CHAPTER TWO
INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
Individual Differences Framework
Heredity Environment
Genes Culture & education
Race/Ethnicity Parental Influence
Gender Physical Environment
INDIVIDUAL CHARATERISTICS
Personality
Abilities & Values
Skills
Leadership Style and
Behaviors
The Effect Of Individual Characteristics On
Behavior
BEHAVIORAL RANGE
Comfort Zone
Zone of Individual Zone of
Discomfort characteristics Discomfort
Personality
Psychological
characteristics
Stable over time and
across situations
A set of
characteristics, rather
than one trait
Makes the person
unique and different
from others
Abilities and Skills
➢ Ability, or aptitude, is a stable
natural talent for doing something
mental or physical.
➢ A skill is an acquired talent that a
person develops related to a specific
task.
Values And Value System
Values are long-lasting beliefs about what is
worthwhile and desirable
Factors that affect values include:
▪ Culture
▪ Personality
▪ Gender
▪ Ethnicity
▪ Generational differences
Views of Ethics
◆ The relativist view of ethics
suggests a belief that what is
right or wrong depends on the
situation or the culture.
◆ The universalist view of ethics
suggests that all activities should
be judged by the same
standards, regardless of the
situation or culture.
Components Of Emotional Intelligence
➢ Self-awareness
➢ Managing
emotions
➢ Self-motivation
➢ Empathy for
others
➢ Interpersonal
skills
Characteristics Of Creative Leaders
Perseverance when facing obstacles
Self-confidence
Willingness to take risks
Willingness to grow and openness to
new experiences
Tolerance for ambiguity
Three Categories Of Leadership Skills
1. Technical skills
2. Interpersonal skills
3. Conceptual skills
Perception, Attribution
and Learning
Social Perception
Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person
Social Perception
Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person
Perceiver Characteristics
• Familiarity with target
• Attitudes/Mood
• Self-Concept
• Cognitive structure
Social Perception
Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person
Perceiver Characteristics Target Characteristics
• Familiarity with target • Physical appearance
• Attitudes/Mood • Verbal communication
• Self-Concept • Nonverbal cues
• Cognitive structure • Intentions
Social Perception
Social Perception -
interpreting information
about another person
Perceiver Characteristics Target Characteristics
• Familiarity with target • Physical appearance
• Attitudes/Mood • Verbal communication
• Self-Concept • Nonverbal cues
• Cognitive structure • Intentions
Situational Characteristics
• Interaction context
• Strength of situational cues
The Perception Process
ATTENTION ORGANIZATION
•The Perceived •Patterns
•Schemas PERCEPTION
•The Perceiver
•Scripts
Comprehending Perception
We all have a different store of knowledge.
We all therefore interpret the world around us
differently.
Understanding relies upon the speaker and his
audience having the same perception of the required
outcome.
Perception is a 'Learned
Experience'
◆ It is the “awareness” of the
external world (or some aspect of
it, through one or more of our
senses and, the interpretation of
these by our mind.
Understanding
◆ Understanding is achieved by interpreting current
experience using past experience as a source of
reference, and establishing a context upon which to
base this new information. In other words:
• We are only able to understand today in terms of,
and because of, our past experiences.
• Yet, we also know that 'Today' is unlike 'Yesterday'.
• We inherit Yesterday's patterns and need them to
interpret what our senses are experiencing in the
present.
• These patterns are simultaneously essential and
yet out of date.
How do we perceive?
◆ We store a ‘model’ or memory of objects.
◆ The process of perceiving involves
‘matching’ what our senses are
experiencing to one of our ‘models.’
◆ Perception is an active pattern-matching
process.
◆ We recognize the world because of our
historical store of information.
◆ We create our own unique world, our own
interpretation of reality.
Barriers to Social Perception
◆ Selective perception
◆ Stereotyping
◆ First-impression Social Perception -
error interpreting information
◆ Implicit personality about another person
theory
◆ Self-fulfilling
prophecies
Personality Theories
Trait Theory - understand individuals by breaking
down behavior patterns into observable traits
Psychodynamic Theory - emphasizes the unconscious
determinants of behavior
Humanistic Theory - emphasizes individual growth
and improvement
Integrative Approach - describes personality as a
composite of an individual’s psychological
processes
Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior
The Person
• skills & abilities
• personality
• perception
• attribution
• attitudes
• values
• ethics
Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior
The Person
• skills & abilities The Environment
• personality • organization
• perception • work group
• attribution • job
• attitudes • personal life
• values
• ethics
Variables Influencing
Individual Behavior
The Person
• skills & abilities The Environment
• personality • organization
• perception • work group
• attribution • job
• attitudes • personal life
• values
• ethics
Behavior
Interactional Psychology
Approach
The Person
• skills & abilities The Environment
• personality • organization
• perception • work group
• attribution • job
• attitudes • personal life
• values
• ethics
Behavior
B = f(P,E)
The “Big Five” Personality
Dimensions
Conscientiousness
Extraversion/introversion
Openness to experience
Emotional stability
Agreeableness
Characteristics Of Individuals
With Internal Locus Of Control
Less anxious
Set harder goals
Manage stress well and adapt to
change
More considerate of followers and
less likely to use coercive power
Internal CEOs select risky and
innovative strategies
Characteristics Of Type A Individuals
High need for control
“Doing more in less and less time”
Work-Related Behaviors
Defining Characteristics • Poor delegation
•Time urgency • Likes to work alone
• Competitiveness • Jumps into action
• Polyphasic behaviors • Sets high goals
• Hostility • Hard work
• Perceives more stress
Characteristics Of High
Self-monitors
✓ Able to read cues from the
environment
✓ Able to change behavior to match
situation
✓ Able to cope in cross-cultural
environments
✓ May be a key factor in leadership
effectiveness
Four Major MBTI Types
THINKING (T)
Sensation Thinkers (ST) Intuitive Thinkers (NT)
Focus on hard facts Change agents
Realistic, goal-oriented but Responsive to creativity
INTUITIVE (N)
SENSING (S)
can be impatient and jump but can be unreasonable and
into action quickly unaware of others
Sensation Feelers (SF) Intuitive Feelers (NF)
Practical and caring Personal charisma and
Good understanding of commitment to others
systems but can be Many ideas, trouble with
reluctant to accept change implementation
FEELING (F)
Machiavellian Personality
High Machs are:
• Skilled at controlling others
• Able to perceive and resist
manipulation
• More successful in
unstructured environments
Low Machs are:
• Naive and trusting
Leadership is associated with
moderate Mach score
Characteristics Of
Leaders Who Fail
* Abrasive and intimidating
* Cold and arrogant
* Untrustworthy
* Self-centered and political
* Poor performers
* Unable to delegate
The Johari Window
Known to Self Not Known to
Self
Known to FREE/ARENA BLIND SPOT
Others
Not Known to FACADE UNKNOWN
Others
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
◆ Based on Carl Jung’s work
• People are fundamentally different
• People are fundamentally alike
• People have preference combinations for
extraversion/introversion, perception,
judgment
◆ Briggs & Myers developed the MBTI to
understand individual differences
Take it at:
http://www.humanmetrics.com
Kiersey Temperament Sorter
◆ 1.In most situations are you more
deliberate than spontaneous
spontaneous than deliberate
◆ 2.Is it worse to be
a softy
hard-nosed
◆ 3.Is it better to be
just
merciful
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
◆ Introvert-Extrovert
• where you derive your energy
◆ Sensing-Intuitive
• where you obtain your
information
◆ Thinking-Feeling
• analysis & logic versus pleasing
people
◆ Judging-Perceiving
• how you make a decision
MBTI Preferences
Preferences Represents
Extraversion Introversion How one
re-energizes
Sensing Intuiting How one gathers
information
Thinking Feeling How one makes
decisions
Judging Perceiving How one orients to the
outer world
Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type
That Focuses Attention and Presents Strengths and
Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations
Psychological Focus and Weaknesses
Types Preferences Strengths (if Overextended)
Extroversion Focuses on Good at social Intellectual super-
people interaction; en- ficiality; intrusive;
and things; thusiastic and lack of respect for
sociable; confident; insti- others’ privacy;
outgoing gates action; open easily distracted
and straightforward
Introversion Good at personal May lose touch
interaction; stays calm with outer world;
Focuses on and focused; can con- keeps people at
thoughts centrate intensely; a distance; easily
and concepts; develops ideas; uses preoccupied
reflective; discretion in talking
inwardly directed
Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That
Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and
Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont.)
Psychological Focus and Weaknesses
Types Preferences Strengths (if Overextended)
Sensing Facts; data; details; Pragmatic; precise; Lacks long-range
concrete; reality stable; results orient- outlook; may reject
based; present ed; sensible; system- innovative ideas
oriented atic
Intuitive Possibilities; Imaginative; concep- Unrealistic; out of
hunches; tulizes easily; creative; touch; bored by
speculations; theor- intellectually tenacious; routine; scattered
etical ; future idealistic
oriented
Thinking Rational; analytical; Undervalues feel-
assertive; logical; care- ings; overly anal-
Analysis; objective; fully weighs alternatives; ytical; insensitive;
logic; impersonal; firm but fair; explains critical; judgmental
justice; systematic thoroughly
inquiry
Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That
Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths
and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They
Arise (Cont.)
Psychological Focus and Weaknesses
Types Preferences Strengths (if Overextended)
Feeling Sympathy; Persuasive; empathic; Overly sensitive;
subjective; humane; warm; sensitive; demon- moody; can become
personal; strative and expressive; emotionally over-
compassion; trust; loyal burdened
consideration
Plan, organize, and Close minded; in-
Judging Organized; planned;control well; persistent; flexible; can jump to
settled;control one’s decisive; conscientious; conclusions too
life; set goals; struc- reliable quickly; intolerant;
tured; routine judgmental
Perceiving Pending; flexible; Open minded; adaptable; Indecisive; procrast-
curious; spontaneity;spontaneous; under- inates; unfocused;
tentative; let life standing; tolerant; disorganized; im-
happen; undaunted inquisitive pulsive; may collect
by surprise; open to data too long before
change deciding
