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NOVEMBER 1996 ISSUE 4

Features _

Richard A. Pfost War With Mexico! 2

The Campaign i n orthern lexica
G. P. Stokes War With Mexico! 3
With Scott in Mexico
Ted S. Raicer The Sick Bear 5
Russia's Armed Forces Today
Tom Dworschak A Fleet Squandered 6
Hitler's Surface Ships

Departments _

Short Rounds
I Remember• • • 8
Art of War 8
Books & Videos 8

The P I 9
Reader Survey 9

Cover: A contemporary colored lithograp

o f the Battle o f Buena Vist

4 ISSUE 40 NO V 1 9 9
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Th e advance toward Moscow ha s finally

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Editor-in-Chief
Ty Bomba A Note From the Editor
Art & Graphics Director
Larry Hoffman
Your feedback votes from issue no. 38 came in this way, ranke
Managing Editor
Chris Perello
from highest to lowest:
Associate Editor
Ted Raicer The Great War in the Near East 7.44
Contributing Editors Issue No. 38 overall 7.38
Ulrich Blennemann, John Desch, Timothy With Their Backs to the Wall (Pusan) 6.92
J. Kutta, Vern Liebl, David Meyler, Robert the Bruce 6.88
Andrew Preziosi, David Schueler, Carl
O. Schuster, David W. Tschanz, Occupying the Balkans Then and Now 6.80
L. Dean Webb Pilgrim Savagery 6.69
Business & Subscriptions Short Rounds 6.68
Chris Perello, Cheryl Scollan
Issue No. 38 Cover. 6.64
Advertising Books & Videos 5.48
OEHLER MEDIA, INC
71 Warren St. Partnership for Peace 4.04
New York, NY 10007
ph. 212/406-1938, fx 212/406-0736.
Forty-two percent said no. 38 was better than no. 37; eight per
Newsstand Consultant cent claimed the opposite; 46 percent thought the two were of abou
Gregg Oehler equal worth, and four percent couldn't express an opinion becaus
at OEHLER MEDIA, INC
they hadn't seen the earlier issue.
SUBSCRIPTION RATES
Command is published in two versions: the
The big generator of written comment this time out was th
Newsstand version includes the magazine only; "Robert the Bruce" article. And the tone and temper of most of
the Hobby version includes the magazine, plus a
rules booklet, map an d playing pieces to a b oo rd was probably best summarized by the sub criber who wrote: " I
wargame. Subscriptions are available for both
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seems as if the real story of 13th and 14th century Scotland wa
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Hollywood? Can't anyone there read a hi tory book and recognize
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Canadian, Mexican & US First Class Mail subscrip tory? I don't even pretend to know, but tho e who'd like more film
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6 ISSUE 4 0 N OV 1 9 9 6
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Elite Beat. .. combat support company. The m

orized infantry companies consi
o f t hr ee p la to on s, e ac h with th

Responding to the Threat eight m an s qu ad s and an eight m

weapons squad. The anti-armor c
p an ie s h ad 20 a n ti - ta n k w e ap
systems divided into four platoon
Despite i ts v as t oil r ese rv es , t he came to consist of the most mobile I t wa s originally intended
Near East ha s always been the poor military formations - t he A rm y' s m o to ri ze d a nd a nt i- ar mo r un
stepchild of American defense estab 82nd Airborne an d 1 Olst Airmobile would b e e qu ip pe d with comple
lishment p la nn in g. In E ur ope si nc e Divisions an d some Marine Corps ne w weapons systems. The for
1945 th e Army an d Air Force h av e units - reinf orced by the 24th Mech- were supposed to rec eive whee
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presence, an d equipment purchases units. mo u n tin g a 3 0m m c an no n an
have reflected that emphasis. Th e Th e RDF's biggest problem was TOW anti-armor missile launch
Pacific, on th e other hand, ha s al si mp ly g et ti ng to i ts distant theater The latter were to get the Armo
ways belonged to the Navy. o f a ss ig nm en t. A Soviet t h r u s t Gun System (AGS), essentially a l
In the immediate aftermath of the through I ra n t ow ar d t he St ra it s of tan k mou ntin g a 105mm cannon.
Second World War, t h a t wasn't a Hormuz an d the Persian Gulf wo uld But the A rmy' s w he eled APC
problem. Britain still maintained a probably have been accompanied by g ra m was c an celed (th ou gh the M
st ron g military pr esence i n the ear attacks into Western Europe an d the ines wen t ahead an d p u r c h a
East, so a str ate gi c partnership dev Pacific; so US military airlift assets wheeled APCs f or their light a ss
eloped: th e United States defended would have been stretched thin try vehicle battalions). The AGS sys
Europe an d th e Pacific, th e United ing to support all t hre e t heater s. It went through a checkered deve
Kingdom the N ea r E as t. Bu t th e seems likely only a small percentage ment; it's actually o nl y n ow be
British withdrawal from east of Suez of th e RDF units c ou ld h av e been fielded, some 10 y ea rs a ft er i t
in 1968 changed that relationship. flown into th e Near East. T he r es t, fi rst to have been deployed. Beca
Th e US, then m ired in Vietnam, pa rti c ul a rly t he 24th Mech , would n eith er o f tho se p ro grams w ere p
couldn't spare the forces n eed ed to have had to go by sea, a nd m ig ht sued i n a timely way, by 1985 it
pro perl y cover t he vast new area. A very well have arrived to o late to decided to mount both t he m o
new ally was needed in the region, s o influence the fighting. ized infantry an d anti-armor unit
Washington turned to Tehran. The Army, then, n ee de d to devel High Mobility Multipurpose Whe
Thus, fr om 1968 to the fall of the op a fighting unit w ith the mob ility Vehicles (HMMWVs - the now
Shah, Iran received billions of dollars a nd f ir ep ow er to meet a Soviet endary "Humvees" of D es ert St
worth of e qu ip me nt a nd training. m ec ha niz ed o r t an k division, b u t fame).
This included some of the m o s t was at the s ame time lig ht e no ug h to In the 1985 configuration, the
sophisticated e qu ip me nt t h en avail b e flown to t he P ersi an Gulf in 1,000 c on si st ed o f t hr ee li ght attack c
able, such as F-14 fighters an d Cobra C-141 s or ti es . T he first attempt at panies, each divided into three
attack helicopters. But, again, the US m ee ti ng t hi s requirement was th e t oon s of t hree squ ads. Each sq
was free to cont inue to co ncent rate c re atio n o f a motorized infantry divi consisted of four personnel an d
its own Army an d Air Force on the sion . T he 9t h Infantry Division was HMMWVs, one armed with the T
defense of Europe. given the mission of organizing an d II an d the other with a 40mm g
In 1979, however, the internation t est ing t he new concept. At t he time ade launcher. The LAB was inten
al situation again changed dramati (1980), the 9th was a (then) standard to o pe ra te as a covering force for
cally. The Shah was overthrown an d infantry division, with a tank battal division, on the flanks, an d if po
it s replacement Khomeini regime ion, a mechanized infantry battalion ble to infiltr ate int o t he oppone
wa s o v er tl y h o s ti l e to the United an d seven leg i nfa ntry ba t ta l i ons. r ear areas to strike at his comm
States. F ur th er , t he Soviet Union The new division was to c on si st o f and logistics facilities.
occupied Afghanistan, putting th e nine battalions: five heavy combined In the early 80s the u se of the
Red A rmy just 500 miles fro m the a rm s b a tt al i on s (CAB[HD, two l ig ht attack vehicle (FA V) by the LABs
Straits of Hormuz. c om bi ne d a rm s b a tt al i on s (CAB[LD, also considered. The FA V was re
Without strong allies in the re an d two light attack battalions (LAB). n ot hi ng m or e than a c iv ilia n d
gion, th e US was forced to commit The CAB[H) woul d have one mot buggy, purchased off the shelf
its own ground units to t he de fens e or ized infantr y c ompa ny , two a nti modified by the addition of weap
o f t he Persian Gulf f or th e fi rst time. armor co mp an ies and a s u p p o r t attachments fo r a 4 0m m g re n
Th e response to t hi s n ew re qu ir e company, while th e CAB[L) would launcher an d TOW II. In exercise
ment was t he c re at io n of the Ra pid have two motorized infantry compa the Yakima Firing Ce nter, the FA
Deployment Force (RDF). Th e RDF nies, an anti-armor c om pa ny a n d a s ho we d t he re wa s no terrain t

8
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couldn't overcome. But their utility Th e light infantry division wa s ar e needed to maintain a LID once
as a combat v eh ic le w as limited by exactly that: lightly armed infantry. it's d ep loy ed , s o m or e aircraft ar e
th eir inability to c ar ry s u ff i ci en t It consisted of nine light infantry available to transport combat units.
ammunition for deep p en etratio n battalions divided among three brig In terms of tactical mobility, ther
raids. des. T he LID ha d n o t an ks or other are regions - parts of Korea, Nor
Unlike most Army divisions, armored vehicles. Divisional support way, eastern Turkey an d the Zagro
which used t he ir a tt ac k helicopter consisted of an artillery brigade with Mountains in Iran - where the ter
units as a divisio nal rese rve , the 9th three 105mm battalions, an d a com rain is so r ugged m echanized unit
forme d the irs into a s ep arate man eu  b at aviation b r ig a de w it h a recon ar e restricted almost e nt ir el y t o
ver brigade. The Cavalry Brigade (Air naissance battalion, attack helicopter roa ds . In such environments the LID
Attack), or CBAA, c on si st ed o f two battalion and tr anspor t companies. w ou ld a ct ua ll y be m o re m an eu ve r
attack h elic op te r b atta lion s, a com T here is no q ue stio n the LID ha d able an d have greater firepower than
ba t aviation company equipped with p ro blems. Its s ole h ea vy a nti-armo r it s mechanized/motorized oppo
UH-60 transport helicopter s, and a capability la y in the 44 TOW II n en ts . It s ho ul d also b e r em em be re d
reconnaissance battalion. The CBAA launchers sp read among th e nine i t was a li ght i nf an tr y force that suc
was used for two p rima ry p urpo se s: m an eu ve r b at t al i on s a n d th e attack cessfully defeated a mechanized
1) as a c ou nt er at ta ck force, w it h t he helicopter battalion. Maneuverability Soviet army in Afghanistan.
recon battalion blocking enemy pen wa s limited s in ce all th e division's Th e LID h as p ro ve n to be much
et ra ti on s a nd t he a tt ac k helicopter maneuver battalions walked. more flexible than a regular Army
battalions striking at the flanks; a nd C ri ti cs h av e argued th e LIDs division. A m ec ha ni ze d o r a rm or ed
2) as a deep-strike force. would have been of small value in division (or even the motorized divi
In field e xe rci se s th e CBAA t he e ve nt of a Soviet attack in Eur sion) is primarily intended to meet a
proved e xtra ordina ril y v alua ble. It ope. Likewise, given th e amounts high- tech, heavily armored threat
a llow ed the d iv is io n commander to s pen t on arms in th e Third World, With the collap se of the Sovie
launch airmobile strikes to secure e ve n the ir d ep lo ymen t a ga in st such Union, encountering such a threat is
valuable terrain, seal off units being e ne mies as Ira q an d Iran would have increasingly unlikely. But in situa
attacked f ro m r ei nf or ce me nt , a nd s how n t he LIDs to be easily out tions such as Somalia an d Haiti the
strike at enemy second-echelon units gunned an d outmaneuvered. LID h as s ho wn i tse lf capable o f han
well b ef or e t he y' d r ea ch ed t he m ai n While those are valid criticisms, it dling any mission given to it.
battle area. should also be p oi nt ed o ut there T he re h as been s ome c riticism o
Divisional artillery support con were - an d still are - valid r easons the deployment to Somalia, primarily
sisted of 54 1 5 5m m h o wi t ze r s in fo r th e e mp loy me nt o f LIDs. Th e centering around t he a rg um en t t he
three 18 gu n battalions, an d a gener first is t h ei r s t ra t eg i c mobility; it LID was too light even for the mis
al support b a tt a li o n w it h nine Mul- tak es o nly 500 C-141 s orties to mov e sion assigned it there. That's partial
tiple Launch Rocket Systems (MLRS) a LID. Secondly, t he re is t he matter ly true, bu t only in that th e LID was
an d two batteries o f 1 05 mm guns. of logistical support. Th e LID still always i n t e n d e d to be deployed
Th e 105mm ba tt e ri e s were specifi requires some petroleum, oil an d a lo ng w it h a fe w heavy s u p p o r
cally intended to support divisional lubricants (POL), b ut i ts n ee ds ar e u nits . T ha t the lig ht infan try units in
airmobile operations. vastly smaller than a m ec ha ni ze d o r Somalia f ound them selves at times
Though the equipment, organiza infantry division. T h us d i vi s io n al outgunned is the fau lt o f s en io r deci
tion an d tactics pioneered by the 9th requirements a re b a si ca ll y food, sion makers who failed to deploy a
Motorized Infantry Division were suc a m mu n it io n a n d m edical supplies. heavy armor unit in support.
cessful, the program as a whole was That means fewer transport aircraft - Michael D. Blodget
a failure. The division was never able
to reach the 1,000 C-141 sortie pla
teau - th e c lo se st i t came was
9th Infantry Division
1,250. Th e c an ce ll at io n o f t he as (Motorized)
sault gu n an d wheeled APC pro
grams meant the 9th wa s n ev er hea
vily enough armed to take on a Sov-
iet division.
T hu s t he motorized infantry divi
sion never came to be a standard
u n it within th e mo d ern US Army.
The 9th Infantry Division (Motorized)
was de clar ed c om ba t r ea dy in 1986;
ho weve r, fou r y ea rs later it was de
mobilized an d it s a s se t s r e fo r me d
in to t he 199th Infantry Brigade (Mot-
orized). That unit was also l at er de
mob iliz ed , to b e rep la ce d by the 9th
Infantry Regiment, effectively ending
x
the Army's flirtation with motorized
combat units.
T he failu re of th e motorized in
fantry program l ef t t he ar my b ac k at
square one. So commanders turned x II J I II
to another formation t ha t h ad been
in t he p la nn in g s ta ge fo r several
9xMLRS
years: th e l igh t infantry division 18x155mm
12x105mm
(LID). (each)
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Historical Perspective. . . is h government reappointed G

as g ov e rn o r g e ne r al an d sen
back to Khartoum to supervis

Sudan's Secret Insurrection ev acu at i o n of al l non-Suda

troops an d officials. However,
h e rea ch ed the city in Feb ru ary
In one night during the winter of French-engineered S ue z C an al in Gordon r ea li ze d i t was a lr ea d
1964-65, more than 5,000 African 1869, w it h i ts p ro mi se o f e no rm ou s late to e xtricate tho se trapped
Christians an d animists were merci strategic an d economic advantages, He called at once for reinforcem
lessly hunted down, hacked to pieces gave no t only France, but also Brit bu t by the time they arrived t h
an d throw n into the Blue Nile w he re ain, the opportunity to demand a say sari ha d struck, slaughtering
it flows past Sudan's capital city of in Egyptian affairs. The French, how toum's defenders, killing G
Khartoum. The cold-blooded killings ever, soon dropped o ut, leav in g the an d delivering his head to t he
were carried out by several battal British to oversee Egypt's governance di's headquarters in Omdurman
ions of Ansari warriors, militant dis of Sudan. In addition, it was the Brit tardy reinforcements, confron
ciples of AI Mahdi an d followers of is h who were called on to keep the a scene o f d ev ast at io n w he n t h
the Prophet Mohammed. The Muslim peace between the Muslim/Arabized ally arrived, quickly turned a
zealots made formidable foes: utter n o r t h a nd t he C hr is t i an / an i mi s t and went home.
ly fea rless , totally d ed ic ated to reli t rib es of th e south who, with th e The Mahdi ha d only a short
gious fundamentalism, and absolute advent o f st eambo ats an d firearms, to e nj oy hi s victory; w it hi n m
ly convinced death in b attle g uaran  were becoming increasingly vulnera he was dead an d hi s Mahdiya
teed immediate entry into paradise. ble. into th e hands of th e Khalifa
They were th e s uc c es so rs o f th e To assist wi th t he modernization strongest a nd m os t ruthless of
7t h century Ansar who first accepted of their army an d e xten d the ir rule, contending successors. His firs
Islam, an d the forerunners of today's th e Egyptians used both Union an d were to get rid of many of the
Islamic Revolutionary Guards. Look Confederate veterans from America d i' s p ur el y religious follower
ing b ack , it's easy to see the grisly a s merce na ries . In an e ff or t to con pu t the Mahdiyah on an even
e piso de h eralde d the resumption of ciliate Sudan's southerners, they w a rl ik e f oo ti ng , u si ng th e A
Sudan's holy war. ap p o i n t ed a B r it i sh e x p lo r e r, Sir camel an d horse-borne tribesm
The rest of the w orld s aid an d did Samuel Baker, as g ov erno r of Equa a cavalry st ri ke force to con tr
n othing . T he b ru ta l, senseless mas toria Pr ov in ce. Wh en he was suc provinces.
sacre w ent u n r ep o rt ed , an d doubt c ee de d i n 1874 by Gen. Cha r le s Th e combination o f d ic t a
l ess t he g en er al pub li c w ou ld n eve r "Chinese" Gordon, the British gained leadership an d dedicated foll
have h eard about it if some of us both a vital s ta ke in Sudan's future pr ove d almost invincible. B
h ad n 't b ee n s pa re d to tell th e tale, an d another means of safeguarding 1895, Gen. Kitchener was orde
albeit 30 years later. I was there  their own interests. bring S u da n es e a g g re s si o n u
wi th m y family - w or ki ng f or th e Gordon lost no time in s up pres s c on tr ol ; B ri tai n wa s t o p ro vi d
Sudanese Ministry of Education. We in g th e slave trade, disarming or m en a nd materie l, w hile Egyp
were post-independence employees, hanging m any o f tho se c au gh t tra f mised t o f inan ce t he v en tu re .
no t like th e British civil servants ficking in human misery. But apart m on th s o f p re p ar a ti on , t he A
who'd recently thronged Khartoum, from ensuring access to th e Suez Egyptian Expeditionary Force,
no r like th e British military who'd Canal, which ha d quickly become an included six b at ta li on s r ec ru i
formerly held sway. economic lifeline to Ind ia and the southern Sudan, finally se t o
Sudan's asso ciat io n w i th Britain Far East, Britain ha d no wish to get newly constructed railway, sta
went b ac k a lm os t a century, to the caught up in Sudanese squabbles, so in t he far n or th a t Wadi HaIfa
da ys w he n Europe fi rs t be c a me Gordon wa s r ec al le d t o L on do n in them some of the way, bu t fo
aware o f t he ex ten t of slave-trading 1880. It was soon after his departure mos t part they ha d to m ar ch
there. Like most of its African neigh that fre sh p ro blems arose: a Muslim an d fig ht the ir way south to O
bors, Sudan h ad b ee n divided, subdi zealot declared himself "AI Mahdi al man, where the Khalifa an d his
vided, conquered an d plundered, no t Muntazar" ("the Awaited Guide in dist followers made their last s
j us t b y W e st er ne rs , b u t a lso by th e Right Path"), rallying countless On 2 Sep te mb er 1898, the K
Arabs who'd penetrated as far as the northerners to his cause, which was c om mi tt ed his arm y to a front
swampy grasslands that ac te d as t he a return to th e simplicity of early s au l t a ga inst th e Anglo-Egy
natural barrier b etwe en the reg io n' s Islam. force massed o u ts i de O md u
arid north an d fertile south. It seems to have been the Mahdi's just a cros s the Nile fro m K har
Given i ts p ro xi mi ty t o Egypt an d personal magnetism that persuaded Th e outcome wa s nev er in d
the centrality of the Nile River, which so many northern Sudanese to adopt largely b ec au se o f superior B
both countries share, it's no t surpris his brand of fundamentalism, which firepower. During the five hou
ing Egypt ha d a strong influence on l ed t o t he revival o f t he Ansar, r ea dy tl e ab o u t 11,000 Mahdists
northern S ud a n' s d e ve l op m en t by to defend Mahdism to the d eath. while Anglo-Egyptian losses am
fostering Arabization an d providing Thus, early in 1882, some 30,000 ed to only a few hundred. Mo
a rea dy market for its e xp orts . At the Ansari, armed only w it h s pe ar s an d up operations took several year
peak o f its d omin atio n, in the e arly swords, a tta c ke d a huge force of organized resistance ended w i
1800s, Egypt acquired some 30,000 Egyptians deployed so uth o f Khar Khalifa's death in November
Sudanese slaves a nd t ra in ed t he m toum. Four months later, still on the Many areas of the c ou ntry , p a
for duty in the Egyptian army. w ar pa th , t ho se r e li g io u s f a na t ic s larly those in the south, welc
It was the fact so many of those defeated an even la r ge r force o f th e downfall of a regime th a
Nilotic p eo ple d ie d in c ap tivity that Egyptians sent to relieve the soldiers brought Sudan nothing bu t fa
finally stirred European consciences garrisoned in an d ar ou n d Khartoum. disease, war an d terror.
an d l ed to attempts to s ta mp o ut the A la rm ed a t this ups urge of na Th e co u n t ry as a whole
slave trade. The c om pl et io n o f th e tional an d religious fervor, the Brit- m uc h b et te r u nd er subsequent

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lo-Egyptian rule, which lasted until t o r ep la ce despotism wi t h d emoc ra  ing, they assembled in th e dese
th e 1950s, when it wa s a gr ee d t he cy. In th e course of their so-called s t re e ts s u rr o u nd i ng t h e A ng l
Sudanese were ready to make th e "October R evol ut i on," a g e n e r a l Ca th e dr al . W h en we glimpsed t
transition to self-government. At th e strike spread across t he c ou nt ry . on ou r way h o me f ro m services,
b eg in ni ng o f 1956, S u da n b ec am e Strike breakers joined leftist politi were formed up in menacingly s
independent. But if the first half of cians an d together they made com ranks. They soon struck with
th e century h ad b ee n less than com m on c au se w it h a n um be r o f dissi warning, making for an outlying
p l et e ly p e ac e fu l (there h ad b een d e n t army o f fi c er s. A f te r several trict popul at ed a lm os t e nt ir el
inter-tribal wars, banditry an d re  days of rioting, resulting in many C hri st i an-ani mi st Sudanese; t
volt), hostility between north and d ea th s, t he current military ruler butchered everyone they found.
south increased even further during agreed to step down. Later, when we expat ri at e
th e second half. Th e Ansar, held to
gether by their loyalty to th e Mahdi's
No sooner ha d h e l eft t he c ou nt ry
th an th e Ansari, fearing they would
vivors fro m th e other side of t
a sk ed w hy t he massacre wasn't
descendants, took part in al l th e lose g r o u n d in th e forthcoming orted, we were t ol d m ed ia sile
major s ki r mi s he s, n ev e r l o si n g sight struggle fo r p ower, o nc e ag ai n mus was th e price demanded for th e
of their d re am o f reestablishing old t er ed t he ir i nf an tr y a t O md ur ma n. tinued use of Sudanese airspace
time Mahdism. Wearing t h ei r t r ad i ti o na l u ni fo rm o f overflights by Western powers'
In 1964 their chance finally ar short tunic, knee-length breeches veillance planes. It s ee m s t he v ar
rived. Following y ea rs o f p ol it ic al an d loosely wound turban w it h o ne e m ba ss i es d e ci d ed we were al l
turmoil, d ur in g w hi ch c on tr ol of Su en d dangling free, they drilled an d pendable a nd t ho ug ht it enoug
da n changed hands several times, prepared for th e order to strike. leave ou r fates in th e hands of A
there wa s an all-out effort by the When it came they w er e r ea dy . The Merciful.
northern a nd s ou th er n intelligentsia Crossing th e Nile o ne S un da y even- - D.]. Co

Movers & Shakers. .. rigged with a primitive bomb r

With it s 75 horsepower engin
c o ul d c ar ry a pilot, a bombardier

Aerial Mercenaries in Mexico three 3 0 lb. bombs to a range of

miles. Masson an d hi s bombard
observer, Capt. Jouquin Alca
Th e airplane came of ag e as a th e problems Mexican federal forces became th e pioneers of aerial b
weapon of w a r d ur in g th e l a te r y ea rs ha d wi t h r a il r oa d s a bo t ag e an d rebel bardment.
of World War I. But just a few years a mb us he s o f their trains, an d des T he r eb el forces w ere moving
earlier in the s ki es o ve r Mex ic o, a c ri be d h ow p la ne s c ou ld " st ar t o ut th e federal ba se at Guayamas on
group of daredevil mercenary pilots ahead of a train, fly over th e track, Gulf of California. Th e port w as
h elp ed p io ne er s om e of th e now an d r ec o nn o it er t he threatened dis tected by t hr ee g un bo at s, th e G
standard concepts of a ir w ar fa re : trict a nd r ep or t in time for th e train rero, More/os an d Tampico, th e
aerial reconnaissance, b om bi ng a nd to t u r n back," t h u s foiling any f ro m w hi ch ha d repulsed every r
dogfighting. p la nn ed a mb us he sb y t he rebels. He assault to that time. Masson's
In 1912 Mexico w as in th e throes also commented on th e role of aerial Alcalde's jo b was to b om b the
of civil w ar, t hi s ti me between th e bombing, though he also realized boats.
government (federal) forces of Vic pilots untrained in t h e p a rt i c ul a rs of On 30 t ay 1 91 3, th e tw o m
toriano Huerta an d a collection of such wo rk c ou l d no t be d e pe n de d o n took of f to ma ke h i st o ry 's f i rs t a
r eb el f ac ti on s l ed b y V en us ti an Car to drop explosives w it h any accura bom b attack o n w a rs hi ps . T he
ranza, Pancho Villa and Emiliano cy. ora came in at 2,500 feet over
Zapata. Flying machines w er e s ti ll T he r eb el f or ce s also recognized Guerrero, flying through a hai
something of a n ov el ty an d th e for t he a d va n ta g es of aircraft, and in ineffective gunfire f ro m t he g un b
eign aviators who d em o n s t r at ed 1913 sent tw o officers across th e But th e bombs were equally ine
t he ir c ra ft in air s h ow s g r ea tl y im border into California on a recruiting tive; all m is se d, o nl y s pl as hi n g w
pressed Mexican officers. Farsighted mission. They m et a French-born on th e boat's deck. A s ec on d t ry
leaders on both sides saw th e mili A m er ic an , D i di e r M as so n , then an following d ay a lso failed, bu t
t ar y p o te n ti a l of th e still-frail craft i n st ru c to r a t th e Glenn Martin Flying tim e th e f r i g h t en ed b o a t c
an d sought ou t American pilots. School near Los Angeles. Th e adven jumped o ve rb oa rd . O n t he third
Among th e gringo p il ot s t o fly for turous p ilo t sig ned o n for $300 a t he S on or a c ra sh ed o n take of f
t he f ed er al s wa s John Hector War month plus $50 for ea ch r ec on mis wa s p u t out of action f or s ev
den. T he M oisant company originally sio n a nd $ 25 0 fo r e ac h b om b run. weeks while spare parts w ere sm
sent hi m to Mexico City as an exhibi Th e rebels also purchased a $5,000 gled in f ro m t he States.
tion pilot to demonstrate their air Martin pusher plane for hi s use. After m ak in g t he repairs, ano
craft. O nce there, he quickly impres Get t i ng the p lan e in to Mexico bombing a t t e m p t was m ade. T
se d t he o ff ic er s o f H u er ta 's army, posed a problem when, in t ry in g t o time Masson achieved a near mis
some of w ho m r ec ru it ed h im as a s mu gg le i t a cr os s t he A ri zo na border th e Guerrero. Then, on 4 A ugust,
p i l o t w ith th e r an k o f c a p t a i n . in a t ru ck , M as s on ' s m e ch a ni c wa s pilot revised h is ta ct ics , g oi n
Throughout 1912, Warden flew pat d et ai ne d b y a suspicious local sher lower at 2,000 feet with h i s me c
rols a nd r ec o nn a is sa n ce m i ss io ns iff. T hey go t th e ma n out of that fix ic substituting as bombardier. In
a g ai n st t h e rebels. by bribing an d then r ec r ui t in g t h e middle of th e bomb ru n t he e n
He returned to th e US an expert in sheriff's deputy (who eventually rose quit. Masson j et ti so ne d t he b o
anti-guerrilla ai r war wh o strongly to th e rank of m ajor in the rebel an d glided h is s tr ic ke n p la ne a c
a d vo c at ed t he us e of a ir pl an es f or army). th e ba y to a landing behind frie
military reconnaissance and coun Once in Mexico, Masson's pusher lines. T he re t he y d is co ve re d
terinsurgency operations. He noted wa s chri st ened th e "Sonora," and u n e x p l o d e d bomb, caught on

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arming cord, ha d trailed behind th e closely side by side, exchanging pis p ai gn ed i ts wa y a lo ng th e rail
plane a l ~ th e way in. to l shots without effect. of northern Mexico. For th e A
After that close call, an d finding They pulled apart t o r el oa d, then i ca n m er ce na ri es i t proved a ha
th e engine d a ma g ed b ey o nd repair, exchanged mor e s hot s . After another ing, but surprisingly bloodles
Masson t u rn e d i n his resignation an d reload and ineffectual exchange of venture. Only on e pilot, Frank
went home. Clearly, aerial bombing fire, they disengaged, their ammuni actually suffered so much as a
techniques ha d a long w ay s ti ll t o go. tion exhausted. Lamb returned to a wound in th e leg from a f ed er a
At about t he sa me time another hero's welcome from t he r eb el p op u le t d ur in g o ne mission.
A m er ic a n a v ia t or joined th e r eb el lace w ho'd witnessed t he h is to ri c T hose A mer i cans also even
cause a nd s oo n participated in what e n co u nt e r f r om below. R ad er n e ve r drifted homeward, many fe d up
wa s probably history's first aerial reappeared t he re , c ho os in g t he re  th e hazar ds of b o t h friendly

dogfight.
old, h a d Dean
made Evan
hisLamb,
w ay as o27-year
u t h in a ft er to
Thus fly o
Lamb wnl
ony si nomet
u n op p osof
hing ed askies.
s tr a enemy
tions anfire, generally
d a rr ea But thc
rs i n pay.lousy
1913, where he was hired on person tegic victory i n h is to ry 's f ir st aerial el f or ce s p r ev a il ed w ithout t
ally by Pancho Villa. Legend ha s it he dogfight. C a rr an z a c a pt u re d M ex ic o C
p un ch ed t he famous ban dito in the Early in 1914 th e r eb el air f or ces 1914; Pancho Villa went on to
mouth to prove he ha d th e guts to achieved another first in aviation greater notoriety, an d some o
fly f or h im . history when t he y w er e joined by an American pilots w en t on to
M ea nw hi le a federal Christoffer American e ng i ne er , L es te r Barlow. deadlier foes in th e skies ove
so n biplane, flown by American mer He c re at ed w ha t h e called a "tactical torn Europe. Still, fo r all their
c en ar y, P hi l R ad er , had been har w ar a ir pl an e unit." I t was actually a t ra ti on s, t h os e m er ce na ri es op
a ss in g r eb e l forces fo r two months. portable airbase on rails, consisting t he hi st ory of aerial warfare.
Lamb, armed with a r ev ol ve r, w as of a lo co mo tiv e, b o x ca rs , sleeping - Hans vo n Stockh
s en t u p after hi m in a Curtiss pusher cars an d flatcars, etc. Together they SOURCES
plane. Above th e rebel town of Naco, housed American pilots, a machine Seagrave, Sterling. Soldiers o
though, it wa s Rade r who f irst s po t s ho p, a bomb magazine, an d a num tune. Alexandria, VA: Time
te d Lamb. Coming in from above, he ber o f aircraft an d automobiles. Villa 1981.
opened fire with hi s revolver, scor d es ig na te d i t t he "Aviation Division Dupey, R. Ernest an d Trevor M
ing a hit in Lamb's wing. Lamb pull o f t he Army of th e North." Harper Encyclopedia o f Mi
ed up an d go t of f a shot just missing The r eb el s used th e Aviation Div History, 4t h ed. New York: H
R ad er 's p ro pe ll er . The tw o then flew i s i o n to g oo d e ff ec t, as i t cam- Collins Pubs., 1993.

Movers & Shakers. .. sive position wa s across from

ton, ew Jersey. Th e next cro
was e ig ht m il es n or th of T rent
The Unheralded Soldier Who Mckonkey's Ferry (now Washi
Crossing, P e nn s yl v an ia ) . T h e
flank, commanded by Lord Sti
Saved the American Revolution wa s still farther north at Cor
Ferry (now New Hope, Pennsylva
Washington ha d visited Stir
I t wa s a bitterly cold n ig ht . T he th e colonies in two along th e H u ds o n position at Coryell's earlier tha
wind, funnelling down th e river val River valley. On 27 August th e Brit I t was a s tr on g r e do u bt on to p
ley from the north, turned th e rain i sh e nt er ed th e city. By 1 6 N ov em  hill behind th e local s ch o ol h
into a driving sleet that stung expos ber, after American defeats at White From it, Stirling c ou ld c on tr o
e d sk in a n d fo r c e d a raw cold Plains an d Fo rt W a sh in gto n, all of ferry crossing; bu t if th e British
t hr ou gh t he layers of clothing worn New Jersey lay open to t he r edcoat s . barded from the h e ig h ts a cr o s
by the m en s tr ug gl in g a ga in st t he Retreating before a British/Hes river, th e go od p eo ple of Cor
river current. In the bow were tw o sian force of 6,000 commanded by would d ou bt le ss s oo n n ee d a
soldiers of Coryell's Militia, musket Howe's lieutenant, Maj. Gen. Charles school.
b re e ch es w r ap p ed against th e wet. Cornwallis, Washington went south, With b o at s unavailable to
On t he st eer in g o ar w as Capt. John crossing th e Delaware River o n 8 British, Washington should h av
Coryell himself, straining through December. He established a ne w def relatively safe. Th e enemy cou
t he b la ck ne ss to glimpse th e light ensive line intended to protect Phila cr oss the riv er in force u nle
from the F er ry H ot el that marked d e lp h ia . F ea ri ng C or nw al li s would froze completely, improbable
t heir l andi ng site on th e New Jersey pur sue, W as hington gathered all th e no t unheard of) at t ha t time of
s h or e o p po s it e . Amidships, alone, bo ats on the J erse y side an d had Of fa r g r ea t er c o nc e rn wa s in
wrapped in a cloak a ga in st t he ele them m ov ed t o th e opposite b an k a t gence information that h a d r ea
ments, sa t George Washington. a point south of th e Trenton Ferry. hi m earlier in th e week from Sti
The year 17 76 ha d no t been good That decision proved to be unfortu That officer's men had captu
to Was hington's a rm y. W he n th e nate and wa s th e reason why, less grenadier from th e British Innis
Second Continental Congress passed than a w ee k l at er , th e c o mma nd e r o f R e gi me nt wh o to ld th em t h a
th e D ec la ra ti on o f I nd e pe n de n ce , th e Continental Army was recrossing f ro m r es ti ng on hi s laurels, "C
King George III finally r ea li ze d t he th e river i nt o e ne my territory. wallis w it h a bo ut 6,000 me n w
A m e ri c an c o lo n ie s were s e r i o u s Washington's defenses were con Pennington, New J e rse y [n o rth
about their rebellion, an d he there centrated at t he f ou r ferry crossings of Trenton), waiting for pontoo
fore launched a highly trained an d within reach of Cornwallis' troops. come up w ith whic h he m e a
well supplied force under Maj. Gen. His right f la nk w as anchored on th e pass th e river at Coryell's Ferry."
William Howe against New York. The f er ry o p po si t e present da y Borden Stirling's in forma tio n ma d e
plan was to seize that city and cut t ow n, New J er se y. Th e main defen- Washington's position wa s in

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treme peril. His forces numbered he m ay have made the p e r s o n a l were th e well known "Durham
only ab o u t 2,500, with that to tal acquaintance of th e general. Som e boats" built to haul s m el te d i ro
growing smaller each day as dispirit historians have suggested th e two down to Phila de lphia from t he fur
e d me n d es er ted t he r an ks. In addi were fraternally bound, both being naces Robert D u rh a m l o ca t ed jus
tion, a considerable number of en Free Masons. s ou th o f Easton. Measuring 60 fee
listments would e xpire on th e first Bray ha s also been d es cr ib ed as a i n l en gt h with an eight foot beam
of th e year, further reducing hi s "farmer an d a waterman," though t h ey c ar ri ed 20 tons bu t we re des
force unles s he could persuade those not much is known ab o u t hi s ex igned with a shallow draft enablin
me n to continue the fight. ploits o n the Delaware. He came them to ply the river rapids. Thes
What Washington needed was a from hardy stock. His father, who were the size of b o a t needed t
victory to inspire no t only hi s sol single-handedly c ar ve d t he Bray expeditiously ferry an army ac ro s
diers bu t t h e p o li t ic i an s an d busi farmstead fr om the wild co un tr y of the river.
nessmen who bankrolled t he ar my. Kingswood Township, was well Bray's me n were no t typical coun
Hi s opportunity came when h e known as the result of an encounter tr y bumpkins, bu t skilled boatmen
lea rned the Hes sian c an to nm en ts a t with a bla ck bear that took exception The river above Coryell's Ferry flow
Trenton an d Bordentown each held to his clearing we ed s o ne day. T he an average of s even m iles pe r hou
about 1 ,5 00 m en , a manageable elder Bray killed the bruin using only To guide t he m at night, b etw ee
number for the Americans to engage. a hoe. Apparently Danie l Bray was rocks an d through r ap ids , was a di
More importantly, Washington also equally well thought of as a man ficult an d hazardous task requirin
d isco v ered t ho se g a rr is o ns were who got things done an d one famil considerable skill. The me n accom
unsupported by the m ain British ia r with th e river. Washington ha d plished the ir m is sion by 20 Decem
fo rc es a t Penington an d Princeton, c on fi de nc e t he young m an c ou ld ber, hiding at lea st 16 D urham boa
an d t ha t the Hessian commander at steal sufficient boats from north of an d another 10 or so assorted cra
Trenton, Col. johann RaIl, scorned C or ye ll 's F er ry to move a n e nti re behind Malta Island, just south o
American soldiers to th e extent he army. Coryell's. In those days that thickl
declined to fortify the village. Bray would undertake the mission woode d island lay betwe en the mai
With that, Washington conceived with a force from Kingswood, all river channel an d the jersey shore
the plan of a surprise attack on th e familiar with the river an d boats. He making the boats invisible to Britis
Hessian garr isons w ith th e hope of split his me n into three groups, com sco u ts. Today th e island is littl
reviving a c au se s om e historians m anding one him self, the other two more than a memory.
have described as being "all bu t lost" led by Capts. j ac ob G ea rh ar t a nd History doesn't record if Bra
at t ha t time. The s chem e called for a Thomas jones. h i ms e lf m a de t he C h ri st ma s nigh
crossing of the Delaware at McKon- But the jo b was no t nearly as sim crossing. New Englanders from Ma
key's Ferry a fter d ark o n Christmas ple as it might sound. After the earli blehead an d local ferrymen manne
day, a f as t m ar ch to T re n to n a nd a er evacuation there w ere few boats t he b oa ts . We know he wa s at th
s u rp r is e a tt ac k before d ay lig h t. remaining in New jersey, so Bray ha d Battle of T re nt on only b ec au se o f a
(McKonkey's was undefended, allow to g at he r t he m from the Pennsyl obscure document filed yea rs late
in g fo r an orderly crossing.) How vania side. Obviously it was impera by his wife, Mary, when she claime
ever, Washington face d th e same tive the Christmas crossing be kept a he r widow's pension from t he gov
problem above Trenton as d id Corn secret; but th e s ma l l r iv er villages ernment. In that d oc um en t s he a
wallis - no boats. They were all to north of Coryell's Ferry were known t es ts h er husband participated a
t he s ou th , an d he didn't dare m ove to be thick with Loyalists who would Tr en to n. I t' s al so k no wn Bray even
them upriver for fear of revealing his quickly r epor t unusual activity to the tually a tt ai ne d t he rank of genera
plan. British. The road between Coryell's fighting at many Revolutionary Wa
So it was that George Washington an d Easton, Pennsylvania (now State battles including Yorktown.
me t that night with one of the un R oute 32), which ra n t hr ou g h t ho se Bray's unsheathed sword was b
su ng a nd nearly unknown h er oe s o f villages is much th e same t oday as i t itself o f l it tl e c onse que nce a mon
the American Revolution, Capt. Dan was then - a narrow track along the th e thousands wh o fought at th
i el Br ay of the Kingswood Militia. r iv er w in di ng b e n e a t h rock pal Battle of Trenton, bu t t hi s o b sc u r
(Kingswood Township, New jersey, isades. It wasn't pos sible for Bray to hero, t ru st ed a nd challenged greatl
was an d is still today located a few march up that r oa d w it ho ut being on that d ar k a nd d an ge ro us rive
miles north of the village on th e discovered. He struck inland above b efo re t he b at tl e, d id i nd ee d show
jersey side of Coryell's Ferry, no w the palisades befor e moving north, himself great. In so doing h e wa
known a s L a mb e rt s vi ll e .) Bray is sending his me n do wn to t he river at instrumental i n saving a cau se an d
d es cr ib ed i n on e of the few d oc u night to make of f with th e needed nation.
m en ts t ha t exist about h im as being boats. - Bernard E. Grad
"o f st ri king a ppe a ra nce an d digni Aside from the dange r of encoun SOURCES
fied in hi s bearing ... a very large tering British patrols o r u n fr ie n dl y Bray, Stacy B. A Sketch o f Danie
man, no t very tall, but powerfully Tories, th e trip wa s no pleasure Bray. Flemington, Nj: Hunterdo
built with a ra the r promi nent nose jaunt. Bray was forced to move the County Historical Society, nd.
an d generous ears." 60 miles or so o n foot through dense Deats, Hiram E. Unpublished notes
Those ears m u s t have b u r n e d woods, a l a nd s ca pe f re qu en tl y c u t tw o volumes. Flemin g to n , Nj
when Washington assigned hi m th e t he n a nd now by steep, rocky ravines Hunterdon County Historical Soc
m is sion of gathe ring the boats need w it h swift, d ee p streams flowing at iety, nd.
ed to ferry th e army across the t he b ot to m. In other pla ce s the tre es Snell, james P. History o f Hunterdo
Delaware. thinned i nt o g re at b ou ld er s tr ew n an d Somerset Counties, Ne w Jer
Why Was hington s elec te d Bray is fields - rocks deposited in a mad sey. Philadelphia, 1881.
a matter of debate. Bray was scarcely dening jumble b y s om e p re hi st or ic Swan, H. Kels. Senior Historic Pres
24 year s old. As a captain wi th t he geologic event. ervation Specialist, Washingto
Kingswood volunteer militia he ha d The boats they sought were no t Crossing State Park, Titusville, N
seen action around New York, where small and e a sil y ma nage a bl e , b u t (talks).
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COMMAND MAGAZINE 15
5/12/2018 Comma nd Ma ga z ine #040 - slide pdf.c om

Behind th e Lines. . .

Hitler's Army fea Guns for the Union

tures a unique
blend of graphics
and text that I t's well k no wn the mater ial supe required time to tool up f or
brings a fresh riority of the Union d ur in g th e scale product ion. Thus Washi
approach to the American C iv il W ar c o n t ri b u t e d wa s willing t o purchase rifles
development of greatly to the Northern victory. Less virtually an y willing source
the German Army well known ar e t h e l o gi st ic a l an d many unscrupulous speculator
of the Third procurement pr obl em s fa ced by t he entrepreneurs took advantage
Reich. With arti U ni on A rm y Ordinance Bureau in situation to price gouge an d de
cles drawn from bringing that superiority to bea r, As domestic stocks were ex
all the past issues especially in the area of small arms. ed , th e Administration turn
of Command To st ar t, m an y o f th e p ro blem s Europe as a sourc e for weapon
Magazine, the charts, tables of organiza encountered were internal. When the 1862 over $1 0 million ha d
tion and maps illustrate the structural war broke out, th e B ur ea u was un spent there to p ur ch ase what t
evolution of the most intensely studied derstaffed, lacking both qualified or out to be a mot ley vari ety of
army of the twentieth century. dinance officers an d trained inspec 700,000 rifles. Even that effor
397 pages, 13 photos & 74 maps and t ors . The newly appointed Chief of bungled as t he government ha
diagrams. $29.95 + $3.00 S&H Ordinance, Brig. Gen. James W. Rip cent ral ized or coordi nat ed pro
ley, was t he re spe ct ed , i f uni magin ment policy. Washington, as w
Order direct from Command and receive ative an d conservative, officer faced t he v ar io us states and even
a copy of the book signed by the editors. w it h t he f or mi da bl e task of equip private arms brokers, all sent
Command Magazine ping th e armies of th e North with own p u rc h as i ng a ge nt s to Eu
small arms. They o ft en co mp et ed an d
PO Box 4017
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ACTION AT were smoothbore muskets, perhaps

half of which were unserviceable.
sul in London, F.H. Morse, arra
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civilian superintendent there sho uld

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Historical Perspective. . .

The Other Battles of

Thermopylae
The pass of Thermopylae ("Hot shower of G re ek a rr ow s . Bre
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most renowned battlefields in all of s ome 40,000 infantry and 800 h
history. The heroic self-sacrifice of into the Aetolian interior, prom
King Leonidas a nd his 300 S par ta ns th e Aetolian troops to leave
against Xerxes' i nv ad in g P e rs i an allies to protect their homes.
army in 48 0 BC forms one of the Th e remaining Galatians f
great pivotal moments in the course th e same mountain route th e
of Western history. But that famous sians h ad u se d two centuries e
clash was no t the only one f ou gh t in 40,000 of them charged out o
that narrow pass in ancient times. morning mist, surprising th e
Two o th er i m po rt an t b at tl es were k ian p icke ts ther e. The Greek
resolved in that defile on the coast to abandon t he p as s, retreati
road to Athens. their various ci ti es t o make s
The first occasion on which two behind the walls.
armies struggled to cross the pass T he C el ts thus won the se
after Leonidas' stand was in the win Battle of Thermopylae, but the
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we're no t exactly sure when), an d in Yet another Battle of Thermo
280 a h ug e t ribal con fed er at io n, l ed took place in 191 BC, during the
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by Chief Brennos, stormed over t he p ha se o f the Antiochean War, f
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18
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Knowing there wa s at least on e

flanking trail through the mountains
by which the Romans c ou ld r ea ch
his rear, Antiochus sent 2,000 Aeto
lian light infantry to guard the range
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l ~ U j ~ 1 1 l ~ U j l!lI[
m l ~ ! ~ 1 1
The Campailn in Xarthern Mexica
by Richard A. Pfoat

In th e mid-1840's, America was energetically on th e s o ut h we s te r n q u ar te r of th e contin

exp an ding acr oss the con tinent. T ha t b ro ug ht th e Texas, C a li fo rn ia a n d th e lands between. O
young nation i nt o c on fl ic t w it h tw o powerful own ed entir ely b y Mexico, the area ha d been
empires. To the n or th , Britain con tr olled the trans cult to administer given the distan ce from
c ontine nta l colony of Canada a nd coveted the Mexican h ea rt la nd a n d the conv ulsion s w ithin
Oregon territory. Farther south, America ha d eyes government the newly independent nation.
The road to the Mexican War led through T
Since the 1820's, Texas ha d been settled by inc
ing n um be rs o f Americans. In 1835, dissatisfa
with Mexican administration boiled over into
lution. The defeat of the invading Mexican forc
Sa n Jacinto g av e T ex as h e r i nd e pe nd e nc e .
Mexico reasserted her claim to the area, r esulti
a number of clashes between regular an d irreg
troops of both sides.
To gain security, Texas politicians discussed
nexa ti on by the Uni ted States. This r equ ir ed t
pre-requisites; 1) approval by the United States
ernment; 2) approval by the Republic of Texas
ernment; an d 3) r esolutio n o f claims w ith the
ican go vern ment. A vote again st ann ex atio n by
United States Senate in 1 83 8 k illed an initia
tempt. As a r esult, Texas initiated con tact w ith
British in 1843. The threat of pro-English Texas
a British controlled Pacific orthwest caused im
diate c onc e r n i n t he U ni ted Sta tes. T he re
President John Tyler resumed the Texas annex
p ro cess. However, in 1844 it was again v oted d
by the Senate, who feared war with Mexico.
In November of 1844, James K. Polk was ele
p re si de nt o n a p latf or m that included the ann
tio n o f Texas. However, the "lame duck" Tyler
no t through. Based o n c on ce rn that if Texas

n o t a nne
enough xe d soon
support t he Bto
i n Texas ri tis h w
vote ou ld gene
against ent e
the Union, he actively lobbied the American pe
Congress, the Texans, an d the Mexican governm
Annexa ti on came to frui ti on wi th t he pa ss age
joint Congressional r es ol ut io n o n 1 March 1
thr ee days b ef or e Polk too k office. I t remained
th e ne w pr e side nt to see ho w Texas or Me
would react to the annexation.
As the new P resident ha d ru n his election
platform encou raging the inclu sion o f Texas
the United States, h e was no t going to let Mexic
Britian ge t in t he way. He also actively sough
opportunity to obtain the New Mexico an d C
William Bliss, Taylor's military aide an d future son-in-law, stand ornia territories if negotiation or purchase allo
ing beside his commander in this 1847 daguerrotype. Attempts to negotiate with Mexico were rebuffe
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th e unstable Paredes government. A critical unre In Matamoros, Maj. Gen. Mariano Arista had
solved problem was the unspecified location for the 5,000 me n of th e Mexican "Army of th e North".
souther n boundar y of Texas; the Mexicans claimed Arista's force included th e crack Tampico Coast
it was t he Nueces River, while t he Te xans h eld it Guard Battalion, 2n d Light Regiment, th e 1st, 4th,
was 135 miles fa rt he r south at the Rio Grande. To 6th an d 10th Line Regiments, General Torrejon's
suppo'rt the Texan claim, Polk ordered troops into lancers, consisting of the 7th an d 8t h Cavalry,
the disputed area. Mexico City Line Cavalry Regiment, an<;l a battalion
of Zapadores (Sappers). A m aj or it y o f t hi s force
Show of Force w ere raw c o ns c ri p ts , i n a de q ua t e ly trained an d
In April 1845, the US 3rd Infantry Regiment an d poorly supplied.
a portion of the US 4 th I nf an tr y R eg im en t were Taylor's supply line required constant patrolling,
ordered from Jefferson Barracks in Missouri down and it wa s along this route th e f i rs t h os t il i ti e s
the Mississippi River to Fort Jessup, Louisiana. They occur red. On 24-25 April 1846, a 6 3- man patrol of
were j oi ne d there by elements of t he US 2n d Dra- American dragoons under Capt. Seth Thornton was
goons. This force was ti tl ed t he "Corps of Obser taken by 1,600 Mexican cavalry under Gen. Anas
vation" and comm anded by Brevet Brig. Gen. Zach tasio Torrejon, who ha d crossed th e Rio Grande
ary Taylor. His orders were to maintain his 1,200 River. Taylor immediately s en t w or d to President
me n ready to march "at short notice t o any p oi nt i n Polk and pr epared for defensive operations.
the United States or Texas."
In June, Taylor's corps was ordered into Texas to War Begins
protect it from Mexican reprisals, reaching Corpus With the initiation of hostilities an d the return of
Christi on the Neuces by August. Other units ha d special peace envoy Slidell, President Polk request
b ee n a dd ed to th e force, so that by mid-October ed Congress declare war on Mexico. Congressional
Taylor commanded the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th, an d 8th support was overwhelming - 173-14 i n t he House
Infantry Regiments, twelve companies of artillery
armed as infantry, three light ar tiller y batteries,
seven companies of the 2n d Dragoons, an d a com
pany o f Texas Rangers. The 3,922 me n assembled Taylor's Route
were nearly half of the entire U.S. Army at the time;
only four regiments were left to patrol the Cana to Buena Vista
dian Border an d the 1,500 mile Indian frontier.
I t was t he f ir st time in nine years whole regi o
ments ha d been tog ether as a single unit. They ha d o
little experience as regimental sized units for drill
or organization. The senior officers ha d little o r no
experience handling larger formations, an d all were
"of age;" Taylor was 61, second-in-command Brig.
Gen. Wi ll ia m] . Wort h was 52, while br ig ade com
m an de rs a n d leading subordinates ranged from 55
to 66. c e r r a 7 v o c amargo
The Texas situation degenerated quickly toward
war. Understanding the security of American state ~ M a r i n
hood, on 13 October 1845 th e Texas Congress II/- :::
_ · _ - - < = ' ~ ~ v
voted to a pp ro ve t he annexation by the United ( ) . ~

States. Renewed diplomatic attempts were initiated

by the Un ited S tates in hope o f averti ng war wi th
Mexico. These were rebuffed in November when the Saltillo

t
Mexican government refused t o a cc ept th e Amer
ican m in is te r J oh n Slidell. On 29 D ecember 1845, Buena Vista
Polk sig ned the law annexing Texas. On 3 F ebr uary
1 84 6, Gen. Tay lo r an d th e Army of Obse rva t ion Agua Nueva 'N

were o rd er ed to the Rio Grande.

• Encarnacion
Initial Clashes • Victoria
Taylor arrived at the Rio Grande on 28 March.
Establishing
Mexican town hi sofforces a cro ss Initial
Matamoros. t he river fro m was
contact th e
made with the Mexican authorities who maintained
t he A me ri ca n advance to the Rio G ra nd e wa s an
invasion and would be dealt w i th m i li t ar i ly .
Un certain as to the nature or potential of a Mexican
response, Taylor se t about consolidating his posi
tion an d establishing a line of supply back to the
Gulf at Point Isabel, 26 miles to the east.
To demonstrate American resolve, he ha d an
earthwork fortification built a cr os s f ro m Mata
mor os. Known initially as F or t Texas an d l at er as
Fort Brown, the five sided fortification ha d walls 15
feet thick an d 9 feet high. A bastion w as e st ab
l is hed i n eac h corner, eac h manned by an artillery
battery.
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of Representatives, 40-2 in th e Se nat e - an d th e th e t ro op s s uc h t ha t Arista never really conso

war was official on 11 May. It was g en er al ly a dm it  ed his command.
ted th e C on gr es sio na l vote d id n o t r e p r e s e n t The American "foot cavalry" covered th e n
approval for th e goals of th e wa r but support for 30 miles between th e Rio Grande an d Point Isab
th e p re s id e nt a nd t he m il it ar y as hostilities had less than 24 hours. Relieved hi s base of supply
already begun. But t he d e cl ar at io n had another secure, Taylor se t about constructing another e
impact, shaking Britain i nto pe ac e ful ne got ia t ion of work,"Fort Polk," to protect th e port from Me
th e Oregon territory p ro bl em . A treaty was signed attack. The next day, Taylor could h ea r t he sta
on 15 June 1846 e s ta b li s hi ng t he US n o r t h e r n th e b om b a rd m en t a t Fort Texas. He sen t
boundary along t he 4 9t h parallel an d ceding all of Walker an d hi s Texas Rangers back to th e
Vancouver I sl an d t o t he British. Grande to se e if t he f or t could hold. On th e

Taylor
supply liner e ma i ne
to th e dcoa
c onc
st. eHe
rnerdecabout
eiv ed pr
a ot e ct ireport
false ng hi s tance ofreturned
Walker confirming
th e 7th Regiment. t h e dcay
Two onstilate r, gsur
nu in
stating hi s s u pp ly d e po t at Point Isabel ha d been wagons full, Gen. Taylor c omm e nce d t he return
attacked. Leaving th e 7th Regiment ("Cotton Balers" with h is 2 ,2 00 m en .
from Battle of New Orleans) an d tw o batteries at The following day, a f te r m a rc hing 18 miles
th e river under th e command of Maj. Jacob Brown, army approached a p on d a nd grove of t re e s kn
he marched north with th e bulk of h is f or ce on 1 as Palo Alto. T he re t he y found Arista's a rmy .
May to escort his 300 w ago n s up pl y t ra in f ro m th e p os it io n c ho se n b y Arista wa s generally flat
gulf to M at am or os . The Ame ri ca n Arm y was ready scattered small ponds a mo ng a re as of heavy c
for a brawl, as th e r eg ul ar s wer e a nx io us t o d em on  a rr al . The roadway skirted to t he s ou th we st a
strate t hei r s upe r ior c omba t ability b ef or e t he a rm y th e chaparral a ro un d a n opening containing a
wa s di lut ed w it h volunteers. growth of g ra ss f ou r t o five f ee t h ig h. Thi s a ll
a full view of the American army as i t a dv a
Palo Alto along t he r oadw ay an d ou t into th e opening.
O rd er s f ro m Mexico City d irected Arista to Arista se t hi s army in a double line exten
a tt ac k t he Americans as Taylor ha d feared. Leaving across th e r oa d a nd to th e east fo r n ea rl y a mi
a s ma ll f or ce in Matamoros under Col. Meija, Arista was anchored on t he w es t flank b y s wa mp an
l e d a ppr oxi ma t el y 3,700 m en e as t be for e c r os s ing th e east by a tree-covered hill. Deployed from
th e Rio Grande R iver. He pl a nne d to fl an k t he hill to th e r o a d were a cavalry sq u ad ro n ,
Americans, cu t their supply line, an d a tt ac k t h em pounder cannon, th e Zapadores, 2n d Light, C
from th e rear with superior numbers. He led a con Guards, a b at te ry o f five 4 pounders, then th e
fident army, bu t on e t ha t h ad a fatal c ance r in it s 6th an d 10th Line. Across th e r oa d to th e sw
c o mm an d s t ru c tu r e. Jealous of hi s commander, was t he r e ma i nde r o f t he Mexican cavalry.
Gen. Ampudia s p re ad r um o r an d di sc our s e a m ong Th e A me ri ca ns w er e a ll ow ed to move of

The American Army

INFANTRY May 1846 and J ul y 1 84 8, of whom 30,954 made
Until the second half of the 20th c e nt ury, A m er i ca n c om ba t. Of t he se, 9 30 died in combat, 4,899 du e to
military policy had manfested an extreme distrust of a dent or disease; 2,745 received non-fatal wounds,
large standing army, preferring to rely on militia, volun 2,554 were invalided out. Desertion accounted f or a n
t e e rs a nd a ra pi d e xp an sio n o f the reg ular arm y in er 5,331.
wartime. Though small, th e US Army was well trained at Most infantrymen were armed with e it he r t he M
th e company level an d generally well led: since May 1816, 1835 flintlock muske t or th e Model 1842 percus
all vacant officer positions were to be filled with West musket. B ot h w ere .69 c ali be r smoothbore muzzle-l
Point graduates. But, as was brought to light during the er s 58 inches long an d w ei gh in g 1 0 p o un d s. S t an
Second Seminole War in 1835, it was undermanned, poor ammunition c on si st ed o f a roundball an d two buck
ly supplied, an d distributed among m or e t ha n 100 fron inside a paper c a rt ri dge w i th an effective range of
tier an d coastal forts. Units larger than a s in gl e company 1 00 y ar ds . Some units carried th e ne w Model 1841
rarely drilled together. firing a .54 caliber round ball accurately to 500 yards
I n 1838, Congress o rd er ed t he Army r ai se d t o 12,500 VOLUNTEERS
men. Among these were eight infantrYTegiments, actually On 13 May 1 84 6, th e da y th e wa r was d ec la re d,
single b a tt al io ns o f 10 c om p an ie s o f 81 m e n each. re que st e d 50,000 m en fro m th e states fo r eithe
Following European practice, two of the companies were month duty or for t he d ur at io n. T he state militias
designated light an d grenadier, but in th e field all w er e a ls o c al le d up fo r sixc months. Six d ay s l at er , th e
trained an d equipped identically. D e pa rtm e nt issue d a more specific request to 10 s
At t he i ni ti at io n o f host i li t ie s w i th Mexico, Congress fo r 17 re g im e n ts to ta llin g 13,208 volunteers. Th e
approved th e raising of r e gula r t r oop levels to 17,800. A ponse w as o v er w he l mi n g; som e states, am ong t
few of the ne w me n were to i ncr e as e c ompa ny strength Mississippi, protested because they ha d far more vo
to 100, b u t most of them w en t i nt o ne w formations, teers than were requested, while Illinois supplied 14
including th e 9th through 16th Infantry Regiments, an d ments, te n more t ha n h er quota. Th e Army accepted
th e Regiment o f Voltigeurs an d Foot Riflemen. In th e latter 18 regiments, f our ba tt a li ons an d 8 companies of vo
unit, a f oo t r if le ma n was to b e pai red with a dragoon, teer infantry.
with whom he would ride double b e t we e n b a tt l es . In Th e arms a nd u ni fo rm s o f t he v o lu n te e rs g en e
practice, th e unit fought a s i nf an tr y. All the new un its matched t ho se o f t he r eg ul ar s, w it h s om e ex cep ti
were to serve for th e d u ra tio n o f hostilities only. Jefferson Davis' Mississippians, for example, wore w
With enlistments spurred by a $7.50 b on us a nd th e canvas pants, b ri gh t r e d shirts a nd b ro ad b ri mm ed s
promise of f re e l an d, 4 2,85 7 joined th e Regulars between hats. More importantly, they were a rm ed w it h t he

22
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r oa d a nd deploy with no interference. Their supply

train was con centrated in the rear , g ua rd ed b y two
squadrons of dragoons. Taylor pu t his infantry line
w it h t he 8th Infantry on the east followed by th e
4th, 3rd, an d 5th. The ox-drawn 18-pounders were
placed on th e road near the center of the line. The
flanks were op, bu t each was protected by a flying
battery. ~ ~
In th e early afternoon, the nervous Americans
bega n a slow advance into their first bat tl e with a
foreign army since th e War of 1 81 2. At app ro xi
~ ~ \J c:J (j>
~ 4
mately 700 yards, the Mexican artillery opened fire. ~ ~ ~ .
T ha t t ri gg er ed t he A me ric an flying batteries to
move ou t f ro nt w here they p ro ceed ed to pour mur
d er ou s fire into the station ar y Mexican line. Arista
()tY~~'
ordered Torrejon's 1,000 cavalry to a tt ac k a ro u nd
t h e A me ri ca n eastern f lank. The US 5t h Infantry o ~ b t P \
quickly formed a square. With support fro m t he
fast moving light batteries, an d confusion in th e
Mexican ranks c au se d b y th e scattered chaparral,
', ~ I
8
II
7
-4 _10_6_ 1
.. .
tP\Cl I

Torrejon's attack was rebuffed.

Moving behind smoke from a grass fire to their
front, the American west flank rotated forward. The
Mexican line correspondingly r ot a te d b ac k in good
. V
,'i
,
#nfantry. -
Cavalry
Artillery.
US Mex

c:;;jjjjjjI COiiiI
r - - - -
Battle o f Palo A
- - - -

8 May, 1846
- - . . L - - '

order to maintain th e distance. But that l eft th e L j

Mexican east flank hanging, so the American flying

batteries moved forward to rake th e Mexican field an d with troops u nf ed , th e Mexican army
infantry. The American dragoons were ordered for retreated south.
ward to e xp lo it t he a rt il le ry fire, b ut Mexican
artillery drove them back after accomplishing noth Resaca de la Palma
ing. The f ig htin g c ont i nue d unt il 7:00 p.m., with A rista' s army cov ered h alf the sev en miles f ro m
both s id es sleeping o n th eir arms. The Mexican Palo Alto to th e Rio G rand e River. A ssumin g th e
army lost between 250 an d 500 men, while th e Americans ha d been d ef eated the p reviou s day, h e
Americans lost 55 killed an d wounded. The follow thought they would rest and not press th e larger
ing morning, leaving their wounded on the battle- Mexican force. He was d eter mined to k eep his rm y

ranged 1 84 1 r if le. Th e Volunteers w er e i ni ti al ly u ni  The May 1846 call f or v ol un te er s included five reg
f or me d b y th e states, w ith F ed er al reimbursement, b ut ments of cavalry t ot al li ng 3,945 men. Again due t o t
later acquired regular army uniforms. overwhelming response, six regiments w er e a cc ep t e
Though initially scorned by th e army, with training Like the volunteer infantry, training an d discipline we
an d experience the volunteers became as effective as the poor at first, bu t u nlik e the i n fa n tr y d id no t marked
Regulars. They certainly suffered as much: 711 died in imp ro ve d ur in g the war. Their p er fo rman ce v ar ied w i
combat, 6,256 more by accid en t o r disease, while 7,200 leadership an d experience.
were w ou nd ed a n d 2 ,5 54 w er e invalided out. In on e One u ni qu e g ro up o f v ol un te er horsemen were th
resp ect they outperformed th e Regulars: o nl y 3 ,8 76 Texas Rangers. These fearless frontier lawmen, dresse
deserted. in buckskins an d sporting Bowie knives, served with di
CAVALRY tinction in all th e major campaigns. During th e Buen
There was no US Cavalry u nt il t he 1 st R eg im en t o f Vista campaign, 61 Ran gers p ro vided Taylor h is escor
Dragoons was established in 1833. Thr ee years later the while t he 27 me n of Ben McCulloch's Spy Company pr
2n d Dragoons was formed, though they were dismounted vided the army's eyes an d ears.
in 1842 an d re-mounted i n 1844. With the outbreak of ARTILLERY
t he war, t he 3rd Dragoons an d the Regiment o f Mounted At the s tar t o f the war, the artillery con sisted of fo
Rifles (officially an infantry unit) were formed to serve for regiments, each consisting of c o as ta l d ef en se b a tt e ri
the duration. Each regiment ha d 10 companies o f 50 me n an d field u ni ts s ca tt er ed t hr ou gh o ut American territor

each.
They were armed with a heavy cavalry sabre an d either The appof
consist rox42imately 10 bu
privates, b atteries in each
t generally ha d rfewer.
eg imen t were
a c ut d ow n musket or a 0.52 ca li ber Model 1843 Hall One b at te ry p er regiment was designated as eith
breechloading carbine. Most also carried one or two pis "Light Artillery" or "Horse Artillery" (and known colloqu
tols, with the heavy 0.44 caliber Colt "Walker" revolvers ally as "Flying Batteries"), with a second organized aft
beginning to replace single shot muzzleloaders. th e war started. The artillerymen in t he l igh t batteri
Prior to the Mexican War, the d rago on r eg imen ts were rode mounted or on th e g u n c ai ss on s. Th e "horse
widely s c a t t e r e d amo n g western o u tp o st s, t ho ug h artillerymen all rode on horseback. The remaining batte
Stephen Kearny, commanding th e 1s t Dragoons, always ies in Mexico served as infantry.
kept four companies under h is d ir ect command. D uring Each battery generally consisted of six bronze smoot
th e war, with few exceptions, this pr actice continued, bore 6-pounders, an d incorporated c ap tu re d g un s w he
with dragoons limited to one or two company detach available. Though more lightly a rm ed t ha n the Mexic
ments fo r reconnaissance an d screening duties. They artillery, th e mobility an d aggressiveness d i sp l ay ed b
could no t provide the offensive punch of the large forma the "flying batteries" made them one of the decisive el
tions of Mexican lancers. ments on every battlefield of the war.

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between Taylor an d Fort Texas i n hop e the bom 200 feet wide, th e 4-foot depression was t ree
bar dment would d ef ea t t he i so la te d Americans brush lin ed . It wa s situated within an area of
there. In a dd it io n, h e remained confident in hi s chaparral separated by isolated p at ch es o f
ability to crush the smaller American relief force. ground. Th e roadway entered the top of th
Realizing the strength of the American artillery, from th e n o rt h we s t, b e nd i ng south an d ex
A rista c ho se a d efen sive p os itio n that contained a through t he b as e. A ri sta ha d positioned his
flattened "u" shaped d ep re ss io n. T his res ac a w as a o n b oth sides of the road in t he f ro nt an d re
cut-off remnant of the Rio Grande. Approximately the resaca.

The Mexican Army

After t he war of Ind ep en de nc e in 1 82 1, the Mexican fusilier companies to press t he attack. Due to tr a
a rmy was s ta ffed b y o ffice rs who ha d served the Spanish limitations, this ideal was rarely achieved.
crown. I t was o rg an iz ed a nd l ed in a E ur op ean style, bu t CAVALRY
appointments to the officer corps reflected local political Also reorganized in 1839, the cavalry consisted of
favoritism. That was exacerbated b y i nt ern al strife an d line regiments, five independent or heavy regiments
rebellions. In t he eleven y ea rs p re ce di ng 1847, t he gov four i nd ep e nd en t s qu ad ro ns o r companies. There
ernment changed leaders 25 times. I t was common for also six regiments of active militia cavalry, plus add
battalions of t he r egu la r ar my to fight e ac h other during al squadrons an d companies o f i r regu lar auxiliari
these power struggles. regiment ha d e ig ht c ompan ie s, d iv id ed into fou r s
Its peasant soldiers were experienced, haVing fought r on s o f two companies of approximately 80 me n eac
th e War fo r Independence, local internal conflicts, an Th e i n d ep en d en t and heavy r eg im e nt s h ad
attempted overthrow by Spain in 1829, and the War for fo rm ed d urin g th e 18 40's. Among t h em were
Texas Independence in 1835-36, an d there were many Tulancingo Cuirassiers an d the Light Cavalry Regim
instances of individual bravery an d a tremendous capaci Mexico (a b ro th er u ni t to th e Standing Battalion).
ty for h ar ds hi p. But t he p oo rl y t ra in ed co ns cr ip ts, led by elite lancer units, th e Guard Hussar Regiment an
political hacks, could no t stand up to the w ell-traine d, jalisco Lancers, s erve d as e sc ort for the p re side nt.
well-led armies they encountered in Texas an d Northern Like th e i nf an tr y, t he li ne cav alry was armed w
Mexico. variety of swords, sabers, carbines, pistols an d la
INFANTRY From 1837, only th e f ir st c om pa ny of the line regim
A major reorganization of t he a rm y was c on du ct ed i n were to be lancers, bu t th e lance wa s appar en
1839. The a rm y n ow c on si st ed o f 12 line regiments an d favored weapon an d was reported i n ge ner al u se b
three light infantry regiments, nine militia regiments, an d cavalry, r eg ar dl es s o f title. Another favorite wea
14 Coast Guard b at ta li on s. An i nf an tr y r eg im en t was t o especially among th e heavy cavalry, wa s a cu t d
c on si st o f two battalions of eight companies ea ch : six "Brown Bess" musketoon called an escopeta.
fusilier, one rifle an d one grenadier company, of approxi The irregular cavalry units were forme d a fter 1 84
mately 80 privates each. state governors. They were generally organized, a
Th e t hr ea t o f wa r with th e US le d to th e raising of a nd m ou nt ed b y individual landowners.
additional f or ce s. T he A ct i ve C o mm er c e Regiment o f Like the infantry, the bravery of the individual tro
Mexico, tw o b a tt al io n s o f eight companies each, wa s wa s compr omised by poor leader ship. Th e cav
formed by businessmen in 1839. In 1841, the Grenadier showed skill maneuvering, bu t commonly did n ot
Guard o f the Supreme Powers was o rg an iz ed fro m a mili thei r attacks. eit he r the American or Mexican inf
tia battalion into e ig ht c ompa nies totalling 1 ,2 00 men . h ad m uc h respect for them.
The Regular Standing Battalion o f Mexico, also of eight ARTILLERY
companies, was formed later. T he Mexican a rtille ry c orps c on ta in ed three foo
As Mexico ha d no operating weapons factories, th e one mounted brigade, plus five standing compani
i nf an tr y was a rm ed wi th a variety of imported muskets, sapper battalion was added to the corps in 1839.
obtained principally from outdated o r d is ca rd ed s to ck s. foot b r ig ade n o mi n al l y c on si st ed o f eight compa
In 1 83 9 the re were 14,105 se rv ic ea ble rifles, fu sils, an d each with 116 men. The six companies of the mou
pistols, with an additional 17,408 considered useless. brigade were to contain 92 o ffic ers an d men. Lik
Perhaps more importantly, the q ua lity an d q ua nt it y o f American artillery, most artillerymen were utilize
gunpowder available was always low, contributing to the infantry during the war.
famously ba d marksmanship. The Mexican army was under g unn ed , having a t o
Most soldiers carried th e a n t iq u a t ed s m o ot h b or e only 14 0 s ta ti c an d mobile guns. A t Buena Vista, S
B ritish Brown Bess mus ke t. Firing a .753 ca liber rou nd  Ana fielded a t otal of only 19 guns: th ree 24-poun
ball, its e ffectiv e ran ge was on ly 50 y ards. A 17 -inch bay t hr ee 1 6- p ou nd e rs , five 1 2 -p o u n d ers a nd e ig
onet could be attached. Soldiers in the rifle companies pounders.
were issued th e Baker flintlock rifle, another British Officered largely by Mexican Military Academy g
i mpo r t, w hi ch fired a patched roundball accurately to ates, the artillery generally perfomed well once i n
2 00 y ards . However, a cc urac y degraded significantly if tion. However, the guns were hampered by poor carr
used with poor powder an d a lack of maintenance, both a nd ina de qu ate a mmun itio n tra ns po rt, so o nc e e mp
endemic in the Mexican army. they tended to r em ai n there. T ha t was i n marked con
A ne w manual of instruction for the infantry wa s to the A me rica n flying b atte ries that played such a
issued in 1841 to rep la ce the 1 81 4 Spa nish drill. Ideally, role in m os t o f the battles.
a fter initial c on ta ct w ith the lig ht reg imen ts , the h ea vier During the war, the Mexican artillery was reinforce
line regiments were to follow through an d press th e the San Patricio (St. Patrick) Battalion of American-
attack. The light r eg im en ts w oul d act i n support along deserters. The San Patricio was o ne of the most effe
t he flanks. In e ach r eg im en t t he rifle c om pa ny wou ld p in units in San ta A na 's army , e ve ntua lly b eing a nn ih i
th e enemy, then fall back on each f la nk to allow th e while fighting as infantry in Mexico City.

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After laa ge ring the ir s up ply tra in w ith s up po rt lea ving 4 ,7 00 v olun te ers to maintain the 4 00 -mile
ing heavy artillery an d tak in g a v ote of his officers, river supply lin e to Ma ta mor os . T he Americans
Taylor pursued the enemy forces. In the early after reached Monterrey on 19 September.
n oon on 9 May, the Mexican position was discov They were faced b y a r ej uv in at ed Mexican a rm y
e re d. T ay lor o rg an iz ed h is infantry w it h two regi o f 7,000 reg ulars an d 3,000 volunteers under Gen.
m en ts on e ac h s id e of th e r oa d. Based upon th e P ed ro d e A mp ud ia. I nf or me d o f th e American
p re viou s d ay 's e xp erie nc e, o ne o f the flying b atte r movements by hi s cavalry, Ampudia decided to
ies was moved forward to blast its way down the await th e American attac k in the defensive posi
road. But Mexican units in the thick c ha pa rral a lo ng t ion s his a rm y ha d c on stru cted ov er the last three
th e road f or ce d i t to retreat. A company of dra months.
goons under Capt. Charles May c ha rg ed the c en te r Situated on th e north side o f th e S ant a Cat ar in a
of the Mexican position. After initially taking sever River, Monterrey was the junction fo r t hr ee major
al b at ter ie s, t he y wer e also f orc ed t o retreat giving r oa ds f ro m t he north and the Saltillo road f ro m t he
up the prized g un s. T he US 8t h Infantry was then west. T he d efen se s we re b as ed o n a series of forts
o rd e re d b y T ay lo r to a tta ck a nd take th e guns in c omma nd in g the a pp ro ac he s. L ocated b etwe en the
the center. northern roads were th e dark stone walls of th e
Arista, no t anticipating a general engagement, citadel, known as the "Black Fort." Th e eastern
b elated ly b ec ame a ware h is forces w ere in volve d in ap p ro ach es were g u ard ed by t hr ee r ed ou bt s,
c omba t along the e ntire line. R ush in g to the critical including La Teneria (The Tannery) an d EI Rincon
center of his army, he immediately attempted to de l Diablo ( th e D ev il 's C or ne r) . The western
o rg an iz e a co un t er att ack w it h a gr oup o f lancers a pp ro ac he s to the city w ere d omin ated b y Ind ep en 
bu t was turned back. Neither commander was able dencia Hill n or th o f the Saltillo r oa d a nd Federacion
to c oo rd in at e his army i n t he thick chaparral; t he Hill south o f the road. The river ra n p aralle l to the
fig htin g w as carried on b y i nd iv du al u ni ts , o ft en r o ad b etw een t he two f or ti fi ed hills. S ou th of th e
hand to h and . Gradually t he sm all unit leadership city was t he river a nd s te ep terrain that generally
an d a bi li ti es o f th e American soldier broke th e prohibited movement.
Mexican spirit. Poorly led and treated, the morale of
the Mexican soldier s na pp ed a nd a r etr eat er up t ed 21 September 1846
into a r out. The Mexican ar my headed for the Rio Taylor's f ir st move was t o t ra p A mp ud ia' s a rm y
Grande River. According to Arista's official report, by cutting th e Saltillo road. He dispatched Gen.
he lost 160 dead, 228 wounded an d 159 missing. W orth w ith 2,00 0 men and two flying b at te ri es t o
The Americans reported the c ap tu re of 14 officers take the two hills guarding the road. After a wide
a nd e ight guns while losing 33 killed a nd 89 flank march, Worth's command reached the Saltillo
wounded. road just a fter dawn. T he re the y were me t by 1,500
Ft. Texas h ad b ee n b es ie ged f or t he e nti re week Mexican lancers, who w ere be a te n back after a
T ay lo r wa s gon e. Surrou nd ed by a reported 1,000 short, vicious fight. T he A me ri ca ns crossed th e
Mexican troops, they were under constant bom- river an d attacked Federacion Hill f ro m t he so uth -
bardment. T he Mexicans, b elie ving the fort w ou ld
b e s ta rv ed o ut, n ev er mounted a major a ssa ult. T he
A me ri ca ns h a d h u n k ered down such that th e
Mexican fire ha d little effect, though Maj. Brown Battle o f
was killed d urin g the b omba rd me nt. But the rout of Resaca d e l a P a l m a
the Mexicans at Resaca de la Palma b ro ke the siege. 8 May, 1846
In ho no r o f the falle n c omma nd er, the na me was
changed to Ft. Brown; tod ay it is k no wn as Browns
ville.
T he re w as n o follow-up a ttac k on Arista's army.
T ay lor was s atis fied to c on so lida te h is v ic to ry an d
rest in preparation fo r th e inva sion of Mexico's
northern provinces. But a tt ac k o r no, Arista ha d
ha d enough and retreated to Monterrey.

Monterrey
Taylor's consolidation lasted nearly two months,
giving hi m time to est abl ish a proper s up ply b as e
an d incorporate reinforcements, including the first
state volunteer u nit s a nd Texas Rangers, into his
army. His o rd ers we re to c ro ss the "Rio G ra nd e an d
take t he high road to Mexico City." He planned to
move up th e Rio Grande to Mier, then do wn t he San
Juan River through Camargo an d China to Monter
rey, capital of Nuevo Leon. F rom t her e, he w ou ld
cross the Sierra Madre Mountains to Saltillo, capital
of Coahuila. With northern Mexico secured, he
would move s o ut h t hr ou g h Sa n Luis P ot osi to
Mexico City. While integration of the volunteers was
progressing, he used his cavalry an d Texas Rangers
US
to reconnoiter the proposed avenues of march.

-- -
Infantry.
In la te July t he a rm y b eg an t he two-week march C a v a l r y ~ o Yds
to to Camargo. On 6 September, Taylor l ed 3,200 ::: ::::: = Artillery.
1
j -
_
Meters

-
r eg ul ar s a n d 3,000 v o lu n teers t o war d Monterrey,
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Monterrey, from Independence H ill, in the Rear o f the Bishop's Palace. As it appeared on 23rd September, 1846. H
colored lithograph by Frederick Swi

west. Dismounted Texas Rangers an d artillerymen an d retreated to the highly d efen sible b uilt up
supported by the 7th Infantry attacked the redoubt tion of Monterrey.
at th e southw e st en d of th e h il l w hi le th e 5t h
Infantry attacked El Soldado fort at the other end. 22 September 1846
Both were t ak en a ft er very heavy hand-to-hand While both sides licked their wounds ea
combat. Monterrey, Worth's troops commenced their a
To distract the Mexicans from th e main Amer on Independencia Hill. A storming party steal
i ca n a tt ac k to t he west, t he Citadel was bombarded moved up th e w es t en d of the hill, which was
by three American heavy batteries guarded by sev tured in a sudden rush.
eral u nits of volunteers. Little was accomplished Th e r ea l d ef en si ve position, h ow ev er ,
e xc ep t to e xp os e man y o f the ine xp erie nc ed tro op s Bish op 's Palace a t the low er east end. A 1 2- p
t o d eat h. Meanwhile, a feint was m ad e ag ai nst t he howitzer wa s br ought up went to work on
eastern fla nk o f the city b y the division s o f G arla nd Palace gate. The storming party was reinforce
an d Butler. th e 5th Infantry an d a company of Louisiana v
The main e ffort wa s made b y G arla nd (lst an d teers, bu t b efore the y c ou ld attack part of the
3 rd In fa n try an d the Baltimore Battalion). Forming man g ar r is on , l ed by Lieut. Col. Francisco B
into a line of battle 500 yards from th e city, th e s ortied . D ev as ta te d b y A me rica n fire, Be rra's
attack quickly came under fire fro m the citadel, the retreated in disorder to Monterrey. Soon t he
Tannery and El Diablo. When the units neared the was destroyed an d the infan try mad e the ir a ss
f or tif ied s ub ur bs , th ey were s ub je ct ed to fire f ro m The two flying batteries were brought into the
the roofs a n d hole d e xte rior walls. Th e lines pound an d it s capture was assured by late a
became confused an d the attack stalled with heavy noon.
losses. Braxton Bragg's flying b at te ry a nd the 4t h The n ex t m or ni ng , Taylor ordered a recon
Infantry were brought up, bu t the artillery ha d little s an ce in force on the eastern sid e o f t he city.
effect on the heavy walls an d was pulled back. Jefferson Davis' Mississippians in th e lead,
To rec ov er the momen tu m, Taylor ordered Quit- man's Brigade a dv an ce d into town. Tay lo r o rd
man's Brigade to attack the Tannery i n support of the 3r d Infantry, 4th Infantry, 2n d Texas Volun
the 1st Infantry, w ho we re fig hting in the b uild in gs an d Bragg's battery in support. Using hous
near the red ou bt. Q uitman 's volunteer Tennessee house fighting techniques learned from the Te
an d Mississippi regiments sustained heavy losses, Quitman's me n metho dica lly mov ed to w ithin
b u t th e M ex ic an s g av e up th e redoubt. Taking b lo cks o f t he c en tr al pl aza, though they with
advantage of the Mexican retreat, Taylor sent an to the fortified suburbs that night.
Ohio r eg im en t i nt o th e action. Led by Gen. Butler, On th e other side of th e city, acting wit
t he y d ro ve fo r "El Diablo" b ut were resolutely orders, Worth assaulted th e city i n t he aftern
rebuffed. The Americans consolidated their posi F ig ht in g t o within two blocks of the east f
tion that night around the Tannery. Having lost his forces, Worth consolidated his position an d st
exterior redoubts, Ampudia abandoned El Diablo laying mortar fire into the central plaza.

26
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One mortar round hi t the cathedral; it did no t arrival in Mexico City on 15 September, Gen. ]. M.
ignite th e Mexican ammunition store, bu t it un Salas was named acting president an d S an ta Ana
nerved Ampudia. Demoralized by the inability of became commander of all Mexican forces.
his forces to de fe at t he Americans an d concerned I n Washi n gt o n, Polk ha d given Gen. Winfield
for the welfare of t he citizens, he a sk ed for a t ruc e Scott field command of all forces involved in th e
to permit the evacuation of the women a nd chil w ar a ga in st Mexico. In place of Taylor's advance
dren. Taylor refused. f ro m the n or th , Scott p ro po se d a n invasion of cen
tral Mexico through th e port of Vera Cruz, followed
24-25 September 1846 by a direct mar ch o n Mexico City. But little hap-
Early in t he m or ni ng of th e 2 4t h, A me ri ca n p en ed t ha t fall; desultory peace negotiations con
preparations for another assault were pu t on hold; tinued until 15 November, w hen Polk r ejected the
Ampudia ha d opened n eg otiation s f or the sur ren l a t e st Mexican i ni ti at iv e a nd t e r m i n a t e d th e
der of Monterrey. A complex set of demands and process.
c o un te rd em a nd s n eg ot ia te d a t several locations In northern Mexico, Taylor's army ha d gr own to
around t he city r es ul te d i n a final su rr end er o n the 12,000 m en a nd would soon b e joined b y Gen. John
25th. The Mexican army was allowed to move east E. Wool with 2,500 volunteers an d newly raised reg
u nmolested. They were to leave all artillery excep t ulars. As soon as th e peace negotiations ended,
one b at te ry . The Ame ri ca ns w ou ld no t follow for Taylor m ov ed f or wa rd an d occupied Saltillo an d
eig ht weeks o r u ntil their r espectiv e g ov er nmen ts Parras. Elements of t he army m ove d southeast to
issued further orders. occupy Victoria a nd s u pp or t t he Navy's s ei zur e o f
American losses were never officially reported. Tampico. He was preparing to continue his advance
Taylor later admitted to 488 killed an d wounded, south when Scott arrived in January.
b ut o th er e sti ma te s r an as high as 1,000, with But Taylor's part i n t he i nvas ion of Mexico was
about 300 killed or mortally wounded. As the tir ed about to end. Polk was extremely unhappy with him
Americans occupied the city an d b eg an to refit, t he over th e te rm s o f th e Monterrey s ur re nd er , a nd
d ir ection o f the w ar too k a d ramatic tur n. undoubtedly recognized the potential political risk
if Taylor gained any more success. Polk's backing of
New Commanders S co tt's Vera Cru z p la n t hu s was n ot b as ed exclu
A political storm h ad b ro ke n in Mexico City. In sively on military reasoning.
late July, President Paredes, having lost the confi Shortly after his arrival in northern Mexico, Scott
dence of the government, abdicated in favor of Vice departed, taking w it h h im 9,000 of Taylor's men,
President Nicholas Bravo. But Bravo's term of office including most of the regulars an d experienced vol
wa s short lived: Antonio Lopez de Santa An a unteers. To hold the conquered provinces, Taylor
returned from hi s two-year Cuban exile. O n hi s was left w ith only abo ut 6,000 men, mostly untried

; f

I
)

- - - . ~ US advances 2 1 S ep t.
- - ~ . ~ US advances 22 Sept.
- - - . ~ US advances 23 Sept.
oI Yds 2000 Battle o f Monterrey
/ ~ _ . _ 0 eters 2000 19-24 September, 1846
;/ / / I . "- . . . ~ .

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The Civil W ar Connection

At l ea st 44 me n who f ou ght for the Uni ted St at es i n or Col. Jefferson Davis - Commander of 1st Mississippi, Wes
around Buena Vista went on to serve as general of ficers 1828, in the a rm y unt il 1835 when he el oped wit h Z
or i n hi gh poli ti cal office for e it he r t he C onf ede rac y o r Taylor's daughter (who died shortly thereafter). He
the Union during the Civil War. d ow n a commi ssi on as a bri gadier general a ft er t he
enter th e U.S. Senate, remaining there until r es ig n
Capt. Hemy W. Benham - Adjutant of the Corp of Engineers dur January 1861. Elected as the first (only) Confederate
ing the Battle at Buena Vista. Top of his class at West Point in dent in November of 1861. After the war, he was impr
1837. During the Civil War, this breveted Brigadier General for two years before being released. Living without c
ha d a less than successful career. He was a a successful engi ship, he d ied in 1889. His citizenship was finally rein
n ee r who d id no t make the transition to line officer. He saw by President Carter.
action at Gettysburg, the Wilderness, an d Appomattox. He 1st Lt. Abner Dou bl eday - With t he 1st Artillery in the S
retired from the army as a Colonel in 1882. garrison, West Point 1842. He saw extensive action w
Capt. Braxton Bragg - Commander of a "flying battery" at Battle Uni on a rm y d ur in g t he Civil War b eg in ni ng at Fort S
of Buena Vista. Under the supervision of General Taylor, his w he re he was t he e xe cut iv e off icer . He c o mm a nd e d
battery b ro ke th e Mexican a ss au lt late i n t he b at tl e. Duri ng brigade, division, a nd c or ps level b e fo r e b e in g serv
th e Civil War, he commanded t he a rt il le ry firing o n For t Washington D.C. after Gettysburg. He r et ir ed f rom t he
S umter to begin the conflict before moving quickly to Army in 1873 as a major general.
commander. He was one of eight Confederates to reached the Maj. Amos B. Eaton - This 1926 West Point g ra du at e s er
rank of full general. His abrasive command style was only tol the commissary department for his entire career excep
e ra te d due to t he staunch support he received from President short stint in the infantry. He s e rv ed w i th General
Jefferson Davis, another Buena Vista veteran. through the Mexican War. During the Civil War he ser
Lt. A br ah am Buford - This West Point cl ass of 1841 graduate, the commissary department as a b ri ga di er ge ner al , s
s er ve d w it h t he 1s t Dragoons. He maintained his neutrality there until he resigned in 1874 .
until Bragg invaded Kentucky in 1862. He t h en j o in e d the 1s t Lt. William B. Franklin - Member of t he e li te Co
Confederate army where he commanded a cavalry brigade. He Topographical Engineers on Taylor's staff, top of the

fought Murfreesboro,
divisionatcommander, Champion
he fought Hill, an
at Brice's d Jackson. Tupelo,
Crossroads, Made a Point
up class
from b riofga1843.
de to During the Civil War,fighting
corps commander, he w or ked
at 1h
an d others before being wounded. Buford weighed approxi Run, Fredericksburg, Seven Days, Antietam and Sabine
mately 320 pounds. He resigned from the army in 1866.
Capt. James H. Carleton - 1st Dragoons. He remained in the cav Capt. Samuel G. F re nc h - B at te ry commander (wounded
alry until th e Civil War w he n h e was posted to th e West Artillery, Wes t P oi nt 1 84 3. A ft er th e war s er ve d w i
Coast. Breveted a Brigadier General, he served in California Quartermaster Department until he resigned in 1856.
an d New Mexico until the en d of the war. He di ed a Lt. Col. of Civil War he commanded a Confederate brigade, then c
the 4t h Cavalry in 1873. departments in North Carolina, Virginia and Mississip
Capt. Robert H. Chilton - 1st Dragoons, West P oint 1837. A staff saw action as a division commander with Hood in Ten
officer with the Army of Northern Virginia from Seven Days before giving up command due to illness. He served o
through Gettysburg. He eventually transferred to Richmond, remainder of the war in the Mobile area.
where he served ou t the war. Maj. Robert S. Garnett - Battery commander, 4th Artillery
Col. Sylvester Churchill - He enlisted into the artillery during the Point 1841. He r em ai ned in t he army unt il 1861 wh
War of 1812. Af ter a short stint as inspector general, he resigned to join the Confederacy. Commanding an a
returned to the artillery. By the s ta rt o f the Mexican War, he West Virginia, he h ad t he "honor " of be ing t he fi rst g
was an inspector general on the staff of General Taylor. Due officer to die during the war. He was a c ous in of Confe
to his ac ti on s he was b re ve te d to br ig ad ier ge ner al a ft er t he General Richard B. Garnett who died during Pickett's Ch
battle. He remained in t he a rm y u nt il his r et ir em en t at the Maj. William A. Gorman - Major of Indiana Volunteers, he
beginning of the Civil Wa r at the rank of brigadier general. companies against Ampudia's light troops. After the w
Capt. Cassius Marcellus Clay - Company commander in the 1st entered politics, going to Congress an d servi ng a t er m
Kentucky Cavalry. After the war, he was an early supporter of r it or ia l g ov er no r o f Minnesota. During th e Civil W
the Republican Party. Named Minister to Russia by Lincoln in served at regimental, brigade, corps an d departmen
1861, hi s d ep ar tu re was delayed d ue to t he n ee d to o rga ni ze commands. He l ef t the army in 18 64 to return to h
a defense of Washington. He was m ad e a m aj or gener al bu t practice.
d ec li ne d t o return t o A me ri ca during the war as he was Richard Griffith - Adjutant, Mississippi Rifles. Between the
unhappy with continuation of slavery. He remained in Russia he s er ve d as a t eac her an d banker. Led the 12th Mississ
until 1872. He died a recluse in 1903. Virginia and was elevated from colonel to brigadier g
Capt. Douglas H. Cooper - Ca pt ai n i n t he Mississippi Rifles. He c om ma nd ed a br iga de were he bec ame em br oi le d
Previously a U.S. representative to the Five Civilized Tribes, dispute between Gen. Joe Johnston an d Davis regardi
he s er ve d i n a s im il ar post w it h t he Confederacy. Made a posting of Mississippi troops. Mortally wounded duri

brigadier
Mounted general after
Rifles. By t heraising
n e nd the
of t1st Choctaw
he war, he cand Chickasaw
om ma nd ed all SevenHarrison
Thomas Days. - Mississippi Rifles. Between the wars, he
the Indians in the Trans-Mississippi Region. After the war, he ticed law in Texas. A Texas cavalry captain at the s ta rt
served as a legal agent for the Indians until his death in 1879. Civil War, he eventually made brigadier general. F ou
1s t Lt. Darius N. Couch - With the 4t h Artillery; West Point 1846. Shiloh, Corinth, Perryville, Murfreesboro, Chickam
He started t he Civil War as a r egi me nt commander before Knoxville, A tl an ta a nd Savannah. His brother was
working up to senior corps commander u n d e r General Confederate general.
Hooker. His refusal to serve any longer under Hooker result Maj. David H un te r - T ayl or 's p ay ma st er , West Poi nt 182
ed in his posting to obscure militia positions before becom tween the wars he became a friend of Abraham Lincol
ing a division commander in the west. He resigned as a major escorted the president on his inaugural trip to Washi
general in 1865. Died in 1897. During the war, he commanded regiment, brigade, di
Lt. Col. Hemy K. Craig - Representative of the ordinance depart corps an d department, reaching major general in 186
m en t o n Taylor's staff. By the start of the Civil War, he com was wounded at Bull Run, later serving in the west and
manded the entire ordinance department. He retired from th e the coast. He roused the s ou th b y burning the Shena
army in 1863, an d n am ed a b ri ga di er ge ne ra l d ue to h is long Valley, Virginia Military Institute an d t h e g o ve r no r'
service in the army which extended back to the Wa r of 1812. dence. He later escorted Lincoln's body back to Illinois.

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Nathan Kimball - Doctor with the Indiana Brigade. Start ing as a 1st Lt. james B. Ricketts - With the 1st Artillery in the Saltillo g
colonel of Indiana volunteers, his Civil War service included rison. Commanded a U ni on b at te r y a t 1s t Bull Run befo
brigade, division a nd c or ps command. He fought at Kerns moving up to brigade, division, and corps command. He w
town, Port Republic, Antietam, an d Fredericksburg where he wounded 3 times during this conflict. He retired a major ge
was wounded. He later fought at Franklin and Nashville. He eral in 1867.
ended the war as a major general. Col. john S. Roane - Second-in-command, 1st Arkansas Caval
Prvt. William ]. Landram - A private with the Kentucky cavalry, he took over when Yell was killed at Buena Vista. After the w
started the Civil War as a colonel of volunteers. A brigade an d he entered politics, becoming governor of Arkansas. He resi
d iv is io n c om m an de r, h e served in th e Yazoo, Vicksburg, ed secession of A rkan sa s for over a year be for e of fer ing h
j a ck so n, a n d Red River campaigns. He ended th e war as a services to the South. Made a brigadier general, he comman
colonel, bu t 7 weeks later was breveted a brigadier general. ed at the brigade, division and for a short time, the Tran
Gen. joseph Lane - Commander, Indiana Brigade. After the war, Mississippi Military District. He served at a n um be r o f oth
h e s er ved as t he t er ri tor ia l gov er nor of Oregon. Staying ou t positions until the end of the war.
w es t, h e e v en t ua ll y b e ca m e a U.S. senator. A pro-slav C ap t. D av id H. Rucker - 1s t Dragoons. Transferred to t
ery/secession senator, he ra n for vice president on the s am e Quartermaster Corps in 1849, remaining t he re t hr ou gh t
ticket with john C. Breckinridge. He died in 1891. Civil War under Montgomery Meigs. In 1882 made a brigad
Col. joseph K. Mansfield - Commanded the Corps of Engineers general and given command the Quartermaster's Departmen
detachment under Taylor. After commands in Washington an d Maj. Thomas W. S herman - "Flying" Battery commander, W
along the Virginia coast early in the Civil War, he became a Point 1836. Remaining with the Union during the Civil War,
c o rp s c o mm a n de r under McClellan. Mortally w ou nd ed a t continued his aggressive style. He was involved i n a ct io
Antietam, posthumously made a major general. along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, eventually commanding
Col. Humphrey Marshall - Commander, 1s t Kentucky Cavalry, division o f i nfant ry. Aft er h e l os t a leg du ri ng t he a ss au lt
West Point 1832. After the war he served in the Congress an d Port Hudson, an d later commanded New Orleans. He retir
as an a mb as sa do r t o China. In 1861, he j oi ne d t he Confeder from the army as a major general in 1870.
acy, acting as a b ri gade an d department commander in the 2n d Lt. Samuel D. Sturgis - 1s t Dragoons, West Point 184
Kentucky region before resigning to e nt er t he Confederate Remaining a cavalry officer, he entered the Civil Wa r on t
Congress. After the war, he returned to his law practice. side of the Union. He commanded a brigade, division an
C apt . Ben M cC ul lou gh - "Spy C om pa ny ." T hi s famous Texas corps. Fought at 2nd Bull Run, South Mountain an d Antieta
Ranger fought in both the Wa r for Texas Independence an d By the e nd o f the war, he was a Brigadier General.
the Mexican War. Taylor valued McCullough highly, developing Richard Taylor - Taylor's (his father) military secretary, only
a close working relationship. In the Civil War, he of fer ed his at Buena Vista. He was also jefferson Davis's brother-in-la
services to th e state of Texas. He commanded of several Between th e w ar s, he r es id ed i n L ou isi ana as a p la nt er .
departments in th e Indian T er r it o ry a n d Trans-Mississippi supported secession. After commanding a brigade, he was e
areas. Killed at Pea Ridge. vated to major general in 1862 and given command of a m
Capt. Irwin McDowell - Aide on Wool's staff, West P oint 1838. tary d is tr ic t i n Louisiana. A lieutenant g en er al i n 1864,
During the Civil War, he l ed t he u np re pa re d Union forces at commanded a multi-state military department an d eventua
the Battle of Bull Run, later commanding a division an d corps the Army of Tennessee.
before being pu t in charge of the West Coast. He retired a Maj. George H. Thomas - "Flying" Battery commander, West Po
major general in 1882. 1840 and a veteran of the Seminole War. After the war, taug
First Sergeant Evander McNair - First sergeant, 1st Mississippi. Led at the Military Academy before joining the cavalry. A Virgini
an Arkansas battalion, then a brigade along the Mississippi who remained loyal to the Union, he commanded a brigad
River. Appointed a brigadier general after being wounded at division, corps, army an d eventually a military departmen
Chickamauga, he returned to Ar kansa s to c om ma nd a no th er T homas was one of 13 officers who received the T hanks
brigade. Congress. He would become famous as "The Rock of Chick
Capt. Albert Pike - Captain, 1st Arkansas Cavalry. After the war, mauga" for his s ta nd a t this battle. A major general who di
this lawyer became successful defending the Indian tribes in in 1870 while in command of the Department of the Pacific.
the Trans-Mississippi region. With the Civil War, he was a rep William H. 1.. Wallace - Adjutant, 1st Illinois. In t he Civil War,
resentative of the Confederacy to the major tribes. Appointed raised an d l ed a r egi me nt for the Union, advanci ng to l ea d
a bri gadi er general, he led a mixed g ro up of Indians at Pea division at Shiloh. Severely wounded in the "Sunken Road,"
Ridge. He resigned in 1862, and returned home. died three days later in his wife's arms.
Capt. john Pope - Topographical Engineers on Taylor's staff, Private Thomas Welsh - A private with th e Kentucky caval
West Point 1842. Aft er s ucc es s as a Union ar my c om ma nd er wounded at Buena Vista. He entered the regular army inune
on the Mississippi, he made a disastrous showing during ht e ately after the war as a second lieutenant, only to be muster
Second Bull Run Campaign. Relegated to Indian Fighting for out with the down-sizing of the army. Fighting for the Unio
th e rest of th e Civil War, he made major general after he h e r e- en te re d t he ar my as a captain, l at er r ea ch ing b ri gad
retired in 1866. general. He served as both brigade an d division command
1st Lt. Carnot Posey - 1st Mississippi, wounded. Posey returned to with Armies of the P otomac, Ohio an d Tennessee. He sa
Mississippi, where he became a lawyer. He led a co mp an y at action at Antietam, South Mountain, Fredricksburg, Vicksbu

fought f Civil War,Valley

the s ta rtinojackson's subsequently
Campaign, commanded brigade. He
Antietam, aChancellors d jackson.
2ndanLt. Thomas]. HeWood
died of malaria
- 2nd in August
Dragoons, West 1863.in 1845. H
of Point
ville, a n d G e tt y sb u rg . He died as th e result of a wound commanded a brigade, division, an d c or ps d ur in g t he Ci
received from artillery fire in October, 1863. War, fighting at Shiloh, Perryville, Chickamagua, Chattanoog
Capt. Benjamin Prentiss - Company commander, 1st Illinois. After Atlanta an d Franklin. He r et ir ed in 1868 as a Major Gener
the war, h e r et ur ne d t o Illinois a n b ec ame a lawyer. With t he Unfortunately, probably best known for leaving a hole in t
beginning of the Civil War, he entered the volunteers where he Union line at Chickamauga, leading to the Federal rout there
advanced quickly from regimental commander to major gen Maj. General john E. Wool - Veteran of the War of 1812 and se
e ra l i n c ha rg e of both a c or ps an d regional district, due in ond-in-command under Gen. Taylor, he was acting battlefie
large part to (probably undeserved) acclaim from his stand in commander who c hos e t he excellent defensive position
the "Sunken Road" at Shiloh. Buena Vista. Wool r em ai ne d i n army until 1863 w hen
Capt. john F. Reynolds - With a Flying Battery, West Point 1841. retired a f te r h o ld i ng r eg i on al Department level position
Staying i n the a rmy a ft er t he war, he s er ve d as c om ma nd an t During the war he commanded F ortress Monroe and help
of the Military Academy. Working his way up from brigade to calm New York after the draft riots.
corps commander (and after turning down army command),
he was killed on the first day of Gettysburg.

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Buena Vista us e n c a m p m e n t
__
t::J:::J),.

23 February, 1847 Gullies, dr y river beds

Ii< irrigation canals
Mor ning Yd, 750
i

Meters 750
i

Battle of Buena Vista, a hand painted lithograph

center foreground. All that stands between him
the far le ft the 1s t Mississippi Rifles an d the 3r d

Uncertain of t he A me ri ca n p os it io n, S an ta
moved directly toward Saltillo through Agua Nu
He detached Gen. Miiion's cavalry division to S
volunteers. Those he concentrated south of Saltillo, lo by an alternate route, hoping to cut the Ame
where he could best intercept a ny Mexican force supply line. Taylor ha d lost several cavalry pa
sent against him, an d f ro m where h e cou ld r es um e to the south, so he detailed a small de ta chm en
his offensive to the south. Texas Rangers under Ben Mc Cu lloc h to find
Santa Ana ha d n ot b ee n idle in the intervening Mexican a rm y a nd d et er mi ne i ts s tr en gt h. M
months - th e peace negotiations were primarily while Lt. Col. May an d 400 d ra go on s m ov ed
aimed at gaining time. Ampudia was ordered to where they learned of Miiion's flanking maneuv
b ring h is remnants t o San Luis Potosi, where t he y Taylor moved north to guard his supply ro
wer e c on so li da te d i nt o t he n ew Nat ional Ar my of Gen. Wool, with the main body of nearly 5,000 m
n ea rl y 23,000 men. With a large ar my i n place an d was ordered to e stab lish a d efen sive p os itio n
his political base secure, S an ta Ana w ai te d for an the H ac ien da o f San Juan de la Buena Vista. T
opportunity to strike back. took Davis' Mississippi Rifles an d a battery the a
That occurred in dramatic fashion on 13 January tional five miles to Saltillo to protect his supply
1847, whe n a n American courier was lassoed an d from Miiion's cavalry.
killed. The d is pa tc he s h e ca rr ied d et ai le d t he p ro Wool chose his position well. The m ai n r oa d
posed operations of Taylor an d Scott, including the through a narrow valley between impassable m
f orc es i n their r espective com m ands. Santa Ana tain sides. East of th e road a wide p la te au cu
realized he could defeat th e much smaller an d d eep ravines e xt en de d to t he b as e o f t he mo un
widely separated American armies in de ta il; first To the west the ground was dominated by a d
Taylor's at Saltillo, then Scott's on th e coast. On 28 tan gled cany on . T he roa dw ay its elf n arro we d t
January 1847 the Mexican army moved north. feet between the c an yo n an d th e base of the
teau.
To Buena Vista There, at th e Narrows, Wool placed a bat
The 200-mile march o f t he Mexican a rm y from s u pp o rt e d b y two infantry r eg im en ts . On t he
San Luis Potosi to La Encarnacion was an exercise in teau were t hr ee m ore infantry regiments an d
misery. Traversing broken hills a nd d es er t for three b a tt e ri es , s c re e ne d by the c av alry . T o t he w
weeks, th e undisciplined troops jettisoned their Wool placed a si ngl e regiment an d two batte
p ro vision s to save ca rrying the m. T he w ea th er var behind the canyon. Taylor's column joined the m
i ed f ro m h ot and dry in th e desert to below freez b od y d ur in g t he day, though Taylor remained
ing in the mountains. Death, sickness an d desertion cerned about Miiion.
reduced Santa Ana's army t o 1 5, 000 by 19 Feb Wool's move north h ad b ee n so r ap id it enc
ruary. aged S an ta Ana t o believe th e A me rica ns w er

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Buena Vista
23 February, 1 8 4 7
Af t ern o o n

--
C:J::,.t:,. us e n c a m p m e n t
Gullies, d r y r iv er b ed s
& irrigation canals
o
I
Yds 750
r

o, Meters

an-Baptiste-Bayot. General Taylor an d his st af f a re in the

n Ar m y a re th e guns o f Captains O'Brien an d Bragg. A t
to fill the weak point.

flight. Reaching the valley on 22 February, he was

surprised to find t he m in b attl e formation. While
his troops deployed, he sent Taylor a d em an d o f
surrender that was politely refused. Fortunately, Taylor ha d just returned w it h hi s
The Mexican deployment took most of the day, hard-marching Mississippians. P o si t io n ed n e a r
w ith San ta Ana h imse lf d ep lo yin g th e c umbe rs ome Buena Vista to d ef en d the su pp ly train, their rifle
artillery . In the late afternoon the fighting started fire tore i n to ] u ve r a' s cavalry. A s sa u lt ed b y th e
with a feint across the canyon to the west. Mean reorganized American cavalry, the Mexican riders
while, the army's light infantry comapnies under routed back to their original positions.
Gen. Ampudia moved onto the mountainside along Back on the main p la te au , the thin America n line
the e ast flank. They were m e t by dismounte d was on the verge of collapse. Again in the nick of
American cavalry. The skirmishing continued until time, the 2n d Kentucky an d its supporting batteries
darkness, with both sides sleeping on their arms moved f ro m th e quiet f ro nt west o f the road to the
across the exposed mountainside. Taylor, satisfied p la te au . T he ir firep ow er wa s enough t o f ini sh of f
t he p os it io n was s ec ur e for th e night, again l ed his the battered Mexican columns.
column north to Saltillo. But San ta An a wa s no t d on e yet. One of his staff
The fighting p ic ke d u p wher e it ha d lef t off the officers, Gen. Perez, forme d a n ew a ss au lt c olumn
day before. Reinforced during the night, Ampudia's ou t o f t he Regiment o f Engineers, Torrejon's cavalry
troops successfully pushed t he A mer ican s o ff t he
h ig h g ro un d. Down on the roadway, the elite Mex-
ican Regiment o f Engineers c ha rg ed i nt o t he teeth Taylor's A r
of th e American p os it io n a t th e Narrows. I t was
stopped cold by th e c on ce nt ra te d fire of Washing a t Buena V
ton's battery. 2 3 F e br u ar y 1
Meanwhile, th e Mexican main body had been
wending its way up through the d ee p ravines. In the
c en te r o f the p la te au , two h ug e infan try divisions,
under Gens. Lombardini an d Pach-
eco, f or me d i n de ep co lum ns for t he
assault. The Americans gave ground
grudgingly after causing heavy loss- Brig. Gen. 1 st Ky
J. Lane (305)
es. Farther east, a combined infantry- Col.
cavalry a ss au lt u nd er Ortega an d Marshall

]uvera drove th e American cavalry

back to the hacienda.

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Buena Vista only 10 months he ha d b uilt an army from

23 February, 1847 ground up, marched over 700 miles i nt o a ho
Ev en i n g country, an d virtually destroyed two Mexican
armies, winning every major engagement he fo
i n th e process. His ar my also pr ovi ded t he co
Scott's expedition. Less than two y ears later, h e
elected president.

Sources
Barcena, Jose Maria Roa. Recuerdos de la Inva
Norte America (1846-1848). Mexico, Edit

Porrua,
Bauer, SA , 1947.
K. Jack. T he M ex ic an War, 1846 - 1
Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1874.
Brooks, N. C. A C om pl et e H is to ry o f the Mex
2/(,. .... War: It's Causes, Conduct, an d Consequences.
Rio Grande Press, Inc.,Chicago, 1849, repri
1965.
Carleton, James Hemy. The Battle o f Buena
with Operations o f the "Army o f Occupation
O ne M on th . Harper an d Brothers, New Y
1848.
C on no r, S ey m ou r V. and Odie B. Faulk. N
America Divided: The Mexican War, 1846 - 1
Oxford University Press, New York, 1971.
a nd r em na nt s of the three infantry divisions. The Eisenhower, John S. D. So Far From God: The
tired American infantry began to give g ro un d, bu t War with Mexico 1846-1848. Doubleday Pub
the firepo we r o f the flying b atte ries halted this last ing, New York, 1989.
gasp charge. The fighting p et er ed o ut a nd was fin James, Garry. The Mississippi Rifle. 1984 Dixie
ished wi th t he on -se t o f a l at e afternoon rain Works Blackpowder Annual. Pioneer Press, U
Both armies h ad b ee n badly mauled, with Amer City, Tennessee, 1984.
i ca n los ses o f 665 against 3,533 Mexicans (about Katcher, Philip R. . The Mexican-American
half o f t he m missing); bu t the Americans remained 1846 - 1848. Osprey, London, 1976, Repr
firmly i n c on tr ol of t he b att lef iel d. The Mexican 1990.
army, e xh au st ed b y the g ru elin g approach march Layman, George. Mexican War Veterans. 1992
an d a hard fight, was a spent force. I t retreated to Gun Works Blackpowder Annual. Pioneer P
Augua ueva during the night, a nd c on ti nu ed on Union City, Tennessee, 1992.
toward Mexico City on the 2 5th. T ho ug h u nmoles t Nieto-Brown-Hefter, Editions. The Mexican So
ed by the A me rica ns on ly 1 1,0 00 rea ch ed San Luis 1837 -1847. Apartado 517 Mexico, 1958.
Potosi. Ramsey, Albert C. (trans. an d ed. by Burt Fran
The Other Side or Notes for the His tor y o
Aftermath
Buena Vista was the last fighting of consequence
War between Mexico an d the United States.
York,1848.
in Northern Mexico. Taylor would shortly relinquish Sandweiss, M. A., R. Stewart an d B.W. Huse
command to Wool, leaVing it to hi m to occ up y a Eyewitness to War: Prints an d Daguerreotyp
hostile territory in t he face of Mexican irregulars t he M ex ic an War, 1846-1848. A mon Ca
waging a guerilla campaign. Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, 1989.
Taylor ha d completed a remarkable campaign. In Smith, Justin H. The War with Mexico, (2 vols.).
Macmillian Company, Gloucester, Mass., 191
Wilkins, Fredrick. The Highly Irregular Irregu
Mexican Forces Texas R angers in the Mexican War. Eakin P
a t Buena Vista 1990.

xx xx x x xx
Corona
(600)

5th 3rd
9th 7th
Tulancingo Cuir. 8th
(mixed) Morelia, (mixed) Lt. Mexico,
1st Line San Luis Act. Mex. City Lagos Act. GuanajuatoAct., OaxacaAct., Mtd.
3rd Line MoreliaAct. 4th Line &San Luis Reg. Cazadores

5th Line Leon Act. Guadalajara Ideal Organization

10th Line Guanajuato Act. (mixed) Santa Ana Btn, Regiment = 2 Battalions =
Queretaro Act.,
CalayaAct., 16 Companies
Aquacalientes Act. 1 Company = 102 men

11th Line Puebla Act. =Activos

Hidalgo 12th Line

32
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his book is unusual in that there
are no books like it i n t he
English language. To gather
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For those readers completely unac
qua inte d w ith th e Russian Navy, it
includes a short history. It also con
tains a chronology of important dates
in Russian naval history for th e 1917
1996 period, plus a chronological list
i ng o f Russian Navy commanders for
th e same period.

When you read th e biographies of

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high position is also a dangerous posi
tion in th e days of Lenin an d Stalin.
Some commanders were in th e job for
only a few months. Some were in for a
long time as in th e case of Admiral
Gorshkov, w ho h ad t he job for nine
teen years. One held th e job twice 
Pickett's C ~ e Routs Federals.
Admiral Nikolay Kuznetsov. Once
Stalin replaced his commander w it h a Lee Forces Union Withdrawal.
Deputy Chief of th e Secret Police Th e turning point of the war is in your hands in t he newest
(NKVD). In more recent times, several war game from Speerit Strategy Games.
admirals were summarily removed for
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This is a good reference book for
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l ~ U j ~ ~ l ~ U j I!I[

m ! I ! I ~ 1 1 With Scott i n M ex ic o
by G. Stakes

On 19 November 1846, US President James K. war, an d hi s well-drilled command performe

Polk appointed Maj. Gen. Wi nfi el d S co tt t o com well that by March 1814 he'd b ec ome a b riga
mand the expedition that was to seize the port of general.
Vera Cruz an d then advance f ro m t her e to c ap tu re On 4 July of t ha t year, Sco tt's b riga de c ha
Mexico City. At the time of his appointment, Scott an d routed two regular British regiments at
was 60-years-old an d h ad b ee n a general officer Battle of Chippewa. Though h a rd ly m o re th
since theinWar it ended a depressing succession o
Born 1 78of
6 1812.
to a w ealth y Virginia family, Scott skirmish,
defeats at th e hands of th e Anglo-Canadians,
was commissioned a c ap ta in o f light a rtille ry in Scott emerged a s a n atio na l h ero. Later, follo
1809. Af ter a b ri ef return to civilian life, h e reen the Battle of Lundy's Lane, where he was sev
tered t he Army as a l ie ut en an t colonel at t he out wounded, Scott was brevetted a major general.
break of the War of 1812. In the ragtag American A fter the War o f 1812, Scott e le cted to rema
Army o f t ha t day, led mainly by political appointees th e Army, w hich w as reduced to a few thou
an d incompetents, Scott, a self-educated student of me n stationed in small posts along the frontier
th e c oa sta l d ef en se s o n th e eastern seaboar
man of independent me ans with a keen i nt er e
his profession, he spent 1815-16 in Europe vis
the battlefields of the Napoleonic Wars an d i
viewing many of the participants.
Though known for his delight in showy unif
an d military pomp, "Old Fuss an d Feathers"
also an reflected
library excellent his
administrator an d
vast knowledgetactician, w
of military
tory. Service in the Seminole War an d along
frontier gave hi m a practical knowledge of c
paigning under severe conditions a nd s to od h i
good stead in Mexico.
Made commanding general of the Army i n 1
Scott ha ste ne d to incorporate th e m os t r e
advances in artillery. By improving t he d es ig
limbers an d carriages, he ensured mobile batte
ranging from roc ke t lau nc he rs to mas sive lO-
mortars an d 24-pounder siege guns, would be a
able to the c omma nd ers in the field.
Perha ps h is g re ates t c on trib utio n was his d
opment of so-called "flying batteries." Detac
o ne co mpa ny f ro m ea ch of the artillery regim
manning t he c oa st al fortresses, he formed t
into th e horse-drawn six-pounder b a tt er i es
would be used with such telling effect at Palo A
Reseca de Palma and, later, during his own adv
on Mexico City.

Toward Vera Cruz

On 28 November 1846, while Scott was in
Orleans en rou te to a co nferen ce w ith Gen. Z ac
Taylor, he received unexpe cte d good news. S
t he b eg in ni ng o f h os ti li ti es , Commodore D
Conner, commander of the Home Squadron, tho
short of both ships an d men, ha d managed to m
Portrait o f General Winfield Scott. tain an effective blockade of the principal Mex

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po rts on th e Gulf coast. Though C on ne r' s s ma ll Mexico City

~ " ' _ ~ - - .
force lacked the vessels n ecessary f or an amphibi .......

ou s landing, d ur in g t he month of October, Santa

Anna, fearing an attack on the lightly defended port
of Tampico, ha d w it h dr a wn i ts garrison, demol
ished it s defenses, an d sen t i ts c oa st al batteries
inland r at he r t ha n r isk their cap tu re. Learning of
the withdrawal, Conner occupied the port without
resistance, garrisoning it with 450 me n sent down
from Port Isabel.
When Scott learned of T am pi co 's s ei zu re , h e
immediately modified his own plans. By using that
port an d i ts a dj ac ent coastl ine as a point of depar
ture, instead of a base as th e mouth of th e Rio
Gra nde, t he di st an ce t he Am eri ca ns ha d to go to
r ea ch Vera Cruz was m or e than halved. Isla Lobos,
an island off the coat 60 miles s ou th o f Tampico,
with adequate water an d a good anchorage, was
se lected as the new forward b as e f ro m w hich the
e x pe d it i on w o ul d sail to attack Vera Cruz, 17 0
miles farther south.
As recruiting an d training new me n for the expe
d itio n wo uld take mon th s, Scott, w ith the app ro val
of Polk, decided much o f his force ha d to be drawn a nc ho re d o ff t he l an di ng area, t h ei r 3 2- p ou n der s
from Taylor's army. Though Taylor complained bit ready to sweep th e beach w it h g r ap esh o t. But to
ter ly , S co tt took Brig. Gen. William Worth's an d Scott's surprise, during the six h ou rs s pe nt placing
Brig. Gen. David E. Twiggs' regular divisions, as well the force of 8,600 me n a sho re t he l andi ng was un
as Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson's division of volun opposed.
teers, a total of 9,000 men. Mexican Brig. Gen. Juan Morales, who command
Lack o f troop transports d elay ed the arrival of ed the 3,800 ma n Vera Cruz garrison, ha d chosen
troops at Lobos, an d it wasn't unt il 2 March 1847 to ke ep hi s me n behind the massive walls of the
the expedition, still short of supplies an d ammuni city along which over 200 guns were mounted.
tion, s ai le d f or Anton Lizardo, an anchorage 20 Du ring its lon g histor y, Vera Cruz, th e m ai n Mex-
miles south of Vera Cruz. ican s ea po rt o n the Gulf, ha d successfully repelled
On 6 March, after the t r an spo r ts h ad arrived an d many attempts to capture it.
were off-loading their flat-bottomed landing craft, With the landing completed, Scott moved rapidly
Scott an d his staff con du cted a r econ naissance o f to encircle th e city. By th e 12th, af ter Q u it man ' s
possible landing sites nearer the city abo ar d a small brigade arrived, all roads leading into Vera Cruz
steamer. At Conner's suggestion Scott selected Col- ha d been cut and the city isolated. But stormy
lada, a beach accessible for troops disembarking weather an d high surf prevented the landing of th e
from landing craft in shallow w ater . Collada, 2.5 siege batteries f or sev er al more days. During th e
miles south of t he city walls, was also ou t of range
of the heavy batteries of the Castle San Juan de Ull-
oa, which guarded the harbor of Vera Cruz.
Scott organized hi s c om ma n d i nt o three brig
ades. Wo rth' s was compo sed o f f our r eg ular infan
try regiments su pp l ement ed b y two c om pa ni es o f
v ol un te er s a nd two artillery regiments. Twiggs'
brigade was made up of four regular infantry, an d
two artillery regiments (fighting as infantry), plus
one of mounted riflemen (which, lacking mounts,
e nd ed u p fighting on foot).
Patterson's division of volunteers was composed
of three brigades co mmand ed b y Brig. Gens. James
Shields, John Quitman a n d ] . Pillow, though only

timelatter's
the five r egin
to participate imen
thetslanding.
o f v olun teer s arr iv ed in
The few companies o f the 1s t an d 2n d Dragoons
an d the Tennessee Mounted, a little over 500 tro op  >oint Homos
ers, constituted the expedition's entire cavalry force
an d were commanded by Lt. Col. William S. Harney.

The Landing
Late in th e af ter no on o f 9 March 1847, the fi rs t
wave of landing c ra ft , c re we d by navy oarsmen,
formed a line 450 yards from the b ea ch a nd swept
forward. Mexican cavalry were visible on the beach,
bu t t he y r od e off wi tho ut firing a shot as the first
boats g ro un de d a nd th e m en, w ai st high in th e
water, w ad ed the rest of the way ashor e. In antici
p at io n o f Mexican resistance, a line of warships ha d
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Yellaw Fever S Strategy

Twenty-six March 1847 found Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott t he bi te of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. It was im
i n a stra ngel y anxious mood. His army ha d successfully into th e New World as th e r es ul t o f th e African
landed, then invested, the Mexican p or t o f Vera Cruz. His trade, wh ich itself ha d been n ecessitated b y the
decision to lay siege to the city - then the most heavily importation of European-based diseases that ha d
fortified in the w estern h emisph er e - r at he r t ha n s to rm ed in t he d ie -o ff of a bout 80 percent of t he
it was cr it i ci zed b y some, but th e constant American American population in the span of two genera
bombardment was st ar ti ng to have t he intended effect. Aedes aegypti. appears to have a rri ve d as larval
Morale inside the walls was collapsing an d it was clearly aways traveling in the w ater casks on the same sh
only a matt er o f time before the defenders capitulated. th e slaves. Shipboard outbreaks could wipe ou t

The
with thec aus e ofmilitary
actual Scot t' s situation.
anxiety, i n fact,
His eye ha d little
was on theto cal
do crews an d their
Between 1693human cargo.
an d the s ta rt o f this century, 95
e nd ar a nd the steady march of days. Already two months rate yellow fever ep id emi cs r avag ed th e US, inf
off his original timetable due to incompetence in the War 500,000 p er so ns a nd killing 100,000. Philadelph
D e pa r tm e nt , S co tt 's n er v es were on edge b ec au se o f struck 11 times, with one outbreak in 1793 killing 1
reports from his medical officers of disease in the ranks. cent o f t ha t city's population. Boston an d New Yor
I t was the same d isease that ha d dictated the entire strat e ach h it seven times d ur in g t he p er io d. The d
egy an d timing of h is assau lt, an d now i t l oo ke d as if occurred regularly in Charleston, Mobile, Norfolk
every day was bringing it more in contact with his forces. more, New Orleans an d other cities along the Atlan
The Mexicans called it La Vomito. A fifth of those who Gulf coasts.
developed it were doomed to die. Victims were r ac ke d Yellow fever ha d a n um be r o f effects on New
with headache, fever, chills an d vomiting. Their skin took history. Its presence effectively closed the Amazon
o n a p ro no un ced yellow color as their liver was d amag ed to European e x pl o ra t io n a n d c ol on iz at io n. In
then failed. Splotches of blue and b lack app eared on the Napoleon sent a F re nc h army to suppress th e H
skin as blood vessels r u pt u red an d hemorrhaged into the rebellion of Toussaint l'Ouverture. No sooner ha
sur ro
off unblood
the ding tissue.
supplyInside the organs.
to major b od y the sameseeping
Blood p ro cessfrom
cut force
Of an landed
army of than the me
25,000 n were
only 3,000attacked by yellow
surv ived to ret
damaged arteries an d veins filled the lungs an d the vic France. Napoleon thereby lost interest in any eff
ti m began to drown in his own fl uids. In th e severely create a New World French Emp ir e. He called
stricken, the vomit took on the consistency an d color of American commissioners james Monroe an d R
coffee grounds - in reality coagulated blood - as they Livingston, who'd been seeking to purchase New O
literally began bringing up their own life blood. a nd s ur pr is ed t he m by offeri ng to sell them all
La Vomito frightened Scott more than th e Mexicans. v ast Louisiana Ter rito ry for little mor e than they'
Santa Ana's force he knew he could defeat, but this dis p repared to p ay f or the city alone.
ease - yellow fever - was an opponent he felt helpless Togeth er with malaria, yellow fever wou ld d ef e
against. Nineteenth century physicians knew neither its attempts o f F erd in an d de Lesseps to bu ild a canal
cause no r how it was transmitted . All t hey could do was the Isthmus of Panama. De Lesseps, fresh from his
provide clinical support for a vi ct im' s s ym pt om s a nd b uild in g success at Suez, planned a canal to cro
ho pe for t he best. Scott 's only workable s tr at eg y was t o kilometers of swamp an d mountains. In 1884 he b
avoid the disease. But it was getting too close to the La in 500 French engineer s to superv ise con stru ctio n
Vomito season to suit
Yellow fever, thenthe Americancalled
popularly commander.
"Yellow jack," new waterway, None
to complete. whichof hethe
thomuglived
ht woutold draw
take thr
t heee
i
b ec aus e i t was a c om mo n cause for qua ra nt ini ng ships, month's pay. In Se pte mber t he ent ire crew of a v
a nd s uc h ships must fly a yellow flag o r "jack," was an d British warship died of the disease. After losing a t
is one of th e world's most dreaded epidemic diseases. their entir e Eur op ean wo rk force of 20,000, de L
Yellow fever is i n fact t he only disease t oda y for which abandoned the project. The construction rights wer
vaccination is r eq uired in o rd er to enter some coun tries, to the US.
depending on the p oint of origin or transit o f the travel Because of the new understanding of the role o
er, under International Health Regulations. quitoes in the transmission of the disease, an d the
YELLOW FEVER IN THE N EW W OR LD of Walter Reed an d William Gorgas, th e Panama
A viral illness, yellow fever is transmitted to ma n by was finally completed in 1904. Even t he n it was a
thing. An outbreak of La Vomito that year caused c
to accumulate at the project's railway stations faste
Yellow Fever Zone i n Mexico
they could be removed. Panic s ei ze d t he w or ke
During th e Mexican-American Wa r
o nly a h er oic anti- mo sq uito campaig n sav ed t he
Elevation (feet) from collapse. VERA CRUZ - PlANNING
• Over 6 560
As 18 46 d rew to a close, the Mexican-America
3280-6560 could be se en to have gone well for the US to tha
Maj. Gen. Zachary Taylor's successes in the norther
ican territories an d the conquest of California were
es for n ation al jubilation . But the goal o f a Mexica
render hadn't yet been achieved an d the political n
"conquer a peace" was growing acute. President jam
Polk an d his military advisors decided in order to f
Mexican capitulation further offensives would be
sary.
o Miles
Km - Mexico City was the ob viou s target. As well as
the political, financial an d military capital of the c
there was still anot her rea son to take it: it s to od
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site of the ancient Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, an d was Ins ide 12,000 US Military
thus also o f g re at symbolic value to t he Mexican n at io n Vera Cr uz M e xi ca n-A me ri c a n Wa r 11,155
as a whole. Capturing it would convince the m of their the citizen- D eat h s b y Cause
complete defeat. ry was sub- 10,000
The immediate problem for t he Amer icans was h ow to jected to a
get there. An approach b y T ay lor's forces fro m the north demoraliz- 8,000
was ruled out since he would have to c ros s too much in g bom
d es er t a nd t he s up pl y p ro bl em s would b e i n su r mo un t  bardment
able. Ins te ad , Polk d ec id ed o n a landing at Vera Cruz. from th e 6,000
Once that great city ha d fallen, the American army, fol warships
lowing the same path as Cortes ha d centuries earlier, g at he re d i n 4,000
would m ar ch o n the Mexican capital an d en d the war. t he h ar bo r.
Gen. Scott's plan, supported b y C om mo do re David Fur the r 2,000
Conner, th e naval commander, called for an invasion lowering of

0-1...---- ---
b efore the end of January. Conner wanted to avoid the civilian 362
terrible "Northers," th e s to rm s t h at an nu all y w r eak ed morale fol ccidental<........Died of Killed in Disease
havoc with Gulf weather an d could threaten the invasion lowed the Wounds Action
force w ith s in king . T ho se same N orth ers a ls o c le an se d American 'Most accidental deaths were due to explodingcanno
the s wa mp s of mosquitos an d eliminated yellow fever in ground-
the area for a few weeks following. By April, however, the i nv est i tu r e. D epr essi ng t he inhabitants even more, n
winds would disappear an d the s prin g rains w ou ld b ring relief appeared from the direction of Mexico City. In fac
forth a new generation of disease-bearing insects. troops from th e upland provinces of Mexico refused
Those biological interactions, of course, were unknown v e nt ur e i nt o th e coastal region fo r fear of La Vomit
to Scott. All he k ne w was tak in g Vera C ru z w ou ld no t be whose season they knew to be rapidly approaching.
easy an d he wanted to be in the high co untr y o f t he As time passed, Scott r es ol ve d t o finally take Ve
Sierra Madres b y s prin g, b efore La Vomito could whittle Cruz b y s to rm. He c ou ld n' t a fford to be i n t he low cou
away his army. T he best time to a ttac k, C on ne r an d Scott tr y w he n the yellow fever season hit - around 15 Ap
therefore agreed, was in late January. But both me n failed - an d though he estimated US losses would be close
to anticipate the ineptitude of the War Department. 2,000 if such an a ss au lt were c on du cted , h e sa w the mov
It's doubtful t he War Department c ou ld hav e s er ve d as inescapable.
th e Ameri can ca use a ny worse i f t he me n run ning it ha d On 25 March a brief cease-f i re w as sought by th
b ee n in the pay of th e Mexican government. I n c om ic Mexicans. T he foreign c on su ls ins id e the city a sk ed the
opera fashion they sent s hips to the w ro ng p orts , assign b e allowed to e va cu ate the ir civilians. Sco tt rejec te d th
e d t ro op s to th e wrong locations an d failed to deliver request. Dismayed, the Mexicans realized nothing wou
equipment where it was needed. Elements of t he Army en d the constant bombardment. Chaos was already wid
an d Navy arrived at the d es ig na te d a ss embly p oint, the sp read an d morale h ad s un k to a nonexistent level. A la
Island of Lobos, about 75 miles east of Tampico, in dribs Norther st ru ck t hat night and wor ked to b rea k t he l ast
an d d ra bs . It was mad de ning to Scott, w ho se attention to what psychological strength r em ai ne d t o t he d ef en der
detail h ad e arn ed h im t he n ic kn am e "Old Fuss and On the 27th, after a day of negotiations, the city an d i
Feathe rs, " a s the e ntire m on th o f February slipped away fortress of Viua surrendered t o Scott. Two days l at er t
a mi d t he conf usion. As i f t o remind him of what disease Mexican garrison was allowed to m ar ch o ut to s ta ck the
could do, an outbreak o f s ma llpo x c au se d the e ntire 2n d weapons an d t h en con t in ue westward. By noon Scott
Pennsylvania Regiment to be quarantined on Lobos. forces were in sole possession of Vera Cruz.
THE LANDING Scott couldn't afford to dally, an d h e b eg an to a dv an
Finally, on 9 March 1847, two months behind sched along th e National Highway toward Mexico City on
ule, Scott launched th e f i rs t a m ph i bi ou s invasion in A pril. A t Cerro Gordo a mo tl ey co ll ect io n of Mexica
A me ri ca n m il it ar y h is to ry . It was a roaring success. I n troops, th e so-called "Army of the East," attempted
less than five hours 10,000 me n ha d l and ed w it ho u t a h alt the A me rica n a dv an ce . On th e 18th Scott's forc
single casualty. Scott an d his soldiers besieged Vera Cruz wo n a crushing victory against t he m. He continued
an d maneuvered to completely invest it while the avy a dv an ce al ong t he h ig hw ay higher in to th e mountain
blockaded and bombarded it. p as sing the city of Jalapa an d the fortress of Perote. B
Siege life was miserable for both th e besiegers and the he could finally breathe a sigh of rel ief as h e c ro ss ed t h
besieged. Mexican skirmishers kept th e American sen Sie rra Ma dres ran ge. H e' d passed th e yellow fever lin
tries wary an d trigger happy. Sand was everywhere a nd in which meant only one enemy, no longer two, remained.
every thing. Happily living in t ha t s a nd were sand fleas  THE COST
all o f th em hungry. Battling them took on almost the While t he American Army in Mexico ne ve r s uf fe red
s am e i mp or ta nc e a s fighting th e Mexicans, with some major yellow fever epidemic, disease did extract a terrib
unusual results. Young Lt. Robert E. Lee a nd a co llea gu e toll. In addition to La Vomito, diarrhea, d ysent ery an
hit on t he i de a of covering themselves with pork grease typhoid claimed lives a mid the p oo r s a ni ta t io n of th
to keep t he p es ky c re at ur es f ro m f ea st in g on them. The camps. A nd st il l other diseases - measles, smallpo
smelly experiment ha d no impact on the fleas, bu t cost mumps, syphilis, gonorrhea an d ch ol er a - claimed liv
Lee some of his friends for a time. Others tried to deal in lesser numbers.
with the fleas by enclosing themselves completely in their In totalin g all d ea th s a mo ng A me rica n s oldiers in th
canvas sleeping bags, bu t that usually only resulted in Mexican-American War, we find 1,192 were killed
th e complete en casement o f th e ba g by an even larger action, 529 d ied of wounds received in b at tl e, 362 su
number of fleas. f er ed a cc id en ta l d ea th s, a nd a staggering 1 1, 15 5 s u
More ominously, cases of La Vomito b eg an to o ccur in cu mb ed to disease. Thus illness t ook a toll seven time
small numbers a lmos t as soon a s the A merica ns lan de d, greater than that of Mexican weapons. Small wonder the
though no t in e pide mic s tren gth. Scott knew, tho ug h, it t ha t i n preparing his campaign Scott ha d sought to avo
was only a m a tt er o f time before an epidemic that would a dd in g to the count o f v ictims for h is unseen enemies.
David
cripple his army would occur. - W Tschan
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Bombardment of Vera Cruz, hand colored lithograph by Adolphe-jean-Baptiste B

d elay s ev eral o f h is c omma nd ers pressed for an all Though S co tt w as anxious to l eav e th e c
ou t assault on t he city gates, as t he arrival of th e b ef or e th e a dv en t of La Vomito, h e still l ac ke d
rainy season in April w ou ld b e a cc ompa nied by La transport needed to support hi s a rm y du rin
Vomito, yellow fever (see sidebar), which might dec 2 60 mile march to Mexico City. Because o f co
imate th e arm y i f they were still i n the marshy low s io n in the Q ua rterma ster D ep artmen t in Wash
lands at that time. But Scott refused, stating he pre ton a nd t he l oss of m an y d ra ft animals when
f er re d to t ak e t he place by "headwork, t he slow sci ships carrying them fou nd ered , h is req uisition
entific process," r at he r t ha n b y s to rm in g it with 800 wagons an d 7,000 horses an d mules rema
h eav y los se s to h is tro op s an d the civilians inside. only partially filled.
When the weather abated, the expedition's heavy Polk mistakenly thought Scott could make up
artillery was l an de d a nd sited behind field works deficiencies by the seizure an d purchase of Mex
1,000 yards south of th e city. On 22 March th e stock. But though s om e h or se s were r ou nd ed
bombardment b eg an . T ho ug h Sco tt's lO -inch mor f ro m a dj ac en t estancias, t he e xp ed it io n r em a
tars c au se d e no rm ou s d am ag e w it hi n Vera Cruz, s ho rt o f th e number req uire d to p ro pe rly o utfi
neither they no r hi s 24-pounder batteries were army. Finally, r at he r t ha n ris k h is command to
capable of destroying the thick walls. low fever, on 8 Ap ril Scott ordered Twiggs to
At Scott's request, Commodore Matthew C. Perry, th e road to Jalapa. Worth's an d Patterson's brig
who'd relieved Conner, landed three 68-pounder followed the next day.
shell g un s a nd t hr ee 3 2- po un de r solid shot guns.
That naval battery, served by crews f ro m t he Home Cerro Gordo
Squadron's ships, opened fire on th e 2 4t h. T he J al ap a, 74 mil es i nl and , wa s located in fe
effect was devastating. As th e southern wall began country 4 ,6 80 f ee t above th e coastal fever
to crumble under the imp ac t, o ve rtures for a cease Scott planned to base his ar my there befor e p
f ire w er e made by the consuls of England, Spain in g on to the Mexican capital along th e Nati
an d Pru ss ia. But Sco tt refus ed , d eman ding the s ur Highway, th e same route Cortes ha d taken.
render of the city an d its garrison. Santa Anna, who'd returned to the ca pita l a
On 29 March, with all hi s batteries along th e le adi ng his a rm y back from Buena Vista, corr
south wall destroyed, Morales resigned hi s com an ti cip ated t he American commander's intent
m an d and his s uc ce ss or a gre ed t o Scott's terms. D etermine d to k ee p the Yanquis from climbing
Unwilling to hold th e garrison a s p riso ne rs , Sco tt of t he fever belt, he placed a newly rai sed arm
allowed them to march ou t o f the city a fter receiv 12,000, including several hundred of the rece
ing the ir p arole no t to take up arms against the US paroled Vera C ru z g a rr is on , at Cerro Go rd o
again. He ha d taken t he city at a cost of only 19 miles east of Jalapa.
de ad a nd 57 w o un d ed . I sol ated , th e g ar ri so n in There th e National Highway t hr ea de d i ts
Ulloa surrendered the s ame day. b et we en t he d ee p gorge of th e Rio del Plan to
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s ou th a nd EI T elegrafo, a 5 00 foo t hill, to the n orth . infantry under c om ma nd o f Lt . Col. William S.

The p os it io n was a strong one, forcing an attack up Harney, to support Gardner's effort. La Atalaya fell,
t he N at io na l Highway into a n a rr o w c o rr i do r bu t the follow o n a tt em pt against El Telegrafo was
b etwe en the riv er an d hill. The Mexican left rested repelled.
on La Atalaya, a second hill 1,000 yards northeast Alerted by the appearance of Americans on his
of EI Telegrafo. Beyond La Atalaya la y deeply left, San ta An na, though s till c on vinc ed the main
ravined terrain Santa Anna judged to be impassible. a ss au lt w ou ld c ome up the highway, reinforced El
Anticipating th e Americans w ould ma ke th ei r Telegrafo with additional artillery an d two infantry
attack up the roa d, San ta A nn a p la ce d three b atte r regiments.
ies, totall ing 19 g un s an d 1,800 men, b et we en t he Scott, realiZing his plan was unraveling, ordered
Rio d el P lan an d the National Highway. Confident a general assa ult for the 18th. Early that morning,
t he r ou gh t er ra in would p re ve nt a n a tt ac k on his after an artillery duel between the Mexican guns on
left, h e pu t only a single b at te ry o f four-pounders EI Telegrafo an d a battery of 24-pounders just man
an d 100 me n on EI Telegrafo, an d only a few look handled onto La Atalaya, the Americans advanced
outs on La Atalaya. The bulk of his force h e kept in in th ree columns. Shields sw ung wide to com e
c am p n ea r t he village of Cerro Gordo, r ead y to be down on the Mexican camp from t he n or th , while
deployed against th e enemy as they came up th e Brig. Gen. B en ne tt Riley's b riga de c ut its way d ow n
highway. to the highway to join Shields in h is attack on th e
Twiggs' advance guard made contact with a camp. A t th e same time, Harney, leading Persifor
group of Mexican lancers on 11 April; the following Smi th's brigade, dr ove th e e ne my o ff EI Telegrafo.
da y a rec on na is sa nc e in force rev ea le d the e ne my 's Fearful of having their retreat c ut off, the Mexican
positions. But Twiggs' or der fo r a n i m me di at e regiments at C erro G ordo b e ga n t o d is in te gr at e,
attack straight up the highway was countermanded their me n scattering into the countryside.
by Patterson, hi s s en io r, w ho elected to wait fo r The onl y flaw was Pillow's mi sh and l in g o f hi s
Scott's arrival on th e 1 4t h. A ft er s ur ve yi ng th e brigade. Ordered to attack th e three batteries
strong Mexican position c om m an d in g t he road, b etwe en the go rg e an d t he highway, he was la te in
Scott ordered his engineers to find a way around forming his regiments a nd t he n mistakenly brought
t he ir left. U nd er Capt. Ro be rt E. Lee's d irec tion a his me n within close range of the Mexican batteries.
path was found n or th o f La Atalaya, an d during the Within m inu te s the le ad re gim ent i n the c olumn,
16th it was made passable for infantry and, w it h the 2nd Tennessee, ha d taken 80 casualties. Pillow,
d ifficu lty, e ve n for a rtille ry . Late that night Scott paralyzed by indecision, then failed to b ring up his
ordered Twiggs to m ov e a ro un d t he Mexican left other regiments to support them. Fortunately, when
an d c ut t hr ou gh to th e National Highway behind th e Mexican battery commanders sa w th e road
their batteries the following morning. be hind the m ha d be en cut, t hey su r ren d er ed an d
Twiggs' a dv an ce r e ma in e d u nd is c ov e re d u nt il Pillow's units were spared further losses.
about noon, when lookouts on La Atalaya spotted By 10:00 a.m. organized Mexican resistance ha d
them an d opened fire. Without orders, Lt. Frank collapsed. American losses amounted to 63 me n
Gardner charged up the hill l eadi ng a c om pan y o f killed an d 367 wounded ou t of the 8,500 involved.
th e 7th Infantry Regiment. Realizing his attempt to Over 3,000 Mexicans, including five generals, were
swing back on the highway was now compromised, captured along with 40 guns, w hi le al l t he r es t,
Twiggs sent th e men of the 1s t Artillery, acting as including Santa Anna, were forced to flee westward.

US Mex

The Battle o f Infantry. _

CavaIry[;jjjjjjl [;jjjjjjI

Cerro Gordo o
Artillery.

Yas "1000
1 7 -1 8 A p r il , 1847
o Met IS

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But He Didn't Stay BouKht

In 1846, after Gen. Zachary Taylor's victories at Palo Taylor, though, who by that time wa s (unfairly) b
Alto an d Reseca de Palma during May, President James K. called "General Delay" by an increasingly hostile pr
Polk anticipated an early en d to hostilities with Mexico. continued to remain on the Rio Grande, preoccupied
The campaign along the Rio Grande, regarded as the pri t ra in in g a n d assimilating th e t ho us an ds o f volunt
ma ry th ea ter of war, was going well, an d when the thou into his army.
sa nds of v ol un te e rs p ou ri ng i nt o hi s camps h ad be en On 16 August, Conner informed Polk that Santa A
adequately trained, Taylor would move south i nt o t he t he ha d arrived on a merchant s hi p of f Vera Cruz a nd
Mexican province of Nuevo Leon. With m uc h o f n or th er n been permitted t o go ashor e. The s am e letter also inc
Mexico thus controlled by Taylor's army, an d the mouth ed the ba d news Santa Anna, having assured himse
of the Rio Grande an d the coastal cities of Tampico an d support among th e factions plotting against the inc
Vera Cruz blockaded by the US Navy, Polk was confident bent President Paredes, was now declaring he intende
the government in Mexico City would agree to a negotiat l ea d h is countrymen to victory over t he hated Yan
ed peace. To further increase the pressure, Polk also con All hope Santa Anna was going to be amenable to a p
tinued to pursue th e war i n t he f ar west. in which territorial concessions would be mad
With his desire for the annexation of California upper exchange for dollars vanished with the arrival of the c
most in his mind, Polk, on 31 October 1845, the day war modore's letter.
was declared, ha d ordered Col. Stephen W. Kearney, then Still reluctant to broaden the scope of t he war by s
at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, to take Santa Fe in th e in g an army deep in to souther n Mexico, Polk ho
Mexican province of New Mexico. From there, Kearney Taylor's advance on the capital of Nuevo Leon might
was to p ro ce ed t o t he pr ovince o f Upper California an d lead to peace. On 11 October, news of Taylor's vic
complete its conques t in conjunction with Capt. John C. over Gen. Pedro de Ampudia at Monterey, in Nuevo L
Fremont, o f t he T op og ra ph ic al E ng in ee rs , w ho w as reached Washington. But in contrast to t he wild ent h
already fomenting revolt against the Mexican authorities as m w it h which t he fall of the Mexican city was gre
in that region. To f ur th er t ho se des igns , Polk als o dis by th e American public, Polk received th e news co
patched Marine Lt. Archibald Gillespie to California with For, in violation of w ha t t he president claimed were
orders to assist F re mon t. T ho se a ct io ns wer e all taken express orders, Taylor h a d p er mi tt ed Ampudia to l
during the four months before Taylor moved south from th e city with hi s army i nt ac t. As Pol k r em ar ke d t o
Corpus Christi. cabinet: " If Taylor ha d made p ri so ne rs o f A mp ud
Polk also fished in the troubled waters of Mexican poli army it would probably have ended the war in Mexico
tics to achieve his goal of incorporating the northern tier With Santa Anna raising a new army, an d all hope
of Mexican p ro vi nc es in to th e U n it ed S ta te s. On 13 negotiated peace gone, Polk an d hi s advisors real
February 1846 an ag en t of Santa Anna (who'd been only a c am pa ign de ep in to the h ea rt of Mexico w
de po se d a s pr es ide nt o f Mexico an d was then living in bring a n e nd to the war.
exile in Havana), Col. Alejandro Jose Atocha, visited the The conquest of t he e ne my c ap it al by a move so
White House. The colonel brought with hi m a surprising from the Rio Grande was briefly considered, b ut
offer from Santa Anna: for $30 million EI Generalissimo, quickly discarded when it was realized the logistical
upon returning to Mexico an d regaining power there, port needed to maintain an army over 700 miles o f s
would <;ede to th e US all of New Mexico an d northern i n ho sp i tab le t er rai n simply wasn't available. Maj.
California. Winfield Scott, w ho ' d c om m an d ed th e US Army s
The money, the ex-dictator claimed, would be us ed to 1841, offered an alternative plan: the seizure of the
"stabilize" the Mexican government an d rebuild the army. of Vera C ruz, followed by an advance on Mexico C
However, a s how of force by the Americans on the Rio Though Polk, a hi gh ly partisan Democrat, disliked
Grande a nd t he c on ti nu ed blockade of Mexico's Carib distrusted Scott, an ardent Whig, he was persuaded
b ean p o rt s would also be necessary to make the Mexicans his advisors the plan was feasible.
believe Santa Anna ha d no option bu t to negotiate. Taylor, also a Whig, was proposed as t he l ea de r of
Th e meeting en d ed inconclusively, b u t a ft er t he new expedition. But the President, suspicious o f t ha t
American triumphs at Palo Alto an d R es eca de Palma, eral's presidential aspirations, rejected the idea. That
Polk concluded Santa Anna's convoluted proposal might Scott himself as th e
have merit. On 13 May n ex t m o s t logical
he sent a message to choice. Bu t t h o u g h
Commodore David E. he'd worked tirelessly
Conner, whose squad- in support of the wa r
ro n wa s blockading effort, Polk remained
Vera Cruz, to p ermi t convinced Scott wa s
San ta An na t o pass un to o hostile to hi s ad
hindered i f he chose to ministration an d might
return from his exile on also b ec om e a danger
Cuba. ous political opponent
But as th e summer after th e war. Only
of 1846 wore on, Polk when Secretary of War
b e c a m e increasingly William 1. Marcy point
i mp at i en t . Th e news ed ou t there were no
from the fa r west was D e m oc r at i c g e n e ra l s
good, with Monterey, wh o could m a t c h
California, f all in g to Scott's demonstrated
Commodor e J o h n B. ability wa s he g iv en
Sloat early in July, an d command of the expe
Santa Fe surrendering dition on 19 November General Antonio Lopez de S
President James K. Polk. to Kearney in August. 1846. An
40
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T ho ug h the re were s ev eral p oints alon g the Nation Patterson accompanied th e departing u ni ts , as
al Highway west of C erro G ordo where th e Mex- their withdrawal left hi m w itho ut a command com
ican s c ou ld have made a no th er s ta nd , San ta Anna, mensurate w ith h is ran k. He played no further part
h is a rmy n ow little more than a mob, c hos e to with in the campaign. Pillow, who'd been slightly wound
draw all the way to the capital. The following day ed at Cerro Gordo, took advantage of his disabled
Scott occupied Jalapa with Patterson's an d Twiggs' status to return home t oo . O nc e back there, he
brigades, while Worth p us he d o n to take Perote. man ag ed to get a promotion to major general from
President Polk, his old law partner, much t o t he dis
Cutting Loose gust o f tho se who'd witnessed his incompetence at
Logistics now became the primary American con Cerro Gordo.
c er n. T he continuing s ho rt ag e o f t ra ns po rt , t he With h is a rm y t hu s r ed uc ed t o 7,113 effectives,
losses inflicted by guerrilla raids on th e supply
tra in s, c ombine d w ith the need to support the gar Scott, after
protect his lengthening line ofat communication,
leaving garrisons Jalapa an d Perote to
con
risons stationed along th e National Highway in tinued westward. On 15 May, Worth, after defeating
order to protect the line of communication as they an attack on h is s up ply tra in by 3,000 Mexican cav
moved d ee pe r i nt o Mexico, al l h amp ered th e alry, occupied Puebla, just 70 m il es from Mexico
advance. Though c om ba t lo sses h ad b ee n light, City, without opposition. Scott joined hi m there on
many me n were falling victim to " diarrh ea blu e," a t he 28th, w it h Twiggs arriving a few days later. By
v irulen t form o f d ys en te ry that e ithe r k ille d a ma n this p oint, tho ug h, th e garrison d etachment s an d
wi thin days o r r ed uc ed hi m to an invalid too weak los se s d ue to illne ss ha d left the c omma nd in g gen
to march. eral w ith little more than 5,000 me n - too few to
Late in April, the me n in s ev en of the volunteer continue the advance.
regiments whose enlistments were to expire during On 31 M ay, Scott consolidated his army by order
May an d J un e w ere p olle d as to the ir willin gne ss to ing t he g ar ri so ns at Jalapa an d Perote to come to
reenlist. To Sco tt's ch ag rin , o nly fou r office rs an d Puebla. Though strongly protected convoys could
64 soldiers volunteered out of 3,000. Rather than still fight their way through the guerrilla b an ds t ha t
hold them to the en d of their enlistments a nd t hu s p row led t he at ion al Highway, t he American ar my
expose them to yellow fever when they embarked at w as effectively c ut o ff fro m the c oas t. Fortu na te ly
Vera C ru z for transportation back to the US, Scott for t he in vader s, t he fertile c ou nt ry around Puebla
granted them early discharge. provided food an d forage enough to enable them to

Battle of Cerro Gordo, hand colored lithograph by Adolphe-jean-Baptiste Bayot.

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Lake
Texcoco

Lake
Chalco '.)

remain s elf-su ffic ie nt. D urin g this h alt, Sco tt a ls o Shields, an d a s ec on d under Lt. Col. Watson, m
kept his me n busy with training, repairing gu n car up of the Marines an d yet another volunteer
riages an d supply wagons, an d breaking the ha lf ment. In Pillow's division, Brig. Gen. George Cad
wild h orse s tak en fro m the n ea rb y estancias f or u se a der c omma nde d two recently recruited regim
by Harney's understrength cavalry brigade. of regulars an d the Voltigeur Regiment. (Traine
As th e summer passed, reinforcements arrived light infantry, those me n were u ni f or med i n
from th e coast. Pillow, returning from the US, i ns te ad o f t he r e gu la ti on A rmy b lu e. ) Brig.
brought 2,000 me n with him. Thus by 8 July, Scott's Fr a nklin Pierce co mman d ed Pillow's s ec
overall strength was over 10,000, though some brigade, also of two regiments.
2,000 remai n ed i n cap aci t at ed by sic kne ss or The American infantry were armed with pe
wo un ds . Anxious to close w ith San ta Anna b ef or e sion rifle m us ke ts , s up er io r t o the Mexican f
he could further imp ro ve the defenses of Mexico locks in b o t h ra nge a nd rate of fire. Th e
City, Scott c ontinue d to delay until Brig. Gen. pounder flying b atte ries were a ss ig ne d to the
Franklin Pierce a rr iv ed w it h another 2,500 men, si on s on an as-needed basis, while Maj. Benj
including
me n underthLt. e Provisional
Col. Samuel Marine Battalion of 300
E. Wa tso n, a lo ng w ith Huger,
m an d of the 2
of the O4-pounders
rd na nc e C orps
an, dc on tinu ed mor
10-inch in
some additional guns for the siege train. making up the siege train.
Following the arrivals of Pillow an d Shields, Scott Outside the army proper, Scott's inspector g
reo rg an iz ed h is a rmy into fou r d ivisions an d a 500 al, Col. Ethan Allen Hitchcock, a scholarly ma n
strong cavalry brigade. Harney commanded the cav a talen t for intrig ue, c re ated a n etwo rk of spies
alry, now composed of squadrons f ro m th e 1st, 2n d informers. Drawing on the services of foreign
an d 3r d Dragoons. Th e two brigades of TWiggs' chants residing in Mexico city, along with the p
division were c omma nde d by Brig. Gen. Persifor F. cal enemies of Santa Anna, he managed to
Smith an d Col. B en ne tt Riley. In W orth 's d iv is io n Scott informed of the defenders' efforts. Hitch
the b riga de s we re led by Lt. Col. John Garland an d also recruited Manuel Dominquez, a notorious
Col. Newman S. Clarke. Each of those brigades con dit, a lo ng w it h 20 0 of his followers, to ac
siste d of t hr e e r eg im e nt s. Q uitman's division, guides, c ou ri er s a nd spies. Possessing an
smaller than the others, ha d one brigade of two vol matched knowledge of th e country, they se
unteer regiments c om m an d ed b y Brig. Gen. James faithfully through the remainder of the campaig

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On 7 August 1847, then, with no fu rt he r rein Learning o f t he en em y f lan k move, Santa Anna,
f o rc e m en t s e x pe c te d a nd n ot hi ng more to be wh o ha d t he a dv a nt a ge o f i n te r io r lines, moved
accomplished through reorganization, Scott moved quickly, placing a strong force at San Antonio, two
w es t f ro m Puebla with 1 0, 73 8 m e n, headed fo r miles north of Scott's new position. He then order
Mexico City. In hi s typically flamboyant style he ed Valencia, with 4,000 me n an d 23 pieces of artil
wrote to t he s ec re ta ry of war: "We had to throw lery, t o o cc upy San Angel, on the C on treras roa d.
away th e s ca bb ar d a nd a dv an ce w it h t he naked Between those two positions la y th e Pedregal, an
sword in hand!" apparently impassible wasteland of volcanic rock.
The decision to cut loose from his line of com Unwilling to attack San A nton io d irec tly, Sco tt
munications was greeted with unanimous condem decided to turn the Mexican position by placing two
n at io n b y military authorities around th e western divisions on the Contreras r oa d s ou th o f San Angel
w orld . Pre side nt Polk r ea ct ed b y saying it was "a
great military error." British n ew sp ap er s scof fed
an d sending his engineers to find a way across t he
Pedregal. Du rin g t he e ven in g of th e 18 th , Lee
tha t, like N ap oleo n in Russia, th e Yankee general returned with th e information a rough t ra ck d id
ha d over-reached himself. The Duke of Wellington indeed ru n a cr os s t he southern edge of th e lava
exclaimed: "Scott is lost! He c an no t c ap tu re the city bed.
an d he cannot fall back on his base!" Earlier that day Santa Anna h ad o rd ered Valencia
to retire to a point midway between San Antonio
The Valley of Mexico an d San Angel, f ro m w he re his b ri ga de wo ul d b e i n
Leaving Puebla, Scott kept h is d ivision s w ithin a a p os it io n to ei th er support the garrison at the for
half-day's march of each other. They slowly climbed me r place or block an A mer ican ad vance up th e
t he 10,000 f oot Rio Frio Pass where, at its h ig he st Contreras road. But Valencia, confident he could
p oi nt , t he highway became only a narrow defile. stop an y a tte mpt to c ro ss t he w as te la nd to th e
Surprised to find that natural strongpoint unde Contreras road w it h his battery of 23 guns, chose
fen ded , the A me rican s b eg an the ir d es ce nt into the instead to move his b ri ga de two mil es s ou th o f San
Valley of Mexico, actually a high plateau surround Angel to a hill o verlo ok in g the s ou th we st tip of th e
ed by e ve n h ig he r mountain ranges. Mexico City, Pedregal.
with its 200,000 inhabitants, lay in the center. On the m or ni ng o f 19 September, Pillow's van
Since much of the area a ro un d t he capital was gu ar d, wi th o rd er s t o wi den t he path discovered by
marsh land, access t o t he city was l imi te d to cause Lee for the p as sa ge of artillery, appeared in front of
ways r ai se d above t he wa ter soaked ground. Each al en cia' s p o si ti o n, a r an ch o a t Padierna, where
causeway had an e le va ted a qu ed uc t run ning d ow n they were immediately b r ou g ht u n der cannon fire.
i ts c en te r to provide the city with water. Where Supported by o nly o ne s ix -p ou nd er b at te ry a n d a
each causeway entered the city t he re was a garita, a few mountain howitzers, Pillow was forced to with
fortified customs house. Easily defended, Mexico draw. However, while the Mexicans were distracted,
City h ad n ot fallen to an invader since Cortes' time. Riley's brigade, followed by Persifor Smith's an d
And behind tho se d efen se s w aite d San ta A nn a w ith Cadwalader's units, crossed the Contreras road one
25,000 m en a nd 104 can non. His c or ps o f l anc er s mile n or th o f Valencia's position. They then moved
an d dr ago ons alone was half the size of the entire into a ravine just northwest of the Mexicans.
invading army. Late in the a fterno on , San ta Anna, a le rted by th e
Anticipating Scott w ou ld c on ti nu e t o a dv an ce sound of gunfire, arrived with o ve r 4 ,0 00 me n at
toward the capital along the National Highway, San San Angel, which thus pu t three US brigades bet-
ta Anna fortified El Penon, a 4 50 foo t hill o verlook 
ing the road, with 30 guns an d a 7,000 ma n garri
son. To strike at Scott's left an d r ea r when he t ri ed
to f or ce hi s way past El Penon, t he d ic ta to r sta The Battle o f
tioned Maj. Gen. Gabriel Valencia with another
7,000 m en s ou th of th e h igh way , a lo ng w ith Maj. Contreras
Gen. Juan Alvarez's cavalry brigade. 19-20 August, 1847
After th e US v a ng u a rd r e ac h ed Ayotla on 12
August, Scott paused to send forward Lee and other
e ng in ee rs to rec on no iter. T he y reported El Penon
c ou ld b e tak en , but at a heavy price. An approach
along th e r o ad b o rd e ri ng th e north side of Lake
Xochimilco, through t he t ow n of Mexicalzingo, was
then considered. But other surveys revealed that
p la ce w as a ls o h ea vily fortified a nd m anne d by a
large garrison.
Scott d eci de d to fl ank t ho se st ro ng ly h el d posi
tions an d a ss au lt th e city f rom th e s ou th , leaving
Twiggs in front of El Penon to mask the movement.
He t oo k a r ou gh but serviceable r oa d t ha t r an south
of Lakes Chalco an d Xochimilco to e stab lish a n ew
base at San Augustin. Marching in a l on g column,
the American divisions presented Alvarez's cavalry
a fine opportunity to attack. But the Mexican caval
ry c omma nd er wa s slow to rea ct, c on fining h imse lf
to harassing Twiggs' division when it finally took
the Chalco road to rejoin th e re st of the force. By
18 August the f our divisions were reconcentrated //

at San Augustin.

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Assault at Contreras, hand colored lithograph by Adolphe-jean-Baptiste B

ween two larger Mexican forces. But Santa Anna, in with hi s riding crop, ordered Maj. Gen. Nic
stead of attacking, ordered Valencia to s pi ke h is Bravo, a t Sa n Antonio, an d Brig. Gen. Anto
guns an d retire to Sa n Angel, slipping past th e Ganoa, at Mexicalzingo, to w it hd ra w b ef or e
Americans in th e dark. But again V al en ci a d is - were flanked by the Americans now pressing up
ob eyeof
front d his
himchief,
were saen di dy
lrea ng beaten
h im woand
rd t that
he Yanquis in
he would
Contreras r oad. To cover their retreat, Maj.
Manuel Rincon was directed to hold Churubusc
finish destroying them the next morning. the j un ct ur e o f the San Antonio an d Mexicalz
That night, as Valencia's me n prematurely cele roads.
brated their anticipated vi cto ry b y c ar ou sin g i n
their bivouac, scouts s en t o ut by Smith, who com Churubusco
manded the three-brigade US force, f ou nd a route The right fla nk of the C hurubusc o pos ition
to the west of th e Mexican defenses. At 3:00 a.m. ed on th e Convent of San Mateo, w hi ch was
the Americans, now reinforced by Shield's brigade, rounded by a garden wall an d earthworks pie
quietly worked their way to t he r ea r of the uns us  for s ev en guns. I t wa s defended by 1 ,8 00 m
pecting enemy. As they prepared to attack, Lee including the San Patricio Battalion of foreign
reached Scott with a request from Smith for a diver untee rs . Many of the 204 San Patricio soldiers w
sionary move in f ro nt of Valencia's position to in fac t des erte rs from Za cha ry Ta ylor's army,
mask the effort about to begin to his rear. Quick to immigrants who'd a cc epte d Mexican offers of
respond to his subordinate's initiative, Scott order land an d th e opportunity to serve in a C ath
ed Pierce to demonstrate in front of the Mexicans at army. Trained artillerymen, they also serve
daybreak. infantry an d were r eg ar de d as elite t roo ps. As
Just at dawn, as the Mexican s entrie s were being stood an ex cel len t ch an ce of being hung if
distracted by the sudden appearance of Pierce's tured, the y c ould be counted on t o fight t o t he l
me n east o f t he ir camp, S mit h's b ri ga des h it t hei r Some 300 yards to the east of the conve nt,
bivoua c from the rear. Firs t the y fired a volley then bridge over the Churubusco River was defende
c ha r ge d w it h b a yo ne t s f ixed. Wi th in 1 7 minutes a fortified bridgehead in which Santa Anna pl
Valencia's command was shattered, with 700 killed, on e of hi s best regiments. Two others l in ed
over 800 t ak en prisoner an d the rest fleeing north n o r th b ank o f t he river f ro m t he c on ven t t o sev
ward on t he C on tr er as roa d. T he Ame rica ns lost hundred yards east of the bridgehead. To preve
only 60 killed o r w ou nd ed and, to t he ir delight, t he flank attack left of Churubusco, infantry
six-pounders lost at Buena Vista wer e f ou nd to be deploye d a long the road leading northward to
among the captured artillery. San Antonio garita.
At San Angel, Santa Anna, a fter s te pping into the As Bravo began his withdra wa l from San An
road to slash furiously at th e retreating soldiers io, Worth sent Clarke's brigade through th e bo
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The Battle
of the Pedregal paralleling the route of the retreat Churubus
ing Mexicans, a nd orde red Garland's brigade to pro 2 0 A ug us t 1 8
ceed up th e road from S an Aug usti n. When they
sa w Clarke's men t h reat en i ng t h ei r left, th e ra w
militia tha t had been left i n San Antonio to cover
the retreat s pi ke d t he ir gu ns an d f led n or th , min
gling with Bravo's baggage train. To ad d to t he con
fusion, when th e head of Bravo's c olumn re ac hed
t he b ri dg e it col li ded wit h t he rearguard covering
the retreat from San Angel. Observing the mass of
fleeing Mexicans struggling to c ro ss th e bridge,
Scott ordered Twiggs to take th e conve nt to clear
the way for an attack o n w ha t w as l ef t o f Bravo's
command.
Con fi dent t he Mexicans wer e d em or al ized aft er
the ir e a rl ie r d e fe a ts , Twiggs' r e gime nts were
advancing t hr ou g h t he tall corn surrounding th e
convent when, suddenly, Rincon opened up with a
salvo from hi s battery. Fo r n ea rl y t hr ee hours
Rincon's men, firing from behind t he con vent gar
de n walls, beat off repeated American charges. Even
Taylor's recaptured six-pounders were bested i n t he
o 1000
artillery duel with the San Patricios an d were forced Garlalld

to withdraw after losing 24 gunners. o 1000

While t he s tr ug gl e for t he c on ve nt continued,

Wor th 's two b ri gades r each ed t he f or ti fi ed br id ge
head on th e south side of the Rio Churubusco. deployed in ditches behind th e road s topped the US
Again a spirited defense checked th e American brigades cold with their accurate fire. By 3:00 p.m.,
charges, while m ar sh y g ro un d a nd ditches prevent though all of Scott's divisions except for Quitman's
ed Duncan's battery f ro m going i nt o action. On the at San Augustin ha d been committed, the Mexican
American left an attack by Shields an d Pierce was lines remained unbroken.
launched against th e road leading n o rt h from But then S an ta Anna, f eari ng Shields was abo ut
Chur ubusc o. Bu t 2,200 Mexican i n fan t ry men to o ve rr un t he r eg im en ts defending the highway,

Battle at Churubusco, hand colored l i th o gr a ph b y Adolphe-jean-Baptiste Bayot.

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 - ---------I--- - G - - - · ~ ~ ~
5/12/2018 Comma nd Ma ga z ine #040 - slide pdf.c om
0't:,= _ - = = : : : : : J I _ c : : : ~ Y d " s - = = = - - = = ......000
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avaJryc::;;iiiiil c::;;iiiiiI
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--...,
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arez

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reinforced t he m by t aking a detachment fr om th e

regiment deployed along the Churubusco River east
o f the b ridg eh ea d. T ha t e na bled G arla nd 's b riga de
t o o ut fl an k t he s ho rt en ed Mexican line an d cross
the river. Alarmed at the appearance of Americans
moving tow ard the highw ay behind them, so me o f
the defenders of the b ridg eh ea d fled n orth . As fire
from th e bridgehead slackened, Clarke's me n
c ro ss ed the d itch in f ro nt o f it and, scrambling over
th eTparapet
he roll up with
ofbayonets fixed,defense
the Mexican took it. accelerated.
With t he ir l ef t threatened, th e regiments between
the convent an d the bridge l os t h ea rt a nd retreated
t ow ar d t he city. T ha t en abl ed D un ca n to place two
six-pounders west of the convent an d t ak e it under
fire. In response to that new threat, Rincon shifted
a gu n fro m the s ou th e nd o f t he parapets encircling Armistice
th e convent. But it s w i th d raw al w eaken ed those Early the next morning Brig. Gen. Igancio Mo
d efen ses, en ab li ng th e 3r d I n fa n t ry R e gi m en t to Villamil entered the American camp under a fla
force its way into the c on ve nt g ro un ds . truce, carrying a request from Mexican Foreign
There followed several minutes of hand-to-hand ister Francisco Pacheco for negotiations. Nichol
fighting before th e garrison abandoned it s guns T ri st , a US diplomat accompanying Scott's h
an d r et re at ed to make a last stand ins id e the con quarters who'd been authorized b y Polk to ne
v en t. But th e Americans, following them closely, ate with the Mexican government, made the sug
also surged inside, still thrusting w ith the ir bayo t ion for a short armistice to allow for peace talk
n ets. T hree times the Mexican commander r ai se d a T ri st 's objective was t o s ec ur e a t re at y in w
white flag an d each tim e t he San Patricios, fighting· th e Mexicans officially c ed ed t he t er ri to ry th
d es pe ra te ly , p u ll ed i t down. Finally, Capt. ].M. al rea dy l os t t o Amer ican arms. But both Scott
Smith of th e 3 rd In fa n try r ai se d a white h an dk er  Trist were naive in bel ieving t he wily S an ta A
c hie f to sig nal a ha lt to w hat wa s becoming a actually intended to rea ch an agreement. The te
slaughter. The garrison, still containing 1,200 effec of th e armistice, signed on 23 August, permi
tives, 85 o f t he m San Patricios, surrendered. the Mexicans to bring supplies into the beleagu
As t he co nv en t fell, Shields r al lied h is me n an d city w hile a ls o allOWing Scott's quartermaster
again attacked t he i nf an tr y d ep lo ye d along th e purchase food an d other p ro vi si on s t her e. A
r oad. At first they resisted stubbornly, bu t when stipulation was that neither side would reinforc
Worth's me n appeared to the ir rear the y joine d the strengthen its positions during the stand down.
l on g c ol um n of S an ta A n na 's m e n fleeing into Tr ist 's meeti n gs w ith t he Mexican negotia
Mexico City. With the entire Mexican army in disor between 27 August an d 6 September produ
dered retreat, th e van of Worth's division linked nothing bu t p er emp t or y d emand s on th e pa
with Shields' a nd p u rs u ed them fo r tw o miles th e latter for the r e tur n of California an d
before h alting . In on e disastrous day Santa Anna Mexico. In the mea ntime, San ta A nn a was o rd e
ha d lost about 10,000 men, a third of his command, all the s oldiers w ithin 30 lea gu es o f Mexico Ci
with the remainder scattered an d disorganized. join hi s a rm y, w hi le also w or ki ng f ur io us l
Critics of Scott maintain he should have been strengthen t he c ap it al 's garitas w i th ear th w
able to s eiz e t he c ap it al that same day. But hi s an d artillery. On 3 September he banned fur
8,497 t ro op s, w h o' d been marching an d fighting sale s t o S co tt 's q u ar t er master s an d expelled t
since first light, ha d lost 273 killed an d 865 wound f ro m t he city. Th ree days later, Scott, wh ose s
ed. Ammunition was low an d there w as s ti ll th e were keeping hi m informed of th e Mexican b
prospect of a five mile m arc h a nd a night action up , de nounc e d th e a rm is ti ce a nd p rep are
thr ough th e s t reet s of a city of over 200,000. resume the offensive.
C o nf id e nt t he ba tte r e d Mexicans would su e fo r On th e evening of 7 S ep te mb er , a t Tacub
peace, Scott brought up his siege guns an d ordered where the Americans were now concentrated, S
his t ir ed regiments to camp on th e g ro un d t hey 'd an d hi s four division chiefs me t to c on sid er
just taken. be st approach into th e city . O ne of Hitchco

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informants arrived to report church b el ls w er e while 5 00 me n were to assault from t he w es t.

being melted a nd c as t into cannon in El Molino del Clarke's brigade, temporarily being le d by Col.
Rey. El Molino, actually a 200 yard long line of con James S. McIntosh, wa s ordered to overrun th e
nected buildings along the western boundar y of the Mexican d efen se s a lo ng the d itch an d attack Casa
walled park of Chapultepec, housed a fou nd ry an d Mata. Maj. Edward V. Sumner, with three squadrons
flo ur mill. C on ce rn ed th e newly made guns were of dragoons, was placed on th e left to b lo ck a ny
being added to Mexico City's defenses, Scott order enemy cavalry attack.
e d Wo rt h to attack t he c om pl ex that night and, E xp ectin g o nly lig ht o pp os itio n, the A me rica ns
after destroying the foundry works an d guns, retire ha d a dv an ce d to w ithin rifle shot w he n the b atte r
again. But Worth persuaded hi m to delay the st ri ke ies at El Molino a nd tho se alo ng the d itch s ud de nly
until the following morning. opened up. Wright's c om ma nd t oo k t he brunt of
Well aware of Scott's concentration at Tacubaya, the Mexican fire, losing 11 of its 14 o ffic ers w ithin
Santa Anna ha d placed two brigades in and around minutes. As his me n fell back in confusion, they
Molino del Rey, an d a th ir d, supported b y sev en were a tt ac ke d b y a r eg im en t coming f ro m Chapul
guns, along a c act us li ned d it ch r un ni ng 100 y ar ds tepee, whose soldiers cut the throats o f the wo un d
in front of th e Casa Mata, a large stone building ed Americans left behind du ri ng t he r et re at . At t he
500 yards west of El Molino bu t extending eastward same time, McIntosh's brigade, after haVing been
to it. He'd also garrisoned Casa Mata with 1,500 checked by fire from t he Casa Mata g ar ri so n a n d
infantry, an d placed Gen. Juan Alvarez, with 4,000 the infantry an d ar til lery along th e ditch, was dri
cavalrymen, west of it with o rder s to str ike t he left ven back by a counterattack.
of any force moving against the complex. The American effort was more successful on th e
right. There Garland's me n reached the east side o f
EI Molino El 10lino, an d pressing close to its walls for shelter,
The next morning, after Capt. James L. Mason w or ke d t he ir way around to the south en d where
ha d scouted the foundry before sunrise an d report they forced open a door, then, a few m in ut es later,
ed i t a pp ea re d to be a ba nd one d, Worth ordered g ai ned a second opening at th e northwest corner.
Huger's 24-pounders to open fire. When the re was Joined by battalions from Cadwalader's brigade,
no return fire, h e cu t short Huger's bombardment an d on e of light i n fa n tr y c o mm a nd e d by Capt.
an d precipitately sent forward his division an d one Ephraim K. Smith, the y fou gh t the ir way fro m room
of Pillow's brigades. On the right, Garland's brigade to room i n a lm os t t ot al d ar kn es s, driving th e
was to strike the s ou th a nd e as t s id es o f El Molino, Mexicans from the foundry.

Molino del Rey - Attack upon the Molino, hand colored lithograph by Adolphe-jean-Baptiste Bayot. Looming at the fa r
left is the Castle o f Chapultepec.

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cated an attack up one o f the t hr ee southern caus

ways. But Lt. Pierre G.T. Beauregard, a n e ng i ne
s cout, a rgue d the water logge d land petween tho
causeways would severely hamper the movement
batteries an d troops. On the other hand, he point
out, the s eizure of Chapultepec could be made ov
solid ground f rom t he r ui ns of £1 Molino and, on
i t fell, Mexico City c ou ld b e entered by either t
Molino Belen or San Cosme causeways. Scott, possib
del Rey influenced by the fact the ruined foundry lay on
1, 000 yards wes t of Chapultepec, adopted Beau

gard's
The proposal.
defenses of Chapultepec were centered on
The Assault o n Castillo, a large building that housed the Mexic
national military academy. Located on a 200 fo
Chapultepec II
hill, £1 Castillo an d several smaller buildings w
13 September, 1847 p ro t ec t ed b y 15 f oo t h ig h parapets encircling t
o I
Yd, 500
I
academy grounds. Steep b an ks m ad e any atta
oi
Meters 500
I
f ro m t he north or east impractical; however, to t
south a road ran from th e base of th e hill to
Castillo. A redan, an a ngle d field work, defende d
With Mc Intos h's briga de still c he cked in front of at its base, while a s ec ond redan was located whe
Casa Mata, Alvarez's 4,000 cavalry advanced on the th e r oa d t ur ne d half way up th e hill. An assau
A m er ic an l ef t. Outnumbered nearly 10 to one, from the west could be l au nc he d f ro m £1 Molin
Sumner's three squadrons charged, losing 44 troop from which th e attacking force, after working
ers in a vain effort to check th e e ne my h o rs e. way through a cypress grove, had to drive t

Alvarez,
American with a gcame
left, ol de n on
opportunity to Col.
. Bu t when roll up th e
James Mexicans from
portion of the ahill beforelocr ea
redoubt ated half
ch in g t way up th
he parape
Duncan, whose si x-pounde rs h ad been covering Unknown to the Americans, an extensive minefie
M clntos h' s retre at, s wung his b at te ry a ro un d a nd of burie d, powde r-fil l ed canvas tubes h ad b e
p ut a few rounds into their ranks, the Mexican planted in f ro nt o f t he p ar ap et s.
horsemen fell back, contenting themselves there During the daylight hours of 12 September, Sc
after by merely observing the fighting at a distance. ordered Q ui tm an 's div ision t o m ak e a d em on st
Duncan then redirected hi s fire on Casa Mata, tion at Piedad, in order to fix th e en emy 's attenti
setting it a blaz e. Its c om ma nder, s ee ing £1 Molino on the southern causeways. Later, under cover
was about to fall, ordered t he g ar ri so n to r et re at . darknes s, Quitm an was to m ove to join Worth's a
Shortly a fterwa rd the powde r m agaz ine e xplode d, Pillow's divisions an d Persifor Smith's brigade
killing six Americans w ho 'd e nt e re d Casa Mata i n Tacubaya, leaving only Twiggs' an d Riley's brigad
s ea rc h of plunder. By 1:00 p.m., a fter two c ounter an d two b at te ri es o f six-pounders to secure t
a tt ac ks f ro m Chapultepec h ad b ee n t ur ne d back, right.
the battle was over. In t he m ean tim e, Huger p la ce d f ou r b at te ri es
Though Scott's me n took 683 p ri s on e rs a nd heavy guns, including two eight-inch howitzers a
killed or wounded an estimated 2,000 more, they'd a 16-pounder, near £1 Molino a nd o pe ne d fire fro
lost over 700 killed an d w o un d ed . H i tc h co c k' s th er e on Chapultepec. Originally built to be t
infor mant had m is le d the m. Only a few unused gu n summer residence of the Spanish colonial vicero
m ol ds were f ou nd in £1 Molino. After ordering the and no t as a fort, £1 Castillo's thin walls were so
building complex destroyed, Scott withdrew hi s heavily damaged.
m en . For t he o ve rc on fi de nt Am er ic ans t he f ro nt al Du rin g t he ear ly hours of that s am e day San
assault on £1 Molino, based on poor intelligence, Anna ha d inspected the defense s of C ha pultep
wa s a pyrrhic victory, o ne w hi ch th e dWindling Bravo, who c om ma nd ed th e g ar ri so n, a sk ed f
a rm y c ould ill afford. Gloom fell over the Ame rican reinforce me nts as his 1,000 infantry an d artiller
c am p as the wounded were being loa de d on wagons me n were to o few to properly ma n t h e p a ra p e
an d taken back to Tacubaya, where Scott's exhaust But £1 Generalissimo, misled by Quitman's demo
ed surgeons worked throughout the night. stration, refused. Later, after it became apparent
Castillo was the real American objective, heavy f
Chapultepec f ro m Scott's siege g un s p re ve nt ed all bu t a few
With his a rm y r ed uc ed t o l itt le over 7,000, Scott the reinforcements belatedly d i sp a tc h ed b y San
an d hi s division commanders realized to further Anna from reaching the garrison.
de lay the a ss ault on Mexico City was to invite their Indeed, Scott hoped th e b o mb ard men t alo
own ultimate defeat. Within h ou rs a ft er th e des might drive Bravo's me n from atop the hill. But
truction of £1 Molino, Lee a nd o th er engineers were sp ir ed by t he r esolut e behavior o f the cadet s fro
surveying t he a p pr o ac h es to th e city. The San the m ilitary college, the garrison still held as dar
Antonio garita, 1,000 yards south of the city prop ness fell.
er, appeared to be vulnerable because of its isolated That evening Pillow was ordered to attack t
position. But when Scott personally s urve ye d the we ste rn pa rape t s o f C ha pu lt ep ec f ro m £1 Moli
three southern approaches on 9 S eptemb er , h e sa w the following m orning; while Quitman's divisio
th e strengthened d ef en se s t he re no w included a reinforced by Persifor Smith's brigade, was to fig
line o f entrenchments c onne cting the San Antonio its way up the southern road. Q ui tm an was also
an d Nino Perdido garitas. keep t he Mexicans f ro m r ei nf or ci ng t he gar,ris
At a council of war on the 11th, Scott's division from th e two causeways that converged ~ a s t
commanders, with th e exception of Twiggs, advo- Chapultepec.

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Once El Castillo fell, Worth, whose division causeways. However, Persi fo r Smit h' s command
wou ld b e i n r eser ve d ur in g th e initial assault , was swung wide around that p os itio n an d, a id ed b y two
to take th e San C os me garita. Scott ha d selected six-pounders, thwarted an attempt by Gen. Joaquin
that garita because Santa Anna, believing the Yan Rangel to reinforce Ch apu ltep ec . In the mea ntime,
quis would u se a mo re southern approach, ha d also Shields' brigade swung left, forcing its way past th e
f ail ed to r ei nf or ce it. T ho ug h t he distance to the two r ed an s o n th e s o ut he r n r oa d to join Pillow's
Belen garita was shorter, it s garrison h ad b ee n me n b en eat h th e pa r a pe ts. S h o rt l y a f te r w ar d ,
i nc re as ed a nd a ll oc at ed t hr ee guns. I t also la y Clarke's brigade also c am e u p, sent by Worth in
under the protection of the 18 guns of the Ciuda response to Pillow's request for reinforcements.
dela, a fortres s 300 y ards to the n orth ea st. Q uitman Unfortunately, Pillow h a d e nt ru st ed the scaling
was ordered to m ak e a feint at the Belen garita dur ladders to recruits who, una c c ustome d to th e
ing Worth's advance to conceal as long as p ossi bl e s ou nd a nd violence of a battlefield, lagged fa r
Scott's true objective. Only Riley's brigade, s ou th o f b eh in d t he a ss au lt i nf ant ry. For 15 lo ng minutes
the city, remained uncommitted. the attackers, jammed into a di tch at the base of
Early the next mor nin g the siege guns resumed the wall, under fire f ro m t he parapets above, wait
their battering of Chapultepec with solid shot for ed. I t was only by luck one soldier spotted the can
tw o h ou rs b ef or e s hi ft in g to c a niste r to clear vas tube leading to the mines an d cu t it b efore it
snipers from the area between El Molino an d th e could be ignited.
west face of th e fortress. Promptly at 8:00 a.m., Finally the tardy lad de r b ea re rs arrived to a cho
S co tt 's a rt il le ry c he c ke d fire as Pillow's brigade ru s o f c urse s fro m the imp atie nt infan try. The first
surged ou t of the ruins of El Molino. Dodging from ladders pu t against the parapets were toppled back
tree to tree, the 9th an d 15th Infantry Regiments, ward by Bravo's undermanned garrison. But then,
c ov ered to th e south by four companies of light as f ir st one, an d then another, remained upright,
infan try, c le ared the grove o f the las t s nipe rs , over the America ns b eg an to s wa rm over the walls, forc
ra n the breastworks half way up the hill an d rushed ing t he d ef en der s b ac k i nto El Castillo. Closely fol
to t he b as e of the parapets. lowing, the Americans fought their way inside, then
Watson's brigade, o rd er ed b y Q ui tm an to b lo ck up, floor by floor, until those left in the garrison
any attempts to reinforce the Chapultepec garrison, surrendered. T he c ad ets, some only 13-years-old,
was at first checked by a well handled Mexican bat held ou t to t he last. The l as t six o f t he m t o die have
tery at the ju nc tu re of the San C os me an d Belen since become i m mo r ta li z ed i n Mexican national

Storming of Chapultepec - Pillow's Attack, hand colored lithograph by Adolphe-jean-Baptiste Bayot.

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The Assault o n
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M ex ic o C it y brigade, af ter b att eri n g an entrance in t he a

1 3 S e pt em b er , 1847 Mexico wall of the first house they reached, be gan to
row f ro m o ne b ui ld in g to t he ne xt with pick
an d crowbars, while the infantry cleared the sn
f ro m the roof tops. Lt. Ulysses S. Grant enliste
aid of the me n o f the 4 t h In fa n try Re gi m en t to
a short-barreled mountain howit zer to the top
chu rch tower to take the garita under fire.
By 6:00 p.rn. the sappers ha d tunneled their
past th e Mexican defenses. Unaware th e Yan
were to their rear, th e defenders were stun
Lt.
Garita when
denly a ppGeorge
ea re d Terrett
o n a h ouansdetaop
p arbty ofndMarines
e hi th e ga
Laying d ow n a d eadly fire, tho se Americans e
na te d t h e r e ma i ni n g Mexican g un ne rs a nd
charged ou t of t he h ou se wi th fixed b ay on et s
as Garland's brigade reached the redoubt.
Caught between tw o fires, th e Mexicans
lap sed, the g ar riso n fleeing into Mexico City.
darkness approaching, however, Worth halted
advance, ordering his me n to be d do wn in the h
es they' d just taken. Later that n ig ht h e ha d H
lob five lO-inch mortar shells into the Gr and P
to give the city's d ef end ers a ha rb inge r of w ha
next day would bring.
While Worth was r ef or m in g h is column, Q
man, ignoring order
Yds 2000 directio n o f theScott's
Belen garita, t ogathered
me re ly most
fe int in
o
Meters 2000 troops that ha d just taken Chapultepec an d pu
down that causeway. A fiery campaigner, Quit
who'd chafed at having been relegated earlier t
memory as Los Ninos Heroicos (the heroic children). duty of g ua rd in g th e a rm y's s up pl ie s at
Nevertheless, by mid-morning the s ta rs a nd stripes Augustin while th e othe r division comman
flew over Chapultepec. were fighting at Contreras an d Churubusco,
At Mixocoa, two miles away, 30 captured Sa n determined to gain his share of glory.
Patricios, w ho 'd b een sentenced to death for deser Placing himself at th e head of his imprOV
tion in time of war, sa t o n m u le -d r aw n wagons command , h e led tho se me n toward the Belen
beneath a long gallows, their arms b ou n d a nd noos ta. Scott ha d accurately judged the strength o
es around their necks. Hard bitten men, they spent Mexican position there. A battery in a redan a
their l as t m in ut es o n earth berating Col. Harney, up the road held Quitman for an hour b ef or e o
t he ir executioner. When i n t he di st anc e t he Amer his g un s silen ced it. Then, as they n eared the g
ican flag s u dd e nl y a p pe a re d a top El Castillo, itself, Quitman's me n came under heavy fir
Harney sent the wagons lurching forward an d th e wasn't until an 18-pounder g un a nd a 24-pou
Patricios swung silently under the gallows. howitzer were b r ou g ht u p to show er the d ef en
But even before El Castillo fell, Scott, determined with s pl in te rs f ro m t he shattered masonry o
to m ai nt ai n t he momentum o f the assau lt, ordered walls that the Mexicans lost h ea rt a nd withdre
Col. William Tro usdale to clear the road along the the Ciudadela to the northeast.
north side of Chapul tepec for t he rest of Worth's Quitman's moment of triumph was br ief. Fo
column, using two infantry regiments an d a section rest of t he day, while his me n were pinned dow
of guns under Lt. Thomas]. Jackson. With Rangel the ruins of the garita, his guns were forced in
retreating in front of t he m, W or th 's f or ce went unequal duel with the Ciudadela's battery. Tw
north on th e Veronica causeway, augmented by eight gunners became casualties, an d a lm os t a
Cadwalader's brigade, two six-pounder batteries Quitman's officers were wounded. Low on amm
an d the dragoons. As it neared th e junction with tion, the Americans ha d to turn back several c
the San Cosme causeway, Wo rth h alted to clear two t er at ta ck s f ro m t he Ciudadela's g a rr i so n b e
small field works a nd turn back a half-hearted spending an u neasy n ig ht w ith little w ater an
a tt ac k b y 1,500 cavalrymen before he t ur ne d e as t food. Later Scott was critical o f Q uitman 's imp
toward the San Cosme garita. ou s advance, though he praised t he s ol di er s
When he saw Worth's men take th e Veronica made it.
causeway, Santa Anna hastily sent three battalions Though the Americans h ad b y this time pene
a nd th re e guns to that garita. Later, as Rangel ed th e city's defenses at two points, in doi n
passed th e garita d ur in g h is withdr awal, h e thr ew they'd lost another 159 killed o r missing an d
up a r ed ou bt a nd p os te d s ha rp sh oo te rs o n th e wounded. The Mexicans ha d lost abo ut 3,000
housetops overlooking th e northern side of the bu t Santa Anna still h eld the Ciudadela w ith 5
road. an d ha d about 7,000 other reliable troops
As it neared th e garita, Worth's co lu mn f o un d where in the city.
i t sel f ch eck ed by accurate fire f ro m t he r ed ou bt .
But then Garlan d' s b rigade b eg an to inch forward, The End
dodging among the arches supporting the aqueduct But the city officials ha d enough. Possibly i
i n the mi ddl e of the causeway for cover. North of enced by t he shells t ha t h ad exploded in fro
th e c a use w a y s a p p e r s in the van o f C lark e's the Presidential Palace, they called on Santa A

50
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Genl. Scott's Entrance into Mexico, hand colored lithograph by Adolphe-jean-Baptiste Bayot.

to leave, declaring the capital an open city. Shaken relied almost exclusively on static defenses an d for
by the success of the Yanqui assaults, El Generalis tified positions.
simo, declaring h on or h ad b ee n satisfied, agreed to For sheer audacity, Scott's push into the heart of
withdraw. Shortly after midnight he an d his beaten Mexico, an d h is cap tu re there of the enemy capital,
ar my r etr eat ed t o Gua da lupe Hidalgo, a village t o is regarded by many US military historians as equal
the north. to MacArthur's Inchon/Seoul c am pa ig n o f 1950.
Just before dawn on 14 September, Mexico City's Wellington, who had at first predicted his defeat,
mayor an d three aldermen waited on Scott at his later wrote: "His campaig n is unsurpassed in mili
headquarters near Chapultepec an d formally sur tary annals. He is the greatest living soldier." 0
rendered th e city. Quitman, after occupying th e
Ciu dadela, was the first to march into t he G ra nd Sources
Plaza. Moments later Worth's division entered with A nder son, Robert. A n A rt il le r y Officer in th e
Scott, escorted by Harney's dragoons, at its h ead. Mexican War, 1846-7: Letters of Robert Anderson,
Then, as t he mounted band o f the d rago on s p layed Captain, 3r d Artillery, United States Army. New
"Yankee Doodle," S co tt 's r ag ge d a rm y cheered York: Putnam, 1911.
themselves hoarse as their gray haired commander, Bauer, K. Jack. The Mexican War, 1846-1848. New
resplendent in a dress uniform with gleaming York: MacMillan, 1974.
epaulets an d an abu nd an ce o f g old b raid , r aised h is Elliot, Charles. Winfield Scott: The Soldier an d the
ha t in acknowledgement. Man. New York: MacMillan, 1937.
In the following month Scott reopened the road Eisenhower, John S. So Far From God: The US War
to Vera Cruz, enabling supplies an d reinforcements with Mexico, 1846-1848. New York: Random
House, 1989.
to r eachinthe
beaten a n army.
a tt em Santa Anna,Puebla,
pt to seize after b eing
r esigsou
nednd ly
the Katcher, Philip an d G.A. Embleton. The Mexican
presidency an d no longer threatened the American American War, 1846-1848. Osprey Men at Arms
occupation. Faced w ith t he pr ospect of further Series, No. 56. London: Osprey, 1976.
defeats at th e h an ds o f Scott's reinforced army, the Leckie, Robert. From Sea to S hin in g Sea: From the
Mexican public tired of war and, long before th e War of 1812 to the Mexican War: The Saga of
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo officially terminated America's Expansion. New York: Harper Collins,
hostilities on 2 February 1848, all effective resis 1993.
tance to the inv ad er s ha d ended. Miller, Robert Ryal. Shamrock an d Sword: The Saint
Except fo r the p oo rly execu ted f ro ntal attack at P a tr i ck ' s B a t ta l i on in th e US-Mexican War.
El Molino, Scott ha d always e m pl o ye d f la n ki ng Norman, OK: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1989.
mov emen ts to d ef eat his o pp on en ts. Cerro Gordo, Scott, Winfield. Memoirs of Lt. Gen. Scott, 2 vols.
th e avoidance of a frontal a ss au lt o n El Penon, New York: Sheldon & Co., 1864.
Crontreras, Churubusco, an d the a tt ac k o n t he San Smith, Arthur D. Howden. Old Fuss an d Feathers:
Cosme garita, all succeeded because of his ability The Life an d Exploits of Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott.
to outmaneuver hi s adversaries, who i n c on tr as t New York: Greystone, 1937.
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Ru ssia's ArlDl!d Forcl!s T o d a y

b y Ted !i. R a i c e r

End of Empire technologically, the military leadership ha d acce

While t he e nd o f t he Cold War h as brought about ed serious reduct ions i n the size of the Red Ar
a reduction in t he si ze of th e US armed forces, the to. free funds f or militar y r e se ar c h a nd devel
collapse o f the USSR h as led to the n ear- implosio n ment.
of that empire's once mighty mi li t ary mac hine . Instead, Gorbachev, wh o never served in
When the Soviet Union was dissolved in December armed forces, sought ever increasing savings in m
1991, attempts to f or m a u nified d ef en se command i t ar y s pe nd in g. The so-called "Metal Eaters'
a mo ng t he emerging Commonwealth of Indepen liance" ( th e S oviet term for their ow n "milita
dent States (CIS) were thw ar ted by Ukraine, wh ich industrial complex") was eating up 15 p er ce nt
feared Russian domination. As a result the Soviet the economy by the late 80s, stifling econom
armed forces were soon divided among the Russian growth. Gorbachev was wary o f cutting f un ds f r
Federation an d the 14 newly independent former the Interior Ministry (the MVD) an d the KGB, a
Soviet Republics. focused i ns te ad o n m ak ing r ed uc ti on s i n t he d
Ironically, Soviet officers, especially veterans of ense budget.
the war in Afghanistan, h ad b ee n among the strong Even worse f ro m t he m ili tar y standpoint,
es t supporters of Mikhail Gorbachev's attempts to once u na ss ai la bl e Red Army be ca me the obj ec t
reform t he C om mu ni st system. Recognizing th e harshly critical public scrutiny. Under Perestro
Soviet U nion w as f alling r ap id ly b eh in d the w es t tales o f d r un k en n es s , b ru ta l it y, c o rr u pt i on a

T h e l\Iear A b r o a d and th e CIS - Armenia

POPULATION: 3,700,000 band the 7th A ll Anris Army b as ed i n Yerevan, did A

CAPITAL: YEREVAN enia cre at e a m in is tr y of defense. Two months l at er
A rmenia d eclared its ind ep en dence f ro m the USSR in f ir st A rm en ia n m il it ar y u ni t, t he 1s t Airborne Assa
August 1990, bu t didn't achieve it until September 1991. Regiment, was formed.
In December o f t ha t y ear A rmenia joined the CIS. Since Currently th e army ha s a strength of 35 ,0 00 m
1987, Christian Armenia ha s be en i n conflict with it s organized into two motorized infantry and two tank d
Islamic ne ighbor Az erbai j an over th e sions, s u p p o r t e d by f ou r a rt il le
Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Kara brigades. The armored divisions con
bach. In a 1991 r ef er en du m th e people of two r eg im en ts , e ac h regiment w
of Karabach v ot ed to unite with Arm fewer than 30 tanks (mostly T-55s a
enia, bu t Yerevan ha s denied p lan s t o T-72s). The infantry divisions each c
annex th e region. Because Armenia tain up to six motorized regiments.·
insists the strug gle is between Kara The government also c on tr ol s t h
bach an d Azerbaijan, th e Karabach regiments o f b or de r troops (3,000 me
defense forces (20,000 men), though and can call upon some 25,000 param
s u pp l ie d b y A rmen ia, h av e remained tary forces belonging to an organizat
under local command. called Erkrlilph (Guardians of the Hom
In 1992 Armenian regular army land). Erkra'ph soldiers have been invo
forces s ei ze d t he Lachin corridor bet ed both in th e f ig htin g o ver Karab
ween Karabach an d Armenia, bu t were an d in suppressing religious minori

u nam
f ro bl o
e ve
torrpun
reni
veng n Azeri
nt aalm os t h aloffensive
f o f Kara within
Th e Armenia.
Armenian ai r force ha s 1,0
b ac h. I n N ov em be r o f 1 99 3, h ow e ve r, men, al ong w it h 100 c om ba t p la ne s a
Armenian an d Karabach troops drove th e some 50 armed helicopters. T he Ar
Moslem forces out and also occupied adja enians lost six helicopters to Azerbai
cent areas of Azerbaijan territory. Since then anti- aircraft g un s in 1993, bu t the R
t he A rm en ia ns have m ai nt ai ne d t h e upper sians apparently made good these los
hand in sporadic fighting. in 1994.
A rmen ia's success in b attling it s mor e p op u- The greatest threat to Armenia is
lous neighbor h as b ee n a remarkable achievement. possibility of Turkish military interv
Tho ug h six A rmen ian d iv isio ns f ou gh t in the Red tion, either directly or by supporti
Army in World War II, Armenia ha s no t ha d a nation- Azerbaijan. For this reason, Yerevan
al army since th e destruction of the short-lived allowed Moscow to station a motoriz
Armenian Republic in 1920. The first modern Armenian infantry division (7,000 t ro op s a nd
u nits were militias f or med to d ef en d K ar abach i n 1 98 7 tanks) inside Armenia to protect "R
89. Not u ntil Jan uary 1992, after Moscow d ecided to dis- sian an d Armenian interests."
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i n co mp et ence b ecame a staple of p r es s r ep o rt s.

Morale i n t he armed forces was shattered by this Russian M o b i l e Forces Today
sudden change in public attitudes. Gorbachev's Airborne Units Assault·Landing Units Spetsnaz
defense minister, Dimitri Yazov, complained bitter lall air-Iransport
ly of "irres ponsible elements" in t he p re ss . His 7th Gds 11th, 13th,
76th Gds 21st, 36th, 2nd
growing disillusionment with reform eventually led 98th Gds 37th, 56th Gds, 14th
hi m to support the August 1991 coup. 104th Gds 83rd 22n
106th Gds 67th
While some senior officers joined in the attempt 242nd Training
to oust Gorbachev, Pavel Grachev, c om ma nd er o f
th e elite Soviet Airborne Forces, an d his deputy
Alexander Lebed held their paratroopers aloof from
th e coup.
Yeltsin's They rat
followers ef us
theed b o thHouse
White to attack Boris
(the Russian
parliament) or to d ef en d Yeltsin f r om p o ss ib l e
assault by other military units. general staff, army Gen. Mikhail Kolesnikov, but
When Yeltsin e m e rg e d v i ct o ri o us , however, mostly because of the increasing loss of confidence
Grachev m an age d to m ake his studied neutrality in Grachev throughout the a rm ed forces an d th e
appear as loyal support for the cause of democracy. government. A r esp ect ed co mb at officer, Grachev
He was r ew ar de d i n April 1992 w ith the post of ha s shown himself to be an inept administrator.
defense minister in the Russian Federation. In con More importantly, he ha s been unable to protect
trast, Lebed mad e h is own d istaste for both democ the defense b ud get f ro m the p redation s o f the MVD
racy an d Yeltsin clear, temporarily ending his own an d Federal Security Service (FSB-the successor to
chance for higher command. the KGB).
The new Russian army was f or med b y pr esid en either has his popularity been improved by his
tial decree on 7 May 1992. At the top of the chain handling of the Chechen crisis. Before intervention
of command is the current Russian President, Boris he al ter nat ed b etw een o p po sin g the use of force
Yeltsin. Under hi m r es p on si bi li ty f or t he armed an d bl us te ri ng he could take Grozny wit h one air
forces belongs to Pavel Gr achev an d th e general borne brigade. In t he e nd he was o ut fl anke d by t he
staff, the historic brain t ru st o f the Russian armed heads of the MVD an d FSB, who went so far as to
forces. negotiate with local army commanders behind his
The influence of the general staff declined in the back to o rg an ize a nd l au nc h th e December 1994
late Gorbachev era, but has revived under Yeltsin, invasion.
who in 1995 made them subordinate to the Russian Despite those a nd o th er failures, Grachev ha s
p re si de nt r at he r t ha n t he d ef en se minister. That continued in office because of the lack of an obvi
was partly due to th e abilities of the chief of the o us uccessor. Kolesnikov seems to p refer his mor e
-,-
I

Current Russian Military Districts I

~ .derma
"J
' / ~ ' - i I , s o n
-<
/
(,

S al ek a i' "1 " ,

& R U/S 5 I AI
ra ,. . Olekmins(
•
..-.--..

Mzhnyaya Tunguska
-<.

~ .
be
....
~ J Angara
I /
Tal"sk Bratsk

K r a s l \ ~ y a r s k

Members of Commonwealth
of Independent States
Recent Soviet Satellites not
members of CIS
o Miles 1000
,----- Krn 2000
, - - - - -

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T h e l \ I e a r A b r o a d a n d t h e C IS - A z e r b a i j a n
POPULATION: 7,500,000 and another 70 in s to rag e. T he re are also a n um be r o f o
CAPITAL: BAKU T -5 5 /5 4 t an ks i n use.
Since declaring its independence in December 1991, Th e Azeri a ir fo rce (7,000 men) is limited by th
Azerbaijan ha s been plagued by political instability. Its Co nv en tion al Forces in E urop e T re aty to 1 00 c omba t a
first president, Ayaz Mutalibov, was o us te d i n a coup in craft an d 50 attack helicopters. Sixty of t he Azeri wa
May 1 99 2. His s uc ce ss or, A bu lfaz Elchibey, w as force d planes are L29/39 trainers. T he A ze ri s h av e l os t m o
from power the following year. Azerbaijan's current than a dozen helicopters an d several c o mb a t p l an
ruler, Heidar Aliev, ha s survived two attempts to over (including one MiG-21) over Karabach.
throw him. Azerbaijan ha s a naval flotilla on th

b ecAll three
au se presidents
o f the ir ina bilitylost popular
to win the wity ar C
anas
d pian
t hr eeSea.
f as It
t actton
acsists of two
k missile frigat
bo at s. T
with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabach. na vy is used in an anti- smuggling ro
Despite a c on si d er ab l e s u pe r io ri t y i n an d has played no part in the war wi
m an po we r, t he Azeri army h as b een Armenia.
o ut fo ug ht b y i ts Armenian opponent. T he re a re also nearly 50,000 poli
Sin ce May of 1994 a Russian-spon an d several thousand border an d secu
sored truce ha s generally been observ ty troops. Many of those units have be
ed, bu t ha s left 20 p er ce nt o f Azeri ter employed in the fight for Karabach, b
ritory under Armenian control. they've also taken part in t he s tr in g
The Azeri Ground Defense Force ha s coups a nd a tt em pt ed coups in Bak
50,000 men. In theory the ar my is Aliev wa s forced to disband sever
made up o f 50 p erce nt v olun te ers, bu t police f orm ations af ter they attempt
many are youths forcibly r ou nd ed u p to overthrow him in 1994.
from th e s tr ee ts o f Baku. Defeat ha s With Armenia receiving Russian su
added
tion todraft
an d morale p ro blems,
evasion an d deser
are common. por t, ther
military e is little
victory. Butchance
thoughfor Aze
an nee
Baku
T he a rmy is o rg an iz ed into 10 mech  peace, so f ar Aliev h as b een u na bl e
anized brigades (two battalions each), unwilling to purchase it at the p rice
three motorized rifle brigades, an air conceding Karabach. The current rel
assault b riga de , two tra in in g b riga de s tive p ea ce in the reg io n is o ne of exhau
an d two m ountain infantr y regiments. tion an d m us t b e c on si de re d fragile
The army ha s 2 80 T -7 2 tan ks in service best.

politically neutral niche, while the other candidates The army currently ha s a strength of 1,000,00
represent competing factions that would exacerbate On paper t here are 60 motorized rifle divisions,
rather than resolve t he t en si on s wi th in t he armed tank divisions an d 14 artillery divisions. But man
forces. of th e rifle d iv is io ns a re mere cadres, with on
1 ,5 00 men . That's barely adequate to g ua rd a n

The Army
Those tensions ar e m o s t k eenly felt in th e
maintain
many active divisions in
equipment
areserviceable condition. Evt
greatly understrength,
R us sian army. T ho ug h the large st an d most presti result of widespread draft evasion an d desertion.
gi ous o f t he armed services, the army ha s also suf Morale among those who do serve is low. Ru
f er ed t he greatest d is lo ca tion since the fall of th e sia's best a n d b r ig h te s t avoid th e draft, an d th
Soviet empire. quality o f c on sc ri pt s h as fallen to t he point whe

T h e l \ I e a r A b r o a d a n d t h e CIS - B e l a r u ! i
POPUlATION: 11,000,000 The air force (30,000) ha s approximately 150 MiG a
CAPITAL: MINSK craft (primarily MiG-25 interceptors), but lack of fuel an
At the time of the USSR's collapse, the highest concen spare parts has limited pilots to 40 hours flying time
tration of Soviet military p ow er wa s loc ated in Belarus. year, one- thir d that of their NATO counterparts.
Two tank armies, an all ar ms army an d Th e g ov er nm en t o f Belarus h a
an a ir a rmy were based in White Russia, m ai nt ai ne d t he c los es t ties to Mosco
fo r a total of o ver 1 70 ,0 00 men . T ha t of an y former republic, an d in Mar
was a force fa r b ey on d w ha t the new 1 99 6 t he p re si de nt o f Belarus joine
Belarus g o ve r nm e nt e i th e r needed or with Kazakhstan an d Kyrgyzstan in a
c ou ld a ff or d, an d by early 1995 he r e f f o r t to low er e co no mic b a r r i e
armed forces ha d been reduced by more among those three former Soviet lan
than half, to 80,000. an d Russia. At th e sam e ti me Belar
The army (50,000) currently consists ha s agreed to join Ru ssia in a "Union
of four divisions: two motorized rifle, one Tw o Republics," in w hi ch B el ar
tank an d on e a ir bo rn e, a lo ng with three would give up much of its indepe
me c ha ni ze d briga de s an d a field artillery d en ce in e co no mic an d foreign polic
d iv ision . T he y a re organized into two corps T he e xac t e ff ect s of the U nion T re a
(5th an d 28th), with a third c ad re c orps h ead  on the armed forces remains unclear
quarters (65th) to be activated at full mobiliza this time.
tion. There are 300,000 trained reserves.

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The Near Abroad and th e []!i - Georgia

POPULATION: 5,500,000 infantry brigades an d on e armor r eg im en t. T he re a re t w
CAPITAL: TBIUSI corps headquarters, 1s t an d 2nd, t he l at te r c om ma nd in
Georgia began to break away f ro m t he Soviet Union as th e Georgian forces that fought in Abkhazia in 1992-93
early as 1989, when dozens were killed demonstrating The 2n d Corps suffered heavy losses during that perio
fo r i nde pe nde nc e . Since becoming in d ep en d en t th e an d wa s finally withdrawn. T he G eo rg ia n a ir force ha
n at i on h as been torn by a multi-sided civil w ar b etw ee n fewer than f if t y s e rvi ce a bl e aircraft, and the Georgia
Tbilisi an d t he non- Ge orgi an pe opl es of navy, based at Poti, ha s only 16 small vessels.
South Ossetia (in th e north central part Th e S ou th Ossetians' Secessionist Militia Guard ha
of Georgia) Abkhazia (in th e northwest some 3 ,0 00 m en , whil e t he A bkha zi a n r eb el s h av e 4 ,0 0

along th e Black
southwest bordering an d Adjara (in th e
Sea), Turkey). n at iv eoutside
from f ig ht er Georgia.
s, a lo ng T
whe aneladditional
it hr eb 4,000
s h av e no air tr oop
force, bu
Ziviad G a m sa k hu r di a , G e or gi a' s do have a handful of tanks a nd ar mo red personnel carr
leader from O ct ob er 1 99 0 to Januar y ers.
1 99 2, was a fi erc e nationalist whose hos T he R us si an a rm y h as so me 2 0 ,0 0 0 " p ea c ek e ep e rs
tility to Ru ssia le d h im to o p p o s e inside Georgia, including a m otor ized rifle d iv is io n,
Georgia's joining th e CIS. Th e Russians helicopter regiment, a n a ir bo rn e r eg im en t an d an ai
i n t ur n pr ovi de d a r ms , training an d "vol- assault ba tt a li on. The presence of those forces ha
unteer" m i li t ar y f orc e s to the Oss etian ended large scale fighting.
an d Abkhazian rebels. Sh ev ard n ad ze m u s t walk a f in e l in e; h
Gamsakhurdia's successor, former needs Russian s up po rt , o r a t l ea st neutrality
Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevar in his s tr ug gl e w it h t he rebels. At th
Batumi
d na dz e, h as adopted a more cooperative same time, h is e mb ra ce of Yeltsin ha
policy toward Russia. In J ul y 1 99 2, CIS a l ie nat e d e xtr e me Georgian nationalist
peacekeeping forces were introduced into which led to an attempt by some of hi
South Ossetia. When th e R u ss i an s i nt er  own security forces to assassinate him i
vened in Chechnya in 1994, Shevardnadze August 1995. Unwilling to grant Abkhaz
en d o rsed Moscow's action. Th e Russians ia n independence, Tbilisi currently lack
then withdrew their backing for th e Abkhaz- th e military might needed to enforce it
ia n rebels, who've nevertheless maintained their will. Thanks to Scheverdnadze's diplo
independence from Tibilisi. m a tic m a ne u ve rs an d R uss i an i nte r ve n
The Georgian defense force consists of 25,000 tion, Georgia ha s regained some stability
g r o u n d t ro o p s o rg a ni ze d in to si x m o t o r i z e d bu t it s future remains uncertain.

20 percent of all recruits have criminal records at many a 23 n uc le ar w ar he ad s a re no w unaccounted

th e time of their entry into s er vi ce . Dis ci pl in e i s for.
often both b r ut al a nd lax, a s o ff ic er s b ul ly recruits
but fail t o m ai nt ai n order in the established ranks. Elites
It's estimated on e in 2 0 s ol di er s will be th e victim Conditions are somewhat better a mo ng t he air
of rape from his fellows in uniform. borne forces, w hi ch h av e retained their status as
Matters are little better a mo ng t he officer corps. t he c re am of th e army. Th e paratroop force no w
Roughly 180,000 officers, along with their families, consists of five airborne divisions (reduced from
are homeless. Pay remains low, an d is o fte n m o n th s six in 1989), no t including th e division-sized 242nd
i n a rr ea rs . U nd er such conditions corruption ha s Training Center at O msk. T he re a re a lso seven heli
flourished, with officers selling t he w ea po ns under co p ter ai r assau lt bri ga de s, th o u g h they have
t he ir c om ma nd to criminals an d foreigners. There always been looked down upon b y t he p ar at ro op 
are e ve n rumors, which th e Kremlin denies, that as ers.

T h e N e a r A b r o a d a n d t h e CI!i - Kazakhstan
POPULATION: 17,500,000 ar my h as 2,700 tan k s, in clu din g 2,180 T-72s, an d on
CAPITAL: ALMA TV regiment o f a tta c k helicopters.
With a lan d are a of over a million sq u are miles, K az a kh m il i ta r y d oc tr in e i s defensive, w it h t he larg
Kazakhstan is t he l ar ge st CIS c ou nt ry a p ar t f ro m Russia. size of th e nation dictating a policy of mobile response t
Ruled by P r e s i d e n t ursultan areas under t hr ea t. T he re is a ls
Nazarbayev (who recently ha d him a substantial (23,000 men) inter
s e lf c o n fi r me d in office until th e n al s e cu ri ty force, including
year 2000), a former first secretary 2,OOO-man R e pu b li c an G u ar
of t h e c om m un is t party. Kazakh sworn to protect th e President.
stan ha s sought to strengthen ties T he a ir force ha s an addition
with Russia while finnly maintain al 20, 000 m e n a n d ap p ro x
in g it s independence. imately 200 serviceable aircraf
T he K az ak h army (the forme r T he a ir f or ce 's m a jo r n ee d is fo
Soviet 40th Army) ha s 45,000 men: m ore long ran ge in tercep to r
on e motorized r i fl e d iv is io n, on e an d - in c om mo n w it h t he res
tank division, a n a n ti - ta n k brigade, of th e CIS states - more fund
a special purpose (Spetsnaz) brigade ing for training an d repair.
a nd tw o a r t il l e ry b r ig a d e s. The

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Chechnya
The Moslem Chechen tribesmen of the North Caucasus Fleets, th e 31st Mai ko p Mot or Rif le Bri ga de , an d fo
waged a bitter war a ga in st t he Russian Empire before additional motorized infantry regiments.
they were finally conquered in 1859. In 1918, aft er th e On 19 Ja nua ry the 276th Motor Rifle Regiment an d
fall of the czar, the Chechens briefly established an inde 876th I ndependent Assault-Landing Battalion captur
pendent state, bu t th e Red Army retook control of th e the Chechen presidential palace. By 31 J an ua ry the o
region two y ea rs l at er . I n 1940 th e Chechens rose in cial Russian causalty figures listed 735 Russian dead, b
revolt. Stalin responded b y h av ing the e ntire p op ulatio n the actual number was certainly higher. Moscow was
deported to Centr al Asia i n 1944. At l ea st 200,000 died. able to pronounce G ro zn y " se cu re d" u ntil 6 March, a
The Chechens were only allowed to return to the ir h ome even then Dudayev's fighters continued to wage guerr
land in an d
1957.
In November 1990 th e N a ti o n al C o n g re s s of th e warAfrom theasurrounding
dop ti ng " de st ro y t hehills countryside.
village to save it" policy,
Chechen People elected air force Gen. Dzhokar Dudayev Russians responded to Chechen raids with indiscrimin
as the ir lea der, then adopted a d ecl ar at io n o f i nd epe n shelling an d b om bi ng o f towns. In repri sal , i n Ju ne 19
dence, which Moscow ignored. A year later Dudayev was Chechen fi gh te rs s li pp ed i nt o t he Russian town
elected president o f Chechnya, a nd a s ec on d d ec la ra tion Budennovsk, taking 2,500 hostages at the local hospi
of independence was issued. Yeltsin responded by send A fter two futile R us sian a ss au lts, w hich c os t the lives
ing a small security detachment to the Chechen capital of 1 40 h os ta ge s, t he C hec he ns were granted safe passa
G ro zn y to arrest Dudayev. Mobs of his supporters pre back to their homeland.
vented their leaving the Grozny airport. The Russian par Th e war in Chechnya has been a debacle fo r t
liament meanwhile voted against the use of troops to Y eltsin g ov ernmen t. C riticize d fro m the left for w ag
resolve the Chechen dispute. an unnecessary war, the Kremlin ha s also been attack
Moscow n ex t t ri ed to remove Dudayev f rom p ow er by f ro m t he r igh t for mi li ta ry i nep ti tud e. The a rm ed for
offering suppor t to h is p ol it ic al r iva ls in Grozny. In themselves have been split over th e intervention, w
M ar ch 1 99 2 there wa s a an attempted coup by pro several senior commanders resigning in protest ov er

nomic rebels. When that failed, Russia instituted an eco

Russianblockade. invasion.
attempt toMorale
improve among t he by
esprit s olhanding
di er s is pou
oot r.over
Mosco
5,0
In 1993 Duday ev dissolved th e Chechen parliament medals for b r av ery mi gh t have been more effective
an d b eg an t o rul e by decree. Once again fewer of them h ad b een posth
Moscow attempted to tak e a dv an ta ge of mous.
divisions among th e Yeltsin ha d thus been reduc
C he ch en c la ns by at th e s ta rt o f the presidential ca
b a c ki n g D u da y ev ' s p aig n in April 1996, to simp
rivals, bu t again with III a nn ou nc in g the wa r is over. But
r"i"1 = 200 men
little result. ~ 3 0 l i . & war continues an d Russian los
By th e Moo. gun, are m ount ing. The q ue st io n n ow
e nd of 1994, no t w he th er Moscow c an a fford
a h ard -l i n e Airforce grant Chechnya independence, b
clique L-15
Abkhoz =15
trainers
how long it can afford no t to.
around Yelt-
II !l

si n convinc- I Other}units
ed the Rus- P I'
o Ice
Unknown
number of
s i an pr esi- formations
Villa e =30,000
dent only military intervention Militra, men Iotol
could pu t an en d to the Chech
en u lc er . A mo ng th e hawks
were the min is te r of the Interior an d the minister of
nationalities and regional policy, the head of th e
Federal Counter-intelligence Service (FSK), a nd
Yeltsin's advisor an d bodyguard Alexander Khorzh
akov. Intervention was initially o pp os ed b y Defense
Minister Grachev, bu t his attempts to n eg otia te a set
tlement were undermined by th e FSK.
On 11 December 1994, t he R us si an s i nv ad ed
Ch ec hn ya w ith a h urried ly gathered force of 10,000
men, of t he m poorly trained Interior Ministry
(MVD)man
andyFSK troops. Three columns were launched
t o encircle Gr ozn y f ro m t he n or th , west, an d south
ea st. But the C hec he ns ha d nearly 7,000 highly moti
vated volunteer fighters. The western an d so ut h east
p i n cers were halted. Th e n o r t h e r n p i n cer only
reached Grozny on 31 December, where intense street
fighting began.
After t he R us si an commander in Chechnya was Later Russian Reinforcements Rural Patrols
killed on 7 January 1995, Moscow o rd er ed i n rein- x III III x
165th 21st & 22nd
forcements. By March the Russian force ha d g ro wn to 74th Indep. U e 6 ~ ~ 6 ~ v . Cossack Stavropol Cossac
ov er 35 ,0 00 men , inc lu ding an ad hoc airborne divi III III x
sion made up of e le me nts fro m the 76th, 104th an d 81/9Oth Interior 33rd Don 22nd Don Cossack
106th Airborne Divisions, assault groups from three Tank Div. Ministry Cossack Spetsnaz

naval divisions of the Northern, Black Sea an d Pacific Totol = 38,000 men, 230 tonks, 454 APes

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T h e l \ I e a r A b r o a d a n d t h e C IS - K y r g y z s t a n
POPUlATION: 4,600,000 have loaned the air force a unit of MiG-21 intercepto
CAPITAL: BISHKEK fo r ai r defense, an d Kyrgyzstan is a member of th
A relatively stable nation, Kyrgyzstan recently joined Russian-sponsored Joint CIS Air D ef en se Sy st em . T h
Kazakhstan an d Belarus i n signing a t re at y to lower eco R uss ia ns p ro vide tra in in g to the officer c orps , inc lu din
n omic b arriers w ith Ru ssia. Its s ma ll a rmy c on sists of a training for battalion an d brigade officers at the famou
single motorized rifle division (12,000). Frunze Military Academy in Moscow.
T he air force (4,000 men) ha s access to Kyrgyzstan's r el at io n s w it h neigh
a n um be r o f former Soviet air bases an d boring Uzbekistan ar e tense, as th
over 300 aircraft, bu t no first-line inter nation contains a large Uzbek minorit
ceptors. With its d efen se s remaining largely i
The Kyrgyzstan armed forces remain Moscow's hands, Bishkek ha s found
closely integrated with an d reliant upon expedient to support Russia in eco
the Russian armed forces. The Russians nomic an d foreign affairs.

In the west the Special Purpose Brigades (special airborne forces are under the operational control of
forces, or Spetsnaz) h av e l on g b ee n p or tr ay ed as th e chief o f t he general staff, while th e infantry,
th e best of th e best in the R us sian armed forces. t an k a nd artillery forces are assigned to the military
T ha t title n ow m or e r ight ly be lon gs t o t he a ir bor ne d is tric ts (wa rtime " fron ts "). Th e p la nn ed , bu t no t
brigades, bu t th e Spetsnaz remain a cu t above most ye t implemented, creation of a r a pi d r ea ct i on
Russian units. O ften depicted as a force of sabo mobile force, an d the restructuring of the military
t eu rs an d a ss as si ns , t he ir p ri ma ry m is si on s ar e districts into four "strategic groupings" will place a
actually intelligence gathering and reconnaissance. force of 100,000 under t he d ire ct control of th e
The Spetsnaz have been r ed uc ed f ro m 10 br ig ad es Russian pr esident, operating through th e general
to eight. The e sta bli shme nt st rengt h of each ha s staff.
b ee n c ut to 900 men, an d several a re s e ri ou s ly Th e ol d Soviet m il it ar y d i st r ic t s, w h ic h were
undermanned below that level. Overall, unlike th e essentially unchanged from the days of czarist
paratroops, the effectiveness of the Special Purpose Ru ssi a, h av e a ls o survived in the Russian Feder
Brigades is in steep decline. ation. The most obvious ch an ge is t he r ed uc ti on i n
th e n um be r o f districts, with th e loss of those in
Command & Doctrine the newly i n d e p e n d e n t republics (wh at th e
Command of th e ground f orces is divided. T he Russians term the "Near Abroad").

T h e l \ I e a r A b r o a d a n d t h e C IS - M o l d o v a
POPUlATION: 4,300,000 motorized infantry brigades. The army ha s 250 armore
CAPITAL: CHISINAU vehicles, but fewer than 1 00 t an ks . The ai r force ha
Un d er the USSR, th e Moldovian Soviet Socialist - fewer than 100 planes, including 12 MiG-29s. Opposin
Republic ha d been f or me d f ro m t he u ni on o f Bessarabia, th e Moldovian army, th e Dniester Guard ha s 10,00
seized from Romania in World War II, an d the Moldovian troops, including 4,000 Cossack volunteers.
Autonomous SSR east of t he Dn ie ste r River. In 1990, as In June 1992 , as all-out war seemed about to brea
part of the wave of nationalist unrest sweeping th e Soviet ou t in Moldova, Gen. Alexander Lebed arrived to t ak
U nion d urin g the late G orba ch ev era, Moldova d ec la re d c om ma nd o f 14th Army. He immed ia te ly mob iliz ed th
itself a sovereign republic. Full independence wa s 10,000-man 59th Guards Motorized Rifle Division, an
declared on 27 August 1991. announced hi s force s w ou ld retaliate fully against an
Fearing Chisinau planned t o r eu ni te Moldova with attacks on Russian troops. He then conducted negotia
Romania, Russian nationalists in the Dniester region (who tions that le d to th e introduction of CIS peacekeepin
make up 23 percent of the population there) began to forces (including four Russian airborne battalions) alon
demand their own autonomy. In late 19 91 the y d ec la re d the Dniester. In effect, Lebed used 14th A rm y t o s hi e
themselves an independent republic. the fledging Dniester Republic from invasion.
From th e start th e Dniester Republic ha s received Moscow ha s since been ambivalent about it s polic
backin g f ro m th e R us sia n 14th Al l Arms toward Moldova. I n O ct ob er 1 99 4, R us s
A r m y stationed there. Th e first military an d Moldova agreed to th e gradual with
advisors to th e rebel republic were tw o d raw al over t hr ee y ea rs of 14th Army, bu
r et ir ed c om ma nd er s o f that force. Officers th e R us si an s n ow c lai m pulling o ut tha
of th e 14th Army helped organize an d equip a rm y' s 9 0, 00 0 troops will tak e lo ng er t
th e rebels' army, th e Dniester Guard. Rus complete.
sian an d c os sa ck v olun te ers also a rriv ed to Whether th e Dniester Republic ca n su
support the br eakaw ay republic. Through vive without th e protection of th e 14t
ou t 1991 an d th e fi rst hal f of 1992 fierce Army is an open question. The removal o
guerrilla fighting erupted along an d e as t o f Lebed in May 1995 is another sign t h
the Dniester river. Kremlin's support for the rebels may b
F or M old ov a, t he ex is ten ce of th e weakening. Bu t th e greatest blow to th
Dniester Republic ha s b een t he f oc us of rebel government was Moldova's decisio
both military an d foreign policy. Though in no t to unite with Romania, which ha s unde
theory th e government ca n call u p o n mined much of th e popular support e as t o
1 00 ,0 00 r es er vi st s, C hi si na u' s a rm y n um  the Dniester for continued separation.
bers only 11,000 m en , o rg an iz ed i nt o t hr ee
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The Near Abroad and th e Western Group of Forces (100,000 men) within
Kaliningrad enclave on the Baltic.
CIS - Turkmenistan D es pi te t he organizational similarity, there
POPUlATION: 4,250,000 on e profound difference b et we en t he military d
CAPITAL: AsHKHABAD tricts of th e R u ss i an F e d er a ti o n an d th e Sov
Turkmenistan is a relatively stable nation. It's foreign pol Union. Previously th e districts consisted of two
icy aims at closer relations with neighboring Turkey without ers , w it h t he outer layer of districts acting as a b
offending Moscow. fer protecting the internal layer (the Moscow, No
T he T u r k m e n army Caucasus, Siberian, Urals, an d Volga districts). T
h a s 2 0,00 0 m en i n inner layer in turn acted as force generators a
t h re e m o t or i ze d rifle sources of replacements for th e forces in the fr
d iv is io ns , o ne tan k tierWith
districts.
an d three artillery th e los s of th e Baltic States, Belarus,
brigades. T he T ur k C au ca su s, t he Moslem r ep ub li cs o f C en tr al A
men ai r force is siz a nd m os t of all Ukraine, th e outer layer h as b
able bu t much of it is peeled away. Fo r th e first t im e s in ce P et er
in storage (there over Great, excepting th e Russian Civil War of 1918-
500 MiG-29 intercep Moscow doesn't control the areas immediately s
tors in mothballs, bu t rounding t he v ul ne ra bl e R u ss ia n h ea r tl an d. T
only 16 in service), an d geographic fact, along w it h n ew limits placed
th e a ir forc e r e m a i n s th e army by the chaotic post-Soviet economy, a
d ep en de nt o n t he R us si an s th e changing n at ur e o f t he t hr eat s to th e Russ
fo r sp are p arts, ma i nt e na nc e state, have le d to a profound rethinking of milit
an d even pilots. doctrine.
Th e m ilitary d o c trin e of th e Soviet Union h
been geared to p ro te ct in g t he C om mu ni st Emp
seven military districts remain. They ar e
th eToday
from the perceived t hr ea ts o f NATO in t he w es t a
Leningrad (the name ha s apparently no t been China in the east. The Red Army h ad b ee n prep
changed, though th e city of Leningrad itself is again in g itself t o r ef ig ht (albeit with modern weapo
officially an d p o pu larly k n ow n as St. Petersburg), th e g r ea t m e ch a ni ze d b attles of World Wa r
Moscow, Volga, Urals, North Caucasus, Transbaikal, Remembering th e destructiveness o f t ho se battl
an d Far East military districts. There are also seven th e armed forces' highest goal wa s to insure a
Combined Headquarters Groups, a nd a special future wa r b e fought outs ide the t er ritory of

The A ir Force & Navy

Th e Russian Air Force in Europe is limited by th e than a hollow shell o f i ts former self.
Conventional Forces Europe Treaty to 3,450 combat air The Ru ss ia n navy is also s uf fe rin g from shortages
craft, 850 armed helicopters an d 30 0 n aval air cr af t. T he fuel for training. Recent photographs show major surf
actual Russian inventory currently includes 145 strategic vessels anchored i n p or t with peeling p ai nt a nd skele
bombers, 250 l on g r an ge bombers, 2,000 c lose a ir s up crews . O f t he f ou r Ru ss ian f leet s ( th e Northern, Bal
port craft an d 1,050 interceptors in service. But many of Black Sea an d Pacific), only the submarines of th e Nor
those aircraft are either o ut o f date or in poor repair. er n Fleet continue to operate at near Cold War levels.
N ot all combat p la ne s a re under a ir force c ont rol . In The submarine service no w ha s 39 SSBNs (nuclear b
1991 th e role of close ground support w as a ss ig ne d to listic missile), 19 SSGNs (nuclear gUided missile), f
t he ar my, l eavi ng t he air fo rce with control over strategic SSGs (guided missile), 51 SSNs (nuclear attack), an d 60
bombing an d "Front Aviation." The latter is a newly rein (conventional attack) subs. New subs continue to en
stituted concept from World War II, combining fighter service while older v es se ls a re s cr ap pe d. Th e trend
and fighter-bomber a ss et s i n support o f g ro un d oper toward a smaller bu t more modern fleet. The effecti
ations distinct from immediate tactical requirements. ness of t he R us si an silent service is expected to
Much o f the air force budget an d manpower (165,000 e nh an ce d b y t he increasing use of professional contr
men ) i s d ev ot ed t o th e Air Defense Force, which includes sailors in place of conscripts.
fighters, s ur fa ce t o air missile units, an d detection an d The Russian surface navy ha s two helicopter carrie
tracking installations. The en d o f t he Soviet Union meant three battle cru is er s, 1 0 cru is er s, 33 destroyers an d 1
key radar an d tracking stations were suddenly located in frigates. There is also Russia's first conventional aircr
territory no longer under Moscow's control, in the inde carrier, th e Admiral Kuznetsov, which h as b ee n assign
pendent nations of th e N ear A br oad. T he R us si an s have to the Northern Fleet.
attempted to remedy that p ro bl em b y t he creation, at the The Russian navy ha s 300,000 men, roughly one-th
F eb ru ar y 1 99 5 A lm at y CIS summit, of a Joint CIS Air o f w ho m serve aboard ships, with th e remainder invol
Defense C om m and. R uss i an Air D ef en se forc es a re cur in train in g , lo gistic al and other support services a
ren tly s t a t i o n e d i n A r me ni a, Georgia, Ka z a khst a n, naval avi at ion. Each f leet als o has its own naval grou
Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan an d Uzbekistan. force. Th e largest group, e q ui p pe d w it h 350 tanks a
The a ir f or ce 's la rg est p rob lem is lack of fuel, which 800 armored personnel carriers, belongs to th e North
d rast ical ly l imit s t raini ng . F ig ht er p il ot s receive o nl y 4 0 Fleet. I t i nc lu de s two naval infantry brigades, a co
h ou rs o f flying time pe r year, strategic bomber crews defense division, a coastal artillery regiment, an d a s
onl y 80. T he se numbers ar e less than a t hi rd t he flying cial purpose brigade.
t im e f or NATO pilots, an d t he y a re c on si de re d less than Naval units have been heavily involved in both t he w
t he a mo un t r eq ui re d to maintain b as ic p il ot in g skills, in Chechnya an d in CIS peacekeeping operations. Furt
m uch l es s c om ba t effectiveness. Until th e problem is expansion of th e naval ground force, p os si bly a t
remedied, th e Russian ai r f or ce will be no t much more expense of the fleets, ca n be expected in the future.

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T h e l\Ie a r A b r o a d a n d th e CIS - Uzbeki!itan

POPULATION: 22,000,000 T he U zb ek armed forces are a mi x of conscripts an d
CAPITAL: TASHKENT contract volunteers. The a rm y h as a s tr en gt h o f 10,000
Bordering all four of the ne w central men: o n e m o torize d rifle division (of two regiments), on e
Asian r e pu b li c s ( K az a kh s ta n to th e tank b ri ga de , o ne artillery an d o ne a ir bo rn e b ri ga de
n o r t h and west, K y r g y z s t a n an d The a rm y h as 350 t an ks i n service (mostly T-62 an d
Tajikistan to the east, Tu rk m en ista n to T -7 2 models). T he re ar e also 750 o t he r a rm or ed
th e south), Uzbekistan ha s e me rg ed a s vehicles, with another 1,000 in storage.
on e of th e stron g est states in the region. The air force is being reduced to adhere to
While m ai nt ai ni ng c lo se r el at i on s w it h treaty obligations: 100 combat aircraft an d 32
Moscow, T as hk en t h as also mo ve d to a rme d helicopters. This downsizing wil
strengthen ties with Turkey. effectively halve th e n a tio n' s ai r assets.
Uzbekistan ha s a l ar ge T aj ik m in or it y, Th e R u ss ia n m i li ta r y h as tw o air
an d fear th e turmoil inside Tajikistan might defense regiments based in Uzbekistan
spread across the border has led t o Uzb ek along with a regiment of SU-27 inter
economic an d military ai d to Dushanbe. At th e ceptor aircraft. It's also rumored th e
same time, Tashkent h as b ee n waging a cold R us si an s m ay have as ma ny as 80 0
w ar wi th Kyrgyzstan, which ha s a l ar ge U zb ek artillery pieces stationed in Uzbekistan
population. as well.

USSR, an d was therefore conducted on at least an That ne w d oc tr in e, d e ve lo p ed b y th e general

"offensive-defensive" basis. staff under instruction from Grachev, is a n a t te m pt
Under Gorbachev a ne w doctrine was introduced. to reconcile the limits of post-Soviet power with th e
It cal led f or a " reas on ab le s uf fi ci en cy" of force to ge ne ra ls ' de si re to revive t he a rm y' s po we r an d in
conduct a "defensive defense." The motivating fac fluence in both domestic an d foreign policy. On the
tor b eh in d t he new doctrine was simply th e USSR's domestic side it calls f or t he government to protect
shrinking defense budget, an d after 19 89 t he loss both the a rm y' s m ate rial well-being an d i ts p ub li c
of i ts e as te rn Eu ro pe an sa tra p s. The nation could prestige. The decree also authorizes us e o f t he mili
no longer foot t he bill necessary to maintain th e tary at home in matters ranging f ro m o r ga n iz e d
older definition of "sufficiency." Attempts by the crime to attempts to secede from the Federation.
military to resu rrect pre-Gorbachev doctrine in In foreign affairs the document clearly states the
1992 were thus rejected ou t of hand b y t he Russian i nt er es ts o f R us si a a re to be c o ns i de r ed b e fo r e
parliament. t ho se o f the CIS, even in contravention of already
Not until November 1993, following th e army's signed CIS accords. Moscow ha s also made clear its
support for the armed attack on his political ene intention to protect th e in te rests of th e millions of
mies that October, di d Yeltsin approve (in Presiden ethnic Russians in the Near Abroad.
tial D ec re e 1 83 3) a ne w doctrine fo r th e a rm ed On a strategic/operational level, Russian doc
forces, which h as re ma ine d in effect since. trine h as c ha ng ed to take account of th e receding

T h e l\Ie a r A b r o a d a n d th e CIS - Tajiki!itan

POPULATION: 6,000,000 Not surprisingly this a rra n ge m en t so on collapsed an d
CAPITAL: DUSHANBE open civil war began. Nabiyev was forced to flee Dushan
During th e Russian Civil War, Enver Pasha, th e dep be. Then, in t he fall, his o wn supporters v o te d h im ou t o
osed war minister of the Ottoman Empire, a tt em p te d t o power, replacing hi m with Imamali Rakhmonov.
create a ne w Islamic s ta te in Tajikistan. He w as k il le d Lacking any organized military, t he new Tajik leade
fighting th e R ed A rmy in 1922, bu t it w a sn ' t u ntil 1933 t ur ne d t o Moscow for help. CIS t ro op s f ro m Russia an d
th e Soviets finally crushed all Moslem opposition in th e Uzbekistan intervened against th e rebels. In Octobe
region. Today Tajikistan is again th e site of conflict bet 1992 th e Russian 201st Motorized Rifle Division launched
w ee n R us si an a nd m il it an t I sl am ic f or ce s. T he war in a n o ff en si ve against th e Islamic P o pu l ar D e mo c ra t ic
Afghanistan (a country with 4,000,000 ethnic Tajiks) dur Army. In December the rebels were driven o ut o f Dushan
ing th e 1980s led to a rise in Moslem fundamentalism. be after bloody street fighting. Over 25,000 Islamic fight
But a n ti-Ru ssian riots to ok place in Dushanbe as early as er s were driven over th e border into Afghanistan.
1978, th e year before th e Afghan war began. The rebel d efe at d id n ot e nd th e fighting. Though Mos
After independence was declared in 1991, the first Taj cow arranged a cease-fire in April 1994, an d a UN observ
ik president wa s Rahman Nabiyev, leader of the Tajik e r m ission arrived t o m on it or i t t ha t December, the truce
Communist Party an d chairman of th e h as b ee n h on or ed only sporadically. To date th e Tajik
local supreme Soviet. Nabiyev's com civil war ha s killed tens of thousands an d created almos
munist past, an d hi s eagerness to est a million refugees.
ablish close ties with Moscow, alienated T he T aj ik a rm y n um b er s fewer than
th e m ullah s (the Islamic religious lead 5 ,0 00 m en , an d Dushanbe has no ai
ership). At th e same time, h is d ecis io n force. T h e K re ml in ha s been grOWing
to rule by decree a ng ered more pro increasingly impatient with this state o
g r es s iv e e l em e n ts . In May 1992 th e affairs. B ut M os co w can' t withdraw
opposition People's V ol un t ee r C o rp s without risking an Islamic victory tha
seized control of mo st of th e capital. m ig ht le ad to similar Islamic revolts
Nabiyev wa s forced to sh are powe r throughout th e CIS.

with his enemies.

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threat from both NATO an d China. The d an gers to any t roubl e spot . It woul d be bac ke d by the R
Russian security now are largely internal, from eth thr ee army cor ps and an air army, which could
nic, religious a n d n a ti on a li st forces i ns id e t he deployed as reinforcements in three to seven da
Federation, as in the ongoing war in Chechnya. The The Mobile Force idea represents a radical de
remaining external threats are from militant Islam, ture from the mass mechanized armies of the U
with its appeal to the millions of Moslem Russian But the conc ept is well suited to Russia's cur
citizens around the Caspian Sea, an d instability in strategic needs, an d could no doubt prove an ef
the neighboring republics. tive instrument of Russian power. Unfortunat
In 1992 Grachev outlined plans to reorganize the from th e K re ml in v ie wp oi nt , t he Mobile Fo
army to deal w ith these new realities. He proposed though originally slated to become operationa
the creation of a "Mobile Force," which would allow 1994, s ti ll e xi st s m os tl y on paper. The Rus
th e Kremlin to i nj ec t mi li tar y powe r a t any crisi s army simply lacks the mon ey to pro vide the eq
point within or around th e Russi a n Fe de rat ion. ment, training, transport an d logistical supp
With t hi s p ow er fu l s tr at eg ic asset to enforce reqUired.
Moscow's will a t ho me or in the Near Abroad, the With the creation of the Mobile Force stalled,
remainder of the armed forces would adapt a static Russians have attempted to increase their secu
defensive role guarding the Russian heartland. by beefing up th e forces h ol di ng t he ir s tr at e
The Mobile Force is to be divided b et we en a n flanks, the North Caucasus an d Leningrad mili
Immediate Reaction Force an d a Rapid Deployment dist ri cts. To do t his t hey have ha d to violate
Force (RDF). The Immediate Reaction Force (IRF) is limits placed on their forces there by the Conv
to b e f or me d around t he a ir bo rn e divisions, air tional Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE), signed b y
assault and Spetsnaz brigades, along with an Soviet Union in 1990.
amphibious assault force of seven navy an d marine The CFE Treaty d ealt w ith th e withdrawa
b at ta li on s, 12 t o 14 a vi at ion re gi me nt s an d three Soviet forces from eastern Europe an d set limits
army airlift divisions. The IRF is to be kept on con deployments of tanks, armored personnel carri
stant alert statu s, r eady to move with in 24 h ou rs to artillery a nd c om ba t aircraft in th e Soviet Un

Guardians ot= The !itate

Th e Russian security forces no w c on t ro l a l mo s t pr io r to April 1995) is t he l at es t i nc ar na ti on of t he c
350,000 well armed troops, 35 percent of the size of the bi ne d 2nd and 5t h Chief Directorates of the Soviet K
rest of the Russian ground force. The budgets of the sec With a strength of 10,000, i t s r es po n si bi l it ie s i nc l
ur it y services have c on ti nue d t o grow a t the expense of counter-intelligence, anti-terrorism, prOViding arm
the Defense Ministry. Yet th e role of the security forces in bodyguards an d trained assassins, an d "gathering in
Russia remains unclear. In general, tho ug h, they can be ma ti on o n t hr ea ts to Russia' s security." That last m
seen as an expensive an d potentially dangerous legacy of date is sufficiently broad to allow t he c on du ct o f op
the USSR. tions abroad in competition with the Foreign Intellige
Service (the former KGB First Chief Directorate).
TH E BORDER TROOPS The Federal Security Service is headed by Gen. Mik
The R us si an Border Gua rds were fi rs t e st ab li sh ed i n Barsukov, an ally of Gen. Alexander Khorzhakov, w
1893. In 1993, Boris Yeltsin made t he m a n independent controls th e 10,000 troops of the Presidential Secu
force, th e "Border Service of t he R us si an Federation." Service. The two me n are the leading hawks in Yelts
Today there a re 1 90 ,0 00 Border Troops, though their inner circle.
authorized establishment c al ls f or 250, 000. T he y ar e
equipped with armor, light artillery a nd a ss au lt heli MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS TROOPS
copters. Th e Russian Interior M in is tr y ( th e MVD) contr
Their p rimary r espon sibility is o f cou rse the secur ity 70,000 mechanized light infantry troops. These are di
of Russia's i mme nse borde rs. There are seve n Border ed b et ween s ta ti c g ar ris on u ni ts an d a mo bi le 30 ,
Districts, with separate operational gr oups stationed in ma n Operational Designation Force (OP A Z). O PN
Kaliningrad an d outside Russia in Kyrgyzstan (2,500), troops are armed with tanks, armored personnel carr
Turkmenistan (15,000), Georgia an d Armenia (2,000), an d an d helicopters.
Tajikistan (20,000). Border troops have also b ee n u s ed in The most i mporta nt OPNAZ unit is th e 1s t indep
Chechnya. dent Special Designation Division (1st ODON) statio
The Director of the Border Service is Gen. Andrei Niko just outside Moscow. A reinforced mechanized unit,
layev, an able administrator who's wo n Yeltsin's confi 10,000 troops ar e organized in five mechanized r
dence. He was thus able to block Defense Minister ment s, a tank battalion, an artillery bat
Grachev's attempt to g ain control of t he b or de r ion, various specialized support units,
troops, an d ha s even been considered a candidate =10,000 an elite anti-terrorist Special Forces com
men

t o r ep la ce that minister. But Niko ny.

layev was embarrassed in Jun e 1995 The 1 st ODON wa s formerly
w he n he issued a self-congratulatory Felix Dzherzhinsky Division, foun
s ta te me nt o n hi s troops' success in in 1924 to protect the communist
sealing the border with Chechnya on dership from counter-revoluti
th e s am e da y C he che n r ebe ls seized Traditionally th e 1s t ODON is no
hostages in th e R ussian to wn of f or its absolute obedience to auth
Budyonnovsk. ty. In 1991 it obeyed o rd er s f rom
leaders of the August Coup. Two ye
TH E FEDERAL SECURITY SERVICE la te r it obeyed Yeltsin during
The Federal Security Service (the 1 . t Independent Special assault on the Russian parliament.
Federal Counter-intelligence Service De.lgnatlon Dlvl.lon

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west of t he Urals. After t he Soviet Union was dis its limits have grown more blatant. From Moscow's
solved, the emerging CIS republics generally accept p er sp ective the treaty imperils their ability to sta
ed a share of the forces allowed to the Soviet Union tion forces in an area of genuine threats to national
under the treaty. security. But Russia's actions, however logical mili
In the case of Ukraine, that left the Russians fac tarily, have only served, a t l ea st so far, t o incre ase
ing a potentially hostile neighbor possessing 4,080 suspicion in the west.
tanks to Moscow's 6,400, an d 1,420 combat aircraft But even if tho se CFE violations are taken to flat
to 4,340. With its vastly greater airspace to protect, ly p ro ve R us si a cannot be trusted to honor it s
Russia considered Ukraine's air allocation under agreements, even if Russia returns to its authoritar
the CFE too high, an d was also a la rm ed by t he ne ar i an p as t, t he f or me r Soviet menace cannot be
parity in tank strength. revived. The events of 1989 to 1991 shattered the
The Russians
fication, the CFE have complained,
was inten withw some
ded to deal justi
ith a Soviet Red Army
threat than(which i n hi nds
it app eared at ig ht time).
the was proba
Whatblryemains
less a
empire that no longer exists, an d should therefore is p ow er fu l onl y i n c om pa ri so n to it s immediate
be renegotiated. So far t his p le a h as largely fallen neighbors. Against th e forces o f w es te rn Europe,
on deaf ears in the west. James Woolsey, who nego even w itho ut the Un ited S tates, th e Russian army
tiated the CFE agreement for the US, h as called the would stand no chance of offensive success.
Russians' arguments "spurious." In rhetoric rarely The p ro blem f or the Kremlin can b e stated most
heard since th e Cold War, h e' s a cc us ed th e Rus simply in economic terms. In t he 1980s the Soviet
sians of seeking a chance to d estr oy the agr eement military devoured 15 percent of the USSR's wealth.
to serve their " am bi ti on s f or d om in an ce in th e Today the ar med forces, including th e Border
Caucasus an d Eastern Europe." Troops and the forces of t he MVD, take 22 percent
The Russians have t ri ed to ge t around the force of a vastly reduced Russian budget. But to bring the
li mit s i mp os ed by the CFE in v ar iou s ways. Tanks military up to the level of effectiveness envisioned
an d ai r assets have b een transferred from the b y Pr esid en tial Decree 1833 w ou ld r eq uire a stag
a rm ed forces to the MVD, for example, while Geor gering 44 percent o f t he a nn ua l budge t. I t cannot
been force d t o c ou nt R us si an un its on its
gia h aspart be done.
soil as of her own force limits. The greatest threat to the west is posed no t by
The war in Chechnya an d the general instability Russian strength bu t by Russian weakness. But the
i n t he Caucasus have also i nc re as ed t he Rus sians' opportunity, if it ever r ea ll y e xi st ed , f or a ne w
dissatisfaction with the CFE, an d their violations of Marshall Plan to secur e the f ou nd atio ns o f a stable

T h e l \ I e a r A b r o a d a n d t h e C IS - Ukraine
POPULATION: 51,500,000
CAPITAL: KIEV
The most populous CIS nation after Russia an d th e
largest CIS nation lying entirely within Europe, Ukraine's
defense establishment is th e second largest \o\ithin th e xx x xxxx
(Formerly the USSR's
area of the former Soviet Union. ~ = : : J Transcarpathion
U
The army h as 217,000 men. add itio n to the u nits in Military District)

-
In
t he diagram, t here are six at tac k an d five support heli
cop ter r egimen ts; however, man y o f tho se u nits ar e only
at cadre strength.
The Ukraine ha s o ver 4 ,0 00 tanks, including 1,500
T-72s an d 350 T-80/90s. That's a formidable force, com
parable to the 6,400 Russian tanks allowed in Europe
under the CFE treaty.
The ar my is supported by over 50,000 border guards,
12,000 internal security troops, an d a craft, an d the ai r force currently has 1,150 combat plane
35,000-man national guard. There are (not including trainers), with another 500 in reserve
also 100,000 paramilitary troops in including 314 MiG-21s.
the country, though Kiev has recently The Ukrainian navy ha s a strength of 15,00
begun cracking down on the largest of men. In 1995 Ukraine signed a treaty giving it 18.
these, th e 70,000 member r ig ht wing p er ce nt o f th e Black Sea Fleet, t he r em ai nd e
Union of Ukrainian Officers. going to the Russian F ederation. The core o
Ukraine inherited the Russian sys the fleet is two f rigates an d 40 smaller ves
t em o f milit ar y districts (the Kiev, sels.
Odessa an d Carpathian Military Dist That resolved one thorny issue be
ricts), bu t they've since been disband ween Kiev an d Moscow, b ut other
ed a nd r ep la ce d by tw o "strategic remain. The status o f the Crimea, wit
groupings," Western an d Southern. It's it s large Russian p op ul at io n a nd t h
also planned to r ep la ce t he Soviet h ug e naval b ase at Sevastapol, contin
army an d division order o f b attle with ue s to be a major source of friction
more western-style corps an d brigade Both Yeltsin an d Ukrainian Presiden
designations. L eo ni d K uc hm a h av e an interest i
Under the CFE, Ukraine's air force is improving relations, b ut b ot h are like
l im it ed to 1,090 combat aircraft an d wise w ar y of p ro vo king a nationalis
330 armed helicopters. But Kiev inher b acklash at home by seeming to giv
ited some 3,000 Soviet military air- away too much.

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an d democratic Russia has passed. We shall have

MILITARY, NAVAL, AVIATION, live in t he f ut ur e l ess under the thr eats posed
Russian expansion than b y tho se posed by con
AND ue d Russian implosion.

WORLD HISTORY BOOKS Selected Sources

Corley, Felix; ed. Jane's Sentinel Regional Secu
A s se s sm e nt , C o m mo n we a lt h o f In d ep en d
Out of Print Used Rare
States. London: Jane's Information Group, 199
Large catalogues issued four or.five times a year. Galeotti, Mark. The Kremlin's Agenda. Alexand
S ubsc ription $5.00 for the next three issues, Virginia: Jane's Information Group, 1995.

deductible from first purchase. We respond to Kuzio, Taras.

Forces." "The
Jane's O r g an i zaReview,
Intelligence Ukrain
t io n o fJune 19
want lists, an d also bu y in our field. pp. 254-258.
Schofield, Carey. The Russian Elite: Inside Spets
Fabers' B o o k s A n d th e Airborne Forces. London: Greenh
Books, 1993.
B o x 24 Woff, Richard. The Armed Forces o f th e Form
Soviet Union, 4 vols. Portsmouth, Englan
Mi l l wo o d, NY 10546 Carmichael an d Sweet, 1995.

The Baltic State!i

The three Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia an d Lithuania guard infantry bat
are the only former Soviet Republics that didn't join the t a l io n s. U l ti m at e ly
CIS. All t h ree n ati o ns have worked to estab lish a joint it's planned fo r a
Baltic States battalion to participate in UN peacekeeping standing army of
operations. 9 ,0 00 m en , backed
b y 10 ,00 0 national
Estonia guards. The l at te r is
POPUlATION: 1,600,000 an all volunteer force,
CAPITAL:TALUNN which in peacetime is
Estonia estab lish ed a d ef en se min istr y in April 1992, u n d e r parliamentary
an d soon after introduced 18 month compulsory military control. In the e vent of
s er vi ce f or al l ma le s war, however, it would sub
age 19 to 28. As with o rd in at e t o t he arm y an d the
th e other Baltic States, ministry of defense.
Tallinn's primary con
cern is to build up it s lithuania
military to p revent any POPUlATION: 3,900,000
possible r ep et it io n o f CAPITAL: VILNIUS

th e Soviet tak e over of Lithuania was the first of the Baltic

1940. S ta te s to dec la re it s independence, in March 1990.
Today t h e E st on ia n weeks later an embryo defense ministry, the Departm
a rm y h as 5,000 troops for th e Pro tection o f th e Region, wa s established.
organized into si x Jan uary 1991, the Lithu anian armed for ces ha d reach
mech an i zed infantry 12,500 men, in addition t o 32, 000 paramilitary volu
b a tt al io n s a n d a rapid teers.
r ea ct io n re gi me nt . The a rmy is b ac ke d b y a n at io na li st Today Lithuania has 25,000 m en u nd er arms, incl
paramilitary force, the Defense League (Kaitselitt), which ing border an d civil def
h as 16 b at ta li on s (6,000 men). The Kaitselitt is a mixed ense units. Th e army's
b lessing, f or its members have p ro vo ked incid en ts with ma in formation is th e
Estonia's large Russian population. One Estonian politi recreated 16th Lithuan-
cian ha s compared it to "a large g en tlemen 's club, rather ian Division, a World War
than a responsible paramilitary organization." II Re d Army u ni t th at
h ad b ee n d is ba nd ed in
latvia the 1950s.
POPUlATION: 2,700,000 Lithuania ha s main
CAPITAL: R IG A tained th e most cordial
Latvia's f ir st s ec ur it y c on ce rn wa s insuring th e relations with Moscow of
removal of the 60,000 Russian tro op s based there. That all the Baltic States. As a
was a cc om pl ishe d b y S ept em be r 1994, w it h t he he lp of result, it was first to be
diplomatic pressure fr om the west. Latvia's secon d mili freed of Russian troops.
tary objective ha s been th e formation of an army large That was accomplished
enough to discourage any Russian return. by September 1993, with
Currently th e Latvian armed forces c on si st o f four m os t o f the Russian personnel, some 45,000, being tra
800-man mechanized infantry battalions an d 11 frontier ferred to the coastal enclave of Kaliningrad.
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W o r l d War II Axis Military History

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Preparations for War th e r esu r recti o n o f hi s service after World Wa

Fo r Germany's navy - De r Kriegsmarine - A fter throw in g o ff the limitatio ns i mp os ed b y
World War II came six years too early. On 3 Sept Versailles Treaty, which ha d barred Germany fr
ember
on Germany1939, when France
i n r es d England
po n seanto Hitler's declared
invasionwar
of marines an dmilitary
possessing planein
all warships s, excess
aircraftofcarriers,
10,000 tos
Poland, t he na va l rearmament p ro gr am , t he "Z by the time the new war began Germany posses
Plan," was on ly ei gh t months old. T hat grandiose a modern, though s ma ll, fleet: two battlecruis
b ui ld in g s ch em e w ou ld eventually have given th e three pocket battles hips , on e heavy cruiser,
T hi rd Reich a fleet to rival th e Royal Navy, includ light cruisers an d 22 destroyers.
ing eight battleships an d 10 battlecruisers, bu t th e But even when the two new battleships, Bisma
majority of the units were no t to have b ee n r ea dy an d Tirpitz, joined th e fleet, th e outnumbe
until 1945. Kriegsmarine would still be no real match for
In th e m ea nt im e, Ge rm any w ou ld have t o f ight British navy, which in 1939 ha d a dozen bat
t he w or ld 's greatest s ea p ow er with what ships ships, three battlecruisers, seven aircraft carri
were on hand. Adm. Erich Raeder, c om m an d er i n 62 cruisers an d 159 destroyers.
chief o f t he German navy since 1928, ha d overseen As the war began, Raeder hoped th e Germ
inferiority i n n um be rs would be offset, at leas
part, b y t he q ua li ta ti ve superiority he assum

wo be i nh erthere
ul dthough,
fact, en t i n his more modern vessels
really wasn't m uc h b as is
such a h op e. The sin gle h ea vy cruiser, Hipper, w
in refit until January 1940. The Scheer, one of th
pocket battleships, was beset by protracted eng
p ro bl em s a nd would remain unde r repair u
O ct ob er 1 94 0. Th e battlecruiser Scharnhorst w
also suffering engine problems; while even m
importantly, sh e and her sister ship Gneisen
lacked th e firepower r e quir e d to successfu
engage British battleships, an d both needed to
upgraded from II-inch to IS -i nch g un s b ef or e t
could be considered true capital ships.
D eployment of th e ma jor German warsh
w ou ld a ls o b e h am st ru ng b y t he d es tr oy er s av
able as escor ts for th e large r u nits . T hey were
d es ig ne d for lon g o ce an c ru ise s, an d their limi
range was further re duc ed because their poor s
keeping qualities re quire d the m to retain at least
percent of their fuel or risk capsizing in heavy se
Even m or e s er io us s ho rt co mi ng s existed in
light cruisers. The weight-saving technique of we
ing t he ir h ul ls brought on critical structural d
ciencies, which were aggravated by the addition
m or e t op si de m as s a ft er commissioning. Sim
peace time operations ha d already caused crack
in their superstructures. Consequently, all six li
Hitler (right center), with Adm. Raeder on his right, departs cruisers had to be barred f ro m o p er a ti ng in
after launching the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen on 22 August Atlantic an d we re al so prohibited from dropp
1938. NationalArchives below half their fuel capacities.
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Equally grievous faults handicapped the German

capital ships, d es tr oy er s a nd h ea vy c ru is ers. T he
propulsion system Raeder ha d personally chosen to
p ro pe l tho se v ess els - s up erhe ated , h ig h-pres su re ,
steam b oi ler s - p ro ve d to b e o f du bi ou s reliability.
Under the rigors of e xten de d use , the b oile rs b ro ke
down w ith a la rmin g fre qu en cy . Worse, th e heavy
cr ui ser s' t u rb i nes were no t fuel efficient, so an y
c omba t v oya ges w ou ld b e o pe ra tion ally hampered
by t he r eq ui re me nt to p re -p osi ti on t an ke rs t o keep
them fueled.
But the most s erio us o f the Kriegsmarine's flaws
was th e almost co mpl ete ab sen ce of a n av al a ir
arm. Luftwaffe chief Herman Goring secured per
s on al c on trol ov er v irtu ally all the Reich's military
aircraft. The only planes operated independently by
the navy were the few seaplanes actually carried on
some of t he l ar ger sh ip s. Even t he y were ser vi ced
an d flown b y air fo rce p erso nn el. R aed er opposed
the arrangement, but his apolitical background left
hi m at a distinct disadvantage in arguments with
Goring, Hitler's long time Nazi crony.
The Luftwaffe's aircraft monopoly, besides hin The crew o f the Admiral Graf Spee musters on deck. Along with
d er in g t he fo rmat i o n of a n a ir group for the he r sisterships Deutschland an d Admiral Scheer, the Graff Spee
planned aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin, meant that was unlike an y other warship in the world, since she mount
i n a ny naval o pe ra ti on only land based air support battleship-caliber guns on a hull smaller than that o f some
would be available, a nd t he n only at Goring's whim. heavy cruisers. National Archives
The Kriegsmarine also c on trib uted to the ba d situa
tion when its command declared torpedoes to be Exeter, bu t still s uf fe r ed e n ou gh to cause he r to
exclusively n av al w ea po ns , refus in g to give a ny to tak e refug e in the nearest port, the Uruguayan capi
the Luftwaffe to p ro vide the b as is for d ev elop me nt tal of Montevideo.
of air-launched versions. Th e Graf Spee dropped a nc ho r a t Montevide6
When th e wa r began, Raeder told hi s officers: j u s t b e fo r e m i dn i gh t on 13 December, while
"Gentlemen, we have no ch oi ce - total engage Achilles an d Ajax remaine d o utside the h arbo r. Th e
ment. Die with dignity!" German ship's commander, Capt. Hans Langsdorff,
Later he w rot e i n hi s diar y that in the e xp an ding surveyed the damage inflicted on his pocket battle-
w ar h is n avy me n c ou ld h op e to do li ttle m or e than
show they knew how "to die gallantly."

The Early War at Sea

D es pite h is p es simism, R ae de r w as determined
to imbue an offensive spirit in th e f leet . I n late
August, before the outbreak of war, h e d is pa tc he d a
pair of pocket battleships to tw o areas in th e
A tl an ti c. T he Deutschland an d th e s up pl y s hi p
Westerwald were sent to a p os it io n o ff Greenland,
w hile the Graf Spee an d th e replenishment vessel
A l t mark were deployed halfway b e tw e en S o ut h
America an d Africa.
TLANTIC '. o 30th Sept. 1939 - C
f ) 7th Oct. - Ashleo &
When France an d Britain declared war, however, Newton B
Hitler still refused to permit t he two warships to 8 17th Oct. - Huntsma
attack enemy merchantmen, h o p in g h o s ti l it i es OCEA N e 22nd Oct. - Trevani
would e nd a fte r th e fall of Poland. Only on 26 9 15th Nov. - Africa S
September, after it ha d become apparent the war <':} 2nd Dec. - Doric Sta
w ou ld c on tinu e, d id h e give in to Raeder's requests o 3rd Dec. - Tairoo
an d release t he p oc k et b a tt le s hi ps for c omme rc e o 7th Dec. - Streonsha
raiding.
The Deutschland's cruise was soon cu t s ho rt b y
Hitler, who ordered he r b ac k to p or t, fearing a bl ow SOUTH
to G erma ny 's prestige an d national m or al e i f th e AMERICA
s hi p b ea ri ng t he n ati on ' s n ame were lost. But for
two an d a half months th e Graf Spee marauded
across th e South Atlantic a nd w es te rn Indian
Oceans, picking off nine merchantmen while elud
ing the 23 Allied ships sent to hunt he r down. On
13 December, outside the River Plate estuary, look
ing for one la st target b ef or e h ea di ng b ac k to
Germany, Graf Spee wa s caught by three British
cruisers, the Exeter, Ajax an d Achilles. In the ensu Vo y a g e o f t h
ing "Battle o f the River Plate," the G erma n s hip g ot
th e better t he e ng ag em en t, damaging
liraff!ipee
of heavily
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Reg ardl ess o f t he a ct ua l n um be r o f enemy

se ls immed ia te ly o utside the p ort, L an gs do rff
fully awa re the Royal Navy w ou ld b e c on ce ntra
against his lone ship. On t he 15th, after presid
ov er fun eral services a sh ore for h is s la in c re wm
he signaled Berlin for instructions. Raeder, awar
the Uruguayan government's pro-Allied sentime
considered internment in Montevideo to b e t a
mount to surrendering t he sh ip to th e British.
told L an gs do rff to either fight through to B ue
Aires, Argentina (a c ou nt ry w it h a much more
Axis n eu tr alan
completely it yd areturn time
t t ha t to in the war),
Germany, break
o r scuttle
ship.
Langsdorff wa s thus l ef t w it h fe w optio
Having been given e no ug h t im e to only parti
repair his ship's damage, battling past the block
ing vessels a nd t he n steaming alone the 7,000 m
The Deutschland, with guns at full elevation, at s ea in 1936. back to Germany through a fully alerted Bri
National Archives fleet seemed a bleak proposition. Even the m
shorter cruise to Buenos Aires would have requ
ship, concluding he ne ed ed 14 days to make he r a ship the size of Graf Spee, due to the cours
seaworthy again. But after just 24 hours i n por t, t he th e est uar y channel, to go o ut t hr ou gh the Br
Uruguayan authorities, citing international law, a nd t he n t ur n back toward the Argentinean harb
informed Langsdorff he'd b e a llow ed o nly 72 more Th e G r a f Spee h ad e xp en de d over ha lf
hours to mak e rep airs , d ep arting then or suffering ammunition in the Battle of the River Plate; ano
internment. a ct io n w ou ld s ur el y us e up t he r emai ni n g sh
As th e crew f uri ously patched holes a nd m ade with no hope for resupply. In a dd itio n to limi
other repairs as best the y could, the s hip' s g un ne ry hi m to no more than one engagement, the amm
officer reported s ig htin g the b attle c ru is er Renown tio n s ho rtag e also res tric te d L an gs do rff' s fre ed
an d the carrier Ar k Royal o utside the p ort. I n fact, of action in another fashion: th e shallow wa
h ow ever , o nl y t he h eav y cruiser Cumberland ha d around Montevideo p re cl ud ed h im f ro m me
arrived, replacing the damaged Exeter. pulling the ship's seacocks i f scuttling became
essar y. He w ou ld have t o c on ser ve what amm
tion remained so he could explode the ship if
cumstances forced him to scuttle.
Faced with such dismal alternatives, Langsd
pu t 700 of his me n ashore, an d at 6:15 p.m. on
December 1939, a n ho ur a nd 45 min utes b efore
Uruguayan deadline expired, he an d a skele
c rew s ai le d t he Graf Spee past s om e 75 0,0 00
lookers ou t to s ha ll ow w at er . At 8:54, e xa ct ly
sunset, the captain detonated the charges that b
the b ot tom ou t o f his ship. Re tur ning to sh ore
wrote a let ter to t he German ambassador in Arg
tina, justifying h is a ct io ns , then two days l
w r ap p ed h im se lf in his s h ip ' s b a tt le ensign
killed himself with a pistol shot.
Th e Graf Spee's demise in this way infuria
Hitler, w h o' d e xp e ct ed th e pocket battleship
either break ou t successfully or at l ea st take so
British s hi ps w it h h er to t he b ot to m. The ignom
ious suicide of b o t h th e ship a nd he r c a pt
sparked a growing distrust in th e Fuhrer of
Kriegsmarine's surface ships an d their captains.
The G m f Spee's los s was no t the only cause
consternation in the navy h ig h c om ma nd d ur
this p erio d. In E urope itself, c oo rd in atio n w ith
Luftwaffe was a lso fa r short of satisfactory.
instance, th e a ir force 's use of its own call si
an d m ap c oo rd in at e s ys te m c au se d critical in
service c ommunica tion br e a kdow ns. Relati
b et we e n t he two services reached a low poin
February 1940, when Luftwaffe aircraft inadvert
ly attacked a nd sa nk two Kriegsmarine destroy
The battlecruiser Gneisenau. She an d he r sister ship Scharn A livid Raeder accused Goring or "sabotaging n
horst were the Kriegsmarine's largest warships when World War warfare," an d even i mpl ied a court martial sho
II began. Despite their size, their nine eleven-inch guns were too be convened against the Reichsmarshal.
small to take on British battleships, an d their untried high-pres Th e navy's o th er p ri ma ry e ff or t in th e ea
sure steam boilers proved to be exceedingly unreliable. months of the war c en te re d o n two mine lay
National Archives o pe ra tion s. A min e barrier - then referred to

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A Flight 0", F a n cy : T h e Z - P l a n
Though upon coming to power Hitler professed he c an b uild the T hird Reich in six years, then t he navy c an
sought no war with England, his aggressive foreign policy surely build these ships in six years."
soon se t Germany on a path that inexorably led to just Though more time might h av e a ll ow ed G er ma ny to
such a conflict. In November 1937, h e c on fi de d to hi s expand he r maritime industrial base, no a mo un t o f time
c lo se st a ss oc ia te s h e e xp ec te d Britain w ou ld e ve ntua lly could have furnished he r w ith the natural resources nec
move to b lo ck h is expansionist policies. The follOWing essary t o c om pl et e the Z-Plan. W he n he approved th e
year he officially informed Raed er t ha t, c on tr ar y t o his plan, Hitler also attempted to stimulate shipbuilding by
prior assertions, war with England was indeed inevitable, formally giving the Kriegsmarine priority in raw materi
b ut n ot before 1944, a nd th at th e fleet should plan it s als o ver both t he army an d air force. But i n 1939, Ger
construction program accordingly. many was already i mpo r ti n g n ear l y 70 p erc ent of he r
In res po ns e, the navy d re w up two possible programs. iron ore, an d virtually all he r nickel, tungsten, vanadium
One called f or p ri ma ri ly a submarine force, augmented an d man ga ne se , all ind is pe ns ab le e le me nts for the pro
b y su rf ace r aid er s, while t he other aimed at a big-ship, d uc ti on o f th e high-grade steel required for warships.
big-gu n s urfa ce fleet. In J an ua ry 19 39 R ae de r presented The German economy, still recovering from the hyperin
both s ch emes to Hitler, w ho c ho se the big-ship, b ig-gun flation of th e 1 92 0s a nd th e global depression of th e
option - th e "Z-Plan" - which called for ei ght bat tle 19 30s , was furth er s ha ck le d by a s ho rtag e o f b ot h h ard
s hi ps , 12 battlecruisers, 17 l ig ht cruisers, two aircraft currency reserves an d foreign earnings, which prevented
c arriers, 50 d es troy ers, 64 t o rp edo b o at s an d 22 sub a rapid increase in domestic production.
marines by 1945. The supply of oil to fuel t he proposed ships was equa
Hitl er 's p er so na l f as ci nat ion w it h big, pr es ti gi s ba t lly precarious. Germany posse sse d no domestic oi l
tleships was a decisive factor in his adoption o f the capi reserves, an d even though production of synthetics more
tal-ship-Iaden alternative. His selection delighted Raeder, than t ri p led b env een 1929 an d 1937, in that year th e
who was also a big-ship, bi g-g un d ev ot ee who'd served Reich still imported nearly 60 percent of its peacetime oil
aboard the battlecruiser Seydlitz at Jutland in World War requirements. Germany was thus extremely vulnerable to
I an d ha d authored a book on cruiser warfare in 1922. sharp reductions in the supply of essential raw materials
The p as sa ge o f time ha d do ne n ot hi ng t o alt er t he admi in t he event of a peacetime embargo or war time block
ral's views; as late as 1939 he claimed: "Battleships alone ade, either of which would abort the Z-Plan. The outbreak
ar e able to wi n o r d efen d the s up re ma cy of the seas." The of war in fact prevented the Z-Plan, unrealistic to begin
Z-Plan relegated aircraft carriers to a minor role. Raeder with, from ever coming anywhere near completion. Once
derisively r ef er re d t o them as mere "gasoline carriers," embroiled in a shooting war that eliminated the luxury of
useless in the stormy North Atlantic an d Baltic, where the being able to wait five years for battleships to join th e
decisive actions were expected to take place. fleet, Raeder suspended the p la n a nd ordered priority be
While constructing a big-gun surface fleet wa s th e given to the construction of U-boats, which at t he time
objective, move ment towa rd that en d was immediately were being completed at t he r at e o f only two pe r month.
f ru s tr a te d b y massive obstacles, for th e German ship
building industry h ad b ee n devastated after World War I.
As retribution for Germany's scut-
tling of her interned fleet at Scapa
Flow in 1919, the British ha d con-
fiscated 80 percent of the nation's
floating dockyards.
Warship c o n s tr u c ti o n o r d er s
were of co ur se scarce i n t he p os t
war years, an d the merchant ship
industry also l an g ui sh ed i n th e
h a r d e co no mi c t im es . Conse-
q ue nt ly , G er m an shipyards were
h ar d p res se d to p ro vide the
skilled m an po we r a n d facilities
needed to fulfill the immen se con
tracts that began to be i ss ue d b y
th e Kri e gsmari ne . As e a r ly as
1937, ev en b efore the adoption of
the Z-Plan, Raeder ha d complained
t h ose b o tt l en eck s were threaten
ing t o b ri ng naval c on st ru ct io n to
a standstill, an d that even for th e
already existing ships a shortage
of ammunition was looming.
Tw o years l at er th e German
shipbuilding industr y wa s still
st rug gli ng to m ee t t he navy's bur
geoning construction schedule,
an d on the day Hitler approved
th e Z-Plan Raeder w a r ne d hi m
c omple ting i t within si x ye a r s
might well be beyond the n atio n' s A German naval officer casts a forlorn glance at the unfinished hull o f the aircraft
abilities. The Fuhrer was no t sym carrier Graf Zeppelin; although construction began in 1936, work continued only
pathetic; he told th e admiral: "I f I sporadically during the wa r an d the ship was never completed. National Archives

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 Pre-lnvasion
o
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British plane spots Gennan invasion force. I J :45a.m .. 7
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April.

Ie
British naval squadron lays mines off arvik. 8 April. instances ships were n ea rly los t at sea due to
Hipper sinks Glowwonn, 10: II a.m.. 8 April gine fires.

'
• G erman rrans po rt Rio de Janerio torpedoed, noon. 8 April.
On 13 D ec ember 1939, while in s up po rt o f
lnvasion Day (9 April)
Gneise,wll damaged in running battle with Renown, 5:05 to
of th e mine laying m is si on s, t he l ig ht cruis
7:\5 a.m. Nuremberg an d LeipZig were torpedoed b y a Br

j
ennan troops capture Narvik, 7:10 a.m. submarine. While the Nuremberg's damage was
• ' German troops capture Trondheim during morning. , catastr ophic, the Leipzig went dead in th e wa
• K ar ls ruhe damaged, but Germans Lake Bergen, noon. ."
German troops take Kristiansand in afternoon.
Though she soon g ot u nd er wa y again and, sh e
.
o I

• Blucher sunk, German landing repulsedat Oslo, 7:32a.m. torpedoed again by a d if fe ren t s ub ma ri ne t he n
Gennan paratroops capture Fomebu airfield. then Oslo that ' -_ _~ - I _ - - I . I day. T he Leipzig limped home, in nee d o f rep
evening. that would take a full year to complete, an d e
when returned to service she was afterward s
"$§
ISO . ~ . '
250 300
able only for training missions. The Nuremberg
back in.service by the spring of 1940, bu t she,
$I: Umeae
was late for the Kriegsmarine's biggest surf
operation of the war: the invasion of Norway.
v,
Norway: German Victory,
.
;'
Kriegsmarine Defeat
Fornebu lC 0 I • The Scandinavian countries, t ho u gh n eu tr a
eO?' Stockholm t he w ar 's start, exerted a decisive pull on G
\ many's war effort. The Reich annually consumed
million tons of iron ore, 11 million tons o f w h
came from Sweden_ Half of that or e wa s tra
shipped to German y via the n orth ern, bu t ice f
Norwegian port of Narvik, an d f ro m t he re so
along that sa me n at io n' s coast. In fact, du ri ng
winter months, when many Baltic ports froze o
all Swedish ore was moved via Narvik.
Germany at first ha d little incentive to use fo
to s ec ure the ore tra de , for c on qu erin g Norway
seen to be a potentially pr odigious under taki
Even i f an invasion were successful, it would t
Naval Orders Of Battle For Weser Exercise be another formidable task to g arriso n the c ou n
GERMAN Eight Minesweepers: R-17, R-18, R-19, R-20, R-21, R-22, an d protect th e coastal or e f re ig h te rs f r om
. . . . .) ~ Group I: Narvik
- _

Two Battlecruisers: Scharnhorst, Gneisenall (flagship)

R-23, R-24, with 2,000 troops embarked.
_ . _ . +- Group VI: Egersund
Royal Navy. Hitler the re fo re b eg an the war c on
Ten Destroyers: Wilhelm Heidkamp, Anton Schmitt, Three Minesweepers: M-2, M-9, M·13, with 150 troops to rely on Swedish an d Norwegian cooperation
Wolfgang Zenker, Hans Ludemtmn, Herman Kwme, embarked. maintain the flow o f the vital natural resource.
Dieter von Roeder, Erich Giese, Erich Koellner, Georg Groups VII-XI
Theile, B e m d \'on Amim, with 2.000 troops embarked. But th e s ta tu s q uo became m ore pr ecarious
....
These ferried 3.300 troops of the 198th Infantry Division to
_ • Group II : Trondheim the Danish ports of Korsor. 'yborg, Copenhagen, th e war w en t on. Hitler b eg an to fear British dip
One Heavy Cruiser: Hipper
Four Destroyers: PaulJacobi. Theodore Riedel, Bruno
Middlefan. Esberg andTyboriin. esconed by the obsolete
banleship Schleswig-Holstein. matic pressure w ou ld c ompe l Norway to h alt all
Heinemann, Friedrich Eckoldt. with 1,700 troops Plus 28 to 36 V-boats concentrated in and near Norwegian s h ip m en ts o u t of Narvik, or that th e Royal N
___
embarked.
.... Group Ill: Bergen
waters.
B R ITISH
might block the trade by mining Norwegian terri
Two Light Cruisers: Koln, Konigsberg - - - . . . j ) ~ M i n e L a yi n g: Operation Wilfred ial waters. Worse still, i f th e British s ec ur ed b a
One Training Cruiser: Bremse One Bartlecruiser: Renown (Adm. Whitworth's flagship) in Norway, e it he r t h ro u gh political or milit
Seven Torpedo BoalS: Leopard, Wolf, 5-19, 5-21, 5-22, 5- Thirteen Destroyers
23, 5-24, with 1,900 troops embarked. - - - • -.... From Home Fleet
means, no t only would the ore traffic be vulnera
- - - - ->- Group IV : KristiansandlArendal Two Battleships: Valiant, Rodney (Adm. Forbes' flagship) bu t a ne w Baltic flank wo uld be opened agai
One Light Cruiser: Karlsruhe One BattJecruiser: Repilise
Ten Torpedo BoalS: Greif, Luchs, Seeadler, 5-7, 5-8, 5-17, Two Light Cruisers: Sheffield, Penelope
Germany.
5-30,5-31,5-32,5-33, Tsingtau, with \,100 troops Ten Destroyers orway's precarious neutrality was highligh
embarked. First Battle or Nan'ik, 10April on 16 February 1940. The Altmark, th e G m f Sp
• • • • • • • .... Group V: Oslo Five Destroyers: Hunter. Havock, Hotspur, Hostile, Hard)'
One Heavy Cruiser: Blucher (Cpt. Warbunon-Lee's flagship) supply ship, was completing he r tra ns it a cros s
One Pocket Banleship: Lut::.ow Second Battle of Narvik, 13 April Atlantic, headed for Germany, carrying 299 Bri
One Light Cruiser: Emden One Battleship: Warspite
One Gunnery Training Ship: Brummer Nine Destroyers: Bedouill, Cossack, Eskimo, Punjabi, prisoners, survivors from the ships sunk by the
Three Torpedo Boats: Mowe. Albarross, Kondor Hero, Icarus. Kimberly, Forester, Foxhound pocket battleship. Though the Altmark ha d reac
Norwegian territorial waters, wh er e a cc or di ng
international law sh e was entitled to unimped
the "West Wall" - was laid to prevent Allied ships passage, s ai lo rs f ro m t he d es tr oy er HMS Coss
f ro m p en et ra ti ng i nt o t he Baltic. A second mining forced their way past Norwegian patrol boa
mission, begun in October 1939, sent 11 destroyers boarded t he German s hi p an d liberated th e c
on series of sorties to drop more than 2,000 mines tives. Hitler concluded from t he i nc id en t t
of f th e c oa st of England. That undertaking was suc Britain's respect for Norwegian neutrality was p
cessful. By March 1940 it claimed 76 merchantmen, functory at best an d th e i ndispe nsa ble i ron
t o ta l li ng o ve r a quarter- m illion tons, along with trade was i nd ee d i n jeopardy. He ordered his sta
nine small warships, without a single destroyer ever to begin preparing for the invasion of Norway_
being so much as detected, let alone intercepted. Raeder wholeheartedly supported the decisi
While the Kriegsmarine s uf fe re d no l osse s i n i ts an d in fact ha d been urging just that course
early mine laying o pe ra ti on s, t ho se m is si on s d id a ct io n o n H it le r f or mo n th s. Th e conquest
r ev ea l c h ro n ic p ro bl em s i n th e d es t ro y er s ' h ig h Norway would give the Kriegsmarine bases allow
pr essur e steam power plants. The flaws resulted in i ts s hi ps e as ie r a cc es s t o th e A tlan tic w hile a
excessive time spent undergoing repairs, an d in two preventing the British navy from sealing the Balti

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But the practical problems inherent in landing an Trondheim, Bergen an d Narvik pu t troops ashore at
invasion fo rce so near to th e main b ases o f th e places that even under th e best of conditions could
numerically superior Ro yal Navy w ere daunting. no t have been easily resupplied or reinforced. As it
Because the northernmost objectives - t he ports of turned out, they barely survived. Creating such iso
Bergen, Narvik a n d T r on d he i m - w er e a c tu al ly lated o u tp o st s h ad little real effect on th e cam
closer to British naval bases than to G erma n one s, paign. They w ere n' t s trong en ou gh to impede any
conventional pre-invasion bombardments with fol Allied c ou nteratta ck y et it was the ir ins ertion that
low-on landings would be impossible. The Germans cost the Kriegsmarine so much.
would instead have to rely on stealth, surprise an d The key to victory in Norway lay in the accom
bluff, including assigning Royal Navy a li as es f or plishments of the G erma n air force, no t the navy.
t he ir w a rs hi ps to use if challenged on their ap The paratroopers' swift capture of Oslo an d its su r
proa c h by Norwegian vessels. rounding airfields allowed the Luftwaffe to e stab 
Raeder fully realized th e o p erat io n r i sk ed th e lish ai r superiority over southern Norway, thus
loss of v irtu ally h is e ntire fleet, sinc e every avail shielding the reinforcements sent there by both air
able Kriegsmarine s hi p woul d b e called on to par an d sea. T he Luftwaffe was decisive in t he e ar ly
ticipate in transporting 8,800 soldiers to five simul d ay s o f the camp aign, flying in s ome 8 ,0 00 tro op s
taneous landings at Norway's five m a jo r p or ts : i n the first 72 hours after the invasion began, then
arvik, Bergen, Trondheim, Kristiansand an d Oslo. su pp o rt i ng an d reinforcing them w it h ov er 3,000
Still, h e b eliev ed the p oten tial ga in o utwe ig he d the ai r transport so rties t ha t b ro ug ht in more than
unescapable risk. 2,000 tons of supplies, 250,000 gallons of fuel an d
The p la n for the inv as io n of Norway, codenamed another 30,000 men.
Weserubung (the "Weser Exercise," deceptively after ot only ha d the navy's contribution in Norway
a river in western Germany), commenced in th e p ro ve d o f limited value, th e grievous s hi p l os se s
early hours of 9 A pr il 1 94 0. Troops were p u t l ef t th e fleet impotent to interfe re w ith the Allies'
ashore with little or no loss at Bergen, Trondheim later \\ith draw al o f 30 0, 000 s oldiers fro m D un kirk
an d Kristiansand, bu t at Oslo the Norwegian shore
b atte ries s an k the c ru is er Blucher with heavy loss.
Th e German landing force there withdrew, b ut
paratroopers meanwhile l an d ed o u ts id e th e city
an d seized nearby fornebu airfield. Quickly rein
forced by a flown in infantry reg imen t, Oslo w as
soon taken without navy assistance.
At Narvik, 1 0 German destroyers successfully
landed 2,000 infantrymen, b ut t he n all tho se s hips
were sunk w he n the Royal Navy a rriv ed an d coun
terattacked.
A fter the initial moves, the Kriegsmarine played
a lmos t n o furth er c omba t ro le while the o utco me o f
t he Norwegian c am pa ig n o n t he ground remained
in doubt. fourteen German supply ships were sunk
before reaching their destinations; only in th e
southernmost p orts , over w hich the Luftwaffe con
trolled the sky, could merchantmen dock safely.
A 24,000 ma n Anglo-french-Polish landing force
retook Narvik on 28 May, w it h t he Ger man s t he re
retre atin g into the hills s urro un ding the town. The
German n av y w as powerless to f ru st ra t e o t he r
Allied landings above an d b elow T ro nd he im. The
German units in northern Norway, cu t of f from
resupply, could only hold on in the hope friendly
force s a dva ncing o ve rlan d fro m Oslo w ou ld arrive
before they were forced to capitulate.
After the German invasion of f ra nc e a nd the Low
Countries began on 10 May, however, the Allied sit
uation rapidly deteriorated, forcing their abandon
ment of orway. With t h e e va cu at io n of th e last
British forces f rom arvik on 8 June, t he Germans
at l as t h ad c omplete c ontrol of t he c ou nt ry . The
c on qu es t h ad t ak en barely two months, an d Ger
many t he n r ea pe d th e substantial benefits that
came from gaining such an extended northern flank
on the British.
But the triumph ha d exacted an exorbitant price
from the navy. Weserubung c la im ed 10 of Ger
many's 20 d es tr oy er s, o ne of two h ea vy cruisers
an d two of f ou r l ig ht cruisers, as well as five D-
boats an d several smaller vessels. Raeder's service
able "fleet" consisted of bu t a single heavy an d two The German destroyers Jacobi (foreground), Lody (left), an d Ih n
light cruisers an d seven destroyers. All the major (right) escort the damaged cruiser Hipper (center background),
losses ha d come in the first four days of the cam which ha d been rammed by a British destroyer the da y before
p ai gn i n support o f t he l an di ng s. The l an di ng s at Weserubung. National Archives

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an d 200,000 m ore from e ls ewhere in France. With successes later dubbed "The Happy Time." But
no warships to speak of, Ope ra tion Sea Lion, th e G er ma ny 's s u rf ac e s hi ps , sunk or damaged
proposed invasion of England, was transformed the re fore una va ilable to e sc alate the a ttac k on
from what would have been a difficult task to an e xp os ed s hi pp in g l an es i nt o o ut ri gh t decimat
impossible one. Th e devastated Kriegsmarine's t he re was t o b e no H app y Time.
inability to formulate any plan acceptable by the By it s very nature, convoying reduces ove
army undoubtedly helped quash w ha te ve r r ea l shipping efficiency by 30 to 40 percent, due to
interest Hitler may have h ad i n the undertaking. delays inherent in gathe ring e nough s hips to for
Most i mpo r tan t ly , t h ou g h, th e Kriegsmarine's convoy an d the inevitable congestion at the dest
Norway losses deprived Germany of h er b es t oppor tion. T hose ine ffic ie nc ie s c ould have been gre
tunity to help knock England ou t o f t he war. As the a gg ra va te d i f G er ma n surface r ai de rs h ad b
Royal Navy husbanded all i ts st ren gt h ar ou nd the available to injec t further c ha os into the proce s
British Isles in the su mmer an d fall of 1940 to con c ompelling the British to a ss em ble s trong war
test any attempted Channel crossing, stripping con escorts. With British imports already falling prec
voy e sc orts in the proce ss , U-boats ravaged Allied tously, such a combined U-boat an d surface ass
shipping. That ushered i n six months of submarine m ight well have generated the res ults nec es sa r
allow Raeder to prevail in his e ff or ts to g et Hitle
concentrate the Luftwaffe against England's po
T ha t would ha ve a ls o hampered London's attem
to sup pl y its forces in North Africa, perhaps e
becoming the back-breaking straw that would h
forced them to the pea ce table.
Glory Days
While th e Kriegsmarine's m ai n s ur fa ce un
were embroiled in Weseriibung, Raeder was abl
maintain th e assault on Britain's ocean lifeli
with a rm ed merchant cruisers only. Those vess
merchantmen of between 3,000 an d 9,000 tons,
been c onve rted to warships after the o ut br ea k
hostilities, yet maintained their harmless appe
a nc e e ve n after the addition o f h id de n deck g
a n d m a ch i ne g un s, t o rp ed o t ub es a nd spot
planes.
The Auxiliary Cruisers War Badge (left, armed merchant Th e mission of t he se s hi ps i n vo l ved mo v
raiders), an d the High Seas Fleet War Badge. unnotic e d a cr os s t he immense expanse of

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world's oceans, eluding d et ec ti on b y mixing with find targets while eluding pursuers. But German
th e many legitimate freighters always plying th e radar development stagnated, in large part because
seas. Beginning with t he d ep ar tu re of the Atlantis they chose to c on du ct little r es ea rc h below t he 8 0
on 31 March 1940, six disguised raiders ha d sailed centimeter wave length, instead placing emphasis
by 9 July. Preying on lone merchantmen steaming on expanding production of existing sets.
outside normal trade routes, striking quickly before German doctrine al so cal led f or l im it in g radar
their victims could transmit distress signals, by use, since t he device coul d reveal t he user's posi
N ov em be r 1 94 2 the raiders had sunk 88 ships tion at distances greater than it could detect oppos
totaling 538,000 tons. ing vessels. Consequently, they came to us e it pri
This form of attack intensified late in 1940, after mar ily to i mp ro ve g un ne ry a ga in st k no wn t ar ge ts
th e fall of France an d N orwa y g av e th e Kriegs- rather than to search f or st il l unseen s hips . T he
marine new positional advantages. With France ou t British meanwhile c o nc e nt ra t ed o n shorter wave
of th e wa r an d Italy an active German ally, th e lengths, an d success in th e 50 centimeter band
Royal Navy was forced to cover the M ed iterra ne an r es ul te d i n th e "Type 284" se t, wh ich ha d much
alone. More imp orta ntly , w ith G erman y in c on trol greater range than its German counterpart.
of some 3,000 miles of coastline from the Arctic to As with radar, Germany at first also enjoyed an
th e Spanish border, England's overstretched fleet advantage in communications security. The Royal
was h ar d p re ss ed to maintain the b lo ck ad e o f Ger Navy e mp lo ye d code b oo ks to e ncr yp t i ts signals,
many. Raeder was suddenly well positioned to carry bu t th e Kriegsmarine had actually been reading
on commerce raiding in earnest. tho se c ip he rs since 1938. By th e t ime of the inva
On 23 October 1940, the Scheer, one of the two s io n o f Norway, the G erma ns were d ec oding a bo ut
remaining pocket battleships, began on e of the 30 p erce nt o f all British naval mes sa ge traffic. One
most successful naval missions of modern history. British admiral complained: "I t is most galling that
By th e time s he returned to Kiel, 161 d ay s later, s he the enemy hould know just where o ur s hi ps ...
ha d steamed 46,419 miles, sunk 17 s hips totalin g alway s are, w he re as we g en erally learn w he re h is
113,233 tons, an d ha d c a us e d imme a su rab le dis major forces are [only] when they sink one or mo re
ruption to the convoy system. of ou r hips."
Similarly, the heavy cruiser Hipper sortied from ot until the British modified their ciphers at the
Brest on 1 February 1941 an d attacked an unescort end of A ug us t 1 94 0 di d the Royal Navy regain a
ed convoy. She sank 17 merchantmen and damaged modicum of signals security.
three more before docking in Norway on 26 March.
It was Adm. Gunther Lutjens, in overall com
mand of two battlecruisers, however, who carried
ou t th e most spectacular raid of the war. Scharn-
horst an d Gneisenau ha d b ee n o ut o f act io n for six
months repairing torpedo damage received during
the Norway operation, bu t by t he en d o f 1 94 0 both
were again ready for duty. Between departing on 22
January 1941 an d r et ur ni ng to Brest 60 days later,
the two ship steamed 17,800 miles without receiv
ing so much as a sc ra tc h. L utjen s' bag, 22 ships of
116,610 tons, was impressive by itself, but even
more sensational was his convincing demonstration
of th e German battle cruisers' ability to ru n ring
around the Royal Navy.
Despite their best efforts, nothing th e British
tried kept th e Scharnhorst an d Gneisenau from
breaking ou t into the Atlantic. There they remained
undetected, striking an d moving off at \\ill, finally
returning unscathed to port. As succe sful as the
battlecruisers' winter cruise ha d been , even m or e
was expected in th e sp ri ng, \",hen t he n ew super
battleships, Bismarck an d Tirpitz, wou ld b e r ea dy
for action. I t seemed then t he re would b e n ot hi ng
to stop Ger many f ro m sw eepi ng clear t he se as of
British convoys.

Enter the Scientists

Before the wintering German surface ships reen
tered the N orth Atlantic in May 1941, two develop
m en ts t oo k place that were t o p ro ve decisive in
determining th e o ut co me o f th e wa r at sea. T he
first involved r ad ar , t he second th e ULTRA code
breaking effort.
When wa r ha d broken ou t i n 1939, radar was
still in its infancy. Though promising, the technolo --- Cruise of Admiral Scheer,
gy was still fra ug ht w ith imp erfe ctio ns an d prone
to frequent breakdown. The Kriegsmarine held a
--- October 1940 - April 1941
Cruise of Scharnhorsf
January - March1941
& Gneisenau,

l ea d i n radar technology at the onset of hostilities,

an d f ro m th e war's f ir st days t he ir su pe ri or equip ,,- T h e Raid!i o f t h e Bat t lecr ui! ie
ment was i n st ru m e nt a l i n helping German ships

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c ap tu ring its c od e mac hine. T ho ug h the s hip' s c

man ag ed to d es troy the a ctua l Enigma mac hine ,
British retrieved the "Home Waters" key, which
used for 95 percent of German naval traffic.
Two days later, i n an unrelated incident, Bri
escorts depth-charged U-11 0, forcing he r t o t he
face, where th e crew abandoned sh ip . T he B ri
boarded the submarine, seizing both an intact E
ma machine, with that d ay 's s etting s inta ct, as
as a v ariety of code books containing several V-
an d surface ship codes.

tionSutddenly
ak en f,rom
s ta rtin
the gMiinchen
in J un e 1
an941, u sing the
d U-110, infor
R
Navy was able to r ead most German naval Eni
mes sa ge s w ithin 36 h ou rs o f intercept, an d so
times much faster. T ha t was d on e a lm os t cont
ously for the rest of the war, wi th t he m es sa
contents distr ibuted to s elec t, h ig h r an ki ng c
manders in documents prefixed "ULTRA." The
te m was no t infallible, an d was s u b j ~ c t to lap
an d mis in te rp re ta tion s, ye t for the n ex t fou r y
th e Allies r ep e at ed ly t oo k advantage of the f
warning VL TRA provided.

Nine Days of the Bismarck

When sh e wa s commissioned on 24 Aug
1940,
th over f ouwas
e Bismarck r y ea rs after she'd been laid do
unquestionably the sing le m
powerful warship in the world, manifestly supe
to t he new King George V class of battleships t

Com.· Disp. (tonsl Lgth (ftl

Bismarck 8/40 41,700 822

Tirpitz 2/41 42,900 822
After the British broke the German naval code in June 1941, the
Royal Navy was often forewarned enemy ship movements.
Tipped o ff in February 1942 by Ultraof intelligence that the Prinz Scharnhorst 1/39 31,800 771
Eugen was bound for Norway, the British submarine Trident Gneisenau 5/38 31,800 771
ambushed the German cruiser outside Bergen; as this photo-
graph indicates, the Trident's torpedo nearly blew off the ship's
stern. The Prinz Eugen eventually limped back to Germany for
repairs, bu t she never again sa w action against the British. Deutschlandt 4/33 11,700 616
National Archives GrafSpee 1/36 12,100 616
Admiral Scheer 11/34 12,100 616
Conversely, th e British ha d a lm os t n o success
du ri ng t he f ir st two ye ar s of the war rea ding inter
cepted German messages. To encode their wireless
transmissions, all b ra nc he s o f the G erma n armed
Admiral Hipper 4/39 13,900 675
forces used a mac hine called the "Enigma," a com Blucher 9/39 13,900 675
mercially produced device modified fo r military Prinz Eugen 8/45 14,800 689
use. The h ea rt o f the Enigma was a s erie s o f revolv
in g d r u m s that could accurately encrypt and
d ec ry pt mes sa ge s o nly if the o pe ra to r first p ro pe rly
s et t he m w ith the rig ht key. Since the key s c ou ld be
Emden 10/25 5,600 508
altered daily, an d any attempt to t ran sla te a mes Konigsberg 4/29 6,650 570
sage without one ha d to w ork through literally hun Karlsruhe 11/29 6,650 570
dreds of millions o f p os si bl e combinations, th e Koln 1/30 6,650 570
G erma ns felt their system w as imp re gn ab le . T he Leipzig 10/31 6,710 580
task wa s e ve n more complex b ec au se t he various
b ra nc he s o f the G erm an m ilitar y each ha d their
Nuremberg 11/35 6,980 593
o wn keys, res ulting in well ov er 200 d iffe re nt key s
in use. Notes
To ai d in cracking th e G erma ns ' n av al E nigma ·On average, a ship is not ready for active oper
codes, on 7 May 1941 British warships ambushed tRechristened Lutzow, 11/39.
the weather ship Miinchen, w ith the sole p ur po se o f

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joining the British fleet. Over 40 percent of he r dis

placement - some 17,000 tons - c on si st ed o f
Krupp armor plate, giving the Bismarck thicker an d
stronger pr otection than a ny B ritish w arsh ip . Her
exceptionally b ro ad b ea m provided a remarkably
stable platform for he r eight IS-inch guns, produc
ing a broadside more powerful an d accurate than
the King George V's te n 14-inch guns.
All that a rm or a nd f ir ep ow er c ou ld c ha rg e
through t he seas at better than 30 kn ot s, over two
V\
I
<>
\
\-
co

knots faster than the King George V. Though she'd

1\
b e en d es ig n ed p ri ma ri ly fo r short range engage May _ _ _
ments i n t he Baltic an d N orth Sea, the Bismarck's : : : ~ , i ~ : / 2 ; hit by
Bismarck
Io<pedo from Swordfish
8,300 to n fuel bunkers gave he r an excellent range
0306, 2 5 May _ _ _
of 8,SOO miles at a cruising speed of 19 knots.
In th e early morning hours of 19 May 1941,
contact lost ~/-1-03-0-' 2-6"Ma'y
Adm. Lutjens t oo k t he Bismarck on he r first wa r
cruise along with the n ewly commissioned heavy "I Bismarck sighted
cruiser Prinz Eugen. The m is si on was code named . ~ I by RAF Catalina
Rheinubung (Rhine Exercise), an d according to their .~\e~ Q;I... _ _ - . ""I-)

o rd ers the s hips were to b re ak into the N orth Atlan

tic an d ravage British convoys. But as the y passed
o ~ ~ Prinz E u g e n - - -
arrrves at Brest
1 June
\i
- ...
through the Denmark Strait the y were spotted by ~ ~
. - 1<'1'! ~ $ If
the British cruisers Norfolk an d Suffolk.
Those cruisers maintained radar contact, allow
Voyage of t h e B ismarck ~ ~ /

ing two British capital ships, battlecruiser Hood an d

battleship Prince o f Wales, to interce pt. In the ensu  left the fuel
Lutjens c arriedRheinubung
to cancel
in he r bow inaccessible, forcing
an d try to return to
ing battle the Bismarck's fourth salvo penetrated
Hood's magazine, blowing up the ship an d killing port. As he headed for France, the shadowing Suf-
all bu t three of he r crew. But a hi t on the Bismarck folk used r adar to maintain a ten aciou s tra ck o n the

'.ior S h i p s ot = t h e K r i e g s m a r i n e , ' 9 3 9 · 4 5
(ktsl Crew Armament Fate
BATTLESHIPS
30 2,200 8x15", 12x5.9", 16x37mm, 36x20mm Sunk by gunfire, 5/27/41
30 2,530 8x15", 12x5.9", 16x37mm, 72x20mm,6 n Sunk by air attack, Tromso, Norway, 11/12/44

BA TTLECRUISERS
32 1,800 9x11", 12x5.9", 14x4.1", 16x37mm, 38x20mm, 6 n Sunk by Duke of York at North Cape, 12/26/43
32 1,800 9x11", 12x5.9", 14x4. 1", 16x37mm, 38x20mm, 6 n Scuttled, 3/45

POCKET BATTLESHIPS
26 1,150 6x11", 8x5.9",6x4.1", 8x37mm, 10x20mm, 8 n Scuttled, 5 /4 /4 5
26 1,150 6x11 ", 8x5.9", 6x4.1 ", 8x37mm, 10x20mm, 8 n Scuttled at Montevideo, Uruguay, 12/17/39
26 1,150 6x11", 8x5.9", 6x4. 1", 8x37mm, 10x20mm, 8 n Bombed and capsized, 4 /9 /4 5

HEAVY CRUISERS
33 1,600 8x8", 12x4.1 ", 12x37mm, 39x20mm, 12 n Scuttled, 5 /3 /4 5
33 1,600 8x8", 12x4.1", 12x37mm, 39x20mm, 12 n Sunk by Norwegian shore battery, 4 /9 /4 0
33 1,600 8x8", 12x4.1", 12x37mm, 39x20mm, 12 n Confiscated by US Navy, 5/45

LIGHT CRUISERS
29 63 0 8x5.9", 3x3.5", 4x37mm, 4x20mm, 4n Scuttled, 5 /3 /4 5
32 82 0 9x5.9", 6x3.5", 8x37mm, 8x20mm, 12 n Bombed at Bergen, Norway, 4/10/40
30 82 0 9x5.9", 6x3.5", 8x37mm, 8x20mm, 12 n Sunk by British submarine, 4/10/40
32 820 9x5.9", 6x3.5", 8x37mm, 8x20mm, 12 n. Bombed, 3/30/45
32 85 0 9x5.9", 6x3.5", 8x37mm, 8x20mm, 12 n Relegated to training duties after 12/13/39
32 89 6 9x5.9", 6x3.5", 8x37mm, 8x20mm, 12 n Confiscated by USSR, 5/45

eight months after commissioning.

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Germa n s hip for 32 hours, allowing the Royal Navy The Battleship Bismarck with an escorting destr
to begin concentrating against her. (1941). Watercolor p ain t ed b y Gerth B
T hough Lutjens m anaged to s ha ke off the British
cruisers (taking advantage of that to s ep ar at e f ro m T he G er ma n dictator was moved to take u
Prinz Eugen), h e i na dv er te nt ly gave away h is posi himself nearly total control of all future naval o
tion by radioing back to s hore . With the battles hip a tions. To a void repea ting the Bismarck debacle
a ga in loc ated, a ircraft f rom t he carrier A rk Royal vetoed Raeder's plan to s en d h er s is te r ship,
torpedoed the Bismarck in he r stern, jamming he r pitz, i nt o t he N or th Atlantic on a s im ilar m is s
rudders to port. British battles hips were then able He f ur th er o rd er ed no cruiser or battleship
to tr ac k a nd c at ch h er . T he y battered he r into a hence forth ever to leave port without his pers
fla ming hulk, e nding he r car eer a mere n in e days approval. Later, on 13 November 1941, h e also
after she'd first left harbor. nie d R ae de r permiss ion to send the Scheer to
Rheinubung officially e nd ed on 1 Jul y, when shipping in the Indian Ocean.
Prinz Eugen slipped into Brest without having sight Even if Hitle r ha d ap pr o ved an ot h er s ortie,
ed a single m e rc h an t ma n . T h ou g h World War II British ha d succeeded in making such missi
w ou ld ra ge f or anoather four years, no othe r Ger practically impossible. As c at as tr op hi c a s t he
ma n surface warship would sail the North Atlantic. of Bismarck was, m ore long term harm came sh
Bismarck's e x ce l le n t g u nn e ry , demonstrated ly after th e battleship's demise, when th e R
against Hood, a nd h er ability to absorb punishment, Navy descended on th e German fuel a nd s up
demons trated in he r final hours , proved she was ships scattered across the Atlantic. Informed
the world's best s ingle s hip at t he time. But that ULTRA intercepts, in th e month after Bismar
individual superiority mattered l itt le w he n s he was sinking th e B ri t ish v i rt u al l y swept th e swas
f or ce d t o ta ke on a large portion of the Royal Navy from t he h ig h seas, hunting down an d destroy
alone. The Bismarck was hunted down a nd s un k by 14 shi ps, i ncl ud in g f ou r val uabl e t an ke rs an d
a force of e ight battles hips , two a ircraft c arriers, 13 supply vessels.
cruisers, 33 destroyers an d eight submarines. Having t ol d Raeder wher e G er ma n sh ip s s ho

to Lutjens
that which the
an dha Bismarck
d befallen s uffe re d aanfate
Langsdorff similar
d the Gmf n
too where
l ong er they
go, Hitler alsogo.instructed
were to th e proclai
The Fuhrer admir a
Spee 18 months earlier. Forced to fight, t he Ger Norway to b e the Kriegsmarine's "zone of desti
mans prevailed tactically, bu t the dam age s uffe re d He was convinced an Allied invasion of Scandin
so f ar f ro m h om e r es tr ic te d t he available o pti on s. was inevitable, bu t at the close of 1941, when
That converted tactical victory into strategic defeat ordered the flee t to c once ntra te in Norway, mos
by allowing t he British t o b ri ng to bear their over the ships reacted only slowly, having s p en t m uc
whelming numerical advantage. the pre vious yea r in port.
The cruiser Hipper h ad b ee n u nd er r ep ai r fo
Admiral Hitler of 1941. T he pocket battleship Lutzow (form
Not only was t he l oss of Bismarck a catastrophic th e Deutschland) was pu t ou t of action until
defeat fo r th e German navy, it also profoundly uary 1942 whe n a 14-plane British a irstrike, a c
affected how that service would participate in the on ULTRA information, torpedoed he r off Nor
rest o f World War II. Hitler was inconsolable after two wee ks a ft er t he loss of Bismarck. The Ti
th e Bismarck's loss - one aide d escr ib ed h i m as was still working up in the Baltic, a nd t ho ug h
"melancholy beyond words." spent a b r ief p eri od in September su pp o rt i ng
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invasion o f t he Soviet Union, the Kriegsmarine's last / -,--,

true battleship was onl y con si dered fully r eady f or ( [ be - - C ha n el Da!i

combat at year's end.
"Every ship w hi ch i s not in Norway is in th e
wrong place," Hitler declared, an d he then ordered
t he t hr ee in B res t - Scharnhorst, Gneisenau an d
Prinz Eugen - to s ne ak u p the English Channel an d
transfer to Norway. On the nigh t of 11 February
1942, th e Brest squadron began heading nor th
(Operation Cerebus, bu t better known as th e "Chan
ne l Dash"), an d though Gneisenau struck a mine ,
an d Scharnhorst hi t two, all t hr ee made it. Cerebus
appeared a h ug e s uc ce ss for t he Germans, for t hr ee
major warships ha d ru n a gauntlet of vessels an d M;dn;ght. 12
aircraft an d still survived. Scharnhorst, Gneisenou, a
I
Prinz Eugen and covering
"Nothing more mortifying to t he p ri de of ou r se a destroyers sail FRANCE I

p ow er h as ha ppe ne d si nce th e 17th century,"

charged th e infuriated London Times. Th e Royal
avy indeed ha d ample cause for displeasure, in as Scheer an d five destroyers ha d arrived. But regard
much as sim pl e b un gl in g an d delays in decrypting less of whether o r n ot the Kriegsmarine was ready,
ULTRA intercepts ha d spoiled a n unma tche d oppor t he two y ea r b at tl e o f the Arctic convoys was about
tunity to corner an d sin k t hr ee major enemy sur  to begin.
face units. (ULTRA did at the last minute reveal the
warships' route, bu t t he only t hi ng t he British di d The Murmansk Ru n
correctly after that wa s manage to lay mines in For t he r es t o f the war the Kriegsmarine's major
their path.) surface units would battle in what has been called
In the end, though, it was th e British, no t th e the world's cruelest ocean, the Arctic. Crews contin
Germans, who p r of i te d f ro m th e move. T he mine ually ha d to deal with harsh s to rm s t ha t cascaded
d ama ge to th e German ships took several months endless waves across th e decks, which t h en t ur n ed
t o r ep ai r, an d th e withdrawal from Brest of the to ice, m ak in g t he ships d an g er o us ly t o p heavy,
Kriegsmarine simplified th e Royal Navy's Atlantic threatening to capsize them. In the summer the su n
blockade by allowing its strength to be concentrat never set; in w in te r t he darkness n ev er e nd ed .
ed in t he n or th . F ur th er , t he Bri ti sh wer e soon to Regardless of th e season, pilots an d sailors alike
p ro ve Ger man war sh ip s were just as v ul nerabl e to knew anyone unfortunate e nough to en d up in the
air attacks in German an d Norwegian ports as they water ha d a life e xp ec ta nc y measured i n s ec on ds
were in French harbors. or, at most, minutes.
Despite their escape from Brest, th e battlecruis War came to this desolate area because o f the
er s contributed nothing to t he i m me d ia te wa r Murmansk convoys. To aid their new Soviet ally,
effort. The Scharnhorst spent the balance of 1942 soon a fte r th e Germans attacked t he m, E ng la nd
undergoing repairs. Her sister ship Gneisenau had, began sending supplies by shi p. T he convo ys were
by the en d of that year, been r ep ai re d a nd b eg an numbered sequentially an d prefixed "PQ" for ship
preparing to sail for Norway. However, on the night ments to th e USSR, an d "QP" for those returning.
of 26-27 F eb ru ar y 1943, a singl e bomb hit from a Moving s upplies a cross t he Arctic wa s t he f as te st
British ai r raid started a massive fire that killed 112 way to get them to th e Soviets, bu t using t he r ou te
men, wounded 21 others, and inflicted damage ex- also meant th e last leg of th e voyage, th e 2,000
tensive enough to require an estimated two y ears to mile, 10 day, passage between Iceland an d the final
fix. Gneisenau went into drydock, where th e repairs destination, skirted within 200 miles of t he n or th -
and an overdue upgrade were initiated. Her bo w
was le ngthe ned by 30 fee t an d he r triple II-inch
gun turre ts were replaced with twin IS-inchers.
The Prinz Eugen was the only one of t he Brest
squadron to com pl et e t he Channel D ash unhar med.
Along with th e pocke t ba ttles hip Scheer an d four
destroyers, she immediately headed north to join
Tirpitz, which ha d arrived in Norway on 16 January
1942. But t he Ge rmans ' p la ns we re aga in betrayed
by ULTRA, an d t he f or ew ar ne d B ri ti sh s en t f our
submarines to ambush t he sh ip s o ut si de Bergen.
HMS Trident f ir ed t hr ee t or pe do es a t Prinz Eugen,
an d - r eminis cent of the Bismarck's demise - one
struck th e cruiser aft, jamming h er r ud de rs 10
d eg re es t o port as well as blowing away over 30
feet o f h er stern . Prinz Eugen c ra wl ed b a ck to
Trondheim, an d after jury rigging a temporary rud
d er l ef t f or Kiel f or r ep ai rs that would keep h er o ut
of act io n for t he r es t o f the year.
With ULTRA divulging German naval movements
an d exp osin g t heir shi ps to attack while in passage
t o Norway, o nl y g r ad ua ll y c ou ld H it le r mass hi s
naval forces there. While some slipped through due
to delays in decryption, by March 1942 only Tirpitz, The German squadron in line ahead during the Channel Dash.

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The Arctic
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GREENLAN
/

NORWEGIAN
SEA

Occupied by or allied with Germany

or German ai r bases
ATLANTIC Sullom Voe ;f; German naval anchorages
or Allied ai r bases
OCEAN SHETlAND
o 100
IS.
- --
- - - - Summer convoy route
Winter convoy route

200
$ 4 limits of Allied land-based air patrols
9 800
Km AT BRITAIN

er n coast of German occupied Norway. Even when Ciliax a bo ard, left T ro nd he im to d es troy it. But
Allied s hi ps ar ri ved i n Soviet p or ts , t he y were still o nly d id the b attles hip fail to loca te the convoy,
subject to attack, since Mur mansk, only 90 miles he r way back to port she ha d to evade a torp
from t he G er ma n airfield at Petsamo, was a fre a ttac k b y a ircraft fro m HMS Victorious. In a b rief
quent Luftwaffe target. Despite all those obstacles, three d ay s l at er , R ae de r explained to Hitler th
th ou gh , d ur in g t he critical f ir st y ear o f t he Russo ha d it no t been fo r s om e g oo d luc k, C ilia x
German war, when the Soviet Union teetered on th e Tirpitz could e a si ly h av e met th e same fate
brink o f d ef ea t, 3.6 m il li on tons of material were Lutjens an d Bismarck. In light of th e Kriegsmari
shipped t he re b y t he Allies, ne ar ly h al f o f i t via t he complete inability to counter th e British car
Arctic. threat, Raeder urged H itler to res ume c on stru c
PQ-1, the first Allied convo y to the Soviet Union, o f the c arrier Graf Zeppelin, an d to order Gorin
left on 21 A ug us t 1941 , o nly two months a fter the r ei nf or ce t he Lu ftw a ffe in Norway. The dicta
G erma n inv as io n be gan . For se ve ra l more mon th s, a gree d to R ae de r' s r eq ue st s a nd d ir ec te d t he re
the convoys found the "Murmansk Run" uncontest an increased effort to interdict the PQ convoys.
ed. Even a fter the a rriv al o f Tirpitz in Trondheim on A fter PQ-12, the Kriegsmarine force i n Norw
16 January 1942, there were still no ef forts by the was strengthened by the arrival of the heavy cru
Kriegsmarine to a tt ac k t he s up pl y r out e. The sh or t Hipper, which after a year of repairs an d train
age o f d es tr oy er s - th e e nd ur in g legacy of the loss a rriv ed in Trondheim on 21 March. But given
es su ff er ed in th e invasion of No rway - would ap p aren t d e te r mi n at i on o f th e British to p
have r eq ui re d t he b a tt le sh ip so rt ie u n escor t ed , a through the convoys, Rae de r w as still loa th to c
tactic far too r isk y in li ght o f t he h is to ry of success mi t hi s ships before all available reinforceme
ful B ritish s ub ma rine a ttac ks o ff the Sca nd in av ia n ha d been assembled. Further, he would no t cou
coast. No t until th e small flotilla o f d es tr o ye rs nance a r ep e ti ti o n o f Tirpitz's unescorted so
returned to Norway in late February, after assisting into the Arctic, an d since there were no t eno
t he b at tl ecruisers in the C ha nn el Dash , c ou ld th e destroyers to properly s co ut a he ad of th e bat
Germans contemplate surface attacks against th e s hi ps a nd c ru is er s, he demanded th e Lu ftw a
convoys. begin completely an d accurately fixing enemy lo
At last, however, when PQ-12 was spotted by th e tions and strengths before his ships sailed. Still
Luftwaffe on 5 March 1942, Tirpitz, w ith Adm. O tto ther, t he fleet was no t to b e c om mi tt ed at dista

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until it was verified the enemy was actually sending et battleships Lutzow an d Scheer along with six
a convoy to Russia and not an invasion force to destroyers. The Luftwaffe ha d been reinforce d to a
Norway, since the Kriegsmarine was also tasked to total o f 189 c omba t an d 74 reconnaissance aircraft,
guard against an y a tte mpte d l an di ng s i n Scan an d a dozen U-boats were also available. With the
dinavia. c omin g o f summer an d its perpetual daylight, the
A g ro wi ng f uel shortage also limited Raeder's timing seemed perfect for a m ajo r e ff or t b y th e
o ptio ns in the n orth . Already in November 1941 the fleet. With the German summer offensive in Russia
navy's monthly fuel allocation ha d been slashed by a bo ut to kick off, the overall military s itua tion also
more than half, an d wi thi n a month after that the de ma nde d s uch an effort.
German naval staff began describing their service's The o pe ra ti on was code named Rosselsprung 
fuel situa tion as " ve ry c ri ti ca l. " T hu s, despite Knight's Move. Once the next Russia-bound convoy
Hitler's 13 April 1942 pronouncement that "attacks was s ig ht ed , t he Tirpitz squadron would transfer
on th e Murmansk convoys are mo st i mpo r tan t at north to arvik, while th e original a rv ik force
t hi s m om en t, " an d even though e a ch s ucc e eding staged even farther north to A lten fjord. The fle et
on e wa s larger than it s predecessor an d would would then u nite 1 00 miles o ff N orth Cape, falling
t he re fo re f ur ni sh even m or e m ea ns f or th e Soviets upon th e convoy east of Bear I sl an d. H it le r ap
to r es is t th e u pc om in g German summer offensive, p ro ve d the c on ce pt of Knight's Move, bu t t he l oss
th e Kriegsmarine offered little opposition to the of Bismarck to British c ar ri er p la ne s, a nd th e
n ext four. The fuel s it ua ti on had, i n fact, g ot te n so Tirpitz's near repetition of that debacle, ha d made a
ba d d urin g this p erio d the n av y h ig h command was deep impression. He therefore laid down yet anoth
force d to order "all o pe ra tion s are to b e d isc on tin er r es tr ic ti on o n th e battleship's m ov em en ts : h e
ued, including those by light forces. The sole excep would no t allow h er t o a tt ac k th e convoy u nl ess all
tions to this ba n o n c on s um p ti on of fuel oil ar e nearby British carriers ha d been pu t ou t of action.
operations made necessary b y o ff en si ve e ne my Given the German fleet ha d no attack planes under
action." it s c on tr ol, t hi s w as a c ri pp li ng requirement, one
By May, as th e Royal Navy prepared to send which was hardly within Raeder's power to satisfy.
through a nother convoy, again larger than the pre German attacks on the next northern convoy,
vio us one, growing G erman a ir an d U-boat opposi PQ-17, began on 2 July. Two days lat er, when th e
tio n was at lea st b eg in ning to ca us e L on do n s ome Royal avy, in a move still c ontro ve rsial, w ithd re w
misgivings. Adm. Dudley Pound, Britain's First Sea it major surface ships from t he e sc or t, it wa s
Lord, was u ne nthu sias tic a bo ut the c on ce pt o f con feared the Tirpitz was only hours away from attack
tinued Arctic convoys, complaining: "The whole ing. To avoid a mas sa cre by the German battleship,
thing is a m o st u ns o un d operation, with t he dice the Admiralty ordered PQ-17 to s ca tter, w ith every
loaded against us in every direction." merchantman to proceed to R us sia on its own as
But with Roosevelt an d Stalin pressuring Chur be t it could. The resulting carnage was inevitable,
chill to accelerate deliveries to the embattled Soviet i n a mu ch as th e round-the-clock daylight left the
Union, cancelling th e shipments was politically unprotected f re ig ht er s n o p la ce or time to hide.
unthinkable, regardless of the increasing military German aircraft an d U-boats claimed 22 of the 33
obstacles. Consequently, 35 merchantmen of PQ-16 s h i p , e li mi na ti ng 3 ,3 50 vehi cles, 4 30 t an ks , 210
s a il ed f ro m Iceland on 20 May, w it h t he British
Prime Minister rationalizing: "The operation is jus
tified if a half gets through."
With the arrival of the pocket battleship Lutzow
in Narvik on 25 May, t he Ge rman s c om pl et ed t he
c on c en tr a ti on o f t he ir big s hi ps i n Norway, no w
home to Tirpitz, Scheer, Lutzow, Hipper an d eight
destroyers. Bu t d ur in g t he u pc om in g fighting,
Tirpitz would no t pu t to se a to engage t he convoy,
bu t only to w or k u p a ft er he r long period of inactiv
ity. Ins tea d, the a ss au lt on PQ-16 w ou ld b e s pe ar
headed by the Luftwaffe, which now numbered in
Norway 129 combat an d 72 reconnaissance aircraft.
After detecting PQ-16 on 20 May, the Germans
began their aerial assault five days later, climaxing
wit h attacks by 108 planes on the 27th. The Luft
waffe sank six sh ip s, d amag in g five more while
another was sunk b y a U-boat. Still, while the des
troyed merchantmen w ent down carrying a t ot al o f
17 7 vehicles, 14 7 tanks an d 77 a ir cr af t in t he ir
holds, another 2,507 vehicles, 321 tanks an d 124
a ir cr af t were d el ive red to t he Red Army, allowing
Britain's Adm. Sir John Tovey t o cl aim a " suc cess
beyond all expectations."

PQ-17
By J un e 19 42 there was finally enough fuel on
hand - 15,500 tons - to allow the fleet to be com
mitted. Tirpitz, heavy cruiser Hipper, four destroy
ers an d two torpedo boats were forme d into the 1st A German air-launched torpedo rips into an Am er i can freighter,
Battle Group at Trondheim, while farther north at one o f the twenty-two merchantmen sunk while en route to
Narvik lay 2n d Battle Group, consisting of the pock- Russia in convoy PQ-17. National Archives

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L Merchant ships sunk by U-boats & bombers

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T German air bases
o 'f I : o n v o y PO-17
aircraft an d n ear ly 100,000 t on s o f other supplies gos, especially considering that in nine separ
in the process. i n st an c es m e rc h an t crews hurriedly took to
So ba d was th e slaughter that on at l ea st o ne lifeboats after their vessels suffered less than f
occasion crew members, stranded in lifeboats after damage.
their ship ha d been sunk, refused to board another But instead o f e njoying the h ug e morale an d p
undamaged freighter, so certain were they their paganda b oo st t ha t w ou ld h av e accom panied
chance of survival was better in an open boat adrift t ot al d es tr uc ti on o f an Allied convoy an d the
in the frigid Arctic, h un dr ed s o f miles fro m s ho re , lowing well-publicized display of prizes,
r ather than aboard another targeted ship. Kriegsmarine's w ar s hi ps w e nt back to port w
T hi s G er ma n v ic to ry could no t have been at nothing concrete to s ho w fo r t h ei r e ff or t s ot
tained w ithout th e Kriegsmarine, f or even though than the damage sustained by three destroyers
the s urfa ce ships never actu al ly fi re d a shot their t he p oc ke t battleship Lutzow. All of th em
pr esence pr ecipitated the s ca tterin g, a llowing for struck submerged rocks and had to sail back
th e piecemeal destruction of th e convoy. But t he Germany for repairs.
n av y' s failu re to pursue the d is pe rs ed s hips made A fter PQ-17, the B ritish suspended c on vo ys
th e v ic to ry inc omplete. Over the next 19 days 11 Russia for two m on th s, i n part to wait for the d
m er chantm en, plus a t an ke r an d 13 lig ht e sc orts , to shorten, an d in part to release fo rc es to
trickled into Russian ports, delivering 896 vehicles, Mediterranean for Operation Pedestal, a relief ef
164 tanks, 87 aircraft an d over 50,000 tons o f o t he r for beleaguered Malta. The next convoy, PQ-18,
cargo. t hr ee s hi ps t o U -b oa ts an d 10 more to aircr
While it h a d c er ta in ly been prudent for the While the Iceland-bound QP-14 ha d three merch
German command to rec all th e big ships to port men , a fle et oiler, and an escort sent to the bot
once th e convoy s ca tt er ed , t h e f ai lu re t o employ by U-boats, th e G erma ns a ls o lost 41 planes
their smaller warships allowed a portion o f the con fou r s ub ma rine s in the effo rt.
voy t o sur vi ve when i t sh ou ld actually have been Again conspicuous by their absence during th
completely eliminated. German surface ships would ferocious battles were th e surface units of
a ls o h av e stood a rea so na ble c ha nc e of capturing Kriegsmarine. Even though Tirpitz was unavaila
solitary merchantmen along with their valuable car- d ue to e ng in e tro ub le , an d Lutzow ha d been rec

78
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e d to Germany, the lig ht c ru is er K61n ha d arrived in sary of t he Nazis' coming to power an d a con ve
Norway from the Baltic, an d along with Hipper, n ie nt n ew s cover for all p arties to avoid e mb arra ss 
Scheer an d five d est ro ye rs was to have b ee n u se d ment.
against th e w es t- bo un d s hi ps o f QP-14 as they As one o f his last official acts, Raeder delivered a
rounded N orth Cape. But the o pe ra tion n ev er ca me memorandum on 15 January setting ou t the conse
t o p ass, f or on 14 September Hitler told Raeder the quences of Hitler's dismantling of the surface fleet.
primary task of h is s urfa ce ships was henceforth He pointed ou t the ludicrousness of such a move,
th e defense of Norway. T he a dmiral w as ordered ex plainin g s crap ping the s hips " wou ld c on stitute a
"not to accept any undue risks" going after con b lo od le ss victory for the enemy" that would allow
voys, p ro mp ting R ae de r to k eep h is s hips in p ort. the British to red ep lo y the ir n av al forces while also
laying bare Germany's coast. Worse, there would be
no corresponding gain for Germany's war effort, for
Beginning
In Decemberof thethEnd
1942 e c on vo ys t o Murmansk even scrapping all t he s hi ps wo ul d yield l ess than
resumed, now prefixed with "]W" r at he r t ha n "PQ," five percent of th e t ot al s te el requirements for a
a nd b ro ke n into two parts, "A" an d "B," to make month, furnish guns fo r onl y 15 s ho re b a tt e ri e s
them more m an age abl e. On t he 1 5t h, co nvoy JW- (none o f which woul d b e available for a year), an d
51A, c on si st in g o f 15 m e rc h an t s h ip s with 12 release fewer than 9,000 me n for other duty.
escorts, including seven destroyers, left for Russia, Hitler remained unmoved, remarking only: "This
arriving i nt ac t o n C hr is tm as Day without having time it mu t be done, for there is no other way." On
been a ttac ke d o r ev en d etec te d. T he s ec on d part of 26 J an ua ry h e ordered all ships larger than light
the convoy, ]W-51B, left Scotland on 22 December, c ru is er s b e e it he r relegated to training duties or
an d consisted of 14 merchantmen carrying 202 paid off.
tanks, 2,046 other vehicles, 120 aircraft, 24,000 A dm . Karl Donitz, c om m an de r o f th e U-boat
tons of fuel, an d over 54,000 tons of other supplies. force, succeeded Raeder as Supreme Commander of
I t was spotted by U-354 on 30 December. th e German a\,y, an d within nine days ha d submit
At the time the convoy was loca ted, Hitler was in te d a chedule for g et ti ng r id of t he s hi ps. Af ter
a headquarters mee ting w ith the Kriegsmarine rep another three weeks, t ho ug h, h e commuted th e
resentative there, Vice Adm. Theodore Krancke, an d fleet's death sentence. Possibly seeing the merits of
was i n the pro cess of b er at in g t he navy to him. He Raeder' position, Donitz or de r e d th e Lutzow,
c ha rg ed t he s ur fa ce s hi ps were "lying idle i n th e Scharnhorst an d Tirpitz spared to continue operat
fjords," an d we re " utte rly u se les s, like s o muc h o ld ing in the Arctic a ga in st the convoys. The n ew navy
iro n. " W he n K ra nc ke announced U-354's convoy c omma nde r p ers i s t ed in his decision de spite
sighting, Hitler immediately authorized the Hipper Hitler' \'ociferous objections: "Beginning with the
an d Lutzow t o attack, t he only proviso b ei ng he b e G m f Spee, o ne d efea t ha d followed another. Large
kept informed of developments. ship are a thing of the past."
That se t i nt o m ot io n O pe ra ti on Regenbogen But the Fuhrer eventually relented r at he r t ha n
(Rainbow). Though both Tirpitz an d Scheer were s uffe r the los s of prestige that would have resulted
refitting an d therefore unavailable, nearly every ha d Donitz res ig ne d, a s he threatened to do, so
other suitable German ship in Norway was commit soon after having been appointed. When Donitz
te d to the attack . Hipper an d three destroyers were \\"ent on to promise he'd get better res ults fro m the
to c ome in fro m the n orth , d raw in g o ff the co nvo y' s big hi p w it hi n t hr ee m on th s, Hitler predicted:
escorts, allowing Lutzow an d three more destroyers "E\'en if i t h ou ld r eq ui re six m on th s, you will then
to pounce from the south t he ne xt morni ng. But i n return an d b e force d to a dmit I was rig ht."
th e event, instead of destroying th e convoy, th e lnd ee d, the res ults to that time gave credence to
Germans were unable to sink a si ng le merchant Hitler' \ie\\'. The German surface fleet's overall
man , los in g a d es troy er in the
attempt.
An exasperated Hitler went COIDparati1le Na1lal A r t i l l e r y
b e r s e r k a t the news, an 
nounced he intended to s crap W h a t a Difference a n Inch M a k e s
t he e nt ir e s ur fa ce fleet, an d
demanded Raeder appear be Naval artillery is rated primarily by the width of the barrel, and secondly by the ca
fore him. The admiral stalled, the gun. Thus a 15/1/47 gun of the Bismarck had a width of 15 inches and a barrel 47 ti
hoping a fe w days de lay long as it was wide. Though a one inch difference in barrel width sounds insignificant,
would allow Hitler's temper chart shows, a single inch greatly affects shell size and gun weight.
to subside. When he finally
m et w ith th e dictator on 6
Ja nu ar y 1943, h e was treated Gun Size Found On A.P. Shell Wt. (Ibs) Gun Weight (Ibs) Ma x Range
to a 90-minute tirade detail 18.1/1 /4 5 Yamato (Jpn) 3,219 363,762 45,276
ing th e shortcomings of th e 16/1 / 50 Iowa (US) 2,700 267,904 36,900
navy since t he m id -1 9t h cen 16/1 /4 5 Rodney (UK) 2,375 266,000 34,766
tury. Hitler c ompa re d his de
15/1 /4 2 Hood, Repulse (UK) 1,938 224,000 39,589
c is io n to scrap the big ships
to th e army's disbanding of 15/1 / 4 7 Bismarck (Ger) 1,764 244,000 39,590
cavalry divisions. 14/1 /4 5 King George V (UK) 1,590 207,200 45,600
Realizing he'd l os t his sup 13/1 /5 2 Dunkerque (Fr) 1,235 155,503 41,700
e r ior 's c o nf id e nc e , R a ed er 11.1/1 / 54 Scharnhorst (Ger) 728 117,396 46,749
me t again with Hitler private
ly a nd t en de re d hi s resigna
8/1/60 Hipper (Ger) 268 45,540 35,000
tion, with an effective date of Note: AP . = Armor Piercing
30 Janu ary, the 10th anniver-

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..
Allied base at Spitzbergen, an exercise worth
mention because it was the only time the b attle
fired h er guns i n t he pr es en ce of the enemy.
week s later British mid get sub mar i nes sn uck
Altenfjord, detonating three two-ton mines ben
her , cau sing h eavy damage. The German north
squadron was furt he r deplet ed the next day w
Lutzow returned to the Baltic for refit.
Under the protective cover of the endless A
winter nights, the Murmansk convoys r es um ed
November 1943, w ith the f ir st five in the new se
all escaping
British, ld ened b y de
emboLuftwaffe te ct
t he ion
lac k .ofI nr es
t he
is tafifth,
nc e,
t he fi rst time used a ba tt le shi p to e sc or t a con
all t he way to Russia. With Allied e sc ort s s tr o
than ever, an d the Germans weaker than ever,
prospects for a successful attack on a convoy w
bleak. But t ha t d id n' t deter Dbnitz, whose prom
to H itler of a victorious action was a lr ea dy e
mo n t h s overdue. On 20 D ec em be r h e told
leader the Scharnhorst would attack the next A
convoy.
The Scharnhorst being saluted by the crew o f a departing U- Soon after that next con vo y w as spotted,
boat. National Archives Scharnhorst an d five destroyers set out on Op
tion Ostfront (East Front). But twice British cruis
performance a ga in st t he M ur ma ns k convoys had equipped with superior radar - s om et hi ng inv
been dismal. A total of 30 6 mer chantmen ha d i n the perpetual winter dark
sailed i n the first 21 Arctic convoys, with only 53 -ablekept
for th
fighting
e German b at tl ec ru is er f ro m g et ti n
being sunk: 25 to air attack, 17 to U-boats, and o nly t he m er ch a nt me n. The Scharnhorst then ra n
one to surface attack. port, bu t be fore s he c oul d dr op a nc hor t he ba
On 14 March 1943, over a year after she'd left ship HM S Duke o f York c ut of f h er r etr eat route
Brest, th e Scharnhorst finally arrived in Norway, t he e ns ui ng Battle of North Cape, th e Duke u
joining Tirpitz an d Lutzow at Narvik b ef or e t he accurate radar-controlled fire to send the Ger
three sailed together to Altenfjord on th e 22nd. battlecruiser to the bottom.
They arrived just as the Allies again suspended th e With the loss of Scharnhorst, the Germans w
Mu rman sk Run for the summer. The Allies felt they powerless to interfere effectively wi th t he M
could afford to make that move b ec au se b y that mansk convoys. Tirpitz's r ep ai rs w er en 't f in is
time supply r ou te s t hr ou g h th e Persian Gulf an d unt il 3 April 1944, and on that day she was d
the Soviet far e as t h ad come to surpass the Arctic aged yet again, t his time by an air strike. F ur
r ou te as t he main aid corridors. hits from planes on 14 S e pt em be r l ef t he r c
The total sup plies shipped to the USSR in 1943 pletely unseaworthy, an d on 12 November Ti
amounted to nearly 4.8 million tons, almost double capsized an d sank after another air raid, he r ca
the 1942 total, w ith less than 15 percent routed via en de d w it ho ut h er e ve r h av in g sighted a si
th e Arctic. Consequently there was no longer a enemy ship.
need to tie down Allied warships, while also risking T he G er ma n n av y' s efforts in th e Arctic t
heavy merchant ship losses, w ith M ur mansk con end ed in wh at ca n only b e d es c ri be d as colo
voys duri ng t he long days of spring an d summer. failure. Dur ing the cou rse o f the war 725 f reig h
The Germans' opportunity to decisively sev er the delivered over 4 million ton s o f cargo to the So
Anglo-American supply line to Moscow ha d irrevo ports of Murmansk an d Archangel via th e A
cably passed. Ocean. Despite the near complete dedication of
On 8 S ept em be r 1943, Scharnhorst, Tirpitz an d Kriegsmarine to s top those convoys, only 62 m
10 destroyers m ad e a n inconsequential raid on the chant ships were sunk en r out e to Russia. Of
number exactly one - the Bateau, a str ag gler f
PQ-13 - was sunk b y G er ma n s ur fa ce ships.
Allied !!!ihip LO!!!i!!!ie!!!i t o cause o f the marked inability of the German fle
interdict the Murmansk convoys, by that north
liernJan Attack!!!i in W o r l d r ou te alone the Allies delivered 3,480 tan ks - m
W ar II than Germany used to lau nch the initial inv asio
the USSR - an d 7,000 aircraft - over 2,000 m
Type of Merchant Ships Tonnage than the Germans h ad p o ssessed i n t hei r ent ire
force in June 1941.
Attacker Sunk Sunk
U-boats 2,828 14,687,231 A Fleet Squandered
Aircraft 820 2,889,883 History shows that minor naval p ow er s r a
Mines 534 1,406,037 find an opportunity to use their fleets to any g
Merchant Raiders 133 829,644 effect, b u t in World War II Germany h ad
chances to u se h er s t o c ha ng e t he c ou rs e of
Surface Warships 104 498,447 fighting. First, when England stood alone in 1
All Other Causes 731 1,259,478 41, t he Germa n su rf ac e fleet coul d have bolst
Total 5,150 21,570,720 the air an d U-boat attack on he r ocean lifelines,
haps decisively. Second, t he w ar sh ip s cou ld h

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butchered the e xp os ed M urma ns k co nv oy s d urin g an d 15 destroyers were left to be claimed by th e

the critical first year of the Russo-German War, per Allies as war prizes. But because the Kriegsmarine's
haps thereby fatally weakening the already embat s ur fa ce s hi ps f ai le d so a bj ec tl y t o i n fl u en ce t he
tle d Red Army. In both instances the Kriegsmarine, w ar's o utco me, the fleet c an no t b e s aid to hav e d ie d
its command b es et b y the excessive caution that so gallantly. Indeed the surface ships' greatest service
often pervades outnumbered f leets, f ai le d t o ac t t o G er ma ny wa s more social than military, an d
decisively. c ame in the Baltic d urin g the w ar's last five months,
Aside f ro m t ho se two missed opportunities, the when its u n it s h el pe d evacuate westward an esti
s urfa ce s hips o f the Kriegsmarine also failed to cre mated 2,116,500 soldiers an d civilian refugees. But
ate any other strategically significant accomplish transporting people ou t o f t he path of an advancing
m en ts d ur in g th e course of the war. Victories enemy ground force was far fro m the inten tion that
aable
ga inres
st ult
e nesince
my wbarsh ipwas
attle s weuresufew, an understand
ally avo ided, a nd b y underlay the fleet's creation. 0
war's en d the s ur fa ce s hi ps could t ak e c re di t for Selected Sources
s in king on ly o ne e ne my b attlec ru is er, o ne a ircraft Fuhre r C onf e re nce s on N aval Af fai rs . Annapolis,
carrier, one cruiser an d a dozen destroyers. In con MD: aval Inst. Press, 1990.
t ra st , t he U-boats, though t a rg e te d a lm o st exclu Hinsley, F.H. British Intelligence in the Second World
sively against merchant shipping, were f ar more War, 3 \ ' 0 1 . ew York: Cambridge Univ. Press,
d ea dly to Allied nav ie s. G erma n subm ar ines sank 1981.
50 Allied w arsh ip s d urin g World War II, including Irving, Da\id. The D e st r uc t ion o f Convoy PQ-17.
two aircraft carriers, two battleships an d two cruis ew York: t. lartin's, 1987.
ers by th e en d of 1941 alone. Kennedy, Ludo\ic. Pursuit: The Chase an d Sinking
The surface fleet was also essentially ineffective o f the Bismarck. ew York: Viking, 1974.
against cargo ships. During the entire war they Pope, Dudley. The Pursuit o f the Graf Spee. Phila
never once fought their way past a convoy e sc ort to delphia: ].B. Lippencott, 1957.
sink even a single merchantman. Perhaps the great Roskill, Capt. .W. The War a t Sea, 1939-1945, 3
es t i nd ic tm en t a gai nst th e big s hi ps is that by V-E vols. L on do n: H er M ajes ty 's stationary Office,
Day th e mighty German battleships, cruisers an d 1961.
destroyers ha d actually c au se d l es s harm to th e Tarrant, \'.E. The Last Year o f t he K ri e gs m ar i ne ,
Allied merchant marine t ha n h ad the nine convert Ma y 1 9 1-1 - Ma y 1945. Annapolis: Naval Inst.,
..

e d m e rc h an t raiders. 199-1.
The German surface fleet certainly died in World Whitley, I.J. G e rm an D e st r oy e rs in World War II,
..

War II; by th e end of the wa r on ly three cruiser s 2nd ed. Annapolis, MD: Naval Inst., 1991.

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I Remember •••

Total War in Britain D.). Collier

At th Second Earlier we'd enjoyed wn as "t aking a shill ing's wo

World e outbr
War, e a k of the
in September 1939, I was south coast, s o off toa E
holiday on the
as tbourne we k
ofnogas."
just a child. I vividly r ec a ll g oi ng went again - only this time it was We were immediately w his
wi th my best friend an d he r dog to n' t to play on th e sands bu t to at back to London. T ired of waiting
s ay goodbye to the local park a nd all te nd a newly opened junior high th e anticipated attack to begin,
ou r favorite s u b u rb a n h a un t s. We sc hool at th e foot of the S outh a uth or iti es h ad reo p en ed
lived on th e outskirts of London, Downs. schools. Though ou r local gram
an d having seen newsreels of cities When we got th er e we f ou nd th e school was brick-built an d s ol id
devastated during Spain's civil war, place already crawling with children rock, windows were taped an d g
we were convinced we, too, were whose p aren ts h ad the same idea as doors boarded up to r ed uc e th e d
about to be bombed to bi ts . As it ours, bu t thanks to staggered class ger, an d the outside walls were r
happened, we were only partly right; es it was still pos sible to spend sev force d with s andbags. A c loakro
we were bombed, bu t not a t that eral hours a day at th e bea ch. But in the heart o f t he building was
time. ou r unexpected vacation came to an designated "safe area."
First we endured several months a b r u p t en d w he n the la dy w ith Meanwhile house holde r s, w
whom we w er e s ta yi ng committed issued with sheets of corru
was"Phoney
of
de cid edWar." During that time it were
by ou r respective par suicide. Overwhelmed with grief at ed steel, were ordered to build
e nts that, with London being th e t he loss of her only son, who went r ai d s he lt er s in their back garde
most likely tar get , t he f ar th er away down on th e submarine Thetis, she Ours must have been delivered w
from it we were the s af er w e' d be. w e nt by what in those days wa s I wa s at Eastbourne, bu t it was ne
a ss emble d. I c an only think m y f
er, a ke en g ar den er , si mpl y refu
to dig up his precious flower bed
m ake s pa ce for an unsightly "An
so n Shelter." Instead we accep
the ma kings for an alternative "M
rison Shelter," which resemble
large s te el table an d was eventu
ins ta lled in a downs ta irs room. W
a full-size mattress on to p an d
other below, it made as comforta
a haven as t he old time "bed rece
in the home of my Scottish gra
parents.
Despite th e fact that to you
ste r s like myself th e pace of
se e me d no dif f e r e nt t h an usu
B rita in was s lowly getting int o
gea r. E ve ryone was issued with
i de nt it y c ar d an d gas ma sk, an d
due c ours e e ve ryone a lso rec eive
ration book an d clothing coupons
Air r ai d s ir en s ha d already b
in place, an d air raid wardens' po
sprang up like mushrooms. Gun
searchlight emplacements joined
barrage balloons in public parks
vacant l ot s. T he y o f fe r ed e n dl
possibilities for play, a nd it was j
a s well th e RAF ground crews k
them of f limits or we undoubte
would have c o m pl e te l y c o mm
de e r e d them. We h ea rd t ha t o
youth gang f ound a way to fi
m un iti on s f ro m a n is ola te d ar
camp a nd h ad used them to take
all comers - including a platoon
Inhabitants o f London receive their government supplied "Anderson Shelters. " Royal M arines - until their am
The shelters were designed to be sunk deep into the ground. Unfortunately finally r an ou t a nd they were obli
most o f urban London was heavily paved. to give up.

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The c le ares t signs of the impend t im e m e mo ra b il ia . As t he P hon ey

ing danger came f ro m t he s tr ic tly War turned into a real one, my box
imposed censorship an d the black of so u ven i rs g r adu al ly filled with
out, of which the latter was far mor e shell casings, spent bulle ts , the tail
irksome. Kids were hardly likely to fin from an incendiary bomb, a frag
possess vital informa tion, let a lone ment f rom t he fuselage o f a d ow ned
pass it on to Berlin, bu t remember aircraft an d even a scrap of para
ing to obscure all lights during the chute silk.
h ou rs o f d ark ness pr ov ed quite a T he n in Augus t 1940, RAF planes
burden. I f you went about a t n ig ht turned the table s by raiding Berlin. Lapham's R a l d e . s
using a flashlight, some over-offi T ha t s o a nge re d Hitler he ordered
GUERRILLAS IN THE
cious warden might a cc us e y ou of widespread bombing of London an d PIIILIPPIl\'ES, 1942-1945
"endeavoring to c ommunic ate w ith other population centers. From then
ROBERT L A PHAlli AIojD
the enemy," bu t if you venture d ou t on every evening a s dus k fell the ai r
BERIojARD NORLlIojG
w ithout one you were sure to be raid sirens would wail, signaling the
knocked down. approach of that day's first wave of "Lapham is a well- educated, liter ate
Nights were otherwise worry free heavily laden bombers. writer who does no t focus on h is o wn
until the time I awoke to find my Those civilians who ha d acce s to exploits or inflate his accomplishments,
parents, their backs toward me, star the m went to specially pr e pa r e d as many other surviving guerrilla leaders
ing ou t the bedroom window, watch b as em en ts o r underground railway have done.... Th e result is an extremely
ing t he s ea rc hl ig ht s t ra ck German stations. The rest of us retired to valuable work. "-Library Journal
r e c onna issa nc e planes. The ve ry downstairs rooms or walk-in closets,
next day I embar ked on m y s ec ond t here to listen to the thump-thump $24.95 cloth
spell of evacuation, this time to a o f g un s firing i n t he park, the tacca
small market t own s ome 30 miles to to crack of the Bofor gu n (mount ReLel Ralde.
th e west of our suburb. I t wasn't ed on r a il w ay r o ll i ng tock), th e
TH E LIFE OF GENERAL
nearly as congenial as my stay at whine a nd c r ump of th e "block JOHN HUN T MORGAN
Eastbourne. This time my friends busters," the strident bell of ambu
were scattered far an d wide an d for lances, an d eventually - a ft er a bo ut IAIIIE S &. RAIIIAG E

t he f ir st time i n my life I felt lonely. I 12 hours - to th e weet ound of "Ramage contends that Morgan was
at t en d ed th e l oc al s ch o ol , hung "all clear." no t a conventional cavalry officer bu t
around a nea rby amusement arcade, Until the bombing abated in fay was a revolutionary guerrilla c1,ieftain
spent countless hours at the cinema, 1941 there were no g oo d n ig ht s, who relished danger a nd f ou gh t with
an d longed for home, never realizing only nights when, till itting up a viciousness that frequently violated
t ho us an ds o f o th er children across r ight, we some how man ag ed to
international law. "-Military Review
Britain were en d u ri n g the sa me doze, or from sheer ex ha u t ion fell
pangs of loneliness. a sle e p on the floor. The r e were $18.95 pape r
After tw o or t hr ee m on th s my m a ny o c ca s io n s when a tick of
parents gave in to my pleas, bu t my bombs would pie rc e m y dre am s an d
return unfortunately coincided with I would find myself making wild
the start of the Blitz. That worried in volunta ry m ove me nt imilar to
them but, initially at least, delighted those who were called ' hell hock
me. I became an avid watcher of aer victims." On on e occa io n I wa s
ial dogfights an d a collector of war- mildly concussed w he n t he French F.ontsoldaten
TH E GERMAN SOLDIER
IN WORLD WA R II

STEPHEIoj G. FRITZ

"Fritz has assembled an impressive array

o f W el mnach t soldiers' letters, diaries,
memoirs, oral testimonies, and works of
fiction. "-Journal of Military History
"This impressive study pr esents a
rounded, detaJed picture of th e daily life
of th e Landser-the ordinary German
WW I I - a n d
i n fan t ry man o f takes an
unblinking look a t th e stark realities of
combat. "-Publishers Weekly

$29.95 cloth

THE U N I V E R SI TY P R E SS OF

KENTUCKY
Al y o u . ' . . . .o . i l e 6 0 0 l . r . l o . e . 0 ' c . . 11

§ O O / § : J f J .. ~ § 5 5

A British motorist fitting blackout shields to the headlamps o f his car.

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doors o f o ur living room were blown When I l oo ked up I found t he b ab y thought he 'd be too old for a se
open, bu t that w as the c lo se st I came still asleep, th e pushchair undam- turn, bu t th e Signal Corps nee
to physical injury. aged, an d the plane long gone. hi m an d o ff h e went. Th e c av er
Thank God there were n o d ir ect When news of my nar ro w escape railway station, where Mum a
h it s i n ou r immediate neighborhood; reached my Mum a nd Dad, I wa s went to se e hi m off, echoed
th e ne a r e st were about a quarter ordered back t o London. T he ir new continuously played se ntime
mile away. No doubt my parents saw unspoken p hilo so ph y s ee me d to be: music. Had we known all that
me as more an d more of a liability, " I f we're going to die, let's all go still to co me we would've cried
because I was again h ast ily packed together." more than we did.
off, this time to th e Midlands, to o s o o n er wa s I resettled a t In spite of our being on our
stay with friends in a small village. school then, out of the blue, the let with t he d an ge r increasing an d
Though my parents hadn't realized ter arrived. Mywmother,
it, it was dangerously close to an know n what as c omwho
in g, must've
waited tios ning
it l i ghgt er
etting
m o tig
m enhter,
t s. life
We still
ate
i ro nw or ks n e ar Coventry. Thus it until Dad ha d fin is he d h is e ve ning w he ne ve r we could, s o met i
was tha t on a moonlit night i n Nov meal. Putting th e long brown enve joined by Mrs. Smith, an o ld fr
ember 1940 I watched that city b e lope on the table, sh e said: "This who catered to war wo rker s in
destroyed. came for you today." home. One day we all w en t to a n
Next d ay it was a lm os t m y turn. Dad t oo k one loo k an d then faint by "British Restaurant" (ac tu a
O ut wheeling a ne ig hb or 's child in a ed d ea d away. T he fun ny thing was, I kind of glorified soup kitchen),
p us hc ha ir, I he ar d a n aircraft over remember, that he did it in slow w he n the foo d was s erve d e ac h o
head. Looking up I saw a bomb arc motion. First he l ea ne d back, then had, i n a dd it io n t o a ge ner ou s h
ing its way tow ard the e arth . Forget the w hite s o f h is eyes a pp ea re d, an d ing of potatoes an d gr eens, two
ting that the tra je ctory w ou ld c arry finally he slumped sideways, slip sausages. Before my plate ha d
i t well away from me , I h u r t l e d ping o ff his chair a nd on to th e tou ch ed the table, Mrs. Smith 's
a cros s the roa d, push chair an d baby floor. He n ev er e xp ec te d to be called reached o ut a nd one of my saus
bounc ing wildly be f or e me , a nd u p. Hav in g enlisted as a bo y of 16 was deftly removed an d w ra pp e
t hr ew m yse lf i nt o t he nearest ditch. d u ri n g th e Fir st World War, he a handkerchief.
lodger's supper," "she
Th at'll
said. d o
for
In those days the radio was
only our m ain source of news,
also a g re at sou rce o f co mfo
keeping service me n in touc h
their families an d providing m
an d laughter. A part from the
grams pu t ou t by "Aunty BBC,"
mor a le wa s also b o o s t ed by
ev en tu al arrival i n Britain o f th
8th A ir Force, an d th e s ta rt of
raids against German cities. Tho
German bombers continued to
death a nd d es tr uc ti on o n us, t
r ai ds g ot m or e s por adic . But w
scarcely recovered from th e ex
ment of D-Day in June 1944 w
the VI attacks began.
Since th e V I s' range wa s
a bo ut 1 50 miles, L on do n an d so
east England were hardest hit. T
i n S ep te mb er t he larger a nd m
deadly V2s started to come in.
since t he y t ra ve le d faster than
speed of sound, it was impossib
an ti cip ate t h ei r arrival, which
b ed the m of some of their ho
For six m on th s o ur corner of
land took another terrible pound
u nt il t he Dutch an d Belgian lau
site s were eventually p u t o u
action by advancing Allied troop
With the celebration of V-E Da
May 1945 we could at last exh
get a proper 1 'ght's sleep, an d t
a b o u t p u t t i n g ou r lives bac
order. Fear " a s behind us, an d
privation lay ahead. Times rema
very hard . deed, as Britain an d
people were emotionally an d fi
cially d ra in ed . Of co ur se , t he p
paid by me an d thousands o f o t
was t he premature loss of childh
Londoners spending the night in their bomb shelter - the London underground. innocence an d trust.

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TJ!!!lbmY!!Y
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Mort Kiinstler
I t h ap p en ed b y accident. All Mort as a n a rt is t for national m agazines stor efr ont by a two-word sign:
Kiinstler w an te d was a quick b it e t o like Saturday Evening Post, National Art." I t was Gettysburg's Amer
eat, but instead h e d is co ve red t he Geographic, Newsweek an d Argosy, Print Gallery, an d without realizi
American Civil War. an d dec ades of work a s an acclaimed th e ma n c on si de re d b y m an y t
I t was a cold, gray, wet winter's artist of historical subjects. He ha d A me ri ca 's l ea d in g h i st o ri ca l a
day i n 1988, an d Kiinstler was then s p ec i al iz e d f or a while in th e Old h ad w an de re d into A me ri ca 's
k nown to man y i n American ar t cir West, ha d done numerous one-man mier publisher of Civil War art.
cles as "America's foremost histori exhibitions, ha d be come a ffi l ia t ed "I knew who he was an d I
cal a rt is t. " He ha d come to Gettys with New York City's prestigious seen hi s work," remembers ga
burg, Pennsylvania, site of the great Hammer Galleries and had seen his owner an d publisher Ted Sutphe
est battle of the War Between th e w or k s ho wc as ed in a dazzling art knew he ha d th e t al en t a nd b
S ta te s, t o research a painting of book: Th e A m e r i c a n Sp i ri t: Th e ground to paint Civil War ar t
Pickett' s C ha rg e f or th e battle's Paintings o f Mort Kiinstler. His his  nobody else ha d ever done. He
125th anniversary. Aside from paint torical art hung in p ro mi n en t s p ot s artist of the old school - the yo
ings f or CBS-TV's "The Blue an d the f ro m Madison Squar e Gar de n to t he est of t he g re at 2 0t h c en tu ry A
Gray" mini-series in 1982, Kiinstler White House, an d a ft er y ear s o f suc ican m a ga z in e a r ti s ts . I knew
ha d never seriously tackled a Civil cess he se emed to be at the pinnacle potential of the Civil War ar t ma
War s ubje ct in m ore than 30 y ea rs o f of his c aree r. T he n he dis cove re d the an d I knew w it h t he proper expo
professional painting. Civil War. that he h ad th e a bi li ty t o re
He ha d done lots of other things, After a long morning examining explode as a Civil War artist."
however, including art s ch oo l a t the battlefield that day in 1988, Kiin So S utp hen made an offer:
Brooklyn College, UCLA, an d Pratt stIer headed into Gettysburg search pay the royalties up front fo r
Ins titute ; a long an d successful tour ing for lunch - bu t was lured into a print rights to Kiinstler's prop
Ge tt ysburg pa i nt i ng a nd he 'd
m is e v ol um e s al es . T he offer
prised Kiinstler. Even with his
experience in th e ar t field, he
u naw ar e o f t he tremendous pop
ity of Civil War topics. He was
unprepared for t he r es po ns e to
first major Civil War c an va s,
High Wate r Mark," which was s
ped up by a wealthy ar t colle
s tr ai gh t f ro m Kiinstler's studio
fore t he w or k was even finished
for the pr int ? Su tp he n did a lim
e d it io n , w h ic h produced a re
response an d quickly sold out.
Today, many paintings later,
Kiinstler specializes in Civil War
j ec ts a nd is heralded a s Ame r
most popular Civil War a rt is t.
the only living artist to have a
exhibition of Civil War art at a m
New York City gallery. The US A
War College ha s commissioned
to do a r ec or d five pa int in gs. G
ercy Books ha s produced a v ol
of 72 Kiinstler Civil War paint
entitled Images o f th e Civil
a c co m pa n ie d w it h a narrativ
Pulitzer Prize winning Civil War
torian James w
The Last Council. McPherson. His
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ha s been showcased by a one-hour

documentary on th e A&E Channel
that chronicled the War Between the
States through Kunstler's art. More
recently, Gettysburg: The Paintings o f
Mort Kunstler, a handsome collection
of his ar t depicting the Battle of Get
tysburg, ha s been published by Tur
ne r Publishing, Inc., i n a s so c ia t io n
with TNT's epic p ro du ctio n o f "Get
tysb urg, " the fea tu re film an d mini
series b as ed o n the best-seller, Killer
Angels.
"He ha s t he abili ty t o paint mili
tary ar t in a way that's generally lost
today," explains Sutphen. "He's from
th e o ld s ch oo l of artists wh o were
t ra in ed i n action a rt wo rk a n d then
lea rn ed the ir c ra ft in the g re at maga
zines of the 30's, 4 0' s an d 50's. He's High Water Mark.
only in his early 60 's, bu t he was
there an d h e was the y ou ng es t of the ly depicted on canvas. I fin d it a ma z detail, h e' ll p ic k up t he t el ep ho n e
o ld -time mag az in e a rtis ts . His w ork in g that people ar e so fa cinated an d call an obliging historical auth
emphasizes realism an d action, an d a bo ut a p er io d o f history. I\-e nev er ority, inquiring about weather condi
i t c ap tu re s ke y moments in a way received so m a ny le tte rs in my car tio ns d urin g a b attle o r s ee king s ome
that's rarely seen today. A Kunstler eer. Without question, Civil \ ar o b sc u re f ac t about Civil War artil

p ai nt in in
frozen g istime."
like a moment in history b uffs tak eI the
seriously. didirsubjects
h is to ry from
an d their ar t
the Old lery_
While p ai nt in g t he Civil War re
On New York City's West 57th West fo r y ears and p eo p le liked quires demanding attention to his
Street, where serious ar t collectors them, bu t t he r es po n se to t he Civil toric details, Kunstler notes, it also
come to i nv es t s e ri ou s mone y in War subjects I paint no w is j u s t offers enterprising artists an im
o riginal art, Mort K un stle r' s w ork is astounding." men se ly ric h lod e o f u n ta p pe d sub
m aj es ti ca ll y f ra me d a nd h un g i n In a sky-lighted studio high above jects_ For an action-oriented artist
Hammer Galleries' tastefully fur Long Island's Oyster Bay, Kl.instler like Klinstler, the abundance of Civi
nished salons. There, in the same works at a sturdy bu t c ar re d a nd War subjects is like a dream come
rooms that routinely display original splattered easel, creating colorful true. Painting th e War Between th e
p a i n t i n g s by Monet, Renoir and i ma ge s o f d es pe ra te a nd dramatic States, h e says, is even more satisfy
Grandma Moses, collectors examine m om en ts o n wha t earlier wa s an ing than depicting scenes from th e
an d admire Civil War s ce ne s f ro m empty white canvas. Slim, energetic Old West.
Lookout Mountain, Gettysburg, First an d cheerful, h e l oo k like anyt hing Kunstler is enthusiastic ab o u t
Manassas a nd o th er b at tl es as dep b ut "one of the ol d masters," as w ha t h as b ec ome h is fav orite top ic.

icted
"I by Mort Kunstler.
consider Mort Kunstler to be someheadmirers
ing, routinelycall him. When
consults paint
a library of Like c ou n tl es s o t he r Americans to
day and in generations past, he ha s
on e of America's foremost artists, books ab o u t C iv il W ar uniforms, caught Civil War "fever." He is
continuing in the tradition of Freder equipment a n d w ea po ns , double amazed by th e drama of the conflict,
ic Remington an d Charles Russell," checking details like cartridge boxes by the courage an d sacrifice demon
says Richard Lynch, Hammer's direc an d military insignia. Puzzling over a strated by both sides. 0
tor. "Mort spends weeks doing exten
sive res ea rc h, v isits the a ctua l loca
tio ns a nd c o n s u l t s w it h l ea di ng
experts. Hi s paintings have por
trayed every aspect of American his
tory from th e pioneers of the West
to the p io ne er s o f space. Now that
he is specializing in t he A me ri ca n
Civil War, I t h i n k it's g en erally

asurpassed.
cc ep te d h is ot
w ork in is
only that field is un
h e Ame ric a's
f or emo st historical ar ti st , h e is now
unquestionably A me r ic a 's l e ad i ng
Civil War artist."
An d wha t does Kunstler think
a bo ut his r ap id rise to p op ul ar it y as
a Civil War artist?
"I can still hardly believe it all," he
marvels, sit ti ng ami d t he brushes,
oils an d easels of hi s Long Island
studio. "The response ha s been over
whelming. People are so appreciative
an d so excited to see th e historical
events they imagined for years final- Chamberlain's Charge.

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the Second World War, Antonio Mun Munoz is to be congratulated

BOOKS oz has placed an underline under his jo b well done. We can only hop
name as one of the most knowledge continues to a s to un d u s wi th hi
able ex per ts i n t he study o f t he for credible knowledge. A great bar
KILLING GROUND ON OKINAWA: eign v o lu n te e r m o ve m en t of Nazi at $17.95.
The Battle for Sugar Loaf Hill, Germany.
by James H Hallas. His l at est effort is a thought pro THE IRISH GUARDS IN THE GRE
Greenwood Publishing Group, voking account of w ha t h as up until
no w been a l i tt l e- k no w n s u bj e c t: WAR
Westport CT. 203/226-3571 The First Battalion
Greek participation on the Axis side.
With personal anecdotes, interviews, by Rudyard Kipling
On May 12, 1945, t he 6t h Marine and hard documentary evidence, Mr. 320 pp. 16 pp. iIIus. 1-885119-3
Division was nearing Naha, capital of Munoz ha s s h at t ered forever th e
0 6 x 9 cloth, $35.00 Nov.
Okinawa.
a low, l oaTo the
f- sha pe ddivision's front
hill. It l oo ke d lay
no m yt h t ha t only a few thousand Greek
"traitors" ever served the Axis.
different from other hills seized with He proves conclusively the figure Rudyard Kipling's "forgotten m
relative ease over the past few days. was in the tens of thousands. The 8 terpiece," republished after 70 ye
Bu t this hill, soon to b e d ub be d, 1/2" by 11" b o ok f eat u res a glos sy Rudyard Kipling's so n was k
"Sugar Loaf," was very d if ferent in cardstock cover that is in color. It is in b attle while serving with the I
deed. Part of a c om ple x o f t hr ee the f ir st time ever a full-page p ho to  Guards in World War I. When, s
hills, Sugar Loaf formed the western graph is u se d o n the cover. The color a ft er t he war, t he Gua rd's comm
a nc ho r o f General Mitsuru Ushi photograph c ho se n is qui te i mp re s de r a sk ed if t he author would lik
jima's Shuri Line, which stretched sive. I t is a German STG-IV assault write a r eg imen tal h ist or y , Kip
f ro m c oa st to c oa st a cr os s th e is gu n with crew, moving under a hill. dropped everything an d spent
lan d. Sugar Loaf was critical to th e On to p of th e hill yo u ca n see the next five y ea rs c re at in g one of
d ef en se o f that line, preventing US Greek Parthenon. A most impressive world's most remarkable work
forces f ro m t ur ni ng th e Japanese p ictu re to b e sure. military history.
flank. Over t he n ex t week, t he Mar The quality of this 68 page book Out of print since 1923, Kipli
ine s m ad e repeated attacks on th e is excellent, with thick, 60lb paper masterpiece is n ow l avi shl y rep
hill, losing t h o u s an d s of m en to used on th e insid e. The backcover l is he d w it h never-before-seen i
death, wounds, an d combat fatigue. ha s two additional photographs of tration s f ro m the Ir ish Guards' a
No t until May 18 wa s Sugar Loaf Greek Axis forces, plus a full-color ives plus their original maps.
finally seized. Two d ay s l at er , th e view of the Greek flag an d some cap In this complete rec ord of the
Japanese mounted a battalion-sized tions. The b oo k h as 36 n ever b ef or e Battalion, Kipling demonstrates
counterattack in an e ff or t t o r ega in seen photographs plus 35 maps and masterful powers of description
their lost position, bu t th e Marines tables. ways g ripp in g, h e shows with
held. P ut ti ng t he excellent esthetics plicity a nd a tt en ti on to de ta il
Ironically, t he se l os se s ma y no t aSide, however, the value of th e book life was for the soldier, fo r whom
have been necessary. General Lemuel lies w it h t he i nc re di bl e a mo un t o f shows great empathy.
Shepherd, Jr., argued for an amphib h ard and scarce data Munoz ha s The u l ti mat e r egi men t al hist
ious assault to the rear of the Jap been able to gather. d et ai le d a pp en di ce s l is t t he b a
anese defense line, bu t his proposal The number of tabl es wi th troop rolls of h on or a nd casualty list
wa s rejected by US Tenth A r m y strengths, locations, losses, etc., are all officers and men who serve
Commander General Simon Bolivar simply awesome. Mr. Munoz goes the 1s t Battalion, Irish Guards, in
Buckner. T ha t r ef us al l ed to a con i nt o s om e de ta il a bo ut s om e of the First War.
troversy that h as c on ti nue d to this lesser known collaborationist forma
day. tions an d h e man ag es to cover every Contemporary praise:
single one o f t he m well. "The Irish Guards ha d been so fo
I have all of Mr. Munoz's books, nat e as to find their hist ori an in
HERAKLES & THE SWASTIKA greatest living matter of narrative
including his voluminous "Forgotten
Greek Volunteers in the German Legions," bu t I must say that, like a -The Times of Lon
Army, Police, and SS 1943-45 fine wine, ha s writing skills an d his "... probably t he g re at es t of all
by Antonio Munoz, Axis Europa, research have matured to my taste. I books: for though we have ha d m
Inc.68 pages, $17.95 +$3.00 S&H noticed no typ ing o r spelling err or s a sound book that ha s dealt with
i n this, his l at es t effort. I know a few me n as soldiers, we have till
t ypos di d creep i nt o s ome o f his ear had no book that has d ealt with
With this latest bo ok o n the Axis lier studies, bu t the y do n ot r et ra ct soldiers as men."
forces allied with Germany during f ro m the b oo ks at all. -The Glasgow He

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Volume II of Rudyard Kipling's The

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War o f 1870 - 1872 3112 FREMONT AVENUE SOlITH,
no t your own.
b y Albrecht vo n Boguslawski M!NNEAPOUS MN 55408 r------

(Officer of the 3rd SilesiansIPrussian Line Regiment #50)

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C I V I L · WW I • C A N N O N S · WWII
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"Don't e The Ship"

NORING THE U TID STATES NAVY

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he Armed Forces Commcmorath'c Society·, an affiliate ofAmerica Remembers·, is a pri\'3te. non·goHmmentaJ organization and is not affiliated with the United States
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