ANSWER KEY Semantics: a coursebook
Unit 21 Study Guide and Exercises
Directions: After you have read Unit 21 you should be able to tackle the following questions to
test your understanding of the main ideas raised in the unit.
1. You should understand these terms and concepts from this unit:
speech acts performative utterance
act of referring constative utterance
act of assertion performative verb
descriptive fallacy
2. Explain what it means to say that actions and words are not entirely distinct. Give an example.
To some extent, speech itself is action, and we can use language to do things.
For example, when someone asks you to wash the car, she is using words to
perform an action of requesting you to wash the car.
3. What does it mean to say that actions can be performed with words (i.e. with an utterance)?
What are such acts called?
When a speaker uses an utterance in the appropriate context, that utterance
can be used to perform some kind of verbal action we call a speech act.
4. For each of the following utterances state one or two purposes that the speaker may have had
in mind when uttering them. Explain how such utterances exemplify the descriptive fallacy.
a. "The car is dirty."
An assertion that the car is dirty; or a request to wash the car.
b. "Is it right to allow skateboarding on our sidewalks?"
An assertion that skateboarding should not be allowed; or warning
about allowing skateboarding; or a complaint about skateboarding.
c. "Look at the mess you just made!"
An accusation that you made the mess; or an order to clean up the
mess; or a complaint that you made the mess.
d. "Some of the pages have been torn out."
An apology that the pages were torn out; or a complaint that they
were torn out; or an accusation that they were torn out.
These utterances exemplify the descriptive fallacy in that they do more than
just describe some state of affairs: they actually perform speech acts of various
kinds.
5. Try to identify the kind(s) of acts mentioned in your answer to question 4 above (such as
warning, requesting, ordering, complaining, apologizing, etc.).
Some speech acts were already mentioned. Others are possible and may vary.
6. Identify whether the following utterances are perfomative or constative. If an utterance is
perfomative, describe the act being performed, as well as the act being described.
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© James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley and Michael B. Smith 2007
ANSWER KEY Semantics: a coursebook
a. "I order you to pay the bill."
Performative: the act of ordering the hearer to pay the bill
b. "I pronounce you man and wife."
Performative: the act of performing a marriage.
c. "I promise to drop by tomorrow."
Performative: the act of promising to drop by tomorrow.
d. "The minister pronounced them man and wife."
Constative; performatives cannot be made in the past tense.
e. "I promised to drop by tomorrow."
Constative; performatives cannot be made in the past tense
f. "I sweep the floor every Tuesday."
Constative; saying that I sweep the floor does not constitute actually
performing the act of sweeping the floor.
g. "I believe you were wrong."
Constative; stating a belief does not constitute actually performing
that belief.
7. Identify which of the following is a perfomative verb and use it in a sentence as a
performative. Use the hereby test to help you make your decision. Think of three additional
performative verbs not listed here, and use them also performatively in a sentence.
Performative verbs are in boldface.
a. declare e. write
b. warn f. approve ('to OK something’)
c. think g. remind
d. promise h. consider
7a. I hereby declare this meeting adjourned.
7b. I hereby warn you not to cross that line.
7d. We hereby promise to return tomorrow.
7f. I hereby approve this motion to adjourn.
7g. We hereby remind you that you have to clean your room.
Others performatives include: vow, announce, dismiss, etc.
8. Performative verbs follow certain conventions. What are they? Are there exceptions? Give an
example or two of each.
They are in the present tense and typically have first person subjects. There are
exceptions, including certain passives in which the speaker is understood, but
not overtly expressed: "Passengers are (hereby) asked to put their seats in the
upright position for landing."
9. Identify which of the following utterances are performative. Also identify the utterances which
are exceptions to the conventions you mentioned in the answer to the previous question. Explain
why they are exceptions. Performative utterances are in boldface.
a. "Students are asked to keep noise to a minimum."
b. "You are hereby allowed to enter the vault."
c. "You must enter quietly."
d. "We apologize for our mistake."
e. "I admit that I made a mistake."
www.cambridge.org/hurford
© James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley and Michael B. Smith 2007
ANSWER KEY Semantics: a coursebook
f. "The text was written by two authors."
g. "Wearing hats inside is forbidden."
Exceptions to the typical conventions for performatives are items 9a,b,g,
because they do not have first person subjects.
10. Why do we talk about utterances being perfomative (rather than sentences or propositions)?
Utterances are performative because they are context bound and evoke
speaker meaning at the moment of speaking. Sentences and the propositions
expressed by sentences are independent of the context.
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© James R. Hurford, Brendan Heasley and Michael B. Smith 2007
