this semester the goal with the Game Design is difficult to create a single model for communicating
Model and Revenue Mechanic Framework has been features and design, since the production of both is an
to design a tool readily applicable to free-to-play on-going process:
developers.
With a pragmatic approach, we wanted to establish “I don’t think we have a formalized model
a framework that could aid a greater scope at all for specifying of how to arrive at
of developers—this being opposed to a social a specific location for a feature, it’s very
constructivist approach where the focus is to develop much an on-going discussion with the
a framework for one particular case. By utilizing the product people and developers, artists
two frameworks and the core loops—as the optimal across different studios. Its more of a
method to connect the two domains—we have boiling pot than a formalized process”
created a tool that better understands the principles - Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
covering domain interconnectivity. We therefore argue on Candy Crush Saga, King (annex 1)
that both frameworks and the guiding principles may
increase the efficiency and quality of a free-to-play The Game Design Model was made to facilitate
game development scenario. discussions between developers. Discussing the
framework with King’s Business Performance Director,
Jonas De Freitas, he addresses concerns of the
7.1.1 CONTRIBUTION OF THE usability of the framework. De Freitas argues that the
GDM development of a particular feature is an on-going
During our interview with Jonas De Freitas, Business process whereby developers of different professions
Performance Director at King, De freitas argues that it discuss the new features without the use of a

7. DISCUSSION 197
formalized procedure or framework. The three classifications have distinct design
counterparts that are specifically made for different
Game Design Documents are not designed to professions in game development. The design
facilitate a shared language, but are helpful for a game counterparts help game development teams
designer to communicate and track the progress of establish a common understanding of how games are
specific game elements, yet such documents are not constructed.
necessarily useful or understandable to colleagues of
other professions in game development (lack of time
is also a factor). However, because someone does not MECHANIC

read a design document does not equal that Game

Design Documents are not functional. It is important
to understand that a Game Design Document is not
the only formal model that developers use. DYNAMIC

The MDA (Mechanics, Dynamics and Aesthetic

framework) is a formal approach to understanding a
game and is generally used to strengthen an iterative “FUN”
process. We introduce the MDA comparatively to the
Game Design Model’s three levels of game design: Figure 138: The three elements that make up a
game, and what features a developer works on
“MDA is a formal approach to
understanding games…this methodology Mechanics describes particular game components,
will clarify and strengthen the iterative dynamics describes the run-time and behaviour of a
process of developers, scholars and particular mechanic, and aesthetics describes what
researchers alike, making it easier for all emotional responses a specific feature should invoke
parties to decompose, study and design in a player.
a broad class of game design and game
artefacts” MECHANIC:
- (Hunicke, 2004, p. 1) Design & interaction

The MDA formalizes games by breaking them into

three classifications: CONTEXT:
Design & interaction

RULES

META:
Design & interaction

SYSTEMS Figure 139: The Game Design Model three main

components

The Game Design Model differs from the MDA by

“FUN” focusing not just on mechanics but on the three core
loops (mechanics, context and meta) that we believe
are key to the success of any game and, particularly,
Figure 137: The three classifications of the MDA

198
free-to-play games. The Game Design Model provides see this as an interesting opportunity for the Game
developers with an overview of the three design levels Design Model to be used in smaller “scrum teams”
in which a player interacts, both directly and indirectly, of a game development production. The emphasis on
with a game (the ‘interaction blocks’ of each design scrum stems from the Game Design Model’s ability
level). As such, the developers have a tool they can use to visualize iterations of a given game development,
to portray a game’s different components to establish when several Game Design Models are utilized.
their interconnections. This will make it easier to view,
assess and discuss different aspects of their game,
while maintaining an overview of parts whose potential 7.1.2 CONTRIBUTION OF
change affect other elements by relative proportions. THE REVENUE MECHANIC
We see this as one of the main strengths of the Game FRAMEWORK
Design Model as it allows developers to quickly map The Revenue Mechanic Framework functions like a
the core ideas and context of use scenarios for their pin-up board where developers can view different
game. Furthermore, when using multiple Game monetization options (in regards to mapping and
Design Models, during different developmental states evaluating revenue mechanics). The Revenue Mechanic
of a game, developers can track the development of a Framework is also useful for game scholars that wish
game, and see how specific features or aspects have to map and analyse existing games’ uses of revenue
changed throughout the process. mechanics. The Revenue Mechanic Framework allows
both user segments to obtain a detailed view of the
Both the Game Design Model and the Revenue core revenue mechanics a game utilizes. By utilizing
Mechanic Framework differs from the MDA by it as pin-up board, new combinations or revenue
focusing on guiding the developer. Each block in mechanics can be tested and discussed.
our two frameworks consists of a set of questions
formulated on the basis of our expert interviews, As we have discovered through our own experiences
source based studies and units of analysis. These on DADIU and through our expert interviews, game
questions aim to guide the creative process, especially development is often an iterative process of testing
for novice developers, which is a quality the MDA does and refining the design. Thus iterations where revenue
not possess. However, it could also be viewed as a mechanic considerations are valuable or useful for
disadvantage to have the questions present; it could a game might also occur. We discovered this in our
make the developers focus too much on structural interview with De Fretias. De Freitas spoke of the
adherence, which might limit their creative process. process of iterating on a permanent revenue mechanic
feature and the discovery that their game, Bubble
The Game Design Model is a useful tool for providing Witch, was losing money because of this feature. They
a development team with a detailed overview of new have since iterated from Bubble Witch to their newer
and old features. However, as game productions can games, where they focus on non-permanent boosters.
be massive and a whole team can consist of hundreds
if not thousands of developers that need to collaborate
in order to create a successful game, the Game Design “Bubble Which Saga was one of the
Model will be more beneficial with the lead teams in biggest games on Facebook at the time
such situations. before we ventured into mobile, and
Through our interviews we have learned that not many in that game we had something called
game companies utilize specific development models. “Charms” and charms were a booster
They customize their own models specifically to their but you kept it forever…so after having
individual team and game design proposition. In some been live for a year we had you know
cases they do not use any formalized model at all. We 17 different charms goes we needed to

7. DISCUSSION 199
 release something new to give our most which revenue mechanics affect one or more of the
dedicated players something to spend three core loops. It becomes easier to thus assess
money on. So that obviously wasn’t ideal the consequences a potential mechanic can have on
for a game that would live that long… a game, both in regards to the gameplay experience
Also a lot of people were put of, if you have and the revenue stream. Interestingly, King released a
elements that cost 7 dollars “what! Why sequel to Bubble Witch in May of 2014 that iterates
am I going to pay 7 dollars for something on how the performance boosts work, and it did
I just started playing this game” …” not feature any permanent boosts but rather three
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director different non-permanent boost revenue mechanics.
on Candy Crush Saga at King

Even though this might be a single case scenario, 7.1.3 CONTRIBUTION OF THE
it is relevant in regards to the Revenue Mechanic GUIDING PRINCIPLES
Framework: the framework has a potential value to The purpose of the Guiding Principles is to present
developers in a situation where they need to formalize developers with a guideline for the creation of
a clear discussion of what effects a specific revenue enjoyable experiences with the use of revenue
mechanic have. Combining the Revenue Mechanic mechanics derivative from the key findings of this
Framework with the Game Design Model does this. thesis. Many games, including premium games, utilize
revenue mechanics for developers to give users unique
By combining the Game Design Model and Revenue experiences besides the main game.
Mechanic Framework, developers are able to see
An example of this is arguably found in the
Figure 140: Bubble Wich Saga 2 features differnet
kinds of non permanent functional boosters, such as microtransactions in Dead Space 3 (EA published,
comets and extra life 2013). Not only do the revenue mechanics directly
change smaller gameplay scenarios, but the game
also utilizes more traditional revenue mechanics such
as downloadable content. It should be noted that
the Guiding Principles presented by this thesis are
not intended to be set in stone, but should be more
favourably be regarded as the first steps of what could
shape a comprehensive guideline for developers
wanting to create free-to-play games.

7.2 THE GAME DESIGN

MODELS POSSIBLE
CONTRIBUTION TO
OUR DADIU GAME
DEVELOPMENT
The discussion will now focus on how the current
state of the Game Design Model could have increased
the development process for our DADIU games. We
worked on two different games at DADIU and therefore
have different development experiences; however we

200
Figure 141: Dead Space 3 has both functional, new content and vanity revenue mechanic features

also had several similar experiences. concept to the rest of the development team. Many
Due to DADIU being a multidisciplinary (workshop) times the game director has a vision for a game he
education, many problems naturally arise, since the or she wants to make and it needs to generate a
people of the team have very different understandings specific emotional response with the imagined player.
and approaches to game development. One of the During our DADIU developments we experienced how
primary challenges was to communicate the game the game director’s vision confused the rest of the
development team. With the vision vaguely outlined
and badly communicated to the team, we experienced

DADIU
how the vision resulted in internal power struggles
on the goals for the final game product and which
features ought to be prioritized in the creation cycle
The National Academy of Digital, Interactive of the production.
Entertainment is a collaboration between uni-
versities and art schools in all of Denmark. The DADIU production of The Printer Guy had many
Six teams are formed each consisting of 18-20 problems concerning what the core game was, and
people containing a Game Director, Game De- what mechanics were in the game, and how the chosen
signer, Project Manager, Level Designer, Art Di- business model (free-to-play) would impact the game.
rector, Programmers, Animator, CG artists and This was the loosely constructed idea: In the game,
Audio composer, which purpose is to develop players would take on the role of an office janitor
a game from pre-production to release. whose sole job is to fix printers. But the office, being
a stressful area, with characters constantly shouting at

7. DISCUSSION 201
the player, ordering him to fix printers faster, should In some ways it thus had development problems
add an element of challenge. This was a very abstract similar to those of The Printer Guy. We therefore
way of communicating the game concept, and due argue the Game Design Model would have given
to this, The Printer Guy went through numerous the development team a clear prioritization of game
design iterations that completely changed the game features and helped the overall understanding of the
concept. We are convinced that the main part of these game concept.
problems can be ascribed to the whole team being
amateur game developers, in an education scenario,
and thus being subject to natural problems that first- 7.3 PEER-REVIEW
time developers face. What ended up describing the
game was a 30-page long Game Design Document that
FEEDBACK
Critique of our contribution has been an important
no one read besides the game designer, since it was
factor from the start of our master’s thesis. Employing
too comprehensive for programmers and the game
peer-reviews has been an on-going process since the
director to understand. Much of The Printer Guy’s
start of our research, and so has study of game designs
development focused on the context core design of
and business models. During the 8th semester, the first
how the story and characters should be. It neglected an
iterations of the Game Design Model were introduced
equivalent focus on having an entertaining mechanic
to a wide group of reviewers ranging from game
design.
designers, directors, producers, and academics; they
The Game Design Model would have been an
have all given valuable feedback on the first iteration
influential and beneficial prioritization tool for features
of the Game Design Model. Many game developers
in the production of The Printer Guy. It would enable
had trouble understanding the general rationale
an optimal method to communicate the core concept
behind the model and its practical use. Their feedback
of the game by mapping the core design elements of
resulted in new iterations of the Game Design Model
the three design levels, and the use of the core loops
with the goal of creating a more pragmatic model to
could have clearly described which interactions were
support the problem statement(s) of the master’s
designated to create entertaining experiences for the
thesis.
player. This could have been done at a very early state
of the game creation cycle. Regrettably, it was not.
In order to improve the Game Design Model and
Revenue Model Framework, the frameworks have
Another example comes from our second DADIU
been peer-reviewed to ascertain their pragmatic value
production, Saviour of Asgaard; a game about a violent
based on the respondents’ practical knowledge of the
Viking warrior seeking revenge for the kidnapping
field. Criticism of validity and use can be brought to
of the Goddess Idunn. As a sidescrolling hack-and-
question regarding the number of peer reviewers,
slash game, it was easier to communicate the core
as opposed to our 8th semester project where
mechanics of Saviour of Asgaard in comparison to The
we used six reviewers with different backgrounds.
Printer Guy’s less-defined concept. However, due to a
This issue derives from practical problems and our
mistaken prioritization of the context design around
respondents’ unavailability due to conferences such
an in-game shop, one where players could purchase
as E3 (Electronics Entertainment Expo), which resulted
new stuff, the development team ended up using an
in only two game development experts being able to
extensive amount of time on a less important design
supply the required feedback.
level.
It would have been advantageous to get into contact
The team should instead have focused on making the
with the developers about our units of analysis, but
mechanic design loop first—instead they ended up
after numerous emails (approximately one new email
having prioritized context over mechanics, ultimately
per day) and messages on social networks, we were
creating a game with a suboptimal player experience.
not able to reach the developers. We decided to

202
stop and go another direction: by contacting former possible future model of a game state, and De Freitas
reviewers and ultimately getting into contact with statement implicitly supports this. We therefore see
King.com (one of the biggest free-to-play mobile game an indication that the Game Design Model can be
developers), we discovered a source for feedback on used through different stages of a game development
the frameworks. Below we have sought to give the cycle. However, a counter to the usability of the Game
reader the key findings from the peer-reviews. Design Model is also evident, which concerns the lack
of integration between the Game Design Model and
“It looks useful when designing a new Revenue Mechanic Framework:
game from scratch or alternatively when
analyzing a game that has potentially “It does not contain anything about how
grown too complex with time.” you are actually going to make money
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director from it [if it’s going to be freemium or not].
on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 10) If freemium than monetization should
probably be integrated into design of the
Here, the general pragmatic value of the Game Design core game loop to work successfully”
Model is evaluated. We find it interesting that the - Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
feedback ruminates on how a game developer gains on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 10)
a cohesive overview of a game’s current elements.
As we have stated before, the Game Design Model The feedback is interesting—it could be interpreted as
is meant as a tool for mapping both a present and wanting one complete model that includes both game

Figure 142: The final version of the Game Design Model developed on our 8th semester, which reviewers had
trouble understanding the connections between the seven blocks.

7. DISCUSSION 203
design and the secondary RMF in an integrated model. resource is in the game [for a resource
At the same time it is interesting how De Freitas management title like farmville or clash
sees the need to have a tool where game design and of clans it’s normally time]”
business model correlate to each other rather than - Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director
two models where game design and business are on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 10)
separate. It could simply be because the peer-reviewer
reviewed the GDM before giving feedback on the This concern of complexity versus practical use has
Revenue Mechanic Framework. been important for us during the iterations the model
went through. One of the primary ways to change
A main concern that Vendler points towards is the lack this would be to iterate on questions asked in the
of social hooks in order to acquire and keep new users blocks, and have more general questions that game
(i.e. retention) and how to design this. However, he developers ask themselves. This requires further
does not offer solutions for changes. studies of the practical use of the model in real-world
scenarios, in order to evaluate the questions’ specific
“I think the framework does not place a and general uses.
lot of weight on social hooks for retaining/
reactivating/acquiring users.” Vendler focused on problems with terminology. He
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico did not understand the meaning of ‘Main’ and ‘deluxe’
(annex 11) currency: the model, he said, should utilize industry
standard terms such as ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ currency. He
Since retention is important for the success of new also criticized the layout in this connection:
games, especially free-to-play games, the general
guiding questions in the GDM should focus on “Currencies: we call them soft/hard
integrating this aspect more. We do however see a currencies. I’ve never heard main/deluxe
connection in what Vendler refers to as social hooks used as terms…I think the terms on there
and the term ‘return triggers’, which is a focal point are all relevant if you are designing a
of our research. This leads us to believe that the game, but I probably don’t see the great
functionalities of return triggers should be more gain in presenting them in this particular
evident through the Game Design Model and Guiding layout”
Principles. - Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico
Regarding our second contribution, the Revenue (annex 11)
Mechanic Framework, De Freitas focused on its
usefulness in practice, noting that it provided good Regarding the terminological use in the revenue
structural handling of what developers discuss and mechanics framework, we are already using the terms
think of regarding revenue mechanics. Some of the Soft and Hard currency in our theoretical chapter, but
more specific concerns were related to its complexity, chose to use main and deluxe as a way to for us to
and that the framework could have benefited if it were better differentiate between the two types. Moreover,
slightly more generalized. layout of the framework has been important:
seeing the flow of how elements connect is vital to
“In general I think the model has good developers understanding the beneficial qualities
coverage of the type of mechanics you of the framework. As Vendler points out, the terms
would think about although I would used are all “relevant” but the connection and flow is
perhaps think that it could be slightly something that needs further iteration, which could be
more general. For instance I would have done through workshops with developers and/or by
the developer think about what the scarce connecting the specific revenue mechanics to specific

204
game design elements in the Game Design Model. be in the form of more in-depth questions, which in
“The more a model can steer you from turn could have helped us form new perspectives on
generic questions towards specific ones, our analyzed games. However, as the interviews were
the better” conducted the analysis was reviewed again, using the
- Rune Vendler, Game Director at Haptico new material.
(annex 11) An earlier inclusion of the interviews could also have
provided us with a more coherent process in regards
“I think both frameworks would be useful to transcriptions, cross tabulation and the task of
for someone who would design a game dividing the interviews into matrixes.
but I would perhaps like to see an even
tighter integration between the two” As it was though, having such late interviews also
- Jonas De Freitas, Business Performance Director meant that we were unbiased in regards to an initial
on Candy Crush Saga at King (annex 10) focus, perhaps more research grounded, throughout
the project. This may have led to a more open-minded
In general, both Jonas De Freitas and Rune Vendler analysis of our selected games. This latter observation
wanted both models to steer away from generic ought to be considered a strength of our project.
questions to more specific ones. For future iterations It has helped us stay on track in regards to focusing
of both models we want to integrate the two on the right parts, and it has guided a visible thread
models more. We want to make it clear how the two throughout the thesis.
frameworks are intended to coexist and to be utilized
overlappingly. In summary, the fact that we were not able to include
the majority of the interviews in the early stages of
our project may have affected our project in both
7.4 REFLECTION OF positive and negative ways. The original plan was to
conduct the interviews prior to our analytical phase,
METHOD AND PROCESS in order to utilize the knowledge of our respondents
In the methodology chapter we described the
in the analysis. However, as respondents experienced
different phases and processes which were important
scheduling problems, this was not possible.
when conducting case study research and developing
theoretical framework. In the process of developing
Collecting our empirical data in the last phases of our
our theoretical framework a key factor was the
project has also showed us unexpectedly positive
triangulation between our source-based studies, the
effects: they literally made us realize that another
analyses of our selected state-of-the-art games, and
approach in regards to collecting the data might be
expert interviews. In accordance with the described
preferable. Call it a trial-and-error process whereby we
method these three elements facilitated many
found out a better way of likely success.
iterations of the theoretical frameworks; they were
There are pros and cons to be found from conducting
constantly used for comparison and evaluation.
the interviews during various phases of the project.
However, as our interviews were not conducted until
We would have preferred to have the interviews in the
late in the process, they were not a part of the equation
initial, midway and final phase of the project but ended
when iterating on the frameworks in the early stages
up drawing critical conclusions with the material we
of the project.
had.
In regards to the development of our theoretical
frameworks, the interviews could have provided useful
insights that could have helped shape the frameworks,
and as such, provided the initial phase of our analysis
with a different outcome. This could, for instance,

7. DISCUSSION 205
Figure 143: The newest update for Boom Beach features new content, as well as more focus on social elements
within Boom Beach

7.5 VALIDITY AND generalizations since the tabulations are based upon
the theory that supports the Game Design Model
RELIABILITY and Revenue Mechanic Framework. The results from
In this section, we discuss the validity and reliability of
our analyses were deduced through the method
our thesis and its findings. We will be looking at the
and theory presented throughout the thesis. This
way we selected and analyzed our
procedural concern ensured that the discourse
state-of-the-art games.
remained academic. This aspect also ensures that our
findings are argumentatively valid and commercially
To establish the correlations between a game’s game
presentable.
design and revenue mechanics we selected six state-
of-the-art games for analysis.
However, when trying to generalize across free-to-play
games and the two genres, the complexity of the two
In relation to the six state-of-the-art games, we decided
domains of game design and business models result in
upon two genres and platforms (strategic combat on
an immense amount of different theoretical elements
the mobile platform and multiplayer shooter games on
and factors that may each influence the outcome of
the PC platform). This selection was made in order to
such a multidisciplinary study.
be able to cross tabulate between each game within
Another factor that could potentially be argued as
each genre, and across all six when combining the two
having influence on the validity of findings in this
genres. The two cross tabulations, from respectively
field is whether the Game Design Model and Revenue
PC and mobile games, were conducted through the
Mechanic Framework are only applicable when
use of our GDM and RMF, which allowed us to identify
approaching one certain type of games. However, we
patterns within the two genres.
avoided this issue. Our utilization of different genres
and games indicates how the analytical ability of the
In addition, as we cross tabulated between all six
frameworks remains broadly applicable as a tool for
games we were able to identify a new set of patterns.
game design.
Because we were able to cross tabulate between the
games within each genre, but also the two genres,
As another possible issue, one might note how our
tendencies were revealed about both the general
analytical abilities might also have been a factor to
state of free-to-play games and the two genres.
influence the results of the thesis. Here we refer to
As such, these results enable us to make analytic

206
an ethos in our educational background: we have a McGonigal and Zimmermann focus on what elements
certain expertise on interactions and media, and this are needed in order to create ‘meaningful play’, which
may have influenced the way we have constructed is, of course, still important. Their method begs the
the Game Design Model and Revenue Mechanic question though of their relevance in a now-changing
Framework, but mostly positively. However, we cede landscape of video games. Classic video game
that it would, perhaps, have been preferable to form theory acknowledges only the business premium
a group with more diverse educational backgrounds model. Free-to-play games have a double-challenge:
(still within the different domains of video games), create an entertaining game and generate revenue
such as programmers, animators or level designers, through mechanics at the same time - mechanics that
and to thus strengthen a multidisciplinary project with potentially affect the core gaming experience.
multidisciplinary analyses. We approached the lack of games business models
All these factors, and likely more, must be taken into in classic video game literature, with aforementioned
consideration, when evaluating our results—a filter of modern video game literature. This enabled us to
critical self-reflection. bridge the gap between the two domains. Yet, what
writers like Oscar Clark and Will Luton lack is the
knowledge gathered by classic game theory. This
7.6 REFLECTION ON THE results in thoughts and practices that strictly focus on
the business side and have somewhat vague definitions
SELECTION OF THEORY of elements such as immersion and engagement.
Throughout our study and use of game theory we have
uncovered certain limitations to the use of traditional
By choosing a double-edged approach, problems
game design theory when analyzing free-to-play
arose regarding how we would utilize the theory
games. From the very beginning of the master’s thesis,
though. If we wanted to focus on immersion and
our approach to the selection of theory, especially
player engagement, a more traditional thesis on
game theory, focused on traditional game theory. We
games would more than likely turn up. Here we would
saw that as the optimal way of describing what games
have had to conduct user tests on various free-to-play
are and what game design is. With the combination of
games with different users, something done in order
classical game design theory (Jane McGonigal and Eric
to understand what they found to be an entertaining
Zimmermann), and a modern, business focused game
experience. This way we would have been able to
understanding (Oscar Clark), we initially hypothesized
further understand how and what motivates (gratifies)
that these be optimal grounds for the study that we
people to continue to play free-to-play games, and our
were to conduct.
contribution would reflect this understanding—this
would have been a thesis more based on player than
Two options were available to us that would greatly
developer.
affect the outcome of our research: one focused on
traditional game design, and how we could have
Had we approached the thesis with only the use of
designed a concept for a game that was free, but did not
modern game theory, we would more than likely be
use traditional revenue mechanics. Another, the one
able to find new types of players and would instead
we chose, was trying to bridge the gap between classic
contribute to an outdated view of player types. But,
game theory with modern game theory—a synthesis
this approach, favouring player over developer, would
that takes the business side into consideration.
arguably understand and focus on game design less
fully. To a degree, we chose a balanced combination of
In classic game theory, like that of McGonigal
the two, because a developer must naturally consider
and Zimmermann, the scholars do not take into
an “imagined” or “ideal” player. We found that relying
consideration the effects that business models can
strictly on classic theory would be dangerous because
have on the core design of a given game. Rather

7. DISCUSSION 207
they have a predefined understanding of player and a focus on player life cycle. By having strong core
engagement, and do not take the context of use for mechanics and a basic, yet effective, context, Supercell
mobile games into consideration at all. has been able to construct a foundation from whence
they can constantly innovate. Recently Supercell
Having concluded the thesis, new problems of interest updated their game with more social elements,
have intermittently emerged through discussion. Here strongly increasing the social engagement of the game
we find prospects for possible further research. It is now that their players are longer in their player life
also worthy of investigation to look for ways that our cycle, which increases the value of social engagement.
theoretical combination of classic and modern game
design theory might make its way into contemporary It is important to note that we do not state that the
games studies. engagement categories in the three core loops of the
Game Design Model should always be prioritized in
The combination of classic and modern video game a chronological order. No data and evidence suggest
theory has given us new insight into how player this need. The study of the six games shows that
engagement changes, and how such insight is applied these games do follow a prioritization of engagement
when making free-to-play games. Classic video game categories in the three core loops though. Yet we
theory centers on engagement of abstract artifacts, as are convinced that some games contradict this
described in the theoretical section “Entertainment”. prioritization nonetheless. We find this latter point
Modern game theory shows multiple new layers of to be something that requires further study: it might
possibilities of categorization and design, for example, mean that developers have degrees of model flexibility
for player lifecycle and engagement (as our synthesis to work with—and thus for this field of academic study
described). The three core loops in our Game Design on game development to work with.
Model is a new way to study video games. For example,
classic video game theory does not take ‘player We see many different ways we could have used
retention’ into account, as it has never been a factor our gathered theory and treated it alternately. A
for how they define engagement. With three core possible treatment could be on the continuing debate
levels of engagement designers can effectively engage regarding ethics of free-to-play games, a topic we
players and keep retention over short and long-term have touched upon, and numerous cases of children
engagements; we see this as a possible new way to purchasing thousands of dollars worth of virtual
design game experiences. objects. Having this approach would have drastically
changed how we viewed and utilized our gathered
This new way of developing games could mean that, theory. Since we wanted to contribute with something
in modern game development, you do not need to that would optimize games, approaching business
create a fully completed game that utilizes all three ethics could focus on the companies’ corporate social
core loops from beginning. responsibilities (CSR). Where our focus was on the
Classic development, however, features numerous strategies of a design process, and the contribution of
high risks, and does not focus on the player life cycle a work tool to facilitate discussions, the direction of
in the same manner. The new approach, shown CSR and ethics project could have generated a different
through the contribution of the Game Design Model, contribution altogether. One thing to look at could
could enable developers to efficiently develop design be how certain games reward players for playing the
concepts for their games and increase awareness of game in meaningful ways: they sometimes contribute
the correlative values of design and revenue models to something larger such as a Children’s Foundation
early in a development cycle. We see it in the game, where, if you get enough players to play a specific
Boom Beach. Here is a clear example of how games can level, revenue goes to a specific foundations. This is
effectively utilize the three levels player engagement readily seen in ‘Who Wants to be a millionaire’ where

208
contestants play and the amount won is distributed it is arguable that our findings contains a degree of
to various foundations. This could potentially be an validity.
interesting approach from the meta core design of a However, when trying to generalize across free-to-play
game: how to increase the awareness of a product in games and the two genres, the complexity of the two
positive ways, using charitable donations. We already domains of game design and business models results
see this used in our own units of analysis, namely Team in an immense amount of different elements and
Fortress 2. factors, that might have an influence on the outcome.
Another factor that potentially could have influenced
This section attempts to give a short overview the validity of our findings is whether the GDM and
of our thoughts and concerns connected to the RMF were only applicable when approaching one
contributive value of the thesis, and how we could certain type of games. However, by utilizing different
have chosen different approaches to the thesis and genres and games, it indicates how the analytical
its content. Furthermore, the chapter sheds light ability of the frameworks is useable as a tool for game
on how our contributions might participate in the design.
growing development of known game design theory;
a development wherein business models must be Furthermore, our ability as the conductors of the
considered as a factor that has influence on core analyses might also been another factor that could
design elements. have influenced the results of the thesis. As we have
games, we were able to identify a new set of patterns. an educational background that have certain focus
Because we were able to cross tabulate between the on interactions and media, it can influenced the way
games within each genre, but also the two genres, we have constructed the GDM and RMF, and as such,
tendencies were revealed about both the general also the analyses of our games. Therefore, it could be
state of free-to-play games and the two genres. As preferable to include other operators from the other
such, these results enables us to make an analytic educational backgrounds within the different domains
generalization, as they are based upon the theory of video games, like programmers, animators or level
that supports the GDM and RMF. The results from our designers.
analysis were deduced by accommodating the method All these factors must therefore be taken into
and theory presented throughout the thesis, in order consideration, when evaluating the results.
to assure academic procedures were meet. As such,

7. DISCUSSION 209
Chapter 8

CONCLUSION

Concluding remarks on the master’s thesis and holds

general summaries of main parts of the thesis and
propositions for future studies in the field of game
design and business models.
 8 CONCLUSION

The master thesis is dedicated to the research of in a game’s business model. The Revenue Mechanic
the correlations between game design and business Framework makes it possible to identify how a game
models in a time where the two domains are more business model is correlative to the design elements
intertwined than ever before. The thesis contributes inside games.
with two new frameworks: the Game Design Model
and Revenue Mechanics Framework. The following Through the use of the Game Design Model and
problem statements guide the creation of the Revenue Mechanic Framework, as analytical tools,
frameworks: we have found the three levels of the core loops
(mechanic, context and meta) to be factors essential
to grasping the operational links, i.e., correlative
“What is the optimal correlation between
interdependencies, between game designs and
game design and game business models when
business models of free-to-play games. The core
the purpose is to create an entertaining player
loops are key factors in determining the Game Design
experience with a sustainable business model
Model’s viability.
and how are revenue mechanics applied into
the design of a game?”
The thesis introduces a useful set of utilitarian
principles that contribute to the development of free-
The two frameworks aim to guide the strategic creation to-play games. The guiding principles are founded
of revenue mechanics implemented cohesively (i.e. on the premise that in order to create a free-to-play
parallel) to key design elements. In other words, it game, one that has successful revenue, the game
concerns the fundamentals of the thought-processes has to consider player retention. In order to maintain
developers are tasked with during the design of free- retention, the game has to appeal to the player on
to-play games with in-game monetization. the three design levels. The thesis ties these elements
The Revenue Mechanic Framework functions as an of appeal to three levels of engagement categories.
in-depth exploration of the revenue stream segment Here, the mechanic design level is connected to

CONCLUSION

212
game interaction engagement, the context design the connection between player engagement and
level to progression & competitive engagement and, a sustainable business model may lead to further
finally, that the meta level is connected to a social research into how free-to-play business models affect
engagement category. other core areas of game design studies. Such research
might change perceptions and approaches to the core
The thesis states that in order for the progression design areas in question. It is, in this connection, not
& competitive engagement category to emerge, hard to imagine a more rigorous, scientific study of
the game interaction engagement category must the cognitive processes involved in the type of user-
be present. Furthermore, the emergence of the gratification this project has concerned itself with.
social engagement category requires both the game New approaches are not only profitable in a fast-
interaction engagement category and progression & paced, rising software economy but also theoretically
competitive engagement category to be present. The interesting. They may also lead, quite simply, to greater
engagement categories are thus affected by each other game experiences.
and they influence what engagement type emerges in
each category. The use of the Game Design Model and Revenue
Mechanic Framework provides developers with a tool
The importance of the three design levels’ engagement that facilitates effective discussions on how the game
categories change individually through a player’s designs and business models of free-to-play games
game life cycle. More experienced players require influence one another and what relational outcomes
an engagement on all three levels, where the most of potential adjustments within both domains may
important engagement level is the social engagement be when viewed conjointly. The goal of using the
category. Therefore, identifying how a game can frameworks as a cohesive tool is to gain an overview
engage the player on each of the design levels is of the correlation between two main aspects of game
one of the key factors to maintaining retention and development. The frameworks can be applied to any
thereby creating a successful free-to-play game. The instance of game production whether the matter
thesis further proposes that by uncovering revenue concerns a present or future development state.
mechanics that support a game’s specific types of
engagement, developers can increase both the game’s Both frameworks have been peer-reviewed by
revenue and the player’s engagement in a game. The veteran game developers, asked primarily to focus
thesis does however state that there is a fine balance on the practical relevance of the frameworks. Here
from implementing revenue mechanics that increase the practical relevance of the frameworks has been
revenue to implementing revenue mechanics that validated with an emphasis on its quality of keeping
have a negative influence on player engagement. a level overview on complex free-to-play games and
Implementing revenue mechanics should therefore be the development of new free-to-play game concepts.
carefully premeditated, since they have an extensive However, the peer-reviews reveal an imperfection:
impact on gameplay. they suggest the need for a stronger connection
between the two frameworks. We therefore propose
By connecting the study of player engagement to that new research in the field, and in relation to the
three different design levels—and as a key factor findings of this thesis, will focus on connecting the two
to maintaining retention—the thesis formalizes frameworks further. It is a well founded assumption
an addition on how to perceive and approach that a connection each level of core loops with a range
player engagement in video games using a free- of specific revenue mechanic types would greatly
to-play business model; it is an addition to current contribute to the study of the correlative values of
understandings in contemporary academics and the domains of game design and free-to-play game
developer theory in the field. We propose that business models.

8. CONCLUSION 213
214
APPENDIX
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220 MASTER THESIS

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ANNEX
Annex 1 - Jonas De Freitas, King
Located on USB

Annex 2 - Thomas Lund, Full Control

Located on USB

Annex 3 - Rune Vendler, Square Enix

Located on USB

Annex 4 - Paul Barnett, EA Mythic

Located on USB

Annex 5 - The primary literature for the thesis (from introduction - das model)
Located on USB

Annex 6 - Interview matrix’s

Located on USB

Annex 7 - Game Design Model and Revneue Mechanic Framework printout

Located on disc

Annex 8 – Thesis Roadmap

Located on USB

APPENDIX 221
Annex 9 – Thesis pipeline
Located on USB

Annex 10 – Jonas De Freitas, peer review feedback

Located on USB

Annex 11 – Rune Vendler, peer reveiew feedback

Located on USB

Annex 12 – Monetization framework

Located on disc

Annex 13 – Interview Guide

Located on USB

Annex 14 – Boom Beach BMC

Located on USB

Annex 15 – Clash of Clans BMC

Located on USB

Annex 16 – Dungeon Keeper BMC

Located on USB

Annex 17 – Loadout BMC

Located on USB

Annex 18 – Team Fortress 2 BMC

Located on USB

Annex 19 – World of Tanks BMC

Located on USB

Annex 20 – Game Design Model

Located on USB

Annex 21 – Revenue mechanic Framework

Located on USB

222 MASTER THESIS

 THE CORREL
KEY DESIGN ELEMENTS

GAME
GAME
GAME
GAME
BUSINES
BUSINES
BUSINES
BUSINES THE CORREL
THE CORREL
THEKEY DESI
CORREL
KEY
KEY DESIGN ELEMENTS
AND
DESIGNTHE REVEN
ELEMENTS
CORREL
KEY DESIGN ELEMENTS

D E S I G N
GA M E