Study some physical properties optical and shielding glasses

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study

The most famous of glassesuse depend on optical transparency in the visible region in a designed

range of wavelengths. It is based on the application of glasses for the manufacture of optical

instruments and lenses on characteristics such as refraction and dispersion coefficient, which can

vary according to the different chemical compositions. Oneof the most basic applications on the

basis of the optical properties of glass in the field of information technology through the use of

glass fibersubmarine cables across the Atlantic, telecommunications and cable TV"(Tong Hoang

Tuan, et a., 2013). Choose the suitable host matrix is one of the imperative for the stability and

optical characteristics (Morri, A., 2008; Sushama, D., P. Predeep, 2014).For many application

such as lasers and non-linear, photonic applications ,telluriteglass is best material for used

(Prakash, G.V.,et al., 2001)."Among the various oxides glasses, tellurium oxide (TeO 2) as a

conditional glass former does not easily form a glass on its own, but it readily forms glass with a

modifier such as alkali metal oxide or alkaline earth metal oxide and transition metal oxides

(TMOs)"(Rajendran, V.,et al., 2003; Reddy, C.N.,et al., 2008)It is important to mention TeO2

forms glass with the addition of other glass formers like V 2O5, MoO3, B2O3 and P2O5(El-

Mallawany, R.,et al., 2006; Mosner, P.,et al., 2011).

The study of radiation interaction with matter has a great importance in the field of science and

technology. Knowledge of how radiations interact with matter mechanism is necessary for

estimating penetration and diffusion of radiations in the medium. Gamma radiation spectrometry

techniques find wide applications in diverse areas in the twenty first century such as in medical

applications (nuclear medicine, computerized tomography, sterilizing medical equipment and

radiotherapy), agriculture (to evaluate the properties of soil samples and irradiation of seeds),

and in industry (to find leaks or blockages in underground pipes, to detect defects in metal

castings, and to measure and control the flow of liquids). Hence, accurate data of several gamma

radiation spectrometry related quantities such as interaction cross-sections, photon attenuation

coefficients, effective atomic numbers, electron densities, mean free path and half value layer are

needed.

Gamma radiations have no charge as well as no mass, therefore these photons can easily travel

very far distance in air. For this reason, gamma photons are considered as one of the most

penetrating radiations and they are very difficult to shield. For this purpose, researchers and

investigators have paid an attention to the development of new radiation protection materials to

protect humans from the dangerous gamma ray effects at the places where gamma radiations are

used.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Glass samples of composition (20+x) PbO – 10 BaO – 10 Na 2O – 10 MgO – (50-x) B2O3 have

been prepared by melt quenching technique. Density, molar volume, average boronboron

separation, ion concentration, polaron radius, inter-nuclear distance, field strength, oxygen

packing density and oxygen molar volume have been determined to study the physical properties

of the glasses. The presence of no sharp peak in the XRD spectra confirms the amorphous nature

of the glasses. The structural properties of these glasses have been investigated using Fourier

Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic techniques. The direct and indirect band gap energies,

refractive index, dielectric constant, optical dielectric constant, molar fraction, reflection loss and

metallization have been also investigated from the UV-VIS spectra. Besides, the radiation

attenuation features for the prepared glasses have been calculated using XCOM program. The
mass attenuation coefficient values and effective atomic number are found to increase with an

increase in the PbO content.

1.3 Significance of the Study

Bhattacharya, A. Ghosh, 2010) With a view toPromote the optical behaviour metal oxides such

as Bi2O3, Sb2O3, MoO3 and Nb2O5 have been added to the tellurite glass system (Mori, H., et a.,

1994; Szu, S.P., F.-S. Chang, 2005).Because of the increasing applications to oxide glasses

containing transition metal ions are have become more important (Ghosh, A., B.K. Chaudhuri,

1986) Many Literature surveyhave been done on tertiary tellurite based glass."The

semiconducting properties of vanadium tellurite glasses containing oxides like SnO,ZnO and

Sb2O3 has been analysed through conductivityand mechanicalmeasurements"(Mori, H.,et al.,

1993; Mori, H.,et al., 1995).Binary and ternary tellurite glasses such as V 2O5–TeO2, Li2O– TeO2,

TeO2–BaO–TiO2 and V2O5–ZnCl2–have been study the change in structure and physical

properties using ESR spectra (Guinev, A.G., A.C.M. Rodrigues, 2000) thermal studies

(Chowdari, B.V.R., P.P. Kumari, 1999)Raman spectra (Hirashima, H., E. Tamura, 1992) andIR

spectra (Saritha, D.,et al., 2008).In many previous studies the properties of

mechanical,thermel,the electrical conductivity and transport behaviour of vanadium tellurite

glasses were studied,as well as the study structure by infrared. In this paper, the optical and

physical properties were determined with different ion vanadium contents of tellurite and

bismuth base glass. Optical properties such as the optical band gap and refractive index of glass

were studied. In addition, thedensity,molar volume and Oxygen packing density ofatellurite glass

system was determined.

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the study

This project is to study some Physical and optical properties of shielding glasses.

i. To study the physical structure of a shielding glasses

ii. To investigate the analysis of optical, physical, structural and gamma-rays shielding

glasses.

iii. To study the spectra have been measured for obtaining the structural information of these

glasses.

iv. To study theoretical calculations using XCOM Software were performed on these types

of glass.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

The scope of the research is to Study of Some Physical and Optical Properties of Bi 2O3- Teo3-

V2O5 Glasses study the effect different content of V2O5on the optical and physical properties of

the prepared glass. The an amorphous nature of the prepared glasses was determined by X-ray

diffraction (XRD) analysis. The research was limit at the preparation of Bi2O3- Teo3-V2O5 some

of the physical and optical properties of Glasses.

1.5 Operational Definitions of Terms

Glass: Glass, an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as

hard, brittle, and impervious to the natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and

decorative objects since ancient times, and it is still very important in applications

as disparate as building construction, housewares, and telecommunications. It is made by cooling

molten ingredients such as silica sand with sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible

crystals.
Physical: something is related to the real world, as opposed to purely mathematical reasoning.

Optical: s the branch of physics which is concerned with light and it's behavioural pattern and

properties. Optics is a branch of physics that deals with the determination of behaviour and the

properties of light, along with its interactions with the matter and also with the instruments which

are used to detect it.

Shielding: shielding or screening is the process of limiting the electric field to a certain region of

space. An earthed conductor acts as a screen or a shield against the electric field.
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Theoretical Framework

Among different oxide glass systems such as tellutite, germinates, phosphates and silicates;

borate glasses have good thermal stability, high chemical resistance, low-viscosity, lowmelting

point, better heat resistance and excellent mechanical stability (Klonsky, B. G, 1992). Moreover,

the addition of PbO to borate glasses lead to decrease their phonon energy considerably and

therefore improve their spectroscopic features by decreasing the transition probability of

nonradioactive decay (Haslam, S. A., & Ryan, M. K.,2008). Heavy metal glasses HMO (such as

PbO) have comparatively high optical non-linearity, leading to their different applications in

optical power limiting and optical switching.

In this work, we used the conventional melt quenching technique to prepare the (20+x) PbO – 10

BaO – 10 Na2O – 10 MgO – (50-x) B2O3 (x = 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 mol%) glass system.

Structural and optical properties were studied by XRD, FTIR and UV-VIS measurements. For

gamma radiation shielding study, we evaluated the mass attenuation coefficient (µ/ρ) values at

different photon energies (between 0.015-10 MeV) using XCOM program. From the µ/ρ values,

some attenuation parameters like effective atomic number, half value layer and mean free path

are evaluated.

2.1 The Sciences of Glass

Glass is an inorganic solid material that has the atomic structure of a liquid. It is formed by

cooling a molten liquid so that the atoms are prevented from arraying into a crystalline

formation. In cooling a glass-forming liquid, there is a continuous stiffening of the fluid until the
atoms are fixed in a random arrangement, similar to what they had when in a fluid state. Glass is

hard and brittle, and is usually transparent or translucent. Silica sand is a common ingredient.

Distinct types of glass differ in their chemical composition and physical qualities, though most

have qualities in common. All man-made glass passes through a viscous stage when it cools from

a fluid state. Colors develop when glass mixtures are infused with certain metallic oxides. When

it is cold, glass is a poor conductor of electricity and of heat. Most types of glass are easily

fractured when hit or shocked. Though generally resistant to ordinary solvents, most glass reacts

when put in contact with hydrofluoric acid. Encompassing tableware, containers, tubes, rods, flat

glass, and fiberglass, traditional glass products are all made of glass created by the melting

process.

2.3 The Characteristics of Glass

2.3.1 Color

Metallic oxides are commonly used to color glass. An oxide can produce different colors in

different glass mixtures, and different oxides of the same metal can produce different colors.

Constant colors include the purpleblue of cobalt, the chrome green or yellow of chromium, the

dichroic canary color of uranium, and the violet of manganese. Ferrous oxide will yield an olive

green or a pale blue based on the glass into which it is mixed. Ferric oxide produces a yellow

color but needs an oxidizing agent to avoid reduction to a ferrous state. Lead imparts a pale

yellow color; silver oxide creates a permanent yellow stain; vegetable charcoal added to soda-

lime glass produces a yellow color. Selenites and selenates yield a pale pink or pinkish yellow;

tellurium a pale pink tint. Nickel produces a violet in potash-lead glass, and a brown in a soda-

lime glass. Copper generates a peacock blue which becomes green if the amount of copper oxide

is increased.
2.3.2 Ductility

The hardness of glass is measured by a diamond microindenter. Application of this instrument to

a glassy surface leaves evidence of a plastic deformation (a permanent change in dimension).

Otherwise, plastic deformation of glass (or ductility) is not observed. Instead, glass failure is

brittle; the glass object fractures suddenly and completely. This behavior can be explained by the

atomic structure of the glassy solid. Since the atoms in molten glass are essentially frozen in their

amorphous order upon cooling, they do not orient themselves into the sheets or planes that are

typical of crystalline grains Schmitt, M. T. (2009).The absence of such a pattern means that there

are no grain boundaries between planes of different orientation. Therefore, there are no barriers

that might prevent defects such as cracks from extending quickly through the material.

2.3.3 Durability

Chemical durability in glass is primarily determined by an ion exchange reaction in which alkali

ions in the glass are exchanged with hydrogen atoms or hydronium ions in atmospheric humidity

or water. The alkali ions that have leached out of the glass react with carbon dioxide and water in

the atmosphere, producing alkali carbonates and bicarbonates. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 144 (2018).

Seen as white deposits on a glassy surface from dishwashing or after extended humidity

exposure, it is called weathering. In general, glasses that are low in alkali offer increased

resistance to weathering. Vitreous silica is the most resistant; borosilicates and aluminosilicates

also offer weathering resistance. To improve the chemical durability of glass, the standard

technique is to make the surface as silica-rich as possible. There are two ways to do this: by fire

polishing, a procedure that removes alkali ions by volatilization; or by surface treatment with a

mixture of sulfur dioxide and steam, which extracts alkali by leaching and converting to
washable alkali sulfate. Another method of improving the chemical durability of glass involves

limiting its surface exposure to water or humidity.

2.3.4 Electrical Conductivity

Most glass contains charged metallic ions capable of carrying an electric current. However, the

high viscosity of the glass hinders the movement of the ions and hence, its electrical activity.

Because univalent alkali ions have the greatest mobility through a glassy structure, they are the

primary charge carriers of a glass and therefore determine its electrical conductivity. In general,

the higher the concentration of alkalis, the higher the electrical conductivity Radiat. Phys. Chem.

144 (2018). A noted exception from the additively relationship is the mixed-alkali effect, in

which glass containing two or more different types of alkali ions have a lower electrical

conductivity than additively would suggest. Mixedalkali glasses are useful in applications where

low electrical conductivity is desired, such as high-wattage lamps.

2.3.5 Fracturing

Glass is stronger than most metals. When tested in a flawless state, glass can withstand a

relatively reversible compression yet not fracture. Its theoretical strength in tension is estimated

to be 2 to 5 million pounds per square inch. However, the strength of most commercial glass

products ranges from only 2,000 to 25,000 pounds per square inch, owing to the presence of

scratches and microscopic flaws. Flaws are stress-concentrating, with the effective stress at the

tip of a flaw 100 to 1,000 times greater than the stress applied. Tensile stress in excess of a low

limit, called the fatigue limit, will cause a flaw to experience a subcritical crack growth.

Depending on the applied stress, the shape of the flaw, and the temperature and corrosiveness of

the environment, the growth velocity of the crack approaches its terminal limit and failure is
imminent. Therefore, all glass will eventually experience static fatigue and will fail under

negative conditions. A glass fracture can be examined with a stereo microscope. Fractography of

glass is important in its manufacture and service, and is equivalent to a postmortem examination.

An experienced fractographer will be able to pinpoint the precise cause of glass failure.

2.4 Manufacturing of Glass

2.4.1 In the Laboratory

In laboratory melting, a batch is prepared from reagent-grade chemicals. Floated silica, sodium

carbonate, calcium carbonate, alumina, and borax are all assumed to convert to equivalent

amounts of oxides after decomposition. The mixed batch is placed in a covered crucible and

heated inside an electric resistance furnace. The crucible is made of suitable refractory materials

including fireclay (inexpensive but contaminating), fused silica (for good thermal shock

resistance), and high-density alumina. To avoid contamination of the molten glass by refractory

materials, crucibles may be made of platinum; either pure metal or alloyed with 2 to 20 percent

rhodium or 5 percent gold Schein, V. E. (1975). In view of the expense of these metals, the

laboratory glassmaker must be vigilant not to mix a batch that might undergo chemical reaction

with the crucible materials upon melting. Electric-resistance furnaces with programming

capability allow for accurate temperature-control. Their heating elements can be made of

molybdenum disilicide with low thermal mass insulation, allowing the glass to be poured in

graphite or steel molds; or rolled into thin flakes while being poured onto a steel or aluminum

chill plate. If fritting, or breaking into small particles, is desired, the molten glass stream can be

dropped into water. Blocks of glass can be cut or drilled with diamond-impregnated saws and

drills Schein, V. E. (1975). Glass can also be ground using diamond-impregnated rotating
wheels, silicon carbide paper, or silicon carbide slurry. It also can be polished using cloths

loaded with finer-grained abrasives such as diamond, iron oxide, or ceria.

2.4.2 Raw Materials

For glass manufacture on an industrial scale, these chemical compounds must be obtained from

properly sized, cleaned, and treated minerals that have been preanalyzed for impurities. Silica is

obtained from clean sand; soda from soda ash (sodium carbonate) and sodium hydroxide; lime

from limestone (calcium carbonate) or from dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate) when

magnesium oxide is also needed. In the past it was customary to add about 0.25 percent arsenic

oxide and 0.5 percent sodium nitrate to aid in glass fining (removal of bubbles). Schein, V. E.

(1975). These chemicals are no longer recommended and are considered hazardous to

individuals and the environment.

Step 1. The Furnace

Electric melting is by far the most energy-efficient and clean method: it introduces heat where

needed and it eliminates the problem of batch materials being carried away with the flue gases.

With electric heating, thermal efficiencies as high as 70 to 80 percent can readily be achieved,

while getting 40 percent efficiency from fossilfuel firing is a struggle. Among specialty furnaces

incorporating electric melting are “cold-top” furnaces, into which the batch is poured or

sprinkled from the top. In these furnaces the melt zone is vertically organized; the batch at the

top is solid, while molten glass flows out the bottom.

Step 2. The Furnace

Melting Chamber After a glass batch is mixed, it is moved to a hopper at the back of the melting

chamber of the furnace (the doghouse). The batch is often slightly moistened to discourage
separation of the ingredients by vibrations from the conveyor system, or pressed into pellets or

briquettes to improve contact between the particles. The batch is placed in the melting chamber

via mechanized shovels, screw conveyors, or blanket feeders. Continuous glassmelting chambers

are 20 to 40 feet wide by 100 feet long. They can up to 1,000 tons of glass and produce from 50

to 500 tons per day. These large melting chamber tanks are made of high-density, highly

corrosion-resistant refractory materials, such as electrocast alumina-zirconia-silica.

Step 3. The Conditioning Chamber

In the melting chamber, temperatures reach a peak of 2,685 degrees farenheit for soda-lime-

silicate glass. At these temperatures, large amounts of gas are produced by the decomposition of

raw materials in the batch. Together with trapped air, these gases form bubbles in the glass melt.

Larger bubbles will rise to the surface, but small bubbles are trapped in the melt in such numbers

that they threaten the quality of the final glass. The bubbles are removed in a process called

fining, which takes place mostly in the conditioning chamber. From the melting chamber, the

molten glass is allowed to pass through a throat in a divider wall to the conditioning chamber,

where temperatures are held at about 2,375 degrees farenheit. Here, the finer bubbles are

eliminated by being dissolved back into the glass.

Step 4. The Forehearth

After the conditioning chamber, the glass is moved via the forehearth (a set of narrow channels)

to the forming machines. The amount of time the glass has spent in the tank varies from a half-

day to 10 days, based on the rate at which glass is fed to the forming machines (the pull rate), as

well as on the flow patterns set up in the tank. Two problems can manifest at the end stage of

glass production: devitrification and reboil. Devitrification, or loss of the glassy state, is the
development of crystals caused when the molten glass is subjected to certain temperatures. Glass

reboil is the rapid exsolution of dissolved gases as temperatures rise, causing them to nucleate

and form bubbles in the glass.

Step 5. Annealing

During the forming process, glass can develop permanent stresses due to regions of it passing

through the transition range at varying cooling rates and times. To ensure dimensional stability

and avoid the development of excessive tension in critical regions, these stresses must be

reduced.

This is done through the process of annealing. The atomic structure of a glassy solid goes

through a process of relaxation as it cools through the transition range.

2.5 Processes

2.5.1 Finishing

Etching of most silicate glasses can be carried out using a solution of 6 to 30 percent

hydrofluoric acid with a small amount of sulfuric acid (not recommended for safety reasons).

Overlay glazing is carried out by firing a thin layer of another glass with lower thermal

expansion properties than the substrate onto the glass product.

2.5.2 Laminating

With the lamination process, mechanical energy due to applied stress is absorbed by successive

layers of glass and laminate, leaving less energy for cracks to develop. Many glass products are

laminated by bonding sheets of tough polymers (ie, polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane, ethylene

terpolymer, or polytetrafluoroethane: teflon™) to the glass surface by heat-shrinking. In

automotive applications, not only does an inter-layer help to absorb the energy of an impacting

object, but the adhesion of glass to the polymer minimizes the risk of flying shards upon fracture.

In aircraft, windshields may have several laminates, with at least one of the inner glass layers

strengthened by ion exchange in order to withstand the impact of flying objects such as birds.

Bullet proof glass is often laminated, with a single ply of dead-annealed glass as thick as 20 to 25

millimeters used in some applications.

2.5.3 Sealing

Sealing glass to itself, or to other materials, is dependent on the relationships between the

thermal-expansion characteristics of the components to be sealed, the wetting and adhesion

characteristics of molten glass at the sealing temperatures, and the chemical durability of the

glass. Hermeticity, or air-tightness, is often the desired result of glass sealing. An example of

hermetic seals are lightbulbs, where metal conducting wires are sealed through glass in order to

maintain an inert atmosphere inside the lamp envelope. Many modern microelectronics also

depend on glass sealing, although hermeticity is not required for them.

 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Materials/Instrument and Method
This section has been divided into the following subsections:
i. X – ray diffraction (XRD )

ii. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

iii. UV-visible Spectroscopy

3.1 Preparation of glasses

The ternary tellurite glass systems of composition 20WO3-xBi2O3- (80-x) TeO2 (x = 10, 15, 20

and 25 mol%) were prepared using conventional melt quenching method. Analytical grade

chemicals, tungsten trioxide (WO3), bismuth trioxide (Bi2O3) and tellurium oxide (TeO2) were

used as starting materials. The required quantities of chemicals were weighed and mixed

thoroughly and crushed to fine powder in an agate pestle mortar. The batches of fine powder

mixture were heated in an alumina crucible at 300 °C for 30 min, and then the mixtures were

heated at 1000 °C for one hour. For good homogeneity and bubble free melt, crucibles were

shaken frequently. The transparent melt was poured and quenched fast between stainless steel

blocks maintained at 250 °C. Each glass was annealed at 250 °C for 5 h to reduce mechanical

stress. The prepared glasses are labeled as WTBi1, WTBi2, WTBi3 and WTBi4, for 10, 15, 20

and 25 mol% of Bi2O3, respectively.

3.2 X-ray diffraction

The glassy state of the prepared ternary tellurite glasses was checked by X-ray diffraction (XRD)

characterization. XRD spectra were recorded using D8 ADVANCE, BRUCKERS with CuKα (4
mAx40 kV) beam at room temperature. The patterns were recorded in the 2θ scan from 10° to

90° at scanning rate one degree per minute.

3.3 Physical properties

The densities of ternary tellurite glasses at room temperature were measured to an accuracy of

0.001 by Archimedes principle. Measurements were carried out using toluene as the buoyant

liquid and a sensitive micro-balance. The glass samples were weighed initially in the air (W1)

and then in an immersion liquid (W2) of density ρt = 0.865 g cm −3 . The density of the glasses

was obtained using following formula:

W1
ρ= ρ1 X W −W (1)
1 2

The molar volume (Vm) of glasses was calculated by the following relation:

∑i xi M
V m= i
(2)
ρ

Where

x i is the mole fraction of constituent oxides, and M i is the molecular weight of ith oxides.

Moreover, oxygen packing density (OPD) is the measure of the tightness of oxide network in the

oxide glasses. Molar volume (Vm) and a number of oxygen atoms (n) present in the glass

component can be used to calculate OPD by the following formula (V.C. Veeranna

Gowda,2013):

100 X n
OPD= Vm (3)
Also, the Bi3+ ion concentration (ions/cm3) in the prepared glasses was calculated using the

following relation:

mole % of Bi 2O X ρ X N A
N= 3
(ions/cm3) (4)
Vm

where

N and NA are the ion concentration and Avogadro's number respectively. The ion concentration

values can be used to calculate the polaron radius, rp(in Å) and inter-nuclear distance ri (in Å) by

the following equations:

r ρ=1/2(π6N)1/3 (5)

r i =(1/N)1/3 (6)

3.4 UV–Visible study

UV-VIS absorption spectra of the ternary tellurite glasses were measured using a double beam

spectrophotometer (SL 210, ELICO) in the wavelength from 200 to 700 nm at room temperature.

The absorption coefficient α(ω) near the band edge reflects the density of states in the glassy

materials [26]. The relation between α(ω) and photon energy hv for amorphous materials is given

by the following equation:

α(ω) = B (hv - Eopt)/hv (7)

where

B is the band tailing parameter, hν is the incident photon energy and Eopt is the optical band gap

[27]. Also, Eq. (7) can be written as:

 (αhv)1/2 = B (hv - Eopt) (8)

Using the above equations, the energy band gap (Eopt) can be calculated by extrapolating the

linear region of the plots of (αhv)1/2 versus hv to (αhv)1/2 = 0. Using the calculated optical band

gap, refractive index (n) can be determined via:

( )n2−1
2
n +2
E
√
=1− opt ¿ )
20

The results of molar refraction (Rm), optical electro-negativity (χ), optical basicity (∧) are

calculated by the following equations:

( )
2
n −1
Rm 2
∗V m (10)
n +2

X = 0.2688 x E opt (11)

∧ = - 0.5x + 1.7 (12)

3.5 Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR)

Study The Infrared transmission spectra of all ternary tellurite glasses were measured at room

temperature using a JASCO FTIR-4100 type-A spectrophotometer in the frequency range 400–

1000 cm−1 with a spectral resolution of 0.1 cm −1 . IR measurements were done on pulverized

glasses dispersed in potassium bromide pellets.

3.6 x-Ray shielding parameters study

The mass attenuation coefficients of the prepared glasses were measured using the γ-ray

spectrometer (NUCLEONIX, GR611M) which includes a detector and the multichannel analyzer
(NUCLEONIX, MC 1000 U). Experimental arrangement of transmission geometry is shown in

Fig. 1. The scintillation detector was a well type (3 × 3 in.) NaI(Tl) crystal with 0.656 “diameter

and 1.546” depth, optically coupled to 3 inch bialkali phototube with the magnetic/light shield.

The NaI(Tl) detector has an energy resolution 8.2% at 662 keV. Radioactive point sources

133Ba, 137Cs and 60Co each 5 mCi strength, were procured from BARC, Mumbai, India.

Fig. 1. Schematic experimental setup arrangement. The diagram shows the Pb collimator, the slits sample position, NaI (T1) detector and the data acquisition unit.

The online analysis of γ-ray spectrum was performed using Anuspect computer software. The

source was confined in lead cylinder collimator having 0.52 cm aperture. Collimator was placed

in front of the source collimator in order to produce 0.42 cm beam. The distance between source

and detector was kept 40 cm. The glasses of thickness 0.5–1.5 mm were selected, and irradiated

by 0.356 MeV photons emitted from 133Ba, 0.662 MeV photons emitted from 137Cs and 1.173

and 1.33 MeV photons emitted from 60Co. The incident and attenuated intensities of γ-rays were

measured by recording optimum count (104) for fix preset of time. The γ-rays spectrum for all

sources with and without glass is shown in Fig. 1. Initial (I0) and attenuated (I) intensities have

been utilized to determine mass attenuation coefficients (μm) using the following relation:

µ Io 1
µm= In ( ¿ (13)
ρ I ρt
Where

ρ is the density, t is the glass sample thickness and μ is the linear attenuation coefficient. Also,

the theoretical values of μm were obtained from XCOM program for possible comparison with

the experimentally obtained values. Measurements were repeated several times for each sample.

Total uncertainty in the measured μm values isestimated to be < 3%. These μm values can be

used to calculate atomic and electronic interaction cross sections (σa and σe). Then, the effective

atomic number (Zeff) can be expressed using the obtained cross sections as:

σa ∑i f i A i ( µ m ) i
Z eff = = (14)
σ e ∑ j f j ( A j / Z j) ( µm ) j

where

f and Z are the fractional abundance and the atomic number of the constituent element

respectively. The mean free path (MFP) is the average distance between two successive

collisions of photons and half value thickness (HVT) is the thickness that reduces the intensity of

photons by half of its initial intensity, were calculated using μ values from the following

relations:

1
MFP= µ (15)

0.693
HVT= µ (16)

where μ is the linear attenuation coefficients.

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