Loudspeaker

8/28/2019 Loudspeaker - Wikipedia
Loudspeaker
A loudspeaker (or loud-speaker or speaker) is an electroacoustic
transducer;[1] a device which converts an electrical audio signal into a
corresponding sound.[2] The most widely used type of speaker in the 2010s
is the dynamic speaker, invented in 1925 by Edward W. Kellogg and
Chester W. Rice. The dynamic speaker operates on the same basic principle
as a dynamic microphone, but in reverse, to produce sound from an
electrical signal. When an alternating current electrical audio signal is
applied to its voice coil, a coil of wire suspended in a circular gap between
the poles of a permanent magnet, the coil is forced to move rapidly back
and forth due to Faraday's law of induction, which causes a diaphragm
(usually conically shaped) attached to the coil to move back and forth,
pushing on the air to create sound waves. Besides this most common
method, there are several alternative technologies that can be used to
convert an electrical signal into sound. The sound source (e.g., a sound
recording or a microphone) must be amplified or strengthened with an
audio power amplifier before the signal is sent to the speaker.
Speakers are typically housed in a speaker enclosure or speaker cabinet

which is often a rectangular or square box made of several forms of wood,
or sometimes plastic. The enclosure's materials and design play an
important role in the quality of the sound. The enclosure generally must be Loudspeaker for home use with
as stiff and non-resonant as practically possible. Where high fidelity three types of dynamic drivers
reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeaker transducers are
1. Mid-range driver
often mounted in the same enclosure, each reproducing a part of the
2. Tweeter
audible frequency range (picture at right). In this case the individual
3. Woofers
speakers are referred to as "drivers" and the entire unit is called a
The hole below the lowest woofer is
loudspeaker. Drivers made for reproducing high audio frequencies are
a port for a bass reflex system.
called tweeters, those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers,
and those for low frequencies are called woofers. Extremely low
frequencies (16Hz-~100Hz)may be reproduced by detached subwoofers. Smaller loudspeakers are found in devices
such as radios, televisions, portable audio players, computers, and electronic musical instruments. Larger loudspeaker
systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concert halls, and in public address systems.
Contents
Terminology
History
Moving-coil
First loudspeaker systems
Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers
Diaphragm
Basket
Cone materials
Driver types
Full-range drivers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker 1/27
Subwoofer
Woofer
Mid-range driver
Tweeter
Coaxial drivers
System design
Crossover
Enclosures
Horn loudspeakers
Wiring connections
Wireless speakers
Specifications
Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers
Electromechanical measurements
Efficiency vs. sensitivity
Listening environment
Placement
Directivity
Other speaker designs
With a diaphragm
3-way full-range floorstanding home
Moving-iron loudspeakers
loudspeaker Krypton3 by Amphion
Piezoelectric speakers
Loudspeakers
Magnetostatic loudspeakers
Magnetostrictive speakers 1. Midwoofers are isolated from the
Electrostatic loudspeakers rest of the cabinet in perforated,
Ribbon and planar magnetic loudspeakers cardioid chambers to create a
Bending wave loudspeakers cardioic dispersion pattern that
Flat panel loudspeakers reduces the midrange
Heil air motion transducers reflections.
Transparent ionic conduction speaker 2. Woofers are located to the sides
Without a diaphragm (beneath the black cover)
Plasma arc speakers 3. Double-vented port (bass reflex)
Thermoacoustic speakers design on the rear side
Rotary woofers
New technologies
Digital speakers
See also
References
External links
Terminology
The term "loudspeaker" may refer to individual transducers (also known as "drivers") or to complete speaker systems
consisting of an enclosure including one or more drivers.
To adequately reproduce a wide range of frequencies with even coverage, most loudspeaker systems employ more than
one driver, particularly for higher sound pressure level or maximum accuracy. Individual drivers are used to
reproduce different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers (for very low frequencies); woofers (low
frequencies); mid-range speakers (middle frequencies); tweeters (high frequencies); and sometimes supertweeters,
optimized for the highest audible frequencies. The terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the
application. In two-way systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds is
divided between the woofer and tweeter. Home stereos use the designation "tweeter" for the high frequency driver,
while professional concert systems may designate them as "HF" or "highs". When multiple drivers are used in a
system, a "filter network", called a crossover, separates the incoming signal into different frequency ranges and routes
them to the appropriate driver. A loudspeaker system with n separate frequency bands is described as "n-way
speakers": a two-way system will have a woofer and a tweeter; a three-way system employs a woofer, a mid-range, and
a tweeter. Loudspeaker drivers of the type pictured are termed "dynamic" (short for electrodynamic) to distinguish
them from earlier drivers (i.e., moving iron speaker), or speakers using piezoelectric or electrostatic systems, or any of
several other sorts.
History
Johann Philipp Reis installed an electric loudspeaker in his telephone in 1861; it was capable of reproducing clear
tones, but also could reproduce muffled speech after a few revisions.[3] Alexander Graham Bell patented his first
electric loudspeaker (capable of reproducing intelligible speech) as part of his telephone in 1876, which was followed
in 1877 by an improved version from Ernst Siemens. During this time, Thomas Edison was issued a British patent for a
system using compressed air as an amplifying mechanism for his early cylinder phonographs, but he ultimately settled
for the familiar metal horn driven by a membrane attached to the stylus. In 1898, Horace Short patented a design for a
loudspeaker driven by compressed air; he then sold the rights to Charles Parsons, who was issued several additional
British patents before 1910. A few companies, including the Victor Talking Machine Company and Pathé, produced
record players using compressed-air loudspeakers. However, these designs were significantly limited by their poor
sound quality and their inability to reproduce sound at low volume. Variants of the system were used for public
address applications, and more recently, other variations have been used to test space-equipment resistance to the
very loud sound and vibration levels that the launching of rockets produces.
Moving-coil
The first experimental moving-coil (also called dynamic) loudspeaker was invented by Oliver Lodge in 1898.[4] The
first practical moving-coil loudspeakers were manufactured by Danish engineer Peter L. Jensen and Edwin Pridham in
1915, in Napa, California.[5] Like previous loudspeakers these used horns to amplify the sound produced by a small
diaphragm. Jensen was denied patents. Being unsuccessful in selling their product to telephone companies, in 1915
they changed their target market to radios and public address systems, and named their product Magnavox. Jensen
was, for years after the invention of the loudspeaker, a part owner of The Magnavox Company.[6]
The moving-coil principle commonly used today in

speakers was patented in 1924 by Chester W. Rice
and Edward W. Kellogg. The key difference between
previous attempts and the patent by Rice and
Kellogg is the adjustment of mechanical parameters
so that the fundamental resonance of the moving
system is below the frequency where the cone's
radiation Impedance becomes uniform.[7] About this
same period, Walter H. Schottky invented the first
ribbon loudspeaker together with Dr. Erwin
Gerlach.[8]
These first loudspeakers used electromagnets, Kellogg and Rice in 1925 holding the large driver of the
because large, powerful permanent magnets were first moving-coil cone loudspeaker.
generally not available at a reasonable price. The coil

of an electromagnet, called a field coil, was energized
by current through a second pair of connections to the driver. This winding usually served a dual role, acting also as a
choke coil, filtering the power supply of the

amplifier that the loudspeaker was
connected to. AC ripple in the current was
attenuated by the action of passing through
the choke coil. However, AC line
frequencies tended to modulate the audio
signal going to the voice coil and added to
the audible hum. In 1930 Jensen
introduced the first commercial fixed- Prototype moving-coil The first commercial version of the
magnet loudspeaker; however, the large, cone loudspeaker by speaker, sold with the RCA Radiola
heavy iron magnets of the day were Kellogg and Rice in receiver, had only a 6 inch cone. In 1926
impractical and field-coil speakers 1925, with it sold for $250, equivalent to about
electromagnet pulled $3000 today.
remained predominant until the
back, showing voice coil
widespread availability of lightweight
attached to cone
alnico magnets after World War II.
First loudspeaker systems

In the 1930s, loudspeaker manufacturers
began to combine two and three bandpasses' worth of drivers in order to increase frequency response and sound
pressure level.[9] In 1937, the first film industry-standard loudspeaker system, "The Shearer Horn (http://www.audioh
eritage.org/html/profiles/lmco/shearer.htm) System for Theatres"[10] (a two-way system), was introduced by Metro-
Goldwyn-Mayer. It used four 15″ low-frequency drivers, a crossover network set for 375 Hz, and a single multi-cellular
horn with two compression drivers providing the high frequencies. John Kenneth Hilliard, James Bullough Lansing,
and Douglas Shearer all played roles in creating the system. At the 1939 New York World's Fair, a very large two-way
public address system was mounted on a tower at Flushing Meadows. The eight 27″ low-frequency drivers were
designed by Rudy Bozak in his role as chief engineer for Cinaudagraph. High-frequency drivers were likely made by
Western Electric.[11]
Altec Lansing introduced the 604, which became their most famous coaxial Duplex driver, in 1943. It incorporated a
high-frequency horn that sent sound through a hole in the pole piece of a 15-inch woofer for near-point-source
performance.[12] Altec's "Voice of the Theatre" loudspeaker system arrived in the marketplace in 1945, offering better
coherence and clarity at the high output levels necessary in movie theaters.[13] The Academy of Motion Picture Arts
and Sciences immediately began testing its sonic characteristics; they made it the film house industry standard in
1955.[14]
In 1954, Edgar Villchur developed the acoustic suspension principle of loudspeaker design in Cambridge,
Massachusetts. This allowed for better bass response than previously from drivers mounted in smaller cabinets which
was important during the transition to stereo recording and reproduction. He and his partner Henry Kloss formed the
Acoustic Research company to manufacture and market speaker systems using this principle. Subsequently,
continuous developments in enclosure design and materials led to significant audible improvements. The most
notable improvements to date in modern dynamic drivers, and the loudspeakers that employ them, are improvements
in cone materials, the introduction of higher-temperature adhesives, improved permanent magnet materials,
improved measurement techniques, computer-aided design, and finite element analysis. At low frequencies, the
application of electrical network theory to the acoustic performance allowed by various enclosure designs (initially by
Thiele, and later by Small) has been very important at the design level.
Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers
The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic

loudspeaker, uses a lightweight diaphragm, or cone, connected to a rigid
basket, or frame, via a flexible suspension, commonly called a spider, that
constrains a voice coil to move axially through a cylindrical magnetic gap.
A protective cap glued in the cone's center prevents dust, especially iron
filings, from entering the gap. When an electrical signal is applied to the
voice coil, a magnetic field is created by the electric current in the voice
coil, making it a variable electromagnet. The coil and the driver's magnetic
system interact, generating a mechanical force that causes the coil (and
thus, the attached cone) to move back and forth, accelerating and
reproducing sound under the control of the applied electrical signal coming
from the amplifier. The following is a description of the individual
components of this type of loudspeaker.
Diaphragm Cutaway view of a dynamic

The diaphragm is usually manufactured with a cone- or dome-shaped loudspeaker for the bass register.
profile. A variety of different materials may be used, but the most common
1. Magnet
are paper, plastic, and metal. The ideal material would 1) be rigid, to
2. Voicecoil
prevent uncontrolled cone motions; 2) have low mass, to minimize starting
3. Suspension
force requirements and energy storage issues; 3) be well damped, to reduce
4. Diaphragm
vibrations continuing after the signal has stopped with little or no audible
ringing due to its resonance frequency as determined by its usage. In
practice, all three of these criteria cannot be met simultaneously using
existing materials; thus, driver design involves trade-offs. For example,
paper is light and typically well damped, but is not stiff; metal may be stiff
and light, but it usually has poor damping; plastic can be light, but
typically, the stiffer it is made, the poorer the damping. As a result, many
cones are made of some sort of composite material. For example, a cone
might be made of cellulose paper, into which some carbon fiber, Kevlar,
glass, hemp or bamboo fibers have been added; or it might use a
honeycomb sandwich construction; or a coating might be applied to it so as
to provide additional stiffening or damping.
Basket
The chassis, frame, or basket, is designed to be rigid, preventing
Cutaway view of a dynamic
deformation that could change critical alignments with the magnet gap,
midrange speaker.
perhaps allowing the voice coil to rub against the magnet around the gap.
Chassis are typically cast from aluminum alloy, in heavier magnet- 1. Magnet
structure speakers; or stamped from thin sheet steel in lighter-structure 2. Cooler (sometimes present)
drivers.[15] Other materials such as molded plastic and damped plastic 3. Voicecoil
compound baskets are becoming common, especially for inexpensive, low- 4. Suspension
mass drivers. Metallic chassis can play an important role in conducting 5. Diaphragm
heat away from the voice coil; heating during operation changes resistance,
causes physical dimensional changes, and if extreme, broils the varnish on
the voice coil; it may even demagnetize permanent magnets.
The suspension system keeps the coil centered in the gap and provides a
restoring (centering) force that returns the cone to a neutral position after
moving. A typical suspension system consists of two parts: the spider,
which connects the diaphragm or voice coil to the lower frame and
provides the majority of the restoring force, and the surround, which helps
center the coil/cone assembly and allows free pistonic motion aligned with
the magnetic gap. The spider is usually made of a corrugated fabric disk,
impregnated with a stiffening resin. The name comes from the shape of
early suspensions, which were two concentric rings of Bakelite material,
joined by six or eight curved "legs." Variations of this topology included the
addition of a felt disc to provide a barrier to particles that might otherwise
cause the voice coil to rub. The German firm Rulik still offers drivers with
uncommon spiders made of wood.
Cone materials
Cutaway view of a dynamic tweeter
The cone surround can be rubber or polyester foam, or a ring of
with acoustic lens and a dome-
concentrically corrugated, resin coated fabric; it is attached to both the shaped membrane.
outer cone circumference and to the upper frame. These diverse surround
1. Magnet
materials, their shape and treatment can dramatically affect the acoustic
2. Voicecoil
output of a driver; each implementation has advantages and
disadvantages. Polyester foam, for example, is lightweight and economical, 3. Diaphragm
though usually leaks air to some degree, but is degraded by time, exposure 4. Suspension
to ozone, UV light, humidity and elevated temperatures, limiting useful life
before failure. Treated paper surrounds will eventually fail. Neoprene
rubber and resin-coated fabric surrounds are longer-lasting. The wire in a voice coil is usually made of copper, though
aluminum—and, rarely, silver—may be used. The advantage of aluminum is its light weight, which reduces the moving
mass compared to copper. This raises the resonant frequency of the speaker and increases its efficiency. A
disadvantage of aluminum is that it is not easily soldered, and so connections are instead often crimped together and
sealed. These connections must be made well or they may fail in an intense environment of mechanical vibration.
Voice-coil wire cross sections can be circular, rectangular, or hexagonal, giving varying amounts of wire volume
coverage in the magnetic gap space. The coil is oriented co-axially inside the gap; it moves back and forth within a
small circular volume (a hole, slot, or groove) in the magnetic structure. The gap establishes a concentrated magnetic
field between the two poles of a permanent magnet; the outside ring of the gap is one pole, and the center post (called
the pole piece) is the other. The pole piece and backplate are often made as a single piece, called the poleplate or yoke.
Modern driver magnets are almost always permanent and made of ceramic, ferrite, alnico, or, more recently, rare
earth such as neodymium and samarium cobalt. Electrodynamic drivers were often used in musical instrument
amplifier/speaker cabinets well into the 1950s; there were economic savings in those using tube amplifiers as the field
coil could, and usually did, do double duty as a power supply choke. A trend in design — due to increases in
transportation costs and a desire for smaller, lighter devices (as in many home theater multi-speaker installations) —
is the use of the last instead of heavier ferrite types. Very few manufacturers still produce electrodynamic loudspeakers
with electrically powered field coils, as was common in the earliest designs; one of the last is a French firm. When high
field-strength permanent magnets became available after WWII, alnico, an alloy of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt
became popular, since it dispensed with the problems of field-coil drivers. Alnico was used almost exclusively until
about 1980, despite the embarrassing problem of alnico magnets being partially degaussed (i.e., demagnetized) by
accidental 'pops' or 'clicks' caused by loose connections, especially if used with a high-power amplifier. The damage
can be reversed by "recharging" the magnet, but this requires uncommon specialist equipment and knowledge.
After 1980, most (but not quite all) driver manufacturers switched from alnico to ferrite magnets, which are made
from a mix of ceramic clay and fine particles of barium or strontium ferrite. Although the energy per kilogram of these
ceramic magnets is lower than alnico, it is substantially less expensive, allowing designers to use larger yet more
economical magnets to achieve a given performance.
The size and type of magnet and details of the magnetic circuit differ, depending on design goals. For instance, the
shape of the pole piece affects the magnetic interaction between the voice coil and the magnetic field, and is sometimes
used to modify a driver's behavior. A "shorting ring", or Faraday loop, may be included as a thin copper cap fitted over
the pole tip or as a heavy ring situated within the magnet-pole cavity. The benefits of this complication is reduced
impedance at high frequencies, providing extended treble output, reduced harmonic distortion, and a reduction in the
inductance modulation that typically accompanies large voice coil excursions. On the other hand, the copper cap
requires a wider voice-coil gap, with increased magnetic reluctance; this reduces available flux, requiring a larger
magnet for equivalent performance.
Driver design—including the particular way two or more drivers are combined in an enclosure to make a speaker
system—is both an art, involving subjective perceptions of timbre and sound quality and a science, involving
measurements and experiments.[16][17][18] Adjusting a design to improve performance is done using a combination of
magnetic, acoustic, mechanical, electrical, and material science theory, and tracked with high precision measurements
and the observations of experienced listeners. A few of the issues speaker and driver designers must confront are
distortion, radiation lobing, phase effects, off-axis response, and crossover artifacts. Designers can use an anechoic
chamber to ensure the speaker can be measured independently of room effects, or any of several electronic techniques
that, to some extent, substitute for such chambers. Some developers eschew anechoic chambers in favor of specific
standardized room setups intended to simulate real-life listening conditions.
Fabrication of finished loudspeaker systems has become segmented, depending largely on price, shipping costs, and
weight limitations. High-end speaker systems, which are typically heavier (and often larger) than economic shipping
allows outside local regions, are usually made in their target market region and can cost $140,000 or more per pair.[19]
Economical mass market speaker systems and drivers available for much lower costs may be manufactured in China
or other low-cost manufacturing locations.
Driver types
Individual electrodynamic drivers provide their best performance within a limited frequency range. Multiple drivers
(e.g., subwoofers, woofers, mid-range drivers, and tweeters) are generally combined into a complete loudspeaker
system to provide performance beyond that constraint. The three most commonly used sound radiation systems are
the cone, dome and horn type drivers.
Full-range drivers
A full-range driver is a speaker designed to be used alone to reproduce an audio channel without the help of other
drivers, and therefore must cover the entire audio frequency range. These drivers are small, typically 3 to 8 inches (7.6
to 20.3 cm) in diameter to permit reasonable high frequency response, and carefully designed to give low-distortion
output at low frequencies, though with reduced maximum output level. Full-range (or more accurately, wide-range)
drivers are most commonly heard in public address systems, in televisions (although some models are suitable for hi-fi
listening), small radios, intercoms, some computer speakers, etc. In hi-fi speaker systems, the use of wide-range drive
units can avoid undesirable interactions between multiple drivers caused by non-coincident driver location or
crossover network issues. Fans of wide-range driver hi-fi speaker systems claim a coherence of sound due to the single
source and a resulting lack of interference, and likely also to the lack of crossover components. Detractors typically cite
wide-range drivers' limited frequency response and modest output abilities (most especially at low frequencies),
together with their requirement for large, elaborate, expensive enclosures—such as transmission lines, quarter wave
resonators or horns—to approach optimum performance. With the advent

of neodymium drivers, low-cost quarter-wave transmission lines are made
possible and are increasingly made availably commercially.[20][21]
Full-range drivers often employ an additional cone called a whizzer: a

small, light cone attached to the joint between the voice coil and the
primary cone. The whizzer cone extends the high-frequency response of
the driver and broadens its high frequency directivity, which would
otherwise be greatly narrowed due to the outer diameter cone material
failing to keep up with the central voice coil at higher frequencies. The
main cone in a whizzer design is manufactured so as to flex more in the
outer diameter than in the center. The result is that the main cone delivers
low frequencies and the whizzer cone contributes most of the higher
frequencies. Since the whizzer cone is smaller than the main diaphragm,
output dispersion at high frequencies is improved relative to an equivalent
single larger diaphragm.
Limited-range drivers, also used alone, are typically found in computers,

toys, and clock radios. These drivers are less elaborate and less expensive
A four-way, high fidelity
than wide-range drivers, and they may be severely compromised to fit into
loudspeaker system. Each of the
very small mounting locations. In these applications, sound quality is a low
four drivers outputs a different
priority. The human ear is remarkably tolerant of poor sound quality, and frequency range; the fifth aperture at
the distortion inherent in limited-range drivers may enhance their output the bottom is a bass reflex port.
at high frequencies, increasing clarity when listening to spoken word
material.
Subwoofer
A subwoofer is a woofer driver used only for the lowest-pitched part of the audio spectrum: typically below 200 Hz for
consumer systems,[22] below 100 Hz for professional live sound,[23] and below 80 Hz in THX-approved systems.[24]
Because the intended range of frequencies is limited, subwoofer system design is usually simpler in many respects
than for conventional loudspeakers, often consisting of a single driver enclosed in a suitable box or enclosure. Since
sound in this frequency range can easily bend around corners by diffraction, the speaker aperture does not have to face
the audience, and subwoofers can be mounted in the bottom of the enclosure, facing the floor. This is eased by the
limitations of human hearing at low frequencies; such sounds cannot be located in space, due to their large
wavelengths compared to higher frequencies which produce differential effects in the ears due to shadowing by the
head, and diffraction around it, both of which we rely upon for localization clues.
To accurately reproduce very low bass notes without unwanted resonances (typically from cabinet panels), subwoofer
systems must be solidly constructed and properly braced to avoid unwanted sounds of cabinet vibrations. As a result,
good subwoofers are typically quite heavy. Many subwoofer systems include integrated power amplifiers and
electronic subsonic (sub)-filters, with additional controls relevant to low-frequency reproduction (e.g., a crossover
knob and a phase switch). These variants are known as "active" or "powered" subwoofers, with the former including a
power amplifier.[25] In contrast, "passive" subwoofers require external amplification.
In typical installations, subwoofers are physically separated from the rest of the speaker cabinets. Because of
propagation delay, their output may be somewhat out of phase from another subwoofer (on another channel) or
slightly out of phase with the rest of the sound. Consequently, a subwoofer's power amp often has a phase-delay
adjustment (approximately 1 ms of delay is required for each additional foot of separation from the listener) which
may improve performance of the system as a whole at subwoofer frequencies (and perhaps an octave or so above the
crossover point). However, the influence of room resonances (sometimes called standing waves) is typically so large
that such issues are secondary in practice. Subwoofers are widely used in large concert and mid-sized venue sound
reinforcement systems. Subwoofer cabinets are often built with a bass reflex port (i.e., a hole cut into the cabinet with
a tube attached to it), a design feature which if properly engineered improves bass performance and increases
efficiency.
Woofer
A woofer is a driver that reproduces low frequencies. The driver works with the characteristics of the enclosure to
produce suitable low frequencies (see speaker enclosure for some of the design choices available). Indeed, both are so
closely connected that they must be considered together in use. Only at design time do the separate properties of
enclosure and woofer matter individually. Some loudspeaker systems use a woofer for the lowest frequencies,
sometimes well enough that a subwoofer is not needed. Additionally, some loudspeakers use the woofer to handle
middle frequencies, eliminating the mid-range driver. This can be accomplished with the selection of a tweeter that
can work low enough that, combined with a woofer that responds high enough, the two drivers add coherently in the
middle frequencies.
Mid-range driver
A mid-range speaker is a loudspeaker driver that reproduces a band of frequencies generally between 1–6 kHz,
otherwise known as the 'mid' frequencies (between the woofer and tweeter). Mid-range driver diaphragms can be
made of paper or composite materials, and can be direct radiation drivers (rather like smaller woofers) or they can be
compression drivers (rather like some tweeter designs). If the mid-range driver is a direct radiator, it can be mounted
on the front baffle of a loudspeaker enclosure, or, if a compression driver, mounted at the throat of a horn for added
output level and control of radiation pattern.
Tweeter
A tweeter is a high-frequency driver that reproduces the highest
frequencies in a speaker system. A major problem in tweeter design is
achieving wide angular sound coverage (off-axis response), since high
frequency sound tends to leave the speaker in narrow beams. Soft-dome
tweeters are widely found in home stereo systems, and horn-loaded
compression drivers are common in professional sound reinforcement.
Ribbon tweeters have gained popularity in recent years, as the output
power of some designs has been increased to levels useful for professional
sound reinforcement, and their output pattern is wide in the horizontal
plane, a pattern that has convenient applications in concert sound.[26] Exploded view of a dome tweeter.
Coaxial drivers
A coaxial driver is a loudspeaker driver with two or several combined concentric drivers. Coaxial drivers have been
produced by many companies, such as Altec, Tannoy, Pioneer, KEF, SEAS, B&C Speakers, BMS, Cabasse and
Genelec.[27]
System design
Crossover
Used in multi-driver speaker systems, the crossover is an assembly of filters that separate the
input signal into different frequency ranges (i.e. "bands"), according to the requirements of
each driver. Hence the drivers receive power only at their operating frequency (the sound
frequency range they were designed for), thereby reducing distortion in the drivers and
interference between them. The ideal characteristics of a crossover may include perfect out-of-
band attenuation at the output of each filter, no amplitude variation ("ripple") within each
passband, no phase delay between overlapping frequency bands, to name just a few.
Electronic
Crossovers can be passive or active. A passive crossover is an electronic circuit that uses a symbol for a
speaker
combination of one or more resistors, inductors, or non-polar capacitors. These components
are combined to form a filter network and are most often placed between
the full frequency-range power amplifier and the loudspeaker drivers to
divide the amplifier's signal into the necessary frequency bands before
being delivered to the individual drivers. Passive crossover circuits need no
external power beyond the audio signal itself, but have some
disadvantages: they may require larger inductors and capacitors due to
power handling requirements (being driven by the amplifier), limited
component availability to optimize the crossover's characteristics at such
A passive crossover.
power levels, etc. Unlike active crossovers which include a built-in
amplifier, passive crossovers have an inherent attenuation within the
passband, typically leading to a reduction in damping factor before the
voice coil [28] An active crossover is an electronic filter circuit that divides
the signal into individual frequency bands before power amplification, thus
requiring at least one power amplifier for each bandpass.[28] Passive
filtering may also be used in this way before power amplification, but it is
an uncommon solution, being less flexible than active filtering. Any
technique that uses crossover filtering followed by amplification is Bi-amped.
commonly known as bi-amping, tri-amping, quad-amping, and so on,
depending on the minimum number of amplifier channels.[29]
Some loudspeaker designs use a combination of passive and active crossover filtering, such as a passive crossover
between the mid- and high-frequency drivers and an active crossover between the low-frequency driver and the
combined mid- and high frequencies.[30][31]
Passive crossovers are commonly installed inside speaker boxes and are by far the most usual type of crossover for
home and low-power use. In car audio systems, passive crossovers may be in a separate box, necessary to
accommodate the size of the components used. Passive crossovers may be simple for low-order filtering, or complex to
allow steep slopes such as 18 or 24 dB per octave. Passive crossovers can also be designed to compensate for undesired
characteristics of driver, horn, or enclosure resonances,[32] and can be tricky to implement, due to component
interaction. Passive crossovers, like the driver units that they feed, have power handling limits, have insertion losses
(10% is often claimed), and change the load seen by the amplifier. The changes are matters of concern for many in the
hi-fi world.[32] When high output levels are required, active crossovers may be preferable. Active crossovers may be
simple circuits that emulate the response of a passive network, or may be more complex, allowing extensive audio
adjustments. Some active crossovers, usually digital loudspeaker management systems, may include electronics and
controls for precise alignment of phase and time between frequency bands, equalization, dynamic range compression
and limiting) control.[28]
Enclosures
Most loudspeaker systems consist of drivers mounted in an enclosure, or

cabinet. The role of the enclosure is to prevent sound waves emanating
from the back of a driver from interfering destructively with those from the
front. The sound waves emitted from the back are 180° out of phase with
those emitted forward, so without an enclosure they typically cause
cancellations which significantly degrade the level and quality of sound at
low frequencies.
The simplest driver mount is a flat panel (i.e., baffle) with the drivers
mounted in holes in it. However, in this approach, sound frequencies with
a wavelength longer than the baffle dimensions are canceled out, because
the antiphase radiation from the rear of the cone interferes with the
radiation from the front. With an infinitely large panel, this interference
could be entirely prevented. A sufficiently large sealed box can approach
this behavior.[33][34]
Since panels of infinite dimensions are impossible, most enclosures

function by containing the rear radiation from the moving diaphragm. A
sealed enclosure prevents transmission of the sound emitted from the rear
of the loudspeaker by confining the sound in a rigid and airtight box.
Techniques used to reduce transmission of sound through the walls of the
cabinet include thicker cabinet walls, lossy wall material, internal bracing,
curved cabinet walls—or more rarely, visco-elastic materials (e.g., mineral-
loaded bitumen) or thin lead sheeting applied to the interior enclosure
walls.
However, a rigid enclosure reflects sound internally, which can then be An unusual three-way speaker
system. The cabinet is narrow to
transmitted back through the loudspeaker diaphragm—again resulting in
raise the frequency where a
degradation of sound quality. This can be reduced by internal absorption diffraction effect called the "baffle
using absorptive materials (often called "damping"), such as glass wool, step" occurs.
wool, or synthetic fiber batting, within the enclosure. The internal shape of
the enclosure can also be designed to reduce this by reflecting sounds away
from the loudspeaker diaphragm, where they may then be absorbed.
Other enclosure types alter the rear sound radiation so it can add constructively to the output from the front of the
cone. Designs that do this (including bass reflex, passive radiator, transmission line, etc.) are often used to extend the
effective low-frequency response and increase low-frequency output of the driver.
To make the transition between drivers as seamless as possible, system designers have attempted to time-align (or
phase adjust) the drivers by moving one or more driver mounting locations forward or back so that the acoustic center
of each driver is in the same vertical plane. This may also involve tilting the face speaker back, providing a separate
enclosure mounting for each driver, or (less commonly) using electronic techniques to achieve the same effect. These
attempts have resulted in some unusual cabinet designs.
The speaker mounting scheme (including cabinets) can also cause diffraction, resulting in peaks and dips in the
frequency response. The problem is usually greatest at higher frequencies, where wavelengths are similar to, or
smaller than, cabinet dimensions. The effect can be minimized by rounding the front edges of the cabinet, curving the
cabinet itself, using a smaller or narrower enclosure, choosing a strategic driver arrangement, using absorptive
material around a driver, or some combination of these and other schemes.
Horn loudspeakers
Horn loudspeakers are the oldest form of loudspeaker system. The use of
horns as voice-amplifying megaphones dates at least to the 17th
century,[35] and horns were used in mechanical gramophones as early as
1857. Horn loudspeakers use a shaped waveguide in front of or behind the
driver to increase the directivity of the loudspeaker and to transform a
small diameter, high pressure condition at the driver cone surface to a
large diameter, low pressure condition at the mouth of the horn. This
improves the acoustic—electro/mechanical impedance match between the A three-way loudspeaker that uses
driver and ambient air, increasing efficiency, and focusing the sound over a horns in front of each of the three
narrower area. drivers: a shallow horn for the
tweeter, a long, straight horn for mid
The size of the throat, mouth, the length of the horn, as well as the area frequencies and a folded horn for
expansion rate along it must be carefully chosen to match the drive to the woofer
properly provide this transforming function over a range of frequencies
(every horn performs poorly outside its acoustic limits, at both high and
low frequencies). The length and cross-sectional mouth area required to create a bass or sub-bass horn require a horn
many feet long. 'Folded' horns can reduce the total size, but compel designers to make compromises and accept
increased complication such as cost and construction. Some horn designs not only fold the low frequency horn, but
use the walls in a room corner as an extension of the horn mouth. In the late 1940s, horns whose mouths took up
much of a room wall were not unknown amongst hi-fi fans. Room sized installations became much less acceptable
when two or more were required.
A horn loaded speaker can have a sensitivity as high as 110 dB at 2.83 volts (1 watt at 8 ohms) at 1 meter. This is a
hundredfold increase in output compared to a speaker rated at 90 dB sensitivity, and is invaluable in applications
where high sound levels are required or amplifier power is limited.
Wiring connections
Most home hi-fi loudspeakers use two wiring points to connect to the
source of the signal (for example, to the audio amplifier or receiver). To
accept the wire connection, the loudspeaker enclosure may have binding
posts, spring clips, or a panel-mount jack. If the wires for a pair of speakers
are not connected with respect to the proper electrical polarity (the + and −
connections on the speaker and amplifier should be connected + to + and −
to −; speaker cable is almost always marked so that one conductor of a pair
can be distinguished from the other, even if it has run under or behind
things in its run from amplifier to speaker location), the loudspeakers are Two-way binding posts on a
said to be "out of phase" or more properly "out of polarity".[36][37] Given loudspeaker, connected using
identical signals, motion in one cone is in the opposite direction of the banana plugs.
other. This typically causes monophonic material in a stereo recording to
be canceled out, reduced in level, and made more difficult to localize, all
due to destructive interference of the sound waves. The cancellation effect is most noticeable at frequencies where the
loudspeakers are separated by a quarter wavelength or less; low frequencies are affected the most. This type of
miswiring error does not damage speakers, but is not optimal for listening.[38][39]
With sound reinforcement system, PA system and instrument amplifier speaker enclosures, cables and some type of
jack or connector are typically used. Lower- and mid-priced sound system and instrument speaker cabinets often use
1/4" speaker cable jacks. Higher-priced and higher powered sound system cabinets and instrument speaker cabinets
often use Speakon connectors. Speakon connectors are considered to be safer for high wattage amplifiers, because the
connector is designed so that human users cannot touch the connectors.
Wireless speakers
Wireless speakers are very similar to traditional (wired) loudspeakers, but
they receive audio signals using radio frequency (RF) waves rather than
over audio cables. There is normally an amplifier integrated in the
speaker's cabinet because the RF waves alone are not enough to drive the
speaker. This integration of amplifier and loudspeaker is known as an
active loudspeaker. Manufacturers of these loudspeakers design them to be
as lightweight as possible while producing the maximum amount of audio
output efficiency.
Wireless speakers still need power, so require a nearby AC power outlet, or

possibly batteries. Only the wire to the amplifier is eliminated.
Specifications A 4-ohm loudspeaker with two pairs

of binding posts capable of
Speaker specifications generally include: accepting bi-wiring after the removal
of two metal straps.
Speaker or driver type (individual units only) – Full-range, woofer,
tweeter, or mid-range.
Size of individual drivers. For cone drivers, the quoted size is
generally the outside diameter of the basket.[40] However, it may less
commonly also be the diameter of the cone surround, measured apex
to apex, or the distance from the center of one mounting hole to its
opposite. Voice-coil diameter may also be specified. If the loudspeaker
has a compression horn driver, the diameter of the horn throat may be
given.
Rated Power – Nominal (or even continuous) power, and peak (or
maximum short-term) power a loudspeaker can handle (i.e., maximum
input power before destroying the loudspeaker; it is never the sound
HP Roar Wireless Speaker
output the loudspeaker produces). A driver may be damaged at much
less than its rated power if driven past its mechanical limits at lower
frequencies.[41] Tweeters can also be damaged by amplifier clipping
(amplifier circuits produce large amounts of energy at high frequencies
in such cases) or by music or sine wave input at high frequencies.
Each of these situations might pass more energy to a tweeter than it
can survive without damage.[42] In some jurisdictions, power handling
has a legal meaning allowing comparisons between loudspeakers
under consideration. Elsewhere, the variety of meanings for power
handling capacity can be quite confusing.
Impedance – typically 4 Ω (ohms), 8 Ω, etc.[43]
Baffle or enclosure type (enclosed systems only) – Sealed, bass
reflex, etc.
Number of drivers (complete speaker systems only) – two-way,
three-way, etc.
Class of loudspeaker:[44]
Specifications label on a
Class 1: maximum SPL 110-119 dB, the type of loudspeaker used
for reproducing a person speaking in a small space or for loudspeaker.
background music; mainly used as fill speakers for Class 2 or
Class 3 speakers; typically small 4" or 5" woofers and dome
tweeters
Class 2: maximum SPL 120-129 dB, the type of medium power-capable loudspeaker used for reinforcement
in small to medium spaces or as fill speakers for Class 3 or Class 4 speakers; typically 5" to 8" woofers and
dome tweeters
Class 3: maximum SPL 130-139 dB, high power-capable loudspeakers used in main systems in small to
medium spaces; also used as fill speakers for class 4 speakers; typically 6.5" to 12" woofers and 2" or 3"
compression drivers for high frequencies
Class 4: maximum SPL 140 dB and higher, very high power-capable loudspeakers used as mains in medium
to large spaces (or for fill speakers for these medium to large spaces); 10" to 15" woofers and 3" compression
drivers
and optionally:
Crossover frequency(ies) (multi-driver systems only) – The nominal frequency boundaries of the division
between drivers.
Frequency response – The measured, or specified, output over a specified range of frequencies for a constant
input level varied across those frequencies. It sometimes includes a variance limit, such as within "± 2.5 dB."
Thiele/Small parameters (individual drivers only) – these include the driver's Fs (resonance frequency), Qts (a
driver's Q; more or less, its damping factor at resonant frequency), Vas (the equivalent air compliance volume of
the driver), etc.
Sensitivity – The sound pressure level produced by a loudspeaker in a non-reverberant environment, often
specified in dB and measured at 1 meter with an input of 1 watt (2.83 rms volts into 8 Ω), typically at one or more
specified frequencies. Manufacturers often use this rating in marketing material.
Maximum sound pressure level – The highest output the loudspeaker can manage, short of damage or not
exceeding a particular distortion level. Manufacturers often use this rating in marketing material—commonly
without reference to frequency range or distortion level.
Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers

The load that a driver presents to an amplifier consists of a complex electrical impedance—a combination of resistance
and both capacitive and inductive reactance, which combines properties of the driver, its mechanical motion, the
effects of crossover components (if any are in the signal path between amplifier and driver), and the effects of air
loading on the driver as modified by the enclosure and its environment. Most amplifiers' output specifications are
given at a specific power into an ideal resistive load; however, a loudspeaker does not have a constant impedance
across its frequency range. Instead, the voice coil is inductive, the driver has mechanical resonances, the enclosure
changes the driver's electrical and mechanical characteristics, and a passive crossover between the drivers and the
amplifier contributes its own variations. The result is a load impedance that varies widely with frequency, and usually
a varying phase relationship between voltage and current as well, also changing with frequency. Some amplifiers can
cope with the variation better than others can.
To make sound, a loudspeaker is driven by modulated electric current (produced by an amplifier) that passes through
a "speaker coil" which then (through inductance) creates a magnetic field around the coil, creating a magnetic field.
The electric current variations that pass through the speaker are thus converted to a varying magnetic field, whose
interaction with the driver's magnetic field moves the speaker diaphragm, which thus forces the driver to produce air
motion that is similar to the original signal from the amplifier.
Electromechanical measurements
Examples of typical measurements are: amplitude and phase characteristics vs. frequency; impulse response under
one or more conditions (e.g., square waves, sine wave bursts, etc.); directivity vs. frequency (e.g., horizontally,
vertically, spherically, etc.); harmonic and intermodulation distortion vs. sound pressure level (SPL) output, using any
of several test signals; stored energy (i.e., ringing) at various frequencies; impedance vs. frequency; and small-signal
vs. large-signal performance. Most of these measurements require sophisticated and often expensive equipment[45] to
perform, and also good judgment by the operator, but the raw sound pressure level output is rather easier to report
and so is often the only specified value—sometimes in misleadingly exact terms. The sound pressure level (SPL) a
loudspeaker produces is measured in decibels (dBspl).
Efficiency vs. sensitivity

Loudspeaker efficiency is defined as the sound power output divided by the electrical power input. Most loudspeakers
are inefficient transducers; only about 1% of the electrical energy sent by an amplifier to a typical home loudspeaker is
converted to acoustic energy. The remainder is converted to heat, mostly in the voice coil and magnet assembly. The
main reason for this is the difficulty of achieving proper impedance matching between the acoustic impedance of the
drive unit and the air it radiates into. (At low frequencies, improving this match is the main purpose of speaker
enclosure designs). The efficiency of loudspeaker drivers varies with frequency as well. For instance, the output of a
woofer driver decreases as the input frequency decreases because of the increasingly poor match between air and the
driver.
Driver ratings based on the SPL for a given input are called sensitivity ratings and are notionally similar to efficiency.
Sensitivity is usually defined as so many decibels at 1 W electrical input, measured at 1 meter (except for headphones),
often at a single frequency. The voltage used is often 2.83 VRMS, which is 1 watt into an 8 Ω (nominal) speaker
impedance (approximately true for many speaker systems). Measurements taken with this reference are quoted as dB
with 2.83 V @ 1 m.
The sound pressure output is measured at (or mathematically scaled to be equivalent to a measurement taken at) one
meter from the loudspeaker and on-axis (directly in front of it), under the condition that the loudspeaker is radiating
into an infinitely large space and mounted on an infinite baffle. Clearly then, sensitivity does not correlate precisely
with efficiency, as it also depends on the directivity of the driver being tested and the acoustic environment in front of
the actual loudspeaker. For example, a cheerleader's horn produces more sound output in the direction it is pointed by
concentrating sound waves from the cheerleader in one direction, thus "focusing" them. The horn also improves
impedance matching between the voice and the air, which produces more acoustic power for a given speaker power. In
some cases, improved impedance matching (via careful enclosure design) lets the speaker produce more acoustic
power.
Typical home loudspeakers have sensitivities of about 85 to 95 dB for 1 W @ 1 m—an efficiency of 0.5–4%.
Sound reinforcement and public address loudspeakers have sensitivities of perhaps 95 to 102 dB for 1 W @ 1 m
—an efficiency of 4–10%.
Rock concert, stadium PA, marine hailing, etc. speakers generally have higher sensitivities of 103 to 110 dB for
1 W @ 1 m—an efficiency of 10–20%.
A driver with a higher maximum power rating cannot necessarily be driven to louder levels than a lower-rated one,
since sensitivity and power handling are largely independent properties. In the examples that follow, assume (for
simplicity) that the drivers being compared have the same electrical impedance, are operated at the same frequency
within both driver's respective pass bands, and that power compression and distortion are low. For the first example, a
speaker 3 dB more sensitive than another produces double the sound power (is 3 dB louder) for the same power input.
Thus, a 100 W driver ("A") rated at 92 dB for 1 W @ 1 m sensitivity puts out twice as much acoustic power as a 200 W
driver ("B") rated at 89 dB for 1 W @ 1 m when both are driven with 100 W of input power. In this particular example,
when driven at 100 W, speaker A produces the same SPL, or loudness as speaker B would produce with 200 W input.
Thus, a 3 dB increase in sensitivity of the speaker means that it needs half the amplifier power to achieve a given SPL.
This translates into a smaller, less complex power amplifier—and often, to reduced overall system cost.
It is typically not possible to combine high efficiency (especially at low frequencies) with compact enclosure size and
adequate low frequency response. One can, for the most part, choose only two of the three parameters when designing
a speaker system. So, for example, if extended low-frequency performance and small box size are important, one must
accept low efficiency.[46] This rule of thumb is sometimes called Hofmann's Iron Law (after J.A. Hofmann, the "H" in
KLH).[47][48]
Listening environment
The interaction of a loudspeaker system with its environment is complex and is largely out of the loudspeaker
designer's control. Most listening rooms present a more or less reflective environment, depending on size, shape,
volume, and furnishings. This means the sound reaching a listener's ears consists not only of sound directly from the
speaker system, but also the same sound delayed by traveling to and from (and being modified by) one or more
surfaces. These reflected sound waves, when added to the direct sound, cause cancellation and addition at assorted
frequencies (e.g., from resonant room modes), thus changing the timbre and character of the sound at the listener's
ears. The human brain is very sensitive to small variations, including some of these, and this is part of the reason why
a loudspeaker system sounds different at different listening positions or in different rooms.
At Jay Pritzker Pavilion, a LARES system is combined with a zoned sound reinforcement system, both
suspended on an overhead steel trellis, to synthesize an indoor acoustic environment outdoors.
A significant factor in the sound of a loudspeaker system is the amount of absorption and diffusion present in the
environment. Clapping one's hands in a typical empty room, without draperies or carpet, produces a zippy, fluttery
echo due both to a lack of absorption and to reverberation (that is, repeated echoes) from flat reflective walls, floor,
and ceiling. The addition of hard surfaced furniture, wall hangings, shelving and even baroque plaster ceiling
decoration changes the echoes, primarily because of diffusion caused by reflective objects with shapes and surfaces
having sizes on the order of the sound wavelengths. This somewhat breaks up the simple reflections otherwise caused
by bare flat surfaces, and spreads the reflected energy of an incident wave over a larger angle on reflection.
Placement
In a typical rectangular listening room, the hard, parallel surfaces of the walls, floor and ceiling cause primary acoustic
resonance nodes in each of the three dimensions: left-right, up-down and forward-backward.[49] Furthermore, there
are more complex resonance modes involving three, four, five and even all six boundary surfaces combining to create
standing waves. Low frequencies excite these modes the most, since long wavelengths are not much affected by
furniture compositions or placement. The mode spacing is critical, especially in small and medium size rooms like
recording studios, home theaters and broadcast studios. The proximity of the loudspeakers to room boundaries affects
how strongly the resonances are excited as well as affecting the relative strength at each frequency. The location of the
listener is critical, too, as a position near a boundary can have a great effect on the perceived balance of frequencies.
This is because standing wave patterns are most easily heard in these locations and at lower frequencies, below the
Schroeder frequency – typically around 200–300 Hz, depending on room size.
Directivity
Acousticians, in studying the radiation of sound sources have developed some concepts important to understanding
how loudspeakers are perceived. The simplest possible radiating source is a point source, sometimes called a simple
source. An ideal point source is an infinitesimally small point radiating sound. It may be easier to imagine a tiny
pulsating sphere, uniformly increasing and decreasing in diameter, sending out sound waves in all directions equally,
independent of frequency.
Any object radiating sound, including a loudspeaker system, can be thought of as being composed of combinations of
such simple point sources. The radiation pattern of a combination of point sources is not the same as for a single
source, but depends on the distance and orientation between the sources, the position relative to them from which the
listener hears the combination, and the frequency of the sound involved. Using geometry and calculus, some simple
combinations of sources are easily solved; others are not.
One simple combination is two simple sources separated by a distance and vibrating out of phase, one miniature
sphere expanding while the other is contracting. The pair is known as a doublet, or dipole, and the radiation of this
combination is similar to that of a very small dynamic loudspeaker operating without a baffle. The directivity of a
dipole is a figure 8 shape with maximum output along a vector that connects the two sources and minimums to the
sides when the observing point is equidistant from the two sources, where the sum of the positive and negative waves
cancel each other. While most drivers are dipoles, depending on the enclosure to which they are attached, they may
radiate as monopoles, dipoles (or bipoles). If mounted on a finite baffle, and these out of phase waves are allowed to
interact, dipole peaks and nulls in the frequency response result. When the rear radiation is absorbed or trapped in a
box, the diaphragm becomes a monopole radiator. Bipolar speakers, made by mounting in-phase monopoles (both
moving out of or into the box in unison) on opposite sides of a box, are a method of approaching omnidirectional
radiation patterns.
In real life, individual drivers are complex 3D shapes such as cones and
domes, and they are placed on a baffle for various reasons. A mathematical
expression for the directivity of a complex shape, based on modeling
combinations of point sources, is usually not possible, but in the far field,
the directivity of a loudspeaker with a circular diaphragm is close to that of
a flat circular piston, so it can be used as an illustrative simplification for
discussion. As a simple example of the mathematical physics involved,
consider the following: the formula for far field directivity of a flat circular
piston in an infinite baffle is where , is the
pressure on axis, is the piston radius, is the wavelength (i.e.

) is the angle off axis and is the Bessel function
of the first kind.
A planar source radiates sound uniformly for low frequencies' wavelengths

longer than the dimensions of the planar source, and as frequency Polar plots of a four-driver industrial
columnar public address
increases, the sound from such a source focuses into an increasingly
loudspeaker taken at six
narrower angle. The smaller the driver, the higher the frequency where this
frequencies. Note how the pattern is
narrowing of directivity occurs. Even if the diaphragm is not perfectly nearly omnidirectional at low
circular, this effect occurs such that larger sources are more directive. frequencies, converging to a wide
Several loudspeaker designs approximate this behavior. Most are fan-shaped pattern at 1 kHz, then
electrostatic or planar magnetic designs. separating into lobes and getting
weaker at higher frequencies[50]
Various manufacturers use different driver mounting arrangements to
create a specific type of sound field in the space for which they are
designed. The resulting radiation patterns may be intended to more closely simulate the way sound is produced by real
instruments, or simply create a controlled energy distribution from the input signal (some using this approach are
called monitors, as they are useful in checking the signal just recorded in a studio). An example of the first is a room
corner system with many small drivers on the surface of a 1/8 sphere. A system design of this type was patented and
produced commercially by Professor Amar Bose—the 2201. Later Bose models have deliberately emphasized
production of both direct and reflected sound by the loudspeaker itself, regardless of its environment. The designs are
controversial in high fidelity circles, but have proven commercially successful. Several other manufacturers' designs
follow similar principles.
Directivity is an important issue because it affects the frequency balance of sound a listener hears, and also the
interaction of the speaker system with the room and its contents. A very directive (sometimes termed 'beamy') speaker
(i.e., on an axis perpendicular to the speaker face) may result in a reverberant field lacking in high frequencies, giving
the impression the speaker is deficient in treble even though it measures well on axis (e.g., "flat" across the entire
frequency range). Speakers with very wide, or rapidly increasing directivity at high frequencies, can give the
impression that there is too much treble (if the listener is on axis) or too little (if the listener is off axis). This is part of
the reason why on-axis frequency response measurement is not a complete characterization of the sound of a given
loudspeaker.
Other speaker designs

While dynamic cone speakers remain the most popular choice, many other speaker technologies exist.
With a diaphragm
Moving-iron loudspeakers
The moving iron speaker was the first type of speaker that was invented.
Unlike the newer dynamic (moving coil) design, a moving-iron speaker uses a
stationary coil to vibrate a magnetized piece of metal (called the iron, reed, or
armature). The metal is either attached to the diaphragm or is the diaphragm
itself. This design was the original loudspeaker design, dating back to the early
telephone. Moving iron drivers are inefficient and can only produce a small
band of sound. They require large magnets and coils to increase force.[51]
Balanced armature drivers (a type of moving iron driver) use an armature that
moves like a see-saw or diving board. Since they are not damped, they are
highly efficient, but they also produce strong resonances. They are still used
today for high end earphones and hearing aids, where small size and high
Moving iron speaker
efficiency are important.[52]
Piezoelectric speakers
Piezoelectric speakers are frequently used as beepers in watches and other
electronic devices, and are sometimes used as tweeters in less-expensive
speaker systems, such as computer speakers and portable radios.
Piezoelectric speakers have several advantages over conventional
loudspeakers: they are resistant to overloads that would normally destroy
most high frequency drivers, and they can be used without a crossover due
to their electrical properties. There are also disadvantages: some amplifiers
can oscillate when driving capacitive loads like most piezoelectrics, which
results in distortion or damage to the amplifier. Additionally, their A piezoelectric buzzer. The white
frequency response, in most cases, is inferior to that of other technologies. ceramic piezoelectric material can
This is why they are generally used in single frequency (beeper) or non- be seen fixed to a metal diaphragm.
critical applications.
Piezoelectric speakers can have extended high frequency output, and this is useful in some specialized circumstances;
for instance, sonar applications in which piezoelectric variants are used as both output devices (generating underwater
sound) and as input devices (acting as the sensing components of underwater microphones). They have advantages in
these applications, not the least of which is simple and solid state construction that resists seawater better than a
ribbon or cone based device would.
In 2013, Kyocera introduced piezoelectric ultra-thin medium-size film speakers with only 1 millimeter of thickness and
7 grams of weight for their 55" OLED televisions and they hope the speakers will also be used in PCs and tablets.
Besides medium-size, there are also large and small sizes which can all produce relatively the same quality of sound
and volume within 180 degrees. The highly responsive speaker material provides better clarity than traditional TV
speakers.[53]
Magnetostatic loudspeakers
Instead of a voice coil driving a speaker cone, a magnetostatic speaker uses an array
of metal strips bonded to a large film membrane. The magnetic field produced by
signal current flowing through the strips interacts with the field of permanent bar
magnets mounted behind them. The force produced moves the membrane and so
the air in front of it. Typically, these designs are less efficient than conventional
moving-coil speakers.
Magnetostrictive speakers
Magnetostrictive transducers, based on magnetostriction, have been predominantly
used as sonar ultrasonic sound wave radiators, but their use has spread also to
audio speaker systems. Magnetostrictive speaker drivers have some special
advantages: they can provide greater force (with smaller excursions) than other Magnetostatic loudspeaker
technologies; low excursion can avoid distortions from large excursion as in other
designs; the magnetizing coil is stationary and therefore more easily cooled; they
are robust because delicate suspensions and voice coils are not required. Magnetostrictive speaker modules have been
produced by Fostex[54][55][56] and FeONIC[57][58][59][60] and subwoofer drivers have also been produced.[61]
Electrostatic loudspeakers
Electrostatic loudspeakers use a high voltage electric field
(rather than a magnetic field) to drive a thin statically charged
membrane. Because they are driven over the entire membrane
surface rather than from a small voice coil, they ordinarily
provide a more linear and lower-distortion motion than
dynamic drivers. They also have a relatively narrow dispersion
pattern that can make for precise sound-field positioning.
However, their optimum listening area is small and they are
not very efficient speakers. They have the disadvantage that the
diaphragm excursion is severely limited because of practical
construction limitations—the further apart the stators are
positioned, the higher the voltage must be to achieve
acceptable efficiency. This increases the tendency for electrical
arcs as well as increasing the speaker's attraction of dust
particles. Arcing remains a potential problem with current Schematic showing an electrostatic speaker's
technologies, especially when the panels are allowed to collect construction and its connections. The thickness
of the diaphragm and grids has been
dust or dirt and are driven with high signal levels.
exaggerated for the purpose of illustration.
Electrostatics are inherently dipole radiators and due to the
thin flexible membrane are less suited for use in enclosures to
reduce low frequency cancellation as with common cone drivers. Due to this and the low excursion capability, full
range electrostatic loudspeakers are large by nature, and the bass rolls off at a frequency corresponding to a quarter
wavelength of the narrowest panel dimension. To reduce the size of commercial products, they are sometimes used as
a high frequency driver in combination with a conventional dynamic driver that handles the bass frequencies
effectively.
Electrostatics are usually driven through a step-up transformer that multiplies the voltage swings produced by the
power amplifier. This transformer also multiplies the capacitive load that is inherent in electrostatic transducers,
which means the effective impedance presented to the power amplifiers varies widely by frequency. A speaker that is
nominally 8 ohms may actually present a load of 1 ohm at higher frequencies, which is challenging to some amplifier
designs.
Ribbon and planar magnetic loudspeakers

A ribbon speaker consists of a thin metal-film ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. The electrical signal is applied
to the ribbon, which moves with it to create the sound. The advantage of a ribbon driver is that the ribbon has very
little mass; thus, it can accelerate very quickly, yielding very good high-frequency response. Ribbon loudspeakers are
often very fragile—some can be torn by a strong gust of air. Most ribbon tweeters emit sound in a dipole pattern. A few
have backings that limit the dipole radiation pattern. Above and below the ends of the more or less rectangular ribbon,
there is less audible output due to phase cancellation, but the precise amount of directivity depends on ribbon length.
Ribbon designs generally require exceptionally powerful magnets, which makes them costly to manufacture. Ribbons
have a very low resistance that most amplifiers cannot drive directly. As a result, a step down transformer is typically
used to increase the current through the ribbon. The amplifier "sees" a load that is the ribbon's resistance times the
transformer turns ratio squared. The transformer must be carefully designed so that its frequency response and
parasitic losses do not degrade the sound, further increasing cost and complication relative to conventional designs.
Planar magnetic speakers (having printed or embedded conductors on a flat diaphragm) are sometimes described as
ribbons, but are not truly ribbon speakers. The term planar is generally reserved for speakers with roughly rectangular
flat surfaces that radiate in a bipolar (i.e., front and back) manner. Planar magnetic speakers consist of a flexible
membrane with a voice coil printed or mounted on it. The current flowing through the coil interacts with the magnetic
field of carefully placed magnets on either side of the diaphragm, causing the membrane to vibrate more or less
uniformly and without much bending or wrinkling. The driving force covers a large percentage of the membrane
surface and reduces resonance problems inherent in coil-driven flat diaphragms.
Bending wave loudspeakers

Bending wave transducers use a diaphragm that is intentionally flexible. The rigidity of the material increases from the
center to the outside. Short wavelengths radiate primarily from the inner area, while longer waves reach the edge of
the speaker. To prevent reflections from the outside back into the center, long waves are absorbed by a surrounding
damper. Such transducers can cover a wide frequency range (80 Hz to 35,000 Hz) and have been promoted as being
close to an ideal point sound source.[62] This uncommon approach is being taken by only a very few manufacturers, in
very different arrangements.
The Ohm Walsh loudspeakers use a unique driver designed by Lincoln Walsh, who had been a radar development
engineer in WWII. He became interested in audio equipment design and his last project was a unique, one-way
speaker using a single driver. The cone faced down into a sealed, airtight enclosure. Rather than move back-and-forth
as conventional speakers do, the cone rippled and created sound in a manner known in RF electronics as a
"transmission line". The new speaker created a cylindrical sound field. Lincoln Walsh died before his speaker was
released to the public. The Ohm Acoustics firm has produced several loudspeaker models using the Walsh driver
design since then. German Physiks, an audio equipment firm in Germany, also produces speakers using this approach.
The German firm, Manger, has designed and produced a bending wave driver that at first glance appears conventional.
In fact, the round panel attached to the voice coil bends in a carefully controlled way to produce full range sound.[63]
Josef W. Manger was awarded with the "Diesel Medal" for extraordinary developments and inventions by the German
institute of inventions.
Flat panel loudspeakers

There have been many attempts to reduce the size of speaker systems, or alternatively to make them less obvious. One
such attempt was the development of "exciter" transducer coils mounted to flat panels to act as sound sources, most
accurately called exciter/panel drivers. These can then be made in a neutral color and hung on walls where they are
less noticeable than many speakers, or can be deliberately painted with patterns, in which case they can function
decoratively. There are two related problems with flat panel techniques: first, a flat panel is necessarily more flexible
than a cone shape in the same material, and therefore moves as a single unit even less, and second, resonances in the
panel are difficult to control, leading to considerable distortions. Some progress has been made using such lightweight,
rigid, materials such as Styrofoam, and there have been several flat panel systems commercially produced in recent
years.[64]
Heil air motion transducers

Oskar Heil invented the air motion transducer in the 1960s.
In this approach, a pleated diaphragm is mounted in a
magnetic field and forced to close and open under control of
a music signal. Air is forced from between the pleats in
accordance with the imposed signal, generating sound. The
drivers are less fragile than ribbons and considerably more
efficient (and able to produce higher absolute output levels)
than ribbon, electrostatic, or planar magnetic tweeter
designs. ESS, a California manufacturer, licensed the design,
employed Heil, and produced a range of speaker systems
using his tweeters during the 1970s and 1980s. Lafayette
In Heil's air motion transducer, current through the
Radio, a large US retail store chain, also sold speaker systems
membrane 2 causes it to move left and right in
using such tweeters for a time. There are several
magnetic field 6, moving air in and out along
manufacturers of these drivers (at least two in Germany—one directions 8; barriers 4 prevent air from moving in
of which produces a range of high-end professional speakers unintended directions.
using tweeters and mid-range drivers based on the
technology) and the drivers are increasingly used in
professional audio. Martin Logan produces several AMT speakers in the US and GoldenEar Technologies incorporates
them in its entire speaker line.
Transparent ionic conduction speaker

In 2013, a research team introduced Transparent ionic conduction speaker which a 2 layers transparent conductive gel
and a layer of transparent rubber in between to make high voltage and high actuation work to reproduce good sound
quality. The speaker is suitable for robotics, mobile computing and adaptive optics fields.[65]
Without a diaphragm
Plasma arc speakers

Plasma arc loudspeakers use electrical plasma as a radiating element. Since plasma has minimal mass, but is charged
and therefore can be manipulated by an electric field, the result is a very linear output at frequencies far higher than
the audible range. Problems of maintenance and reliability for this approach tend to make it unsuitable for mass
market use. In 1978 Alan E. Hill of the Air Force Weapons Laboratory in Albuquerque, NM, designed the
Plasmatronics Hill Type I, a tweeter whose plasma was generated from helium gas.[66] This avoided the ozone and
nitrous oxide[66] produced by RF decomposition of air in an earlier generation of plasma tweeters made by the
pioneering DuKane Corporation, who produced the Ionovac (marketed as the Ionofane in the UK) during the 1950s.
Currently, there remain a few manufacturers in Germany who use this design, and a do-it-yourself design has been
published and has been available on the Internet.
A less expensive variation on this theme is the use of a flame for the driver, as flames contain ionized (electrically
charged) gases.[67]
Thermoacoustic speakers
In 2008, researchers of Tsinghua University demonstrated a

thermoacoustic loudspeaker of carbon nanotube thin film,[68] whose
working mechanism is a thermoacoustic effect. Sound frequency electric
currents are used to periodically heat the CNT and thus result in sound
generation in the surrounding air. The CNT thin film loudspeaker is
transparent, stretchable and flexible. In 2013, researchers of Tsinghua
University further present a thermoacoustic earphone of carbon nanotube
thin yarn and a thermoacoustic surface-mounted device.[69] They are both
fully integrated devices and compatible with Si-based semiconducting
technology.
Rotary woofers
Plasma speaker
A rotary woofer is essentially a fan with blades that constantly change their
pitch, allowing them to easily push the air back and forth. Rotary woofers
are able to efficiently reproduce infrasound frequencies, which are difficult to impossible to achieve on a traditional
speaker with a diaphragm. They are often employed in movie theaters to recreate rumbling bass effects, such as
explosions.[70][71]
New technologies
Digital speakers
Digital speakers have been the subject of experiments performed by Bell Labs as far back as the 1920s. The design is
simple; each bit controls a driver, which is either fully 'on' or 'off'. Problems with this design have led manufacturers to
abandon it as impractical for the present. First, for a reasonable number of bits (required for adequate sound
reproduction quality), the physical size of a speaker system becomes very large. Secondly, due to inherent analog
digital conversion problems, the effect of aliasing is unavoidable, so that the audio output is "reflected" at equal
amplitude in the frequency domain, on the other side of the Nyquist limit (half the sampling frequency), causing an
unacceptably high level of ultrasonics to accompany the desired output. No workable scheme has been found to
adequately deal with this.
The term "digital" or "digital-ready" is often used for marketing purposes on speakers or headphones, but these
systems are not digital in the sense described above. Rather, they are conventional speakers that can be used with
digital sound sources (e.g., optical media, MP3 players, etc.), as can any conventional speaker.
See also
Association of Loudspeaker Manufacturing & Acoustics International (ALMA)
Audio power
Audiophile
Bandwidth extension
Directional sound
Dust cap
Echo cancellation
Electronics
Ferrofluid#Heat transfer
Guitar speaker
Headphones
High-end audio
Isobaric loudspeaker
List of loudspeaker manufacturers

Loudspeaker acoustics
Long Range Acoustic Device(LRAD)
Music centre
Parabolic loudspeaker
Phase plug
Planephones
Rotary woofer
Sound from ultrasound
Soundbar
Speaker driver
Speaker stands
Speaker wire
Speakerphone
Studio monitor
Super tweeter
Surround sound
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57. "Whispering Windows" (http://media.feonic.com/downloads/specs/Retail_Whispering_Windows_-_FeONIC_F1.pd
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speaker technology because it uses a very high powered magnetostrictive smart material as the driver instead of
a moving coil. The material was originally developed by the US military for sonar applications and is now de-
restricted for commercial use."
59. Tibu, Florin. "Terfenol-D: No Speakers = Great Sound!" (http://news.softpedia.com/news/Terfenol-D-No-Speakers-
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013/08/30/transparent-gel-speaker-ionic-conduction/#continued). August 30, 2013.
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68. Xiao, Lin; Kaili Jiang (2008). "Flexible, Stretchable, Transparent Carbon Nanotube Thin Film Loudspeakers".
Nano Letters. 8 (12): 4539–4545. doi:10.1021/nl802750z (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl802750z).
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13 (10): 4795–801. doi:10.1021/nl402408j (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl402408j). PMID 24041369 (https://www.n
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International Audio/Video Review.
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External links
ALMA – A Forum for the Global Loudspeaker Industry (http://www.almainternational.org/)
Conversion of sensitivity to energy efficiency in percent for passive loudspeakers (http://www.sengpielaudio.com/c
alculator-efficiency.htm)
Article on sensitivity and efficiency of loudspeakers (http://www.extra.research.philips.com/hera/people/aarts/RMA
_papers/aar06pu1.pdf)
Speaker Principles Illustrated guide to loudspeaker design and practice (http://www.lenardaudio.com/education/05
_speakers.html)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Loudspeaker&oldid=912719533"
This page was last edited on 27 August 2019, at 12:54 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
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8/28/2019 Loudspeaker - Wikipedia

Speakers are typically housed in a speaker enclosure or speaker cabinet

The moving-coil principle commonly used today in

generally not available at a reasonable price. The coil

choke coil, filtering the power supply of the

First loudspeaker systems

Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers

The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic

Diaphragm Cutaway view of a dynamic

resonators or horns—to approach optimum performance. With the advent

Full-range drivers often employ an additional cone called a whizzer: a

Limited-range drivers, also used alone, are typically found in computers,

Most loudspeaker systems consist of drivers mounted in an enclosure, or

Since panels of infinite dimensions are impossible, most enclosures

Wireless speakers still need power, so require a nearby AC power outlet, or

Specifications A 4-ohm loudspeaker with two pairs

Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers

Efficiency vs. sensitivity

piston in an infinite baffle is where , is the

pressure on axis, is the piston radius, is the wavelength (i.e.

of the first kind.

A planar source radiates sound uniformly for low frequencies' wavelengths

Other speaker designs

Ribbon and planar magnetic loudspeakers

Bending wave loudspeakers

Flat panel loudspeakers

Heil air motion transducers

Transparent ionic conduction speaker

Plasma arc speakers

In 2008, researchers of Tsinghua University demonstrated a

List of loudspeaker manufacturers

56. JP WO/2006/118205 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=JPWO/2006/118205)

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This page was last edited on 27 August 2019, at 12:54 (UTC).

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