Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

1.1 Introductory To Statistics

 Statistics represent scientific procedures and methods for collecting , organizing ,
summarizing , presenting and analyzing data, as well as drawing valid conclusions and
making reasonable decisions based on the analysis. However, the figures that result from
statistical analysis are also related to as “statistics”.

Purposes of Statistics
 Statistical technique are used extensively by marketing managers, accountants, consumers,
educators, politicians, physicians, etc.
 Statistical technique are used to make many decisions that affect our lives. Regardless what
your future line of work is, you will make decisions that involved data.

Reason to learn Statistics:

(1) To know how to properly present and describe information.
(2) To know how to obtain reliable forecasts of variables of interest.
(3) To know how to draw conclusions about large populations based on information obtained
from samples, etc.

Population and Sample

Statistic and Parameter

 A summary measure such as mean, median, mode or standard deviation,
computed from sample data is called a statistic.
 A summary measure for the entire population is called a parameter.
 Statisticians often estimate population parameters from the corresponding sample
statistics.

Page 1-1
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example:
The director of market survey at a large department store chain wanted to conduct a survey
throughout a city to determine the average amount of time working women spend on shopping
(in hours) in a typical in a month. He randomly chose 400 working women and recorded their
shopping time in a month.
(a) Identify the population and sample
Population:________________________________
Sample: __________________________________
(b) Identify the statistic.
________________________________________________________________

Types of Variables
A variable measures the characteristics of the population that the researcher wants to study.

1.2 Frequency Distribution

 A frequency distribution is a grouping of data into mutually exclusive and exhaustive
classes showing the number of observations in each class.
 Mutually exclusive: A property of a set of categories such that an individual,
object, or measurement is included in only one
category.
 Exhaustive: A property of a set of categories such that each individual,
object, or measurement must appear in a category.
 Data organized in a frequency distribution are called grouped data.
 In contrast, when every observed value if listed (e.g. raw data and array), the data are
called ungrouped data.

Page 1-2
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example of ungrouped data (raw data)

Marks of student
45 , 50 , 55 , 53 , 54 , 41 , 60 , 56 , 46 , 49

Example of grouped data:

Marks of student Frequency
41 – 45 2
46 – 50 3 Frequency
Distribution
51 – 55 3
56 – 60 2

Example 1:
The frequency distribution below represents the number of books read by 500 students
in a school during one year:

Define the variable of interest and identify its type as qualitative, quantitative discrete or
quantitative continuous.

Solution:
The variable is ________________________________
Type is_____________________________

Page 1-3
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

The data (number of books read) are grouped into 8 classes.

The following are some guidelines for the construction of frequency distributions,
not as absolute rules.

Page 1-4
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example 2:

Page 1-5
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example 3:

Page 1-6
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

1.3 Basic Components of a frequency distribution:

Page 1-7
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example 4:
Class Class boundaries Class size Midpoint / Class mark
10 – 29
30 – 49
50 – 69
70 – 79
80 and above

Example 5:
Class Class boundaries Class size Midpoint / Class mark
Less than 20

20  <25
25  <35
35  <45
45  <50

Page 1-8
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

1.4 Histogram
 Is a graphical representation of the frequency distribution. A bar is drawn for each
class and the area of each bar is proportional to the class frequency. The bars are
drawn adjacent to another. There is no space between the bars of a histogram.
 The x-axis shows either the class BOUNDARIES of the class MID-POINT. The y-
axis shows the frequency.
 For frequency distribution with equal class size, the height each bar is drawn
proportional to the actual frequency of each class and the width of each bar
extends from the lower class boundary to the upper class boundary of the class.
 For frequency distribution with unequal class size, adjustment of frequency is
needed for each class where

Example 6:
The following data provide the time (in days) required to complete year-end audits for a
sample of 20 clients in a small public accounting firm. Construct a histogram for the
following data.
Time (in days) Frequency Class boundaries
10 – 14 4
15 – 19 8
20 – 24 5
25 – 29 2
30 – 34 1

Solution:

Class boundaries
(Time (in days))

Page 1-9
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example 7:
The following data shows the distance (in km) travelled by 120 salesman.
Distance (km) Number of salesman Class boundaries
400 – under 420 12
420 – under 440 27
440 – under 460 34
460 – under 480 24
480 – under 500 15
500 – under 520 8

Draw a histogram for the following data.

Solution:
frequency
(Number of salesman)

Class boundaries
[ Distance (in km) ]

Page 1-10
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example 8:
The frequency distribution gives the masses (to the nearest kg) of 35 objects. Draw a
histogram to illustrate the data.
Masses (kg) Frequency
6–8 4
9 – 11 6
12 – 17 10
18 – 20 3
21 – 29 12

Solution:
Masses (kg) Frequency Class boundary Class size Adjusted frequency

6–8 4

9 – 11 6

12 – 17 10

18 – 20 3

21 – 29 12
Adjusted
frequency

Class boundaries
[ Masses (in kg) ]

Page 1-11
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Example 9:
Histogram below shows the number of water heaters sold in the year 2019 for a sample
of 100 stores in a city.

(a) Define the variable of interest and identify its type as qualitative, quantitative
discrete or quantitative continuous.
(b) Redraft the above histogram in the form of frequency distribution.

Solution:
(a) Variable of interest:
Type:

(b)
Number of water heaters sold Frequency

Page 1-12
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

1.5 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

 Given a frequency distribution, a cumulative frequency distribution can be derived by the
addition of the frequencies of the successive classes.
 “Less than” cumulative frequency distribution
A table showing the total frequency of all values less than the upper class limit of each
class interval is called a “less than” cumulative frequency distribution.
 “More than” cumulative frequency distribution
A table showing the total frequency of all values more than or equal to the lower class limit
of each class interval is called a “more than” cumulative frequency distribution.

 In examination, only ‘less than’ cumulative frequency distribution will be included

Example 10a:

Example 10b:

Page 1-13
 Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

1.6 Ogive (Less than cumulative frequency polygon)

 The information in a cumulative frequency table can be shown on a graph, called a
cumulative frequency curve or ogive (less than cumulative frequency polygon).
 The cumulative frequencies are plotted against the upper class boundaries.
 Ogive or cumulative frequency polygon should plotted using straight line with the
help of ruler, whereas cumulative frequency curve should plotted by free hand.

Example 11:
The height of 30 broad bean plants were measured 6 weeks after planting. The frequency
distribution is given below.
Height (cm) Frequency
5 – under 10 1
10 – under 15 2
15 – under 20 11
20 – under 25 10
25 – under 30 5
30 – under 35 1
(a) Construct a ‘less than’ cumulative frequency distribution and draw a ‘less than’
cumulative frequency polygon.
(b) Use the cumulative frequency polygon to estimate
(i) the number of plants that were less than 13 cm tall,
(ii) the value of x, if 10% of the plants were of height x cm or more.
Solution:
(a) Cumulative Frequency Distribution:
Height Cumulative (b) (i)
(cm) Frequency
(ii) 10% of the plants more than x cm

= of plants less than x cm

= plants less than x cm

= plants less than x cm

From graph, x =

Page 1-14
Chapter 1 Data Presentation AAMS1773

Page 1-15