LANCER'S CONVENT

COMPUTER SCIENCE
CLASS XII STUDY MATERIAL
COMPUTER NETWORKS

8.1 Evolution of Networking:

ARPANET: The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was an early
packet switching network and the first network to implement the protocol suite TCP/IP. Both
technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet.

Internet: A network of networks.

WWW: World Wide Web started on 6th August 1991, started by ‘ Berners Lee’ .

Interspace: Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to

communicate online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.
Interspace provides the most advanced form of communication available on the Internet
today.

8.2 Switching Techniques:

It is a way to send a message from sender to receiver. Information may be switched as it

travels through various communication channels. There are three typical switching
techniques available for digital traffic.
REFER TO BOOK FOR BETTER
• Circuit Switching DETAIL OF EACH TYPE.
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Sends data in small blocks, called packets.

Requires point to point connections during
Packets reassembled in proper sequence at
calls.
the receiver end.

Required dedicated connection Not required dedicated connection

Circuit-switched networks were used for

packet-switched networks handled data
phone calls

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 Packet Switching

8.3 Data Communication Terminologies:

Channel: A channel is a separate path through which signals can flow. A channel has a
certain capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or
its data rate in bits per second.

Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted over a
network in a given amount of time, usually expressed in bits per second or bps.

Data Transfer Rate: The data transfer rate of a computer network connection is normally
measured in units of bits per second (bps).

Larger units are Kbps, Mbps and Gbps, KBps, MBps,GBps

bps means bit per second.

Bps means Byte per second

1 kilobit per second (Kbps) = 1000 bits per second (bps).

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1 megabit per second (Mbps) = 1000 Kbps or 10002 bps.

1 gigabit per second (Gbps) = 1000 Mbps

1 Terabit per second (Tbps) = 1000 Gbps

8.4 Networking Concepts:

Network:- To connect the more than one devices via a medium, is called network.

Why do we need network?

1. Communication
2. Resource sharing
3. Reduce Cost

Types of Network:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

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 1. LAN:

*Use in small local area, like in an institute or an organization.

* Devices are connected via physical medium.
* Limited distance, up to 150 Meter.
* Example – Intranet
2. MAN:

* Larger than LAN.

REFER TO BOOK FOR
* Used in Metropolitan cities. BETTER DETAIL OF EACH
*Range up to 50 KM. TYPE.
3. WAN:

* Large network
* Public
* Example – Internet
4. PAN:

* For very small distance

* Private Communication
* Example: Bluetooth

8.5 Transmission Medium:

A medium which is used to connect the devices and transfers the data from one device to
another device.

Medium

Wired Wireless
(Guided) (Unguided)

Twisted Co-axial
Optical Radio Micro Satellite Wi-Fi, infrared,
Pair Cable Cable Fiber wave wave Comm. Bluetooth
Cable
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8.6 Network Devices:

1. Modem
2. Hub
3. Switch
4. Gateway
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Repeater
8. NIC (Network Interface Card)
9. RJ45 Connector

1. Modem:
 The full form of modem is Modulator and demodulator.
 A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over
telephone or cable lines.
 A modem converts analog signal to digital signal and vice- versa.
 Modem connects computer to internet.
 There are two types of modem:
a. Internal Modem

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 b. External Modem

Telephone pole

Modem

Fig. : Working of Modem

2. Hub:
 A network device that contains multiple ports.
 Provides multiple connections.
 When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all
segments of the LAN can see all packets.
 Two types of hub :
a. Active Hub
b. Passive Hub

Fig: Hub Fig. : Active and Passive Hub

3. Switch:
 A switch is called smart hub.
 Provides multiple connections
 A device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments.
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 Fig: Switch

HUB SWITCH

Passes the frame to a specific port,

Hub passes the frame to every port.
because it keeps a record of MAC address.

Creates lot of traffic on network Less traffic

Hub shares its bandwidth with each and
Switch allocates full bandwidth to each of
every port, so bandwidth divided among
its port. So user always access maximum
all the nodes, which will degrade
amount of bandwidth.
performance.
Slow speed Fast speed

4. Gateway:
 A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network.
 Used to connect two dissimilar networks.

WAN LAN

5. Bridge(not in reduced syllabus):

A device that connects two local-area networks (LANs), or two segments of the same
LAN that use the same protocol, such as Ethernet.
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 LAN-1

LAN-2

6. Router:
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected
to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs. Routers are located
at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
A router acts as a dispatcher, choosing the best path for information to travel so it’s
received quickly.

7. Repeater:
Network repeaters regenerate and amplify the weak signals to transmit the information
for long distance.

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8. NIC (Network Interface Card): NIC card has a physical address of a system; this
physical address known as MAC address.

A MAC address is a 6- byte address with each byte separated by a colon. First 3-bytes have
Manufacturer id and last 3-bytes represent Card id.

10:BE:05:56:3F:CB
Manufacturer id Card id

9. RJ45 Connector: It is used for connecting computers onto Ethernet-based local area
networks (LAN). RJ stands for Registered Jack. It is a standardize networking interface. 45
is the number of the interface standard. It has 8-pins.

8.7 Network Topology:

The term Topology refers to the way/layout in which the various nodes or computers of a
network are linked together.
The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:
1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
4. Bandwidth capacity
5. Ease of installation
6. Ease of troubleshooting
7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.
Types of Topologies

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 1. Bus Topology
It consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) that is shared by all the nodes in the
network and a terminating resistor (terminator) at each end that absorbs the signal when it
reaches the end of line. Without a terminator the electrical signal would reach the end of
copper wire and bounce back, causing errors on the network.
Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by
a workstation or server NIC. If the message is missed or not recognized, it reaches the end of
the cabling and dissipates at the terminator. Bus Network Topology requires a multipoint
connection.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Easy to install and the use for small 1. If the main cable fails the entire network
networks. collapses.
2. Requires less cable 2. Difficult to reconfigure, due to more
connections.

3. Failure of one node does not affect the 3. Difficult to troubleshoot

network functioning.
4. Cost is less 4. Slow, due to traffic on single cable
5. New node can be easily added 5. Only one device transmits at a time, other
devices wait for their turn.

1.
2.

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 2. Star Topology
The physical star Topology uses a central controlling hub with dedicated legs pointing in all
directions – like points of a star. Each network
device has a dedicated point-to-point link to the
central hub. There is no direct link between these
computers and the computers can communicate via
central controller only.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Easier to add new node or modify any 1. Central node dependency. If the central
existing node without disturbing network. controller or hub fails, entire system
2. Fast Speed collapses.

3. If any local computer or link fails, the entire 2. Cabling cost is more
system does not collapse 3. Difficult to install
4. Easy fault detection and isolation
5. Central node control

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 3. Tree Topology
This topology has Hierarchical structure. This topology connects the node via hubs. Hub,
which is present at top level, is called root hub or active hub. Another hub is called
secondary hub or passive hub.

Advantages Disadvantages
 1. New node can be added easily.  1. If the backbone line breaks, the entire
 2. Signal can travel for long distance. segment goes down.
 3. Isolate and prioritize communication.  2. More difficult to configure
 3. Higher cabling cost

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8.8 Network Protocol:
REFER TO BOOK FOR
1. TCP: Transmission Control Protocol – 4 layers BETTER DETAIL OF EACH
TYPE.
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet
Network Interface

2. IP: Internet Protocol

Each computer has unique address over internet, is called IP address. An IP address is an
identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network.

Two types:

I. IPv4 (32-bits or 4-bytes) : IPv4 addresses are canonically represented in dot-

decimal notation, which consists of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0
to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 192.168.1.1.
II. IPv6 (128-bits or 16-bytes)

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): use to transfer files from one computer to another computer.

REFER TO BOOK FOR

4. PPP (Point to Point Protocol) MORE POINTS

5. HTTP( HyperText Transfer Protocol): To transfer the hypertext pages over internet.

6. Telnet (TELecommunication NETwork) : A network protocol that allows a user on one

computer to log into another computer(remote) that is part of the same network or on the
internet.
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8.10 E-Mail (Electronic Mail):

E-Mail is a method to send the messages in digital form. E-mail is a message that may
contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified
individual or group of individuals.
gmail server yahoo server

SMTP

POP3/IMAP

abc@gmail.com (Sender) xyz@yahoo.com (Receiver)

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a protocol which is used to transfer the e-mail
from sender side. This protocol is known as push protocol.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3): This protocol is used to access e-mail from the
server to receiver. This protocol is known as pull protocol.

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IMAP(Internet Mail Access Protocol) : Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is an
Internet standard protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail messages from a mail
server over a TCP/IP connection.

8.11 Protocols for Chat and Video Conferencing:

VoIP : VoIP (voice over IP) is the transmission of voice and multimedia content over Internet
Protocol (IP) networks. This protocol is used for chat and video conferencing over internet.

Wi-Fi : Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is the name of a popular wireless

networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and
network connections.
8.15 HTTPS:

HTTPS stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. It is the protocol where encrypted
HTTP data is transferred over a secure connection. HTTPS does encryption of data between
a client and a server, which protects against eavesdropping, forging of information and

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8.21 Introduction to web services:

8.21.1 WWW: World Wide Web is an information system where websites and webpages
are interconnected and accessible through URL. It is also known as Web.

8.21.2 HTML: HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language

 HTML describes the structure and design of Web pages using markup
 HTML elements are represented by tags
 Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render the content of the
page
 The current version of HTML is HTML 5.0

A simple HTML Code: OUTPUT

<html>
<head>
<title>My first web page</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> My First Heading </h1>
<p> My first paragraph </p>
</body>
</html>

8.21.3 XML :

 XML stands for EXtensible Markup Language

 XML is a markup language much like HTML
 XML was designed to store and transport data
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  XML was designed to be self-descriptive
 XML is a W3C Recommendation

S.
HTML XML
No.
1 HyperText Markup Language. eXtensible Markup Language.

XML was designed to be a software and hardware

designed to display data with focus on how
2 independent tool used to transport and store data,
data looks.
with focus on what data is.
3 HTML is case insensitive. XML is case sensitive.
HTML is used for designing a web-page to be XML is used basically to transport data between
4
rendered on the client side. the application and the database.

5 HTML has its own predefined tags. Uses custom tags defined by the user.
HTML is not strict if the user does not use the XML makes it mandatory for the user the close
6
closing tags. each tag that has been used.
7 HTML does not preserve white space. XML preserves white space.
XML is about carrying information hence
8 HTML is about displaying data, hence static.
dynamic.

8.21.4 Domain Name:

Domain names are used to identify one or more IP addresses. Domain names are used in
URLs to identify particular web page.

For example, http://www.kvongcbrd.com/english-results.htm

URL http://www.kvongcbrd.com/english-results.htm
Domain Name kvongcbrd.com
Web Page english-results.htm
Protocol http

Every domain name has a suffix that indicates which top level domain (TLD) it belongs to.
There are only a limited number of such domains. For example:
 gov - Government agencies
 edu - Educational institutions
 org - Organizations (nonprofit)
 mil - Military
 com - commercial business
 net - Network organizations
 in - India
 th – Thailand
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Because the Internet is based on IP addresses, not domain names, every Web server require
a Domain Name System (DNS) server to translate domain names into IP addresses.

8.21.5 URL: Uniform Resource Locator. It is the global address of documents and other
resources on the World Wide Web.

8.21.6 Website: Collection of web pages which are interlinked to one another. These pages
are hypertext pages and link between pages is known as hyperlink.

8.21.7 Web browser: It is application software though which user can access internet.
Example: internet explorer, Google chrome, Mozilla Firefox, opera, UC browser

8.21.8 Web Server: A web server is a system that uses HTTP to accept request and serve the
web pages as response to users. Every web server has IP address.

Example: Apache web server, Microsoft's Internet Information Server (IIS)

and nginx (pronounced engine X) from NGNIX.

8.21.9 Web Hosting: Web hosting is a service that allows organizations and individuals to
post a website on to the Internet.
A web host, or web hosting service provider, is a business that provides the technologies and
services needed for the website or webpage to be viewed in the Internet. Websites are hosted,
or stored, on special computers called servers.

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 LANCER’S CONVENT
COMPUTER SCIENCE
CLASS XII (2021-22)
NETWORKING (Part 2)-STUDY MATERIAL

Network Protocols
 A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network.
 It defines the standardized format for data packets, techniques
for detecting and correcting errors and so on.
 A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules
that two or more machines must follow to exchange those
messages.

Types of protocols are:

1. HTTP
2. FTP
3. TCP/IP
4. PPP

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a communications protocol for

the transfer of information on the intranet and the World Wide Web. Its
original purpose was to provide a way to publish and retrieve hypertext pages
over the Internet.
 HTTP is a request/response standard between a client and a server. A client
is the end- user; the server is the web site.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is the simplest and most secure way
to exchange files over the Internet. The objectives of FTP are:
 To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
 To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
 To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different hosts.
 To transfer data reliably, and efficiently.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

TCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server. Data can
be lost in the intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to
trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.
IP - is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node. IP forwards each packet
based on a four byte destination address (the IP number). IP operates on gateway
machines that move data from department to organization to region and then around the
world.
 SLIP/PPP (Serial Line Internet Protocol / Point to Point Protocol)

SLIP/PPP provides the ability to transport TCP/IP traffic ever serial line between two
computers. The home user’s computer has a communications link to the internet. The home
user’s computer has the networking software that can speak TCP/IP with other computers
on the Internet. E.g. dial up connection.
1/LCS/SM/COMPUTER SCIENCE/NETWORKING PART 2/XII/2021-22
 Telnet-
It is an older internet utility that lets us log on to remote computer system. It also facilitates
for terminal emulation purpose. Terminal emulation means using a pc like a mainframe
computer through networking.
(i) Run telnet client- Type telnet in run dialog box.
(ii) Connect to telnet site -specify the host name, port and terminal type.
(iii) Start browsing- surf the shown site with provided instruction.
(i) Finally disconnect-press Alt+F4.

Electronic Mail Protocols

SMTP-Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the standard protocol for sending emails across the
Internet. SMTP is also known as PUSH protocol. SMTP transfers the mail from sender’s
computer to the mail box present on receiver’s mail server.
POP3- Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a standard mail protocol used to receive
emails from a remote server to a local email client. POP3 allows you to download email
messages on your local computer and read them even when you are offline. Note, that when
you use POP3 to connect to your email account, messages are downloaded locally and
removed from the email server
VOIP-VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) is the transmission of voice and multimedia content
over an internet connection. VoIP allows users to make voice calls from a computer,
smartphone, other mobile devices, special VoIP phones and WebRTC-enabled browsers.
VoIP is a technology useful for both consumers and businesses, as it typically includes other
features that can't be found on common phone services. These features can include call
recording, custom caller ID, or voicemail to e-mail.

2/LCS/SM/COMPUTER SCIENCE/NETWORKING PART 2/XII/2021-22

WWW (WORLD WIDE WEB)
It is a small part of Internet. It is a kind of Application of internet.It is a set of protocols that
allows us to access any document on the Net through a naming system based on URLS.
Internet was mainly used for obtaining textual information. But post-WWW the internet
popularity grew tremendously because of graphic intensive nature of www.
Attributes of WWW
(i) User friendly- www resources can be easily used with the help of browser.
(ii) Multimedia documents-A web page may have graphic, audio, video, and
animation etc at a time.
(iii) Hypertext and hyperlinks-the dynamic links which can move towards
another web page is hyperlink.
(iv) Interactive -www with its pages support and enable interactivity between users and
servers.
(v) frame-display of more than one section on single web page.

Web server- It is a WWW server that responds to the requests made by web browers.
e.g. : Apache, IIS, PWS(Personal web server for Windows 98).

Web browser- It is a WWW client that navigates through the World Wide
Web and displays web pages. E.g.: FireFox Navigator, Internet Explorer
etc

Web sites- A location on a net server where different web pages are linked
together by dynamic links is called a web site. Each web site has a unique
address called URL.

Web page - A document that can be viewed in a web browser and residing
on a web site is a web page.

Home page- a web page that is the starting page and acts as an indexed
page is home page.

Web portal - that facilitates various type of the functionality as web site. for
e.g. www.yahoo.com,www.rediff.com

Domain name- An internet address which is a character based is called a

Domain name. Some most common domains are com, edu, gov, mil, net, org,
and co.Some domain names are location based also. For e.g. au for Australia,
a for Canada, in for India etc.
URL- A URL (uniform resource locator) that specifies the distinct address for
each resource on the internet.e.g.http://encycle.msn.com/getinfo/stypes.asp
IP ADDRESS versus MAC Address
MAC Address stands for Media IP Address stands for Internet Protocol
Access Control Address. Address.

MAC Address ensure that physical IP Address is a logical address of the

address of the computer is unique. computer and is used to uniquely
locate computer connected via a
network.

3/LCS/SM/COMPUTER SCIENCE/NETWORKING PART 2/XII/2021-22

 MAC Address is of six byte IP Address is of 4 bytes or of 16 bytes.
hexadecimal address.

Chip maker manufacturer provides Internet Service Provider, ISP

the MAC Address. provides the IP Address.

Example of MAC and IP Address

Web hosting - means hosting web server application on a computer

system through which electronic content on the internet is readily
available to any web browser client.

HTML -
It stands for Hyper Text Markup Language that facilitates to write web
document that can be interpreted by any web browser. It provide certain tags
that are interpreted by the browser how to display and act with the text,
graphics etc. tags are specified in <>.
For e.g.
<body bgcolor=green> it is opening tag
</body> it is closing tag.
body is the tag with bgcolor attributes.
XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
XML is a markup language for documents containing structured information.
Structured information contains both content (words, pictures etc.) and some
indication of what role content plays.

Difference between HTML and DHTML

HTML XML

• Used topresent data Used to transfer and stroe data

• Predefined tags • User defined tags
• Case insensetive • Case sensitive

4/LCS/SM/COMPUTER SCIENCE/NETWORKING PART 2/XII/2021-22

 LAN - Local Area Network
 OSI - Open Systems Interconnect
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol
 WAN -Wide Area Network
 WWW -World Wide Web
 HTTP- Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
 MODEM -MOdulator DEModulator
 TCP/IP-Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
 PPP-Point to Point Protocol
 XML-Extensible Markup Language
 HTML-Hyper Text Markup Language
 URL - Uniform Resource Locator
 SMS-Short Message Service
 MAN -Metropolitan Area Network
 ISP-Internet Service Provider
 VoIP-Voice Over Internet Protocol
 SMTP-Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 POP-Post Office Protocol
 ARPANET -Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network,

QUESTION FOR REVISION

1or 2 Marks Questions

1. Explain function of hub
and router. Ans:
Hub: A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the
ports of the hub. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the frame does
not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it simply copies the
data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub.
2. Router : routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks using
headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets

2. Expand the following terms

(i) URL (ii) ISP
Ans; (i) URL: Unified Resource Locator
(ii) ISP: Internet Service Provider

5/LCS/SM/COMPUTER SCIENCE/NETWORKING PART 2/XII/2021-22

Q. What is the difference between WAN and MAN?

Ans: MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is the network

spread over a city. WAN (Wide Area Network) spread
across countries.
Q. What is the purpose of using FTP?
Ans: (i)To promote sharing of files (computer
programs and/or data). (ii)To encourage indirect or
implicit use of remote computers
Q What is a Modem?
Ans: A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate
with other computers via telephone lines.
Q. Expand the following terms with respect to Networking:
(i) Modem (ii) WLL (iii)
TCP/IP (iv) FTP Ans: (i)
Modem :
Modulator/Demodulator
(ii) WLL: Wireless in Local Loop
(iii) TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
iv) FTP: File Transfer Protocol

Q. What are Protocols?

Ans: A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network.
It defines the standardized format for data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting
errors and so on. A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that
two or more machines must follow to exchange those messages.
Types of protocol are:
1. HTTP
1. FTP
2. TCP/IP
3. SLIP/PPP

Q. What is the difference between Repeater and a Bridge?

Ans: A Repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long distance
transmission where as a Bridge is a network device that established an intelligent
connection between two local networks with the same standard but with different types of
cables.

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