Lesson 2-1: The OSI Model

Protocols Govern Network Communication

Open systems networks are based on agreed-upon rules that allow users to
communicate with each other. These communication rules are called
protocols and are used by product developers and system designers to
create computer networks. Due to the number of protocols needed to make
different equipment communicate over a variety of media, networking is a
complex task. Standards and models have been developed to describe the
topics covered by networking protocols from a general or higher level
perspective.

The OSI Model

The OSI model uses the concept of seven stacked layers to define a network
communications system.
The lower three layers, listed below, deal mostly with network-dependent
(hardware) functions. Transmissions of bits, frames, and packets over
LANs, MANs, and WANs are handled by these layers.
• Physical
• Data Link
• Network

The OSI Model

Application 7

Presentation 6

Session 5

Transport 4

3
Network

Data Link 2

1
Physical

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The upper four layers, listed below, deal more with application-oriented
(user or software) functions. Network operating systems applications such
as Windows NT, Novell NetWare, and UNIX function at these upper
layers.
• Transport
• Session
• Presentation
• Application
Each layer of the OSI model provides specific functions not provided by any
other layer. Sets of protocols allow the peer layers of the sending and
receiving computers to communicate with each other. Each level uses the
services of the layer immediately below it and provides services to the layer
immediately above it.

The OSI Model

Sending Application Receiving

Workstation Application Application Workstation
Communication
Data Conversion between
Presentation Presentation
Different Systems
Dialog between
Session Session
Application Programs
End to End Connection
Transport Transport

Data Routing
Network Network

Error Free Dataflow

Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

The information being shared is "hidden" or "shielded" from non-adjacent

layers. This system of permitted and hidden exchange among the layers is
what allows protocols in one layer to evolve or change without affecting the
protocols of the other layers. Following the OSI model and using the
agreed-upon protocol stack maximizes compatibility between network
resources.

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 Lesson 2-1: The OSI Model

Seven Layers of the OSI Model

Layer 1: Physical

The OSI physical layer protocols handle the mechanical, electrical, and
procedural functions needed to provide the physical link between devices
and the network. An easy way to think about it is that the physical layer
is anything you can touch that transmits the dataa plug, cable, fiber, and
so on.

The Physical Layer

User User
Processes Processes
Sending Receiving
Workstation Application Application Workstation

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

The physical layer defines:

• Physical network structures.
• Mechanical and electrical specifications for using the transmission
medium (conductive cable, optical fiber or air).
• Bit transmission encoding and timing rules.
Network hardware normally associated with the OSI physical layer
includes: Ethernet, twisted pair and coaxial cable, BNC connectors, RJ-45
connectors, network interface cards, repeaters, concentrators, and hubs.
The physical layer receives a frame from the data link layer above and
converts the digital data to a signal compatible with the transmission
media. The most common protocols between the physical layer and the
data link layer are Ethernet and Token Ring.

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Layer 2: Data Link

The data link layer, in simplest terms, functions to provide any service not
found in the physical layer needed for communication between two devices
attached to the same wire.

The Data Link Layer

User User
Processes Processes
Sending Receiving
Workstation Application Application Workstation

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Error Free Dataflow

Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

The basic purposes of data link layer protocols are:

• To organize the physical layer’s bits (0’s and 1’s) into logical groups of
information called “frames” (groups of contiguous bits forming a unit of
data).
• To detect (and sometimes correct) errors.
• Control data flow.
• Identify resources on the network through physical device addressing.
The functions of the layers are normally split between two sublayers.
• Media Access Control (MAC) layer which controls the way devices
share the same media channel. It determines when a device can
transmit its data.
• Logical Link Control (LLC) layer that is in charge of establishing and
maintaining communication between devices.

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Network hardware associated with the OSI data link layer includes
bridges, switches, and network interface cards (NICs).
Some protocols and standards implemented at this layer are Ethernet,
PPP, FDDI, Frame Relay, and ATM.

Layer 3: Network

The network layer provides the functions not found in the first two layers
that allow for the exchange of information between two devices on different
wires, that is, on different networks.

The Network Layer

User User
Processes Processes
Sending Receiving
Workstation Application Application Workstation

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Data Routing
Network Network

Error Free Dataflow

Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

The objectives of the network layer are:

• To move data to specific network locations. This function is similar to
the data link layer; however, the network layer deals with multiple
independent networks, called subnetworks. For example, this layer
provides the network addressing and routing structure of the Internet.
• To segment messages and deliver packets or datagrams by line
switching or packet switching.
• To determine the “best” route for the data to travel from LAN to LAN.
Typical hardware at this level includes routers and layer 3 switches. The
most common protocol associated with this layer is IP, the Internet
Protocol.

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Layer 4: Transport

The transport layer provides the functions needed to make a connection to

a remote device. These transport layer protocols are designed to hide the
complexities of the computer network structure from the upper layer
processes. They organize higher level messages into segments and reliably
deliver segments to higher layers.

The Transport Layer

User User
Processes Processes

Sending Receiving
Workstation Application Application Workstation

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

End to End Connection

Transport Transport

Data Routing
Network Network

Error Free Dataflow

Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

The transport layer:

• Provides reliable connection-oriented (such as TCP) and connectionless
(such as UDP) transmissions between end nodes.
• Corrects transmission errors.
• Confirms whether data was delivered or denied.
A well-known protocol operating at this level is TCP, the Transmission
Control Protocol, which is used on the Internet and is part of the TCP/IP
protocol stack.

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Layer 5: Session

The session layer facilitates communication between sending and receiving

computers.

The Session Layer

User User
Processes Processes
Sending Receiving
Workstation Application Application Workstation

Presentation Presentation

Dialog between
Session Application Programs Session
End to End Connection
Transport Transport

Data Routing
Network Network
Error Free Dataflow
Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

The session layer protocols:

• Control mechanisms that establish connections and synchronize how
two devices communicate.
• Provide the user interface to the network (passwords and login).
• Monitor and maintain connections between two devices, reporting error
messages to users and providing monitoring and billing procedures for
shared systems.
A popular personal computer session layer protocol is NetBIOS.
FTP and Telnet protocols (from the TCP/IP stack) use the connection-
oriented services of this layer.

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Layer 6: Presentation

The presentation layer translates data into a standard format that can be
understood by each network application and the computers on which they
run. The protocols in this layer also provide for compression/expansion
and/or encryption/decryption of data and security services. This layer also
takes care of file locking, which prevents two users from modifying the
same file at the same time.

The Presentation Layer

User User
Processes Processes

Sending Receiving
Workstation Application Application Workstation
Data Conversion between
Presentation Presentation
Different Systems
Dialog between
Session Session
Application Programs
End to End Connection
Transport Transport

Data Routing
Network Network

Error Free Dataflow

Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

Protocols at this level deal with rules for representation of complex,

structured data across a session (for example, MIME).

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Layer 7: Application

The application layer handles the management of the OSI network and
provides the representation of a connection to an end user such as HTTP.
The protocols in this layer also perform network functions such as file and
print.

The Application Layer

Sending Application Receiving

Workstation Application Application Workstation
Communication
Data Conversion between
Presentation Different Systems Presentation

Dialog between
Session Session
Application Programs
End to End Connection
Transport Transport

Data Routing
Network Network

Error Free Dataflow

Data Link Data Link

Physical Connection
Physical Physical

This layer does not include the actual application software, but does
include the technologies that allow user software to access network
services such as:
• Printing and viewing.
• Interfacing databases, email, web browsers, and word processing to
network resources.
Examples of TCP/IP protocols running at this layer are HTTP and SMTP.

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Data Flows Both Ways through Stacked Layers

When data is transferred from one host to another over a network, it

begins its flow from the uppermost (application) layer of the originating
host and continues through each lower stacked layer of that host. Each
layer adds information such as framing and addressing to the data flow.
This data is called a header. Layer 2 also adds a trailer.

Data Flows Through the Layers of the OSI Model

Sending Receiving
Workstation Workstation

Application Application

Application-
Oriented Hp Presentation Hp Presentation
Functions
Hs Hp Session Hs Hp Session

H t H s Hp Transport H t Hs Hp Transport

Hn H t Hs Hp Network Hn H t Hs Hp Network

Network
Dependent Hd Hn H t Hs Hp Data Link T Hd Hn H t Hs Hp Data Link T
Functions

Hd Hn H t Hs Hp Physical T Hd Hn H t Hs Hp Physical T
Data

As data crosses the physical medium (Layer 1) to the destination host, the
data flows back up through the layers in the opposite order, from lowest
(physical) to the highest (application) layer. Each layer in the receiving
system communicates with its peer layer in the sending system by reading
and processing the (header) control information. When successive layers
remove all headers, the receiving system sees the data in original format.
It is interesting to note that as data flows from one host to another, each
layer functions as if it alone is involved in communication with its peer
layer at the destination host. Individual layers are unaware of the
functions of layers above and below them.

OSI Layers Work as a Stack

The seven OSI layers work together as a stack to encode and send
messages through an open system. Peer layer protocols in another
connected network or network device then process these messages.

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