COFFEE

Coffee, beverage brewed from the roasted and ground seeds of the tropical evergreen coffee
plants of African origin. Coffee is one of the three most popular beverages in the world
(alongside water and tea) and one of the most profitable international commodities. Though
coffee is the basis for an endless array of beverages, including espresso, cappuccinos,
mochas, and lattes, its popularity is mainly attributed to its invigorating effect, which is
produced by caffeine, an alkaloid present in coffee.Two species of coffee plants, Coffea
arabica and C. canephora, supply almost all of the world’s consumption. Arabica is
considered a milder and more flavourful and aromatic brew than Robusta, the main variety
of C. canephora. The flatter and more elongated Arabica bean is more widespread than
Robusta but more delicate and vulnerable to pests, requiring a cool subtropical climate;
Arabica must grow at higher elevations (2,000–6,500 feet [600–2,000 metres]), it needs a lot
of moisture, and it has fairly specific shade requirements. Latin America, eastern Africa, Asia,
and Arabia are leading producers of Arabica coffee. The rounder, more convex Robusta
bean, as its name suggests, is hardier and can grow at lower altitudes (from sea
level to 2,000 feet). Robusta coffee is cheaper to produce, has twice the caffeine
content of Arabica, and is typically the bean of choice for inexpensive commercial
coffee brands. Western and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and Brazil are major
producers of Robusta coffee.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

History

Wild coffee plants, probably from Kefa (Kaffa), Ethiopia, were taken to southern Arabia and
placed under cultivation in the 15th century. One of many legends about the discovery of
coffee is that of Kaldi, an Arab goatherd who was puzzled by the strange antics of his flock.
About 850 CE Kaldi supposedly sampled the berries of the evergreen bush on which
the goats were feeding and, on experiencing a sense of exhilaration, proclaimed his discovery
to the world. Whatever the actual origin of coffee, its stimulating effect undoubtedly
made it popular. Ironically, though Islamic authorities pronounced the drink
intoxicating and therefore prohibited by the Qurʾān, many Muslims were attracted to
the beverage as a substitute for alcohol, also prohibited by the Qurʾān. Despite the
threat of severe penalties, coffee drinking spread rapidly among Arabs and their
neighbours and even gave rise to a new social and cultural
Coffee was introduced into one European country after another throughout the 16th and 17th
centuries. Many accounts are recorded of its prohibition or approval as a religious, political,
and medical potion. By the end of the 17th century, coffeehouses were flourishing across
Britain, the British colonies in America, and continental EuropeUntil the close of the 17th
century, the world’s limited supply of coffee was obtained almost entirely from the
province of Yemen in southern Arabia. But, with the increasing popularity of the
beverage, propagation of the plant spread rapidly to Java and other islands of
the Indonesian archipelago in the 17th century and to the Americas in the 18th
century. Coffee cultivation was started in the Hawaiian Islands in 1825.

coffee plantation
Guatemalan labourer working on a coffee plantation.
By the 20th century the greatest concentration of production was centred in the
Western Hemisphere—particularly Brazil. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
industrial roasting and grinding machines came into use, vacuum-sealed containers
were invented for ground roasts, and decaffeination methods for green coffee beans
were developed. After 1950 the production of instant coffee was perfected, which led
to increased production of the cheaper Robusta beans in Africa. See also history of
coffee.
PROCESSING THE BEAN:

Ripe (red) and unripe (green) coffee cherries.The ripened fruits of the coffee plant are
known as coffee cherries, and each cherry generally contains two coffee seeds
(“beans”) positioned flat against one another. About 5 percent of the cherries contain
only one seed; called peaberries, those single seeds are smaller and denser and
produce, in the opinion of some, a sweeter, more flavourful coffee.

Turning coffee beans for even drying in the Costa Rican heartland, near San José.
The cherries are processed by disengaging the coffee seeds from their coverings and
from the pulp and by drying the seeds; all beans must be removed from
their fruit and dried before roasting. Three techniques are used for processing the
coffee: the dry, or “natural,” process, the wet (and washed) process, and a hybrid
process called the semi-washed, or “pulped natural,” method. The coffee resulting
from those processes is called green coffee, which is then ready for roasting. See
also coffee production.

GRADING:

After green coffee has been hulled and processed, it is ready to be graded and sold for
roasting. The practice of grading and classifying coffee gives sellers and buyers a guarantee
concerning the origin, nature, and quality of the product to aid their negotiations. Each
coffee-producing country has a certain number of defined types and grades—based
on characteristics such as growing altitude and region, botanical variety, method of
processing, roast appearance, and bean size, density, and defects—but there is no universal
grading and classification system. Some coffee is shade-grown and is more likely to be
certified organic. Fair Trade coffee, part of the larger Fair Trade movement, arose to ensure
that coffee is harvested and processed without child labour and
dangerous herbicides and pesticides and that growers and exporters, particularly in the poorer
regions of the coffee-growing world, are paid a fair price. How well such Fair Trade
standards are enforced is a matter of controversy. The Rainforest Alliance certification and
the Smithsonian Institution’s Bird Friendly certification are awarded to sustainable shade-
grown coffee that protects biodiversity.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

DECAFFEINATION:
The term decaffeinated coffee may strike some as an oxymoron, but a number of coffee
drinkers relish the taste of coffee but cannot tolerate the jolt from caffeine. The main methods
of decaffeination are based on chemical solvents, carbon filtering, carbon dioxide extraction,
or triglycerides. In all cases, to make “decaf,” the caffeine is removed in the green bean stage,
before the coffee is roasted. Regardless of the method of decaffeination, some adulteration of
the coffee bean results along the way, and in no case is 100 percent of the caffeine removed.
Extracting a good shot of espresso from decaf coffee beans is perhaps the biggest challenge
of all.
Roasting
coffee roasting
Coffee beans roasting.
The aromatic and gustatory qualities of coffee are developed by the high temperatures to
which they are subjected during roasting or broiling. Temperatures are raised progressively
from about 180 to 250 °C (356 to 482 °F) and heated for anywhere from 7 to 20 minutes,
depending on the type of light or dark roast desired. The most important effect of roasting is
the appearance of the characteristic aroma of coffee, which arises from very complex
chemical transformations within the bean. Roasting too long can destroy volatile flavour and
aroma compounds, and Robusta beans are often deliberately overroasted (as in the dark
French and Italian roasts) to rid the coffee of its natural harshness. See also coffee roasting.

Grinding:
Some coffees are left as whole beans to be ground at the time of purchase or by the consumer
at home. Much coffee, however, is ground, or milled, by the manufacturer immediately after
roasting. In most modern roasting plants, grinding is accomplished by feeding the coffee
through a series of serrated or scored rollers, set at progressively smaller gaps, that first crack
the beans and then cut them to the desired particle size.The degree of fineness is important. If
a coffee is too coarse, water filters through too fast to pick up flavour; if it is too fine, water
filters through too slowly and retains particles that deposit at the bottom of the cup.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Packaging:
Effective packaging prevents air and moisture from reaching the coffee. Ground coffee alters
rapidly and loses its aromatic qualities within a few days if it is not put into hermetically
sealed containers immediately.The air, especially in humid atmospheres, causes rancidity
through the oxidation of fatty components. Modern packaging materials, plastic films su ch
as polyethylene and complexes of aluminum and cellulose, are capable of conserving the
quality of coffee for a time. The most satisfactory solution to the problem, however, is
packing under vacuum or in an inert gas, in rigorously impervious containers.At the turn of
the 21st century, manufacturers responded to consumer desire for freshness and easy-to-brew
systems by producing single-cup coffeemakers using coffee capsules—small disposable
containers filled with a premeasured amount of coffee and sealed airtight to maintain
freshness. Their ease of use made them very popular, though they have been criticized for the
plastic waste they generate.

Using coffee:

Brewing and drinking

Is cold brew or hot-brewed coffee better for you?
The difference between cold- and hot-brew coffee?

There are both hot and cold methods of extracting flavour and aroma from ground
coffee, and the caffeine content varies with the variety of bean and method of
brewing. Generally speaking, one serving (five fluid ounces) of Arabica instant coffee
contains about 70 mg of caffeine, while a serving of brewed Robusta may contain 200
mg.

DRIP COFFEE:
A barista making drip coffee over ice.
In steeping or boiling, pulverized coffee is measured into hot water, which is usually then
boiled before being poured off the grounds. In percolation, water is brought to a boil in an urn
and fed up a tube to a basket holding the coffee. After filtering through the coffee, the water
drips back to the urn, where it is forced back up the tube and recirculated until the brew has
reached the desired strength. In the filter, or drip, method, hot water is slowly filtered through
the coffee and dripped into a receptacle; it is not recirculated.The espresso machine forces
boiled water under pressure through finely ground coffee. Single-serve coffeemakers also
force hot water through coffee grounds.A French press, however, uses infusion to make the
coffee. After the coffee has steeped in the hot water, a mesh-lined plunger is used to push the
grounds to the bottom, leaving the coffee above ready to pour directly from the container.
Many traditionalists consider French-press coffee second only to the rich flavour of espresIn
vacuum brewing, steam pressure pushes heated water into an upper chamber, which holds the
grounds. Once removed from the heat, steam recondenses in the lower chamber, thus creating
a partial vacuum. With the pressure now higher in the upper chamber, the brewed coffee is
forced back down through the filter-topped spout into the lower chamber, where it is ready to
drink.

café cubano
Café cubano (“Cuban coffee”), a shot of Cuban espresso that is sweetened with demerara
sugar as it is brewed.(more)
There is a long-standing tradition that the best way to serve coffee drinks is “fresh and hot,”
within moments of being brewed, though that is not necessarily the case. It is true
that espresso should be enjoyed immediately, before the highly volatile aromas dissipate, but
brewed coffee that is too hot not only can burn the tongue but also masks the full complement
of flavours. Only after it has cooled slightly can more of the inherent flavour be captured. In
fact, professional coffee tasters typically wait five or six minutes before tasting a brew. A
more moderate temperature produces a more authentic flavour profile. Because of those
effects, the temperature of water used for brewing should be calibrated to remain consistent
from one brewing cycle to the next.Finally, high temperature is not needed to brew coffee—
as long as one is willing to wait about 12 hours. In cold-water extraction, dampened grounds
are left to sit and steep. When strained after some 12 hours, the resulting “cold brew” has
a robust but smooth taste without the bitter acids and oils that traditionally accompany hot-
water extraction methods. The cold concentrate keeps well for up to two weeks when
refrigerated, and it is ideal as a cooking ingredient, as when making coffee ice cream.

Instant coffee:
In the manufacture of instant coffee (called soluble coffee in the industry), a liquid
concentration of coffee prepared with hot water is dehydrated. This can be done by spray-
drying (by drying with a hot gas) or by freeze-drying (a dehydration process known as
lyophilization). The operations are complex, and methods vary among manufacturers. The
resulting soluble powder, on the addition of hot water, forms reconstituted coffee. The
average yield is 25 to 30 percent by weight of the ground coffee, thereby lowering shipping
costs. Instant coffee is obviously quicker to make than brewed coffee, and it enjoys a longer
shelf life than coffee beans, but it picks up moisture readily and must be kept dry. The taste of
instant coffee is also widely considered inferior to brewed coffee.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC

Cooking with coffee

Water is not the only vehicle for conveying coffee’s character once it has left the bean.
Coffee can also be made in alcohol or oil. Although coffee made that way is not good for
drinking, it has interesting culinary applications.

Coffee extracted into alcohol, for example, makes a useful ingredient for crafting cocktails. It
can also be a good way to add a small amount of coffee aroma to a sauce without adding
bitterness. Most of the bitter compounds are not extracted if pure ethanol (such as Everclear)
is used. The resulting concentrate is analogous to vanilla extract.

Coffee made with a mixture of water and alcohol can produce a bit (if not the best) of both
worlds: the pure, smooth character that alcohol attracts plus the extra taste compounds that
water draws from the coffee. Vodka, a pure neutral spirit diluted with water, is a great
candidate for that approach.

If one uses a pure fat, such as a neutral cooking oil or clarified butter, to make coffee, only
the fat-soluble aroma compounds in the beans will be captured. That does include most of
the aromas, but it carries none of the compounds that contribute to taste. In certain
cases, that may be the desired effect. There too a greater balance can be achieved by adding
some water to the mix. Melted unclarified butter or heavy cream both contain plenty of water,
for example. Cream infused with freshly crushed coffee beans produces an intensely
flavoured ice cream.Because espresso is extracted at higher pressure than coffee brewed other
ways, the compounds drawn off the beans are more volatile and dissipate quickly, which is
why espresso should be consumed immediately. By the time espresso is integrated into a dish
and the cooking or preparation of the latter is complete, the peak flavour of the coffee has
been lost.

Health effects:
Coffee consumption has been associated with various health benefits and health risks. In
general, moderate consumption, amounting to three or four cups daily, is linked to a reduced
risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, liver cancer, and Parkinson disease.
Research has also linked moderate coffee consumption to a longer life span.Excessive coffee
consumption can cause sleep disturbances, anxiety, jittery sensations, and heartburn. Studies
conducted in the 20th century suggested a causative link between coffee and cancer. In 2016,
however, the World Health Organization (WHO) removed coffee from the list of
possible carcinogens because multiple studies had debunked a possible causative association
between coffee consumption and cancer.
 GROUP DISCUSSION

What is Group Discussion?

Group Discussion(GD) is a technique where the group of participants share their views and
opinions on a topic for a specific duration. Companies conduct this evaluation process
because business management is essentially a team activity and working with groups is an
essential parameter in organisations.

GD is an opportunity for an organisation to evaluate a candidate’s

communication skills, knowledge, leadership skills, listening skills, social skills,
ability to think on the spot and improvise. A typical GD has about 8-12
participants and 2 or more assessors. The assessors sit where they can clearly
see and hear all the candidates.They record the behaviour of participants during
the group discussion. Then, they evaluate the recorded observations against the
desired traits and finalise a few candidates from the group.

Group Discussion (GD) Definition

Group discussion is a communication process that involves the exchange of ideas,

information, and opinions among a group of people. It is a powerful tool for problem-solving,
decision-making, and generating new ideas. – Stephen P. Robbins, author of
“Organizational Behavior”

A group discussion is an interactive process where a group of individuals come together to

exchange ideas, opinions, and information on a specific topic. The goal of a group discussion
is to arrive at a collective decision or solution that is acceptable to all members of the
group.” – The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Group discussion is a method of communication in which a small group of people
come together to discuss a topic or problem. The group members share their
ideas and perspectives with one another in order to arrive at a solution or
decision that benefits the group as a whole.” – The American Psychological
Association (APA)
Group discussion is an effective means of exploring and analyzing complex
issues, generating creative ideas, and arriving at consensus among participants. It
provides a platform for individuals to express their views, clarify their
understanding, and learn from the perspectives of others.” – The National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

Objectives of Group Discussion (GD):

Group discussions are conducted to serve various purposes. It is a two-way
communication process through which recruiters get to assess the soft skills of
candidates, while the candidates can gain clarity about their own thoughts,
opinions and views.

The following are some of the objectives of a group discussion activity:

 To collect data

 To breed fresh ideas and take inputs from a particular group

 To perceive the common ideas of people on a particular topic

 To identify the solution of a specific problem or issue

 To select a candidate for hiring in a company

 To select candidate for admission in an educational institute

 To arrive at a consensus regarding a common concern

Types of Group Discussion (GDs):
A group discussion delineates how a candidate participates, behaves and
contributes in a group. There are three main types of GDs:
 Topic-based GDs
 Case-based GDs
 Article-based GDs
Topic-based GDs
These are based on certain practical topics, such as the harmful effects of plastics
on the environment or the need of college degree for entrepreneurship. These
GDs can be further classified into:

 Factual GDs: These are informative GDs that require comprehensive

knowledge about a subject. For example, the economic growth of India
 since independence.

 Controversial GDs: These GDs are based on controversial topics, which

test the ability of a candidate to handle a situation, control anger, display
patience and think critically. For example, arranged marriage vs. love
marriage.

 Abstract GDs: These GDs are based on certain conceptual topics that
are used to evaluate a candidate’s creative thinking and analytical
ability. For example, challenges before humanity.
Case-based GDs
In these GDs, a case study is presented to group members to read and analyse in
a given period. Candidates need to discuss the case study among themselves and
reach on a com- mon consensus to solve the given situation. This helps to
evaluate their problem solving, analytical ability, critical thinking and creative
thinking skills.

Article-based GDs
Candidates are presented with an article on any field, such as politics, sports, or
technology, and asked to discuss the given situation.

Prerequisites of Group Discussion (GD)

There are some essential requirements for gaining success in a group discussion.
The following are some important requirements to be fulfilled by a candidate in
order to ensure a successful GD:

 Prior knowledge
 Active listening
 Effective communication
 Appropriate body language
Prior knowledge
A candidate with in-depth knowledge and command over the topic initiates the
discussion. He/she gets noticed and usually selected in a group discussion.
However, starting the discussion does not guarantee the selection and also it
does not show the leadership qualities.

Therefore, one should start a discussion only when he/she is well acquainted
with the topic. In case, one is not well acquainted with the topic, he/she should
first listen to others and then speak.
Active listening
Only good listeners can be active participators in a discussion. Such persons
listen to others and remain attentive and active throughout the discussion.
Therefore, a listener is more likely to imbibe knowledge than a speaker. By
listening carefully, a candidate can contribute by formulating his/her own
thoughts that can be verbally delivered.

Effective communication
Candidates should have good communication skills and they should take care of
the overtones. One should be able to understand other participants’ perception
and thoughts. Then, accordingly, Agree to or refute the ideas or viewpoints
presented by other candidates.

Therefore, healthy and clear thoughts should be exchanged while pursuing a

group discussion to gain attention of the assessors.

Appropriate body language

Gestures, facial expressions, eye contact and tone of voice show the amount of
interest a candidate has in a group discussion. It is important to maintain eye
contact with the evaluator(s) when starting a discussion. The coordinator notices
the body language of the candidates to assess their confidence level.

Steps of Effective Group Discussion

A GD is a method used by organisations to analyse the skills of candidates and
decide whether their personality traits are desirable for the job or not.

While facing a GD, the following steps should be performed:

 Initiate
 Lead
 Summarise
Initiate
If you want to quickly grab the attention of assessors, then start the GD. However,
you must have good knowledge or understanding of the subject being discussed.
To make your speech more interesting, you can start with a relevant quote or a
short/interesting story; but keep track of time.

Lead
There might be a situation when you do not have enough knowledge to start a
discussion. In that case, wait, watch and listen to others. As soon as you get an
opening, jump in and take charge. Move the conversation forward to make it
impactful. However, remember not to over-drag the topic. Sometimes, less is
more.
Summarise
Closing a GD is another opportunity to get the attention of the evaluators. Recap
the discussion, connect the dots, highlight the key points and summarise them.
Make sure that the summary includes both the positive and negative viewpoints
on the topic presented by the candidates.

Do’s and Don’ts of Group Discussion

In this section, we will discuss some Do’s and Don’ts to be taken care of by all the
candidates who wish to perform well in a GD.

Some Do’s to be kept in mind during a GD are:

 Be a good listener by being patient.

 Acknowledge everyone else and what they say.

 Articulate views in a way that is comprehensible to others.

 Structure your thoughts and present them logically.

 Read newspapers, current affairs, essays and articles to develop thought

structuring.

 Respect others for what they are.

 Be open-minded and acknowledge the fact that people think differently

about issues.

 Train your mind for analytical thinking by taking all aspects into
consideration.
It is also important to avoid doing certain things while participating in a GD.
Some Don’ts to be aware of while pursuing a GD are:

 Avoid irrelevant talk.

 Avoid interrupting others while they are talking. If you need to cut short
a speaker, then do so politely and with due apology.

 Avoid dominating the conversation. Ask others to contribute.

Acknowledge their viewpoints.

 Avoid getting into an argument. Try to express clearly in a healthy

manner.
  Do not show lack of interest and negative attitude.

 Avoid stating only your viewpoint.

 Avoid dwelling only on one aspect of the GD.

Conclusion:
It’s all about grabbing oppurtinities;if you get a chance to conclude a group discussion in
college or job placement interview ,take the initiative and follow the tips mentioned above to
Conclude the discussion smartly.

Employers,hiring managers and colleges conduct GD to see prospects among

students and candidates.They observe problem-solving skills,communication
skills with fellow members,personality traits,pressure handling etc., because soft
skills are the present and future of employability.
 DEBATE
Debate is a process that involves formal discourse, discussion, and oral addresses on a
particular topic or collection of topics, often with a moderator and an audience. In a
debate, arguments are put forward for common opposing viewpoints. Debates have
historically occurred in public meetings, academic institutions, debate halls, coffeehouses,
competitions, and legislative assemblies. Debates have also been conducted for educational
and recreational purposes, usually associated with educational establishments and debating
societies. These debates emphasized logical consistency, factual accuracy, and emotional
appeal to an audience. Modern forms of competitive debate also include rules for participants
to discuss and decide upon the framework of the debate (how the debate will be judged).

Structure for debate

The specific structure depends on the form of debate. However, every formal debate contains
a judge, opposing sides, speeches, and a decision.

Debates are set up to persuade a panel of judges rather than the opponent.

There are always two sides in a debate – one that agrees with the resolution (affirming) and
one that disagrees (opposing).

Each debate includes rounds of speeches that present the side’s argument. The placement of
the speech in the debate impacts its purpose.

 The constructive speech is each team’s first speech to build their case.
 Rebuttals provide the opportunity for both sides to discredit their opponent’s
argument.
 Cross-examination allows each side to question the other side.
  The period where speakers from both sides can ask and answer each other’s questions
is called crossfire. The grand crossfire functions in the same way, except all four
speakers participate.
 Closing statements offer each side a final opportunity to present their argument.
Upon conclusion of the debate, the judge(s) or moderator decides the winning side.

Types of debates

Team policy, Lincoln-Douglas, spontaneous argumentation, public forum, and parliamentary

are the most common types of debates.

Team policy debates consist of two teams of two who take a position concerning a
predetermined policy. One team argues to enact the policy while the opposing team members
offer reasons to reject it.

Spontaneous argumentation (SPAR) is a quick and simple type of debate. It typically

involves two debaters given a topic right before the debate, allowing only a few minutes for
preparation.

Public forum debates feature two teams with two speakers regarding a current even

A parliamentary debate includes two teams with two speakers each. The affirmative team is
often referred to as the government and is trying to uphold the resolution, whereas the
negative team (the opposition) opposes the government’s viewpoint. The government
identifies a problem and offers a solution, while the opposition argues against that solution.
The rules for this type of debate originated from British parliamentary procedure.

Example of debate:

+Is remote learning a viable alternative to traditional in-person education?

 Should school uniforms be mandatory in all educational institutions?

 Is the use of AI in healthcare ethical and safe?
 Are standardized tests an accurate measure of a student's abilities?
 Should the voting age be lowered to 16?
 Is climate change an existential threat to humanity?
 Should professional athletes be role models for young people?
 Is the space exploration budget worth the investment?
  Should there be stricter regulations on the use of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) in agriculture?

How to End a Debate - Short Example

Just like the introduction, the conclusion of the debate is equally important. Similarly, a good
conclusion paragraph of a debate must include the following elements.
 Reiterate the most important points
 Close your arguments naturally
 Provide your judges something to remember about your debate
 Make final statements about your case
 Use a quotation to wrap up the final argument
