Ch 1

Introduction to Ethical Theories

What is Consequentialism?
Consequentialism is a philosophical claim that the morality of an action is judged by whether it
results in right or wrong consequences. Consequentialism falls under the field of normative ethics,
which is a branch of philosophy that investigates and theorizes about which actions are morally right
or wrong, which actions should or should not be taken. There are different perspectives on what
makes an action right or wrong; consequentialism is just one. The definition of consequentialism,
therefore, is the position within normative ethics determining if an action is right or wrong depending
on whether it brings about a good or bad consequences.

Consequentialist Theory
Consequentialist theory claims morally good actions are those with good consequences.
Consequentialists can have different views on what makes a consequence good, or how people
should think about consequences, so the consequentialist approach can lead to different
philosophical positions. The following table defines several important forms of consequentialist
theory.

Term Definition

The view that the moral worth of an action is determined by how much
Utilitarianism happiness or suffering it brings to the world, and therefore people should
always do whatever will bring the most happiness to the most people.

The view that we should judge actions based on how much pleasure or pain
Hedonism
they produce.

The view that actions should be judged by the consequences they bring
Pluralism
about, such as justice, love, or knowledge.

Actual The view that actions are right or wrong depending on the consequences they
consequentialism actually bring about.

Subjective The view that a person's actions are right or wrong depending on what they
consequentialism thought the consequences would be.
Term Definition

The view that a person's action should be judged by determining their

Motive
motivation for doing that action and examining the consequences the motive
consequentialism
brings about.

The view that when a person is deciding which action would be best, they
Actualism should weigh the consequences of actions based on what their actual choices
will be in the future.

The view that when a person is deciding which action would be best, they
Possibilism should weigh the consequences of actions based on what the possible
actions they would be capable of taking in the future.

Rule The view that the morality of an action depends on the consequences brought
consequentialism about by the principle that a person acted on when taking the action.

Act The view that the morality of an action depends on the consequences brought
consequentialism about by the action a person took.

Non-Consequentialist Theory
In contrast to consequentialist views of morality, there are also non-consequentialist views, which
claim that morality depends on aspects of an action beyond just consequences. One common non-
consequentialist theory is deontological ethics, or deontology. Deontology claims that good
consequences aren't the morally deciding factor: rather, actions themselves are good or bad based
on whether they obey or violate moral rules or duties. If one person steals from another, a
consequentialist would judge the action based on whether it caused good or bad consequences; a
deontologist would judge it based on whether it broke a moral rule against stealing.

Non-Consequentialist Ethics
While consequentialist accounts focus only on how much good or bad an action produces, non-
consequentialist ethics often take other factors into account beyond consequences. For example,
the consequentialist view generally holds that people should only weigh their own welfare as much
as that of any other person. There are some situations where the consequentialist view would
require a person to put their own welfare at risk or in harm's way in order to help others. A non-
consequentialist might disagree and claim that people have a right to preserve their own basic safety
rather than make such a great sacrifice for others. This right is called a prerogative.
Relatedly, consequentialist views may in some situations require one person to harm another in
order to help others, as long as the overall good produced is greater than the overall harm. Non-
consequentialists may argue certain acts are morally wrong no matter what good they produce. For
instance, they might say it is always wrong to seriously harm an innocent person even if that harm
leads to some other benefit. A moral rule banning harmful actions is called a constraint.
Another relevant concept to non-consequentialist theories is moral status. The fact people have
moral status means that treating them morally requires considering their interests. An is how moral
status gives people the right to not be seriously harmed by others. On the consequentialist view,
people's interests are considered in terms of the total goodness or badness an action produces. On
the non-consequentialist view, the moral status of a given individual might override the calculation of
consequences. Meaning, an action that leads to many good things might be wrong because it
violates someone's moral status by harming them in immoral ways. Such a case would be an
example of inviolability, which is the idea that a person has a right to not be harmed no matter what
other consequences the harm would bring about.
Since the non-consequentialist view focuses on factors beyond consequences, it holds that actions
producing the same consequences might not be equally good or bad. Imagine a person choosing
between two alternatives that will both lead to the same amount of total happiness and suffering, but
one action involves harming people in ways that violate their rights, while the other does not. For the
consequentialist these options are equivalent, but the non-consequentialist would argue the two
cases are different because it would be wrong for the person to harm and violate others' rights.
What is Ethical Relativism?

Ethical Relativism is the view that moral (or normative) statements are not objectively true, but “true”
relative to a particular individual or society that happens to hold the belief. In saying that moral beliefs
are relative, we mean that they are a function of, or dependent on, what those individuals or societies
do, in fact, believe. Put negatively, according to E.R., there are no objective moral values, no objective
right or wrong, and no universally valid moral claims independent of what a subject happens to believe.
Hence, there are no objective and universal norms against which we might measure our subjective
beliefs about morality. There is no moral knowledge. The opposite view- right and wrong is objective
and universal – is often called non relativism, or Ethical Objectivism. Two versions of Ethical Relativism
Individual or Personal Ethical Relativism: ethical statements are relative to the individual. I have my
ethical views and you have yours, neither my views nor your views are better or more correct. In a sense
we are all equally correct, insofar as whatever we believe is true, or looked at differently, the idea of
being more or less correct doesn’t apply to moral beliefs, since that would assume that there is some
objective standard of right or wrong, independent of what I might believe which would serve as a
standard of judgment, but that is exactly what relativism denies. This is sometimes called ethical
subjectivism. Social or Cultural Ethical Relativism: ethical statements are relative to a given society.
Although societies may differ or disagree as to what is right or wrong, for an individual to decide what is
right or wrong, one must simply look to the norms of the society in which they live. Right and wrong
simply IS what a given society says it is. And although a society may believe that its views are the correct
ones, cultural ethical relativism insists that no society’s views are better or more moral that any other
society’s beliefs. For the same reason stated above, there is no objective standard independent of what
a society actually believes against which its views might be evaluated. An operational definition of
Ethical Relativism: Whenever two people or two societies disagree about the morality of an act (i.e.,
hold different and opposing views), both sides are equally correct. Four Reasons (Arguments) for Ethical
Relativism 1. The Diversity of Moral Views For: The actual fact that People and Societies have and
continue to disagree about the moral issues, they continue to hold different moral beliefs. For a
Relativist, this fact is best explained by and is therefore evidence for E.R.; otherwise we would expect to
find considerable moral agreement. (See Ruth Benedict). In sum: The fact of disagreement and
differences in moral beliefs is evidence for the claim that there are no objective moral truths, only
subjective moral beliefs. 2. Moral Uncertainty For: Despite our best efforts, we are often uncertain
about what is the right thing to do, especially in the context of a dilemma, our judgment seems to be
very subjective, a matter of personal opinion. There seems to be no decisive way to settle many moral
disputes, in contrast with factual disputes. Relativism based on epistemic uncertainty and/or skepticism.
In sum, the fact that I do not know for certain in a given situation what is right implies that there is no
objective standard; hence morality is relative and subjective. 3. Situational Differences For: The actual
situation in which people live are often very different, it is implausible to believe that there could be one
set of moral principles or rules that are universally true for all persons at all times. In sum, given the
many differences in particular circumstances, what we all morality must be relative to the particular
situation and no objective or universally valid moral norms exist. 4. Toleration of Differences For: People
from different cultures have different moral beliefs, one ought to tolerate, i.e., not be critical of, these
beliefs. One ought not to think that one view is better or more correct than another, hence one should
adopt ethical relativism, which entails that all moral beliefs are equally correct.

In sum, Ethical Relativism promotes Tolerance for differences and/or Tolerance is consistent with ethical
relativism. Against the aforementioned Arguments for Ethical Relativism 1. The Diversity of Moral Views
Argument 1. If people disagree about some claim, then that claim is subjective and relative. 2. People
disagree about moral claims. 3. Therefore, moral claims are subjective & relative, i.e., E.R. is true (both
side sides are equally correct). 2nd premise: True or False? Is there real moral disagreement? 1st
premise: If people disagree about X then X is subjective and relative, both sides are equally correct. True
or False? Against: The fact of disagreement can prove nothing about the matter in dispute. This is
certainly the case in factual matters. Disagreement does not entail that the matter is wholly subjective,
no matter how much disagreement there is. 2. Moral Uncertainty Argument Against: Uncertainty, even
not knowing, does not prove there is nothing to know. In a complex moral situation, I may be uncertain
about what is the right thing to do. I may indeed have to simply act according to my conscience, i.e.,
what I believe to be right. But this does not prove that morality is wholly a matter of mere belief. That
would be like saying; since I do not know with certainty the correct answer to this problem there is no
correct answer (the fallacy of appeal to ignorance). The best I can say is that I do not know the answer,
not that there is no answer. Granted, such situations may lead to Skepticism (I doubt that I can know
with certainty that x is true), but skepticism is not equivalent to, nor does it necessarily imply, relativism.
Relativism assumes that I know something very significant about moral claims, i.e., that they are all
subjective and relative and that there are no objective norms. But one cannot draw a positive conclusion
(about the nature of morality) from a negative premise. At best, relativism is a possibility. 3. Situational
Differences Argument Situational differences seem to make objectivity, in terms of a common or
universal morality impossible. A Relativist insists that moral norms cannot be objective universally true,
because circumstances vary too much. For example, a Relativist might insist that given diverse
circumstances, the judgment that “lying is always wrong” cannot be absolutely true. For instance, lying
might be right in order to save a life. Against: This argument confuses Objectivism with ABSOLUTISM
Absolutism: one set of absolute moral rules that apply in all places and at all times; Objectivism: some
moral claims are objective and universal, but particular moral rules may vary. The Objectivist agrees that
Absolutism is too simplistic, that is, that one can know absolutely the truth or falsity of every moral
statement, but insists that moral differences can be explained objectively by a comprehensive moral
theory, which will explain why certain goods may take presence over other goods, when they conflict.
Hence, moral conflicts and situational differences do not lead to the conclusion that all norms are
subjective and relative. 4. Toleration of Differences Argument Indeed, much of contemporary relativism
is not the result of a logical argument but is a function of allegiance to a value Tolerance. Against: This
position is contradictory. I might adopt tolerance as a moral value, but if relativism is correct, than
tolerance is only one value among many. Since no value is more correct than another, I could just as
easily adopt dogmatism as my overriding moral belief. Moreover, if relativism is true, why should I even
bother to listen to another person’s moral beliefs, since by definition their beliefs cannot be better or
more correct than my own beliefs? (See Bernard Williams). Oddly enough, an ethical objectivist, who is
not a dogmatist, might insist that tolerance is an objective value and trans-cultural, in that by being
open to the beliefs of others I am more likely to come closer to the truth about morality. Finally,
Relativism in itself, if we assume for the sake of argument that it is true, leads to a kind of moral
subjectivism with conclusions that most of us believe are false, or at least counterintuitive.

Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics is a philosophy developed by Aristotle and other ancient Greeks. It is the
quest to understand and live a life of moral character.

This character-based approach to morality assumes that we acquire virtue through

practice. By practicing being honest, brave, just, generous, and so on, a person
develops an honorable and moral character. According to Aristotle, by honing
virtuous habits, people will likely make the right choice when faced with ethical
challenges.

To illustrate the difference among three key moral philosophies, ethicists Mark White
and Robert Arp refer to the film The Dark Knight where Batman has the opportunity
to kill the Joker. Utilitarians, White and Arp suggest, would endorse killing the Joker.
By taking this one life, Batman could save multitudes. Deontologists, on the other
hand, would reject killing the Joker simply because it’s wrong to kill. But a virtue
ethicist “would highlight the character of the person who kills the Joker. Does Batman
want to be the kind of person who takes his enemies’ lives?” No, in fact, he doesn’t.

So, virtue ethics helps us understand what it means to be a virtuous human being.
And, it gives us a guide for living life without giving us specific rules for resolving
ethical dilemmas.
 Ch 2

Ethics and morality

Ethics and morals relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct. While they are
sometimes used interchangeably, they are different: ethics refer to rules
provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or
principles in religions. Morals refer to an individual’s own principles
regarding right and wrong.

Ethics Morals
What are they? The rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of Principles
human actions or a particular group or culture. or habits
with
respect to
right or
wrong
conduct.
While
morals
also
prescribe
dos and
don'ts,
morality is
ultimately
a personal
compass
of right
and
wrong.

Where do they come Social system - External Individual -

from? Internal

Why we do it? Because society says it is the right thing to do. Because
we believe
in
something
Ethics Morals
being right
or wrong.

Flexibility Ethics are dependent on others for definition. They tend to be Usually
consistent within a certain context, but can vary between contexts. consistent,
although
can change
if an
individual’s
beliefs
change.

The "Gray" A person strictly following Ethical Principles may not have any Morals at A Moral
all. Likewise, one could violate Ethical Principles within a given system Person
of rules in order to maintain Moral integrity. although
perhaps
bound by a
higher
covenant,
may
choose to
follow a
code of
ethics as it
would
apply to a
system.
"Make it
fit"

Origin Greek word "ethos" meaning"character" Latin word

"mos"
meaning
"custom"

Acceptability Ethics are governed by professional and legal guidelines within a Morality
particular time and place transcends
cultural
norms
Source of Principles
Ethics are external standards that are provided by institutions, groups,
or culture to which an individual belongs. For example, lawyers, policemen, and
doctors all have to follow an ethical code laid down by their profession,
regardless of their own feelings or preferences. Ethics can also be considered a
social system or a framework for acceptable behavior.
Morals are also influenced by culture or society, but they are
personal principles created and upheld by individuals themselves.

Consistency and Flexibility

Ethics are very consistent within a certain context, but can vary greatly between
contexts. For example, the ethics of the medical profession in the 21st century
are generally consistent and do not change from hospital to hospital, but they
are different from the ethics of the 21st century legal profession.
An individual’s moral code is usually unchanging and consistent across all
contexts, but it is also possible for certain events to radically change an
individual's personal beliefs and values.

Conflicts Between Ethics and Morals

One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a

defense attorney. A lawyer’s morals may tell her that murder is reprehensible
and that murderers should be punished, but her ethics as a professional lawyer,
require her to defend her client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that
the client is guilty.
Another example can be found in the medical field. In most parts of the world, a
doctor may not euthanize a patient, even at the patient's request, as per ethical
standards for health professionals. However, the same doctor
may personally believe in a patient's right to die, as per the doctor's own
morality.

Origins
Much of the confusion between these two words can be traced back to their
origins. For example, the word "ethic" comes from Old French (etique), Late
Latin (ethica), and Greek (ethos) and referred to customs or moral philosophies.
"Morals" comes from Late Latin's moralis, which referred to appropriate behavior
 and manners in society. So, the two have very similar, if not synonymous,
meanings originally.
Morality and ethics of the individual have been philosophically studied for well
over a thousand years. The idea of ethics being principles that are set and
applied to a group (not necessarily focused on the individual) is relatively new,
though, primarily dating back to the 1600s. The distinction between ethics and
morals is particularly important for philosophical ethicists.

Buiding character at workplace

The Importance of Good Character In The Workplace

The character of a person refers to their morals, values and qualities as a human being. It has nothing
to do with physical traits or your upbringing. It is more closely tied to your personality. Your
character defines who you are as a person and what you believe in. If you’re a good person who has
solid morals and values, you’ll have a good character. If you’re someone who has questionable
morals, you may have a questionable character. It’s that simple.

You may have heard the term “core values” in your workplace. This is usually a reference to the
values and character traits of the company itself. The core values of a company should always be
represented by the employees. This is why many companies prefer to run a background check on
anyone they choose to hire.

Now, it’s important to have good character, because it affects your relationship with other people.
Especially in the workplace. Good character can make your office relationships more meaningful.
The reason character is so important is because it’s the non-negotiable part of who you are. We are
all willing to make certain compromises to get ahead in life or to be liked. But our character cannot
be compromised. It is what makes each and every one of us who we are.

As an employee, this could mean being trusted with confidential information or even a raise. It could
mean a new title, even. People are more inclined to do business with partners they feel are being
honest and genuine. Your character will say a lot about your future potential. Your employers will
see this potential, hence leading to a more fulfilling career in the end.

As a manager, it can mean being respected by any employees in your department. This can mean an
increase in productivity and happier employees. The biggest reason a good company character will
increase productivity is transparency. Your employees will trust that you are being genuine. This will
mean they are happier to put forth their own time and effort. They are happier to rise above the
requirements of the their job description and bring something new to the table.

Between companies, a good character can make or break relationships. Each company can determine
what is best for them based on the character of other companies. A company with a good reputation
and a good character won’t do business with a company of questionable morals. This is simply
because they want to remain respected. A company with a good character is more valuable than
others.
Building a good character for yourself or your company isn’t always easy at first. To some people, it
comes naturally. To others, it’s a struggle to adjust. But what matters most is the continuous effort to
be someone of a good moral standing. It will benefit your company, your personal relationships and
even your relationship with yourself.

You should always be looking to make improvements.

Characters of a person in workplace in ethics

1. Self-motivation

Good employees are self-motivated and committed to excellence. They understand the
importance of their job and want to do it well. Self-motivated employees are also usually
more likely to take additional responsibilities and demonstrate higher levels of
engagement and loyalty. They align their personal growth and career development
goals with that of the company and strive to excel in everything they do.

No matter your profession or industry, you can find ways to motivate yourself to do
better and set realistic development goals. You can begin by introspecting and
identifying what kind of motivators work for you. These can include non-material
motivators, like a passion for your work or a desire to contribute to your field. They can
also be monetary motivators, like an increase in salary or a promotion.

2. Dedication

Having dedication essentially means being disciplined and committed to work.

Dedicated employees can usually manage their roles and responsibilities easily and
have a sense of passion for their work. They tend to be timely, efficient and perform
tasks with utmost sincerity. Dedicated employees are also usually ambitious and are
willing to work hard to improve their skills.

It is easier to be dedicated to your job and work if you enjoy your work or profession.
Similarly, a passion for your job or appreciating how your work impacts others can also
make you more dedicated. You can learn to become more disciplined, organised,
punctual and efficient in your work with regular practice and effort.

3. Trustworthiness

Companies want employees that they can trust, often with confidential business
information and secrets. When an employee is trustworthy and reliable, companies give
them important work and believe in them to do the job well. Leaders and managers also
tend to work closely with reliable employees and team members as they trust them to
finish their work without delay, support or supervision.
While trustworthiness is an intrinsic quality, you can develop it by demonstrating positive
and professional traits such as punctuality, professionalism, honesty and a high moral
code. If you can maintain the quality of your work, take initiative, excel in roles outside
of your expertise and are a quick learner, your manager may trust you with more
significant responsibilities.

4. Moral integrity and honesty

Companies trust honest employees to do the right thing and make the right decisions in
the organisation's best interests. Many situations in the workplace can create ethical
and moral dilemmas for employees and may even lead to a conflict of interests. By
being accountable for your actions, improving transparency related to your decisions
and communicating your intentions clearly, you can elicit the trust of your manager and
colleagues.

Most organisations have honesty and transparency as a part of their workplace values
and want to hire employees who help sustain this culture. Hence, make ethical
decisions, report your mistakes and live up to the company values as much as possible.
Developing these values can also greatly benefit your personal life and relationships.

What is Morality?
Morality can be defined as a set of values that an individual or group of people have. These values
are based on how the individuals define right and wrong. Thus, morality is very personal, as there is
no standard definition for right and wrong. However, in most cases, morality is concerned with the
common good of society. For example, using profanity in public places would be considered morally
wrong as it may cause offense to other citizens or even disrupt public order.

Definition of Moral Judgment:

Moral judgment, unlike other types of judgment, is a very perceptive decision-making process. Moral
judgments are based on an individual’s perception of what is right or wrong in different situations.
This judgment is not only related to the social aspects of morality but also to the essence of morality.
The term “moral judgment” has been used in psychological context but this concept can be applied
outside of that as well. Oftentimes people use the term when discussing what certain things are
morally justifiable or not justifiable.

Concept of Moral Dilemma:

The concept of moral dilemma was first introduced by Plato. In his famous dialogue, “The Republic,”
he illustrated the concept of the morally right and wrong decisions. According to him, there is a
perfect society in which the ideal man is neither praised nor punished for his actions but is
recognized for what he has done.

With this society in mind, Plato felt that it would be unfair if the people were forced to do something
without being given a chance to decide whether or not they wanted to do it. He therefore offers an
example – one where two options are posed before two people:

Option A: Steal something from a warehouse and give it to a friend.

Option B: Do nothing and let the other person get robbed.

Options A and B directly contradict what was mentioned in the previous section – that in a perfect
society, the ideal man is neither praise nor punished. The dilemma presented to the men is they are
either a good man or a bad one.

The concept of moral dilemma was further developed in psychology by people like Edmund Burke,
Lawrence Kohlberg and others. The most common objective for these theories is to discover
whether or not moral judgments are based on logic or emotion and if so, what type of emotion this
would be?

Concept of Trolley Dilemma with respect

to Moral Dilemma:
Trolley Dilemma is a concept that was introduced by Philippa Foot in 1967 in an article for “The
Journal of Philosophy”. The main goal of this article was to discuss how people should make moral
decisions that involve harming others.

The following question is used to illustrate the dilemma:

A trolley is going down a track with five people on it, who will be killed if nothing is done. You are
standing some distance away from the trolley and you can pull a switch that will turn the trolley onto
a different set of tracks, where only one person will die. Do you do it?

After this was published, numerous articles and studies have been conducted regarding this topic.
One of the important concepts that has come from this dilemma is the distinction between personal
and impersonal dilemmas.
 Dilemma “Fine-Tuning”—Proposal of an Optimized Set:

Moral dilemmas are often called “fine-tuning”. This is because the status and situation of these
dilemmas greatly affect one’s decision making. As a result, numerous studies have been done
utilizing the concept of fine tuning where an appropriately optimized set of variables that affect moral
decisions can be revealed.

Criteria for Moral Judgments:

There are various criteria that are used to determine the morality of an action. Among them, moral
axioms have the most influence in moral judgments. Moral axioms are a set of general rules that
guide moral judgments. These rules can be divided into five moral principles:

(1) Impartiality

(2) Universalizability

(3) Voluntariness

(4) Joint enterprise

(5) Suffering and respect for persons

According to “Ethics” by Ronald Dworkin, there are three types of morality: prescriptive, descriptive
and reflective. Prescriptive morality has its rules and laws, which people follow and are obliged to do.
This type of morality is similar to legal or contractual ethics. Descriptive morality focuses on
individual judgments, while reflective morality focuses on understanding the reasons behind moral
judgments. An important factor that influences moral judgments is one’s own social identity. This can
be defined as a sense of membership in a grouping such as society and the norms associated with
it. The stronger a person’s social identity, the stronger the inclination towards following certain moral
values within this grouping.

Ethics of duty

Duty-based or Deontological ethics

Deontological (duty-based) ethics are concerned with what people do, not with the
consequences of their actions.

 Do the right thing.

 Do it because it's the right thing to do.

 Don't do wrong things.

 Avoid them because they are wrong.

Under this form of ethics you can't justify an action by showing that it produced good
consequences, which is why it's sometimes called 'non-Consequentialist'.

The word 'deontological' comes from the Greek word deon, which means 'duty'.

Duty-based ethics are usually what people are talking about when they refer to 'the
principle of the thing'.

Duty-based ethics teaches that some acts are right or wrong because of the sorts of things
they are, and people have a duty to act accordingly, regardless of the good or bad
consequences that may be produced.

Ethics of responsibility

The Ethical Responsibility Movement

Many large companies have embraced the idea that they can operate their business in
an ethically responsible manner. Small businesses are increasingly getting on board,
as well. Ethical responsibility means maintaining —even improving— your bottom line,
while setting a high bar for making a positive contribution to society. In part,
enlightened company leaders can challenge senior managers and other employees to
set goals for activities ranging from community philanthropy to environmental
excellence.

Companies are also motivated by external expectations: customers, shareholders,

investors and the public at large may insist that companies go above and beyond
looking only at at quarterly profits. For example, when two African-American men were
arrested in 2018 at a Philadelphia Starbucks because they didn't buy anything, the
story sparked a tremendous backlash. Starbucks followed up by closing all of its
shops for a time and the company then trained their thousands of employees in how to
be racially sensitive to customers.

Determining Social Responsibility

A key part of ethical responsible business is finding ways to minimize any negative
social impacts along the entire supply chain of your operations. This may mean
sourcing materials to avoid goods associated with egregious harm, such as diamonds
mined by brutal warlords, clothing made in unsafe sweatshops or soccer balls stitched
by 10-year old children. You can work with suppliers that take a conscientious
approach to procuring goods; buying goods that have third-party certifications (or
avoid products identified as questionable), or by visiting supply facilities directly to
assure yourself that they are operating in a responsible fashion.
Committing to Environmental Responsibility
Ethical responsibility also entails protecting the environment, both locally and globally.
Set goals for reducing your greenhouse gas footprint, avoid using toxic chemicals
whenever possible, and learn where your materials come from and how they are
produced. If you serve coffee, for example, does the coffee from clear-cut farms that
destroyed precious rain forest lands, or was it grown sustainably in a manner that
protects local forests, birds and wildlife? Consider the entire lifecycle of the products
you sell: Can your products easily be recycled at the end of their useful life, or will they
end up in a landfill?

Workplace and Community Responsibility

Your own operations and those of your supply chain should adhere to high standards
in the workplace, and in the surrounding community. Workers should be safe from
occupational hazards, and should be afforded dignity and opportunities for
advancement, and also should be paid a living wage. Your facilities, and those of your
suppliers, should be mindful of local communities in terms of culture and customs,
noise and visual blight, and concerns such as traffic, pollution and other interactions.
Consider sponsoring community activities or contributing to local causes.

Ch 3
Ethics and environment
Rapid Technological Growth and Environmental Degradation
While there are still disparities in the adoption of new technologies throughout
the world, particularly in the least developed nations, recent decades have
witnessed a radically accelerated speed in their creation and uptake. This fast
technological transformation impacts almost every aspect of business, society,
and culture. Technologies like big data, the Internet of Things, machine
learning, artificial intelligence, robotics, 3D printing, biotechnology,
nanotechnology, renewable energy technologies, and satellite and drone
technologies are a few examples of technologies undergoing rapid technological
development.

These provide the tremendous potential to accomplish the Sustainable

Development Goals and the 2030 Agenda. Rapid technological advancement
also presents new difficulties for policymaking. Because new technologies have
the potential to alter labor markets, sustain disparities, and raise ethical issues,
they may be more disruptive than governments and society can handle.

Loss of Biodiversity
The gadgets we carry around us often may be the first thought that comes to
mind when considering technology. The widespread availability of portable
electronic devices like cell phones, tablets, and laptops has improved our quality
of life. While it is undeniable that our modern conveniences have made life
easier, they have also had an impact on the planet. These and other
contemporary technological gadgets raise concerns about resource
consumption, energy use, carbon impact, and waste. The environmental impact
of our modern wonders becomes clear when we consider the full scope of their
use.

Technology changing our Lives and driving us Further into

Disaster
The word "technology" describes the practical application of scientific knowledge
and the resulting tools and gadgets. During this time of fast change,
technological advances are revolutionizing our way of life and plunging us
deeper into the abyss of calamity brought on by climate change and a lack of
resources. In contrast, water pollution pollutes water sources, including lakes,
rivers, seas, and groundwater, most often due to human activities. Household
garbage, chemical runoff from factories, and herbicides and insecticides are all
major contributors to water pollution.

Specifically, the deterioration of aquatic ecosystems may be caused by the

discharge of untreated sewage into natural water bodies. Diseases like typhoid
and cholera, eutrophication, and the loss of ecosystems that hurt the food chain
are further undesirable results.

Digging Down for Metals and Stones

Our electronic gadgets and other forms of contemporary technology need many
natural resources and precious metals. Deforestation, landscape deterioration,
water pollution, and massive amounts of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
emissions are all caused by the mining industry. Massive equipment, often run
by fossil fuels, is typically used, and the associated processes frequently use
large quantities of water and cause significant pollution. Of all the greenhouse
gases we release into the atmosphere, carbon dioxide has the greatest effect on
global warming.

The Mineral Intensity of Technology

Plastic is the second most popular material after silicon. Carbon-based

hydrocarbons are the starting point for the production of plastic. High-emission
production methods are needed, which causes several environmental problems.
Other crucial components include iron, aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel,
and barium.

Significant Energy Consumption and Carbon Footprint

Raw material sourcing is just one aspect of technology's environmental effect.

To transform them into the sophisticated electrical and technical goods we rely
on, and manufacturers need to expend enormous amounts of power. The global
shipping of these goods also adds to greenhouse gas emissions and air
pollution.

E-Waste (Electronic Waste)

Only a tiny fraction of obsolete electronics are recycled, and most are disposed
of in landfills or incinerated. The poorest and most defenseless people on the
earth often live near these unsightly wastes. This threatens human health and
has a wide variety of severe effects on the natural world.

 The buck stops with technology companies regarding the environmental damage
caused by technological advancements.
 The goal of a circular economy is to promote renewal and repair. In this kind of
economy, people are more concerned with recycling and reusing items. However, a
circular economy is impossible so long as technology corporations emphasize
individual consumption.
 Whether or whether electrical devices can be made to endure
  A smartphone designed to serve its owner for four to six years is swiftly rendered
useless. Newer, better options appear annually. Some businesses may intentionally
impede the functionality of older devices or restrict access to repair services to push
consumers to buy new ones.
 These digital giants encourage "hyper-consumerism" with their relentless product
updates and intrusive advertising. Because of these problems, customers may be less
likely to keep their gadgets for as long as possible, which is the most effective way to
lessen their environmental impact.

Environmental degradation:

1. Degradation refers to the loss or depletion and environmental degradation

refers to the loss of biodiversity through depletion and exploitation of natural
resources.
2. There are different types of degradation, land and soil degradation, water
degradation, and atmospheric degradation.

Effects of environmental degradation:

1. With the loss of natural resources, all life forms are in danger, as they depend
on natural resources to prepare their food.
2. To protect the environment from these dangers, certain precautionary
measures are to be taken.

Causes of environmental degradation:

1. The two main causes of environmental degradation are overpopulation and

urbanization by human activities.
2. Some of the other reasons are due to deforestation, and soil erosion.
3. Humans frequently abuse the environment to further their self-interest.
4. Due to this hazardous gases build up in the environment and the temperature
of the planet is increased, called global warming.
5. Global warming further leads to the melting of ice caps causing floods in
several areas.
 6. All of these environmental issues are interconnected and ultimately lead to
environmental degradation.

Environmental Ethics: Types, Importance

Environmental ethics is a field of study that seeks to understand humans’ moral

obligations to protect and preserve the environment. It is a branch of ethics that
recognizes the intrinsic value of nature, the interconnection of all living things,
and the responsibility of humans to act in accordance with ethical principles.

What are Environmental Ethics?

Environmental ethics is a branch of ethical thought that focuses on the
relationship between humans and their natural environment. It is a holistic
approach to understanding and evaluating our moral obligations to protect and
preserve the environment. Environmental ethics seeks to bring together the
interests of both humans and the environment, recognizing that both are
interdependent and have intrinsic value.
A variety of ethical theories, including consequentialism, utilitarianism, and
virtue ethics, define environmental ethics. These ethical theories provide a
framework for understanding the moral obligations we have to the environment
and how we should act to protect it. Environmental ethics also draws upon the
fields of philosophy, economics, ecology, and law, providing a comprehensive
approach to understanding and evaluating the moral implications of human
actions.

Types of Environmental Ethics

 Libertarian Extension: Libertarian extension is a type of environmental
ethics that focuses on an individual’s right to do whatever they want with the
environment and its resources. This concept also stresses that an individual
should not impose their own values on others and should instead respect the
choices of others.
 Ecological Extension: Ecological Extension is a type of environmental
ethics that focuses on preserving the natural environment and its resources
in order to maintain the balance and health of the ecosystem. This concept
stresses the importance of humans working with nature in order to sustain it
for future generations.
 Conservation Ethics: Conservation Ethics is a type of environmental ethics
that focuses on preserving natural resources for future generations by
ensuring that current resources are not depleted or damaged beyond repair.
This concept encourages individuals to use natural resources responsibly
and judiciously so there will be enough for future generations.
In short, Libertarian extension promotes an individual’s right to use natural
resources, Ecological Extension encourages humans to work with nature, and
Conservation Ethics emphasizes sustainable use of natural resources. Each of
these types of environmental ethics has its own benefits and should be taken
into account when considering how to best protect the environment.
Importance of Environmental Ethics
 Environmental ethics is essential for protecting the environment, species,
and resources.
 It promotes sustainable practices and encourages people to become more
aware of the impact their actions have on the environment.
 It emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living things and the need to
respect them. It encourages us to think about our place in the world and how
we can contribute to preserving the natural environment.
 Environmental ethics helps to build better relationships with nature,
recognizing its intrinsic value, not just its instrumental value.
 It encourages us to think beyond our immediate needs and consider the
long-term implications of our actions.
 It teaches us responsibility towards our environment, advocating for
environmentally friendly practices that help protect natural resources.
 Environmental ethics also promotes better public policies and laws, which
help ensure that our environment is properly cared for.
Examples of Environmental Ethics
One example of environmental ethics in action is using renewable energy
sources. Renewable energy sources are sources of energy that are naturally
replenished and can be used without depleting natural resources. Examples of
renewable energy sources include solar, wind, and hydropower. Renewable
energy sources are seen as an ethical choice, as they do not cause pollution or
deplete finite resources.
Principles of Environmental Ethics
1. Respect for the intrinsic value of nature: Nature should not be treated as a
commodity or resource to be exploited and discarded.
2. Interdependence of species and ecosystems: Humans depend on nature
and natural systems. We must recognize our role in preserving and
protecting the environment.
3. Ecological sustainability: We must strive to use resources responsibly and
with an eye to preserving ecosystems and biodiversity.
4. Human responsibility: We are responsible for our own actions and decisions
and their consequences for the environment.
5. Human equity: We must strive for a just world where the rights and needs of
humans, animals, and plants are respected and protected.
6. Precautionary principle: We should take precautions against environmental
harm, even when scientific evidence is inconclusive.
7. Right to know: Individuals have the right to access information about
environmental issues.
8. Right to participate: Citizens have the right to participate in environmental
decision-making processes.

Eco friendly technology

Eco-friendly technology, also known as green technology ( or ‘clean’ tech|) is
an umbrella term for any type of technology that uses less energy and
minimises the impact on our natural environment. It can include anything
from renewable energy sources to everyday consumer products.

What are the benefits of eco-friendly technology?

There are several reasons why green technology is so important. For one, it
can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help fight climate change. It
can also help conserve energy and resources, which is important given the
limited supply of natural resources. And finally, eco-friendly technology can
improve air quality and help protect our environment.

On an individual level we can incorporate environmentally friendly

technologies into our lives by choosing products that reduce greenhouse
gases, use less energy and saves water.
How can we make technology more eco-friendly?
There are many ways we can make technology at home more eco-friendly.
Some simple tips include:

· Replacing traditional light bulbs with energy-efficient LED bulbs

· Unplugging appliances when they’re not in use (for example, turn off your
TV, instead of leaving it on stand-by)

· Purchasing appliances that have the A or B rated energy label

hat is Sustainable Development?

Sustainable development can be defined as an approach to the economic development of a

country without compromising with the quality of the environment for future generations. In the
name of economic development, the price of environmental damage is paid in the form of land
degradation, soil erosion, air and water pollution, deforestation, etc. This damage may surpass
the advantages of having more quality output of goods and services.

Sustainable Development Goals

 To promote the kind of development that minimises environmental problems.
 To meet the needs of the existing generation without compromising with the quality of the
environment for future generations.

Achieving Sustainable Development

Sustainable development can be achieved if we follow the following points:

 It can be achieved by restricting human activities.

 Technological development should be input effective and not input utilising.
 The rate of consumption should not surpass the rate of salvation.
 For renewable resources, the rate of consumption should not surpass the rate of production
of renewable substitutes.
 All types of pollution should be minimised.
 
 It can be achieved by sensible use of natural resources.

Examples of Sustainable Development

 Wind energy
 Solar energy
 Crop rotation
 Sustainable construction
 Efficient water fixtures
 Green space
 Sustainable forestry

What are International Environmental Conventions?

An international environmental convention is a legally binding
agreement negotiated among governments to take action together to combat
or mitigate a global environmental threat. Reaching an agreement to take
such action among sovereign nations with diverse interests is no small feat.

 However, in recent decades, such agreements have proliferated to

address international environmental concerns at the global and
regional level

Why is there a Need for these Conventions?

 Ratification and implementation of the Convention and its protocols
will, for many Parties, reduce health and environmental
impacts more cost-effectively than unilateral action.
 It also creates economic benefits as harmonized legislation and
standards across borders will introduce a level playing field for
industry across countries and prevent Parties from competing
with each other at the expense of the environment and health.
 Factors that harm human health, affect food security, hinder
economic development, contribute to climate change and degrade
the environment upon which our very livelihoods depend.
 o The Convention provides a platform to discuss these
interconnections and takes actions to prevent negative
impacts.

Appropriate Technology Movement of Schumacher:

Appropriate technology is a movement (and its manifestations) encompassing
technological choice and application that is small-scale, decentralized, labor-intensive,
energy-efficient, environmentally sound, and locally autonomous. It was originally
articulated as intermediate technology by the economist Dr. Ernst Friedrich "Fritz"
Schumacher in his work Small is Beautiful. Both Schumacher and many modern-day
proponents of appropriate technology also emphasize the technology as people-
centered.
Appropriate technology has been used to address issues in a wide range of fields. Well-
known examples of appropriate technology applications include: bike- and hand-
powered water pumps (and other self-powered equipment), the universal nut sheller,
self-contained solar lamps and streetlights, and passive solar building designs. Today
appropriate technology is often developed using open source principles, which have led
to open-source appropriate technology (OSAT) and thus many of the plans of the
technology can be freely found on the Internet. OSAT has been proposed as a new
model of enabling innovation for sustainable development.
Appropriate technology is most commonly discussed in its relationship to economic
development and as an alternative to technology transfer of more capital-intensive
technology from industrialized nations to developing countries. However, appropriate
technology movements can be found in both developing and developed countries. In
developed countries, the appropriate technology movement grew out of the energy
crisis of the 1970s and focuses mainly on environmental
and sustainability issues. Today the idea is multifaceted; in some contexts, appropriate
technology can be described as the simplest level of technology that can achieve the
intended purpose, whereas in others, it can refer to engineering that takes adequate
consideration of social and environmental ramifications. The facets are connected
through robustness and sustainable living.

Ch 4
Technology and Developing Nations- Technology
transfer
Reasons for problem in technology transfer
Product / process not properly defined.

If the product is not well characterised and the production process not well defined then assumptions
usually get made (and you know what they say about assumptions). This can result in “minor” or
cosmetic issues (such as tablets the wrong colour being produced) to major quality deviations, batch
rejects and 483’s for lack of process control being issued.

Although in general each process step is described in the process definition, there is often a failure
to define critical process steps and critical parameters in short – the failure to define the process
Design Space. This usually results I unacceptable delays resolving process parameter deviations,
unwanted side effects and unanticipated impurities leading to the inability of the product to meet
product specifications.

Lack of Experience
By this I am referring to the lack of personnel experience with the manufacture of similar products or
type of product. This can lead to gross assumptions being made and an over reliance on process
descriptions and SOPs, neither of which are usually detailed enough to allow inexperienced staff to
carry out the process (be it the actual manufacturing or performing an analytical method) in the
intended manner, or to be able to recognise and flag up anomalies, faults or irregularities in a timely
manner if at all. Quite often this will result in out of specification products and significant deviation /
CAPA generation activities being required.

Lack of a Technology Transfer Plan

There can be over 75 different processes which have to be performed during a typical technology
transfer programme. These processes all have to be planned I properly in sequence and in concert
with each other. There is often no pre-constructed Technology Transfer plan, and even if a plan
exists, quite often there is a failure to assign specific responsibilities to the tasks within the plan.
Making-it-up-as-you-go never works except for the very simplest transfers. Lack of a transfer plan
usually leads to confusion, late delivery and often as not, the requirement to repeat tasks that have
already been performed.

Use of substitute equipment

It’s very unusual for a receiving site to have exactly the same analytical and production equipment
as the donor site, and even if it does, the chances are that one is a later version of the other.

This means that no two pieces of equipment will work exactly the same as each other which can
lead to unintentional differences in both processing and testing the product. This is especially true for
biologics production systems which can be very sensitive to even slight changes in process or
testing conditions.

Sometimes I have even seen one piece of equipment substituted for another one that does the same
(almost) as the first – such as membrane filtration units instead of depth filters, or impeller mixers
instead of Z-blade mixers – resulting in amazement when the end products are not to the same
specification. Of course scaling up of a process quite often falls foul of this type of thinking – a bigger
piece of equipment although it looks the same and works in the same way often doesn’t perform in
the same way as many people who substituted a larger bioreactor for a smaller one have found out
to their cost.

Dedicated Technology Transfer Manager.

It always amazes me how often the task of managing a technology transfer project is given to
someone who already has full time role on a secondary basis, on the grounds that it doesn’t need a
dedicated manager or specialist. In all but the simplest transfers, it is a false economy to do this –
one missed or mis-timed step can lead to significant time-delays and costs.

TECHNOLOGYTRANSFERPROCESS
Step 1: Invention Disclosure
The researcher(s) submits a Disclosure of Invention Form describing the
invention, detailing the funding used, the name of the inventor(s), any public
disclosures or publications, and other information. The disclosure will then
be reviewed and a meeting will be set up with the researcher to discuss the
invention.
Step 2: Evaluation
The Office evaluates the invention disclosure for its patentability, potential
commercial value and for the best modes of intellectual property protection
and commercialization. If the invention is useful, novel, and non-obvious to
those skilled in the field, then a decision would be made on whether or not to
file a patent application.
Step 3: Patent Application
There is a grace period of one year between public disclosure and filing a
patent application. In certain circumstances, a provisional patent application
will be filed, giving the University one year in which to file a non-provisional
patent. Due to the high cost of filing patent applications, the University does
not file patent applications for all invention disclosures it receives. The
commercial potential of the technology will be carefully considered before an
application is filed. Once a decision has been made to file, our patent
attorneys will handle the filing and prosecution of patent applications. Patents
usually take an average of four to six years to issue and expire in 20 years
from the date of filing. Once a patent has been issued, the University must
pay maintenance fees to the USPTO every 4 or 7.5 years.
 Step 4: Assessment and Marketing
Once a patent application has been filed, an assessment of the technology will
be done. Vital details of the assessment will then be use to market the
technology once the patent has been received.
Step 5: Licensing of Patents
The University’s goal is to put our inventions and discoveries in the hands of
the public. Patented inventions are transferred to industry through a variety of
licensing arrangements.
Step 6: Commercialization
Once a licensing agreement has been executed, the University monitors the
licensee’s business development and compliance of performance milestones,
coordinating patent prosecution, processing license income and distributing
revenue according to the University’s IP Policy.

What is a technical impact assessment?

The TIA (Technological Impact Analysis) is a simple, yet profound learning tool that
helps learners understand how specific technologies have developed, diffused and
affected society in positive and negative ways.

How to do a technology impact assessment?

The four steps are:

1. Understand the technology's potential.
2. Identify “employers” who would hire the technology to get important jobs done.
3. Assess how the technology could impact the market dynamics of other companies in
the same value chain as those “employers”

4. What are the 4 types of impact assessment?

5. Key types of impact assessments include global assessments (global level),
policy impact assessment (policy level), strategic environmental assessment
 (programme and plan level), and environmental impact assessment (project
level).

What are the benefits of technology impact assessment?

Technology assessment is crucial for several reasons. First, it helps businesses make
informed decisions about which technologies to invest in. By evaluating the potential
benefits and risks of a technology, organizations can determine whether it will help them
achieve their goals and improve their operations

WHAT IS ASSEMBLY LIN E AUTOMATION?

TYPES OF ASSEMBLY L I NE AUTOM ATION

Automation solutions are not one-size-fits-all. The highest return on investment comes
from integrating a system that is targeted to meet a specific need and solve a business
problem in your production. There are many types of automation, including bench-top
assembly stations, semi-automated lines, lean automation, continuous motion, fixed
automation, and flexible automation. Continue reading to understand some of the
differences between these types of assembly line automation.
F ULL Y AUT O MAT ED VS. SEMI- AUT OMAT ED
A fully automated production line describes equipment and systems that complete all or
part of the process with machines and virtually little to no human intervention. In a fully
automated production environment, employee involvement is typically limited to loading
product recipes into the machine interface before supervising and monitoring the
system for issues, such as part replenishment that requires loading product components
into the respective feed systems.
Semi-automated systems employ more human intervention to initiate machine commands
following the manual loading of parts into fixtures or other such tooling. This type of system can
involve humans working side by side with automation. For example, some tasks require more
dexterity than a human may be able to reasonably handle, so collaborative robotics and other
such automation assistance systems can be added. In another example, employees may be in
charge of moving parts or products from one assembly station to another, while more
automated systems at these stations complete repetitive tasks.
L EAN MANUF ACT URING A UT O MAT IO N
Today, many manufacturers follow an overall lean manufacturing strategy, whereby
automation is only added to steps in the assembly process where it will add value. In
these systems, comprehensive studies are done to determine where automation adds
value to the process and areas where it does not — these stations are stripped to
basics relying on humans to carry out the tasks. Companies do not install technology
such as robotics, vision, conveyance, or other systems in this type of automation unless
they add value to the overall production line. Conversely, if automation adds value,
then the manufacturers can choose to make the investment and adopt it. As an
example, manufacturers who produce low volumes of select products would find that
the capital investment required to add automation does not have a favorable return on
investment (ROI), thereby making it more cost-effective for employees to move parts
themselves or keep parts in one place instead of installing a high-speed robot to move
them.

CO NT INUO US MOT IO N WIT HIN HIG H-T HRO UG HPUT

MANUF ACT URING AUT O MA T IO N
Continuous motion technology is a key component in high-throughput manufacturing
automation. This assembly technology typically involves using mechanical or servo-based
cams, tooling, and sometimes machine vision to optimize cycle time to attain high throughput
speeds that could never be achieved through manual labor or semi-automatic automation.
Benefits of continuous motion include higher system overall equipment effectiveness (OEE),
reduced cycle time, and increased system throughput largely due to the optimized time for
material transfers between subsequent assembly/process stations. Typically, manufacturers
who make a consistent product, in which the assemblies are identical, benefit from integrating
continuous-motion technology into their assembly lines. Advances in servo-based cam
technology is expanding the possibilities of this technology into areas such as medical device
assembly and filling applications requiring high-throughput — in these instances, continuous
motion is growing.

F IXED VS. FL EXIBL E A UT O MAT IO N

Fixed, or hard, automation involves applications that use hard-tooled automation
platforms that are made specifically for the product and generally do not allow flexibility
due to the tooling being dedicated to a specific product. Fixed or hard automation is
starting to see use of robotics, vision, and other technology as their price point has
come down to justify their use in certain portions of the system; however, as these
products also offer flexibility that really does not get used in these applications, it only
makes sense to use them when their cost is in the realm of a hard-tooled station. This is
largely because in a hard or fixed automation application, the way the product is
assembled is done the same way every time. Typical applications also include material
handling and related conveyance systems. These applications usually are much faster
and more repeatable than traditional manual methods. However, operators must retool
and reprogram the technology for each new product.

Comparatively, programmable or soft automation applications are known as flexible

automation because they can adapt operations to new parts or products with little or no
downtime due to preprogrammed recipes that allow ease of product changeover. As a
result, these applications typically do not have output as high volume as fixed
automation.

BENEFITS OF AUTOM ATI NG YOUR

PRODUCTI ON LINE
Advantages of automation in your production line include boosting capacity, increasing
quality and lowering per-unit production costs, allowing companies to realize higher
ROI. Companies that work through applying the right automation related to their product
complexity, mix and such can achieve considerable savings in labor costs and
repeatable quality. Traditional assembly and processing through only manual labor
allows for higher chances of error and product waste; plus, manual labor is reliant on
employee attendance to ensure the factory labor source, which is particularly
challenging during unplanned situations such as the pandemic. Automation solutions
run with limited personnel, reduce error and scrap, and increase productivity, lowering
product unit cost and applying more money to the bottom line.

What is corporate social responsibility?

Corporate social responsibility is a type of business self-regulation with the aim of social
accountability and making a positive impact on society. Some ways that a company can embrace
CSR include being environmentally friendly and eco-conscious; promoting equality, diversity,
and inclusion in the workplace; treating employees with respect; giving back to the community;
and ensuring business decisions are ethical.

CSR evolved from the voluntary choices of individual companies to mandatory regulations at
regional, national and international levels. However, many companies choose to go beyond the
legal requirements and embed the idea of “doing good” into their business models.

There is no one way a company can embrace CSR, but one thing is certain – to be perceived as
genuine, the company’s practices need to be integrated into its culture and business operations.
In today’s socially conscious environment, employees and customers place a premium on
working for and spending their money on businesses that prioritize CSR. They can detect
corporate hypocrisy.

To ensure CSR authenticity, a company should look at its values, business mission and core
issues and determine which initiatives best align with the business’s goals and culture. The
business can do this internally or hire a third party to conduct an assessment.

Reviewing the United Nations 17 Sustainable Development Goals is a good place to start. While
goals like Good Health and Well-Being or Gender Equality can apply to most businesses,
specific goals like Life Below Water or Affordable and Clean Energy may be relevant to select
industries like water technology or energy providers.

Why CSR is important

There are many reasons for a company to embrace CSR practices.

1. It improves customers’ perception of your brand.

It’s increasingly important for companies to have a socially conscious image. Consumers,
employees, and stakeholders prioritize CSR when choosing a brand or company, and they hold
corporations accountable for effecting social change with their beliefs, practices, and profits.

“What the public thinks of your company is critical to its success,” said Katie Schmidt, founder
and lead designer of Passion Lilie. “By building a positive image that you believe in, you can
make a name for your company as being socially conscious.”

To stand out among the competition, your company needs to prove to the public that it is a force
for good. Advocating and raising awareness for socially important causes is an excellent way for
your business to stay top-of-mind and increase brand value.
2. It attracts and retains employees.

Consumers aren’t the only ones drawn to businesses that give back. Susan
Cooney, head of global diversity and inclusion at Symantec, said that
sustainability strategy is a big factor in where today’s top talent chooses to
work.

“The next generation of employees is seeking out employers that are focused
on the triple bottom line: people, planet and revenue,” she said. “Coming out
of the recession, corporate revenue has been getting stronger. Companies
are encouraged to put that increased profit into programs that give back.”

3. It increases your appeal to investors.

By demonstrating a developed CSR program and initiatives, your company is

bound to become more appealing to both current and future investors.
CECP’s influential 2021 Giving in Numbers report shows that investors play a
growing role as key stakeholders in corporate social responsibility. Almost
80% of surveyed businesses were open to providing them with data and
considering their perspectives on sustainability. Just like customers, investors
are holding businesses accountable when it comes to social responsibility.

At the same time, a company that takes CSR seriously signals to both
investors and partners that it’s interested in long-term as well as short-term
gain. CSR goes hand in hand with environmental, social, and governance
(ESG) metrics that help external analysts quantify the company’s social
efforts, and becomes a key factor for investors’ consideration and continued
interest.

4 types of corporate responsibility your business can

practice
In recognition of how important socially responsible efforts are to their
customers, employees and stakeholders, many companies focus on four
broad CSR categories.

1. Environmental efforts: One primary focus of CSR is the environment.

Businesses have large carbon footprints, regardless of size. Any steps a
company can take to reduce its footprint is considered good for both the
company and society.
 2. Philanthropy: Businesses can practice social responsibility by donating
money, products or services to social causes and nonprofits. Larger
companies tend to have plentiful resources that can benefit charities
and local community programs; however, even as a small business,
your efforts can make a difference. If you have a specific charity or
program in mind, reach out to the organization. Ask them about their
specific needs and whether a donation of money, time or your
company’s products would best help them.
3. Ethical labor practices: Companies can demonstrate CSR by treating
employees fairly and ethically. This is especially true of businesses that
operate in international locations with labor laws that differ from those in
the U. S.
4. Volunteering: Participating in local causes or volunteering your
time (and your staff’s time) to community events says a lot about your
company’s sincerity. When your company does good deeds without
expecting anything in return, you express concern (and support) for
specific issues and social causes.

Ch 5
Ethics of profession

Ethical Issues Facing Engineers

Today
Professional engineers energize the economy. Between 2019 and 2029, the
engineering sector will add nearly 75,000 new jobs.
Ethics energize engineering. Some engineers encounter ethical issues on a
daily basis, including in interpersonal relationships. They can be
difficult to navigate.
How do ethics and engineering relate to each other? What are ethical
issues related to sexual and racial harassment? What are some ways to
address ethical dilemmas?

Answer these questions and you can pursue an ethical career path in
engineering. Here are five ethical issues that engineers face.
1. The Right to Privacy
There are several situations in which engineers have ethical issues with
the right to privacy. Many engineers work in the medical sector. Access to
patient information is strictly regulated, with patient-doctor
confidentiality treated as sacrosanct.

But an engineer may need this information for some reason. Understanding
how patients experience cancer pain can help them build products. Yet pain
can be a very personal point of information to disclose, especially to a
stranger.

Many engineers sign non-disclosure agreements when working for companies.

Their clients may ask them for information that their agreements cover.

If they disclose this information, they will violate their agreement and
risk their company’s right to privacy. But if they withhold their
information, they risk losing their client. The client may also build a
defective product because they don’t have full information.

A lot of companies store sensitive information on computers. The computers

can get hacked and the information can get

2. Sexual Harassment
20 to 50% of women in engineering colleges experience sexual harassment.
This harassment can continue as women enter the workforce.
Sexual harassment presents a number of difficult issues. It can be hard
for someone to report their harassment because they are worried about
their job. Many women have been fired or reassigned after talking about
their experiences.

Most companies have internal mechanisms to deal with harassment. This can
make it difficult to examine company policies and culture that lead to
harassment.

It’s also hard to investigate harassment in the first place. Some

instances involve witnesses, while others are “he said, she said”
scenarios. Companies must make a determination based on limited evidence.

An engineering company can hire a third party to examine harassment. But

this raises the possibility of an information leak. A woman’s personal and
intimate experience with harassment may become public knowledge by
accident.

Some men experience sexual harassment. Their stories may go unacknowledged

because of gender bias or the power of their bosses.
Companies should institute company-wide policies on harassment, relating
to the experiences of men and women. Yet they should be careful.

Talking excessively about harassment can upset people who have experienced
it. The companies also risk focusing on the problem and not the solution.

3. Racial Discrimination
Engineering is a predominantly white space. In a 2019 survey, engineering
students of color said that they were subjected to microaggressions and
racist behavior.
Racial discrimination may be overt, but it may comprise more subtle
behaviors. A white person may interrupt a person of color. They may
challenge their ideas for no apparent reason.

It can be difficult getting to the bottom of racial discrimination

situations. As with sexual harassment, a company may not be equipped to
examine its own culture.

When racist behavior is determined, a company needs to decide a correct

course of action. They must determine whether to punish the racist
employee, including by firing them.

They then must decide how to prevent similar behavior in the future. But
they need to be careful. Company-wide seminars on race can have the effect
of marginalizing BIPOC and focusing on their suffering instead of their
success.

Many engineering companies defend their employees’ right to freedom of

speech. Yet they must balance that right with the welfare of BIPOC.

4. Professional Hierarchies
Engineering is a hierarchical profession. That makes it difficult for
junior employees to challenge their bosses.

A young employee may notice that their boss made a mistake on something.
They should speak up and correct the error. But they may be concerned that
their job will be threatened if they do.

When they do speak up, their boss may not listen to them. They may refuse
to continue the conversation, even though the employee should say
something.

On rare occasions, a superior employee may steal the work of a junior one.
It may be difficult to determine whether or not theft occurred.

The superior employee may have been a supervisor to the younger one. The
younger one may have given some sort of permission to the older one to use
their work. Engineering groups must examine hierarchies closely when
looking at copyright.

5. Environmental Justice
Engineers are involved in a number of projects that impact the
environment. Designing oil wells is an important one.
Oil wells provide fuel to help transport vehicles and keep people warm.
Yet they can damage land and water resources. Burning oil contributes to
climate change that can cause natural disasters.

Pipelines are useful tools for transporting oil. But they can damage the
ground and water, and disrupt animal habitats. Many pipelines run through
indigenous communities, affecting their rights to live and tend to the
land.

Difference between business and

profession

Introduction
Difference between business and profession :Generally, economic activities are
divided into three major categories:

 Business
 Profession
 Employment

But sometimes people get confused when categorizing economic activity as either
business or profession. So, let get some clarity regarding the terms- business and
profession.

Meaning of Business
Business is either an occupation, profession, or trade, or is a commercial activity which
involves providing goods or services in exchange for profits.
Profits in business are not necessarily money. It can be a benefit in any form which is
acknowledged by a business entity involved in a business activity.

Forms of Business
There are three main legal forms a business can take:

 Sole proprietorship
 Partnership
 Corporation

Each of these legal forms has distinct characteristics as well as advantages and
disadvantages.

Objective of the Businesses

The business objective is what makes the business go on and conduct its activities in a
long run. It is the reason why the business exists. While most of the people argue that
profit making is the core objective of every business. Few have come up with the new
underlying objective.

According to the traditional concept, business exists only to earn profits by

providing the goods and services to the customers.

According to the modern concept, the underlying objective of every business

is customer satisfaction as this is what results in most profits. If the customer is
satisfied, business excess.

Meaning of Profession
A profession is a disciplined group of individuals who adhere to ethical standards and
who hold themselves out as, and are accepted by the public as possessing special
knowledge and skills in a widely recognized body of learning derived from research,
education and training at a high level, and who are prepared to apply this knowledge
and exercise these skills in the interest of others.
Characteristics of a Profession
There are some following characteristics of Profession are:

1. Great responsibility
2. Accountability
3. Based on specialized and theoretical knowledge
4. Autonomy
5. Morality
6. Ethical constraints

Difference between Business and Profession

The following are some differences between business and profession:

Basis for
Business Profession
difference

Business is either an occupation, profession, or trade, Profession is a form of economic activities, w

Meaning or is a commercial activity which involves providing special skills, knowledge and expertise is requ
goods or services in exchange for profits. applied by the person in his occupation.

Basic objective Earning profit Rendering services

Qualification No minimum qualification Specialized knowledge of study is required

Transfer of
Possible Not possible
Interest

Reward Profit Professional fee

Risk factor Always present Not always present

Advantages of Business
Businesses offer a wide range of advantages to individuals, communities, and the
economy as a whole. Here are some key advantages of businesses:

 Economic Growth: Businesses are a major driver of economic growth. They create
jobs, stimulate investment, and contribute to the overall expansion of the economy.
When businesses thrive, they lead to increased production and consumption, which in
turn leads to economic development.

 Job Creation: Businesses are significant employers. They create jobs for a diverse
range of individuals with varying skill sets and education levels. Employment
opportunities provided by businesses help reduce unemployment rates and improve the
standard of living for many people.

 Innovation: Businesses are often at the forefront of innovation. They invest in research
and development, leading to the creation of new products, technologies, and services.
This innovation not only benefits the company but also society as a whole by improving
efficiency and quality of life.

 Wealth Creation: Successful businesses generate profits for their owners and
shareholders. This wealth creation allows for personal financial growth and investment in
other ventures, including philanthropic activities.

 Tax Revenue: Businesses contribute significantly to government revenues through

taxes, including income tax, corporate tax, and sales tax. These revenues fund essential
public services such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure development.

 Consumer Choice: Businesses offer a wide variety of products and services, giving
consumers choices that suit their preferences and needs. Competition among
businesses encourages them to continually improve their offerings, resulting in better
quality and lower prices for consumers.

 Efficiency: Businesses are often driven by a profit motive, which incentivizes them to
operate efficiently. This efficiency can lead to cost savings, reduced waste, and
increased productivity, benefiting both the company and consumers.

 Specialization: Businesses allow individuals to specialize in specific roles and

functions. This specialization leads to expertise in various fields, which can lead to
higher quality products and services.

 Global Trade: Businesses facilitate international trade by importing and exporting goods
and services. This exchange of goods and ideas helps foster global cooperation and
economic interdependence.
  Community Development: Businesses can play a vital role in community development
by investing in local infrastructure, supporting local charities, and providing employment
opportunities. This contributes to the overall well-being of communities.

 Social Mobility: Businesses can offer opportunities for individuals to advance in their
careers and improve their socioeconomic status. Hard work, talent, and dedication can
lead to upward mobility within a business organization.

 Entrepreneurship: Businesses provide a platform for entrepreneurs to turn their ideas

into reality. Entrepreneurship fosters creativity and innovation and can lead to the
development of new industries and technologies.

 Consumer Education: Businesses often provide information about their products and
services, which helps educate consumers and allows them to make informed decisions.

Advantages of Profession

Professions offer numerous advantages to individuals and society. Here are some key
advantages of pursuing a profession:

 Expertise: Professions require specialized knowledge and skills, allowing individuals to

become experts in their chosen field.

 Job Security: Many professions offer stable employment and job security, often backed
by certifications or licenses.

 Higher Earnings: Professions generally offer higher earning potential compared to jobs
that don’t require specialized training.

 Career Advancement: Professions often come with clear pathways for career
advancement and growth.

 Professional Recognition: Being part of a profession often brings recognition and

respect from peers and the community.

 Impact: Professions often involve work that directly contributes to the well-being of
individuals or society, providing a sense of purpose.

 Continual Learning: Many professions require ongoing education and training,

promoting lifelong learning.

 Ethical Standards: Professions typically have established ethical codes and standards
that guide behavior and decision-making.

 Networking: Professions offer opportunities to build valuable professional networks,

which can aid in career development.
  Specialization: Professions allow individuals to specialize in areas of interest, further
developing their expertise.

 Global Opportunities: Some professions can offer international opportunities and

exposure.

 Contribution to Society: Many professions, such as healthcare and education, directly

contribute to the betterment of society.
 Job Satisfaction: Professions often provide a high level of job satisfaction due to the
fulfillment of helping others or making a meaningful impact.

Professional ethics and codes

of conduct
Professional ethics are principles that govern the behaviour of a person or group in a
business environment. Like values, professional ethics provide rules on how a person
should act towards other people and institutions in such an environment.

The Code is an example of a codified set of professional ethics for those who choose to
enter the immigration advice profession.

Ethical principles
Ethical principles underpin all professional codes of conduct. Ethical principles may
differ depending on the profession; for example, professional ethics that relate to
medical practitioners will differ from those that relate to lawyers or real estate agents.

However, there are some universal ethical principles that apply across all professions,
including:

 honesty

 trustworthiness

 loyalty
  respect for others

 adherence to the law

 doing good and avoiding harm to others

 accountability.

Codes of conduct
Professional codes of conduct draw on these professional ethical principles as the basis
for prescribing required standards of behaviour for members of a profession. They also
seek to set out the expectations that the profession and society have of its members.

The intention of codes of conduct is to provide guidelines for the minimum standard of
appropriate behaviour in a professional context. Codes of conduct sit alongside the
general law of the land and the personal values of members of the profession.

Professional codes of conduct provide benefits to:

 the public, as they build confidence in the profession’s trustworthiness

 clients, as they provide greater transparency and certainty about how their affairs will be
handled

 members of the profession, as they provide a supporting framework for resisting

pressure to act inappropriately, and for making acceptable decisions in what may be
‘grey areas’

 the profession as a whole, as they provide a common understanding of acceptable

practice which builds collegiality and allows for fairer disciplinary procedures

 others dealing with the profession, as the profession will be seen as more reliable and
easier to deal with.
Other contributors to professional ethics

Fiduciary duties

When an adviser agrees to assist a client, they agree to take on a level of responsibility
for that person and their immigration matter. The client becomes dependent on the
adviser in relation to that assistance. This is a fiduciary relationship between the
fiduciary (the adviser) and a principal (the client). Even without a Code this fiduciary
relationship means the adviser has certain obligations to their client.

Contractual obligations

When an adviser enters into a contract (or written agreement) with a client this creates
legally binding obligations to perform the terms of the contract in a particular way. This
includes a duty to act with diligence, due care and skill, and also implies obligations
such as confidentiality and honesty, even if they are not specifically set out in the
contract.

Many ethical issues are likely to stem from advisers’ relationships with clients. Most of
these can be overcome by having clear terms in a written agreement about how certain
matters will be dealt with, such as the sharing of confidential information, the use of
interpreters, refunds and invoicing. More information on written agreements can be
found in the Code of Conduct Toolkit.

Ch 6
Profession and human values
Value Crisis in Contemporary Indian Society

The deepening value crisis in the contemporary Indian society is

casting its evil shadow in all walks of our life. There is lack of
development of sound moral vision among human being along with
scientific and technological development. As a result, human being
can produce such powerful means of destruction like hydrogen and
nuclear bombs and destroy the whole world in no time. Wealth
worshipped as god, Pride has become a creed.The promises of the
‘tryst with the destiny’ and the dreams of prosperity, social wellbeing
and human happiness are proving to be false. One can understand the
nature of the value crisis in different spheres of our life. These spheres
may be categorized as individual, societal, intellectual and cultural. For
now, we will see only at an individual level.

At individual level:

 The sole aim of all the strivings at the individual level has
become the attainment of personal success. It is a worldly
success, defined in purely materialistic terms as the
acquisition of money, power and prestige. All other life values
(moral, aesthetic and spiritual) which give meaning, worth
and fullness to human existence are seen as roadblocks and
unnecessary diversions from the high road to material
success.

 Similarly, the concept of a good life has been restricted to

very narrow confines. Good life is one with unrestricted
enjoyment of sensuous pleasures and fulfillment of unlimited
desires, through consumerism. The new economic policies of
liberalization and globalization have further propelled this
ever aggressive march of consumerism.
  value crisis is also leading to increasing respectability of
selfish individualism. It takes the form of exclusive concern
for personal gains without any consideration for the common
good.

 People today are only concerned about their rights, without

fulfilling their obligations towards others. The common
ethical principle that the rights of one can be fulfilled only if
others performed their duties seems to have been forgotten.

 Another dimension of value crisis is the common mentality of

adopting double standards of value judgment, a much
higher one for others and a much lower one for ourselves.

 The strongest value-base of the Indian society has always

been the institution of the joint family (If each member of
family knows their limits). But in the new urban culture the
joint family has broken up,partly because of the socio-
economic pressures, and partly because of the rising
individualism. In the unitary and the nuclear families,the
demands of career success and the necessities of
consumeristic fulfillment leave little time and energy for value
inculcation. Instead of being a social and human unit the
family is becoming more of an economic unit where the child
is conditioned to work single mindedly for career success, to
meet the competition in all fields and to become worldly-
wise

Integrated personality
Characteristics and importance of Integrated personality. Read this
article for more detail on various personality.
NTEGRATED PERSONALITY

Integrated personality is one in whom various aspects of personality are working in a

harmonious and effective manner. The integration of personality is the integration of all
psycho-physical traits of personality.

According to Guilford, Integrated personality emerges from the synthesis of seven traits
– psychology, needs, interests, attitude, temperament, aptitude and morphology.

In wood worth's opinion, an integrated personality is one in which the several traits,
interests, and desires are combined in an effective harmonious unity.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEGRATED PERSONALITY

In an Integrated personality, mind and emotions, desire and determination, and all
mental activities work in an organized way.

There are no conflicts in an integrated personality.

In such a person, his ambitions and aspirations are in accordance with his mental
capacities and his objectives are realistically attuned to the required physical energy.

An integrated personality is flexible, strong, and organized as well as balanced.

Such a person has realistic assessment of himself , his strength, and weakness, has
stable concept involving higher level of self esteem and fewer feelings of inadequacy
and fewer evidence of compensatory behavior and accept himself , leading to himself
being accepted by others.

Integrated personality implies harmony between five important aspects of personality:

Harmony between one's abilities and capacities.

Harmony among one's interests.

Harmony between one's abilities and interests.

Harmony between one's self concept and social constraints.

Harmony between one's life goal and social codes of conduct.

IMPORTANCE OF INTEGRATED PERSONALITY

The fostering of the development of a wholesome, integrated personality in pupils is the

aim of educational endeavor. The integration of personality is necessary in order to
effect adjustment with the environment. Adjustment will be natural and easy if
integration is strong. If the integration is less than essential then the problems of
adjustment with environment rise. In the absence of the integration of personality is
unbalanced there being no proper blending of psycho-physical traits. Such a person can
neither be skilled in his behavior nor does he get success in his life's tasks.

What Are the Societal Values That Need to Be

Considered When Making Decisions about Trade-
Offs between Equity and Efficiency?
The Citizens Council provides NICE with a public perspective on overarching moral and ethical
issues that NICE should take into account when producing guidance. Made up of members of the
public, broadly representative of the adult UK population, the Council operates through a
“citizens’ jury” style meeting, to explore and respond to a question set by NICE.
At its meeting in May 2014, the Citizens Council considered the question: “What are the societal
values that need to be considered when making decisions about trade-offs between equity and
efficiency?”
We started by defining our understanding of what constitutes a ‛good society’ and the societal
values which underpin it. With the help of experts and case studies, the Council examined how
different societal values are involved in real life decisions about the provision of care. We then
looked at the differences and similarities between public health, social care and health care and
also discussed any ‛special circumstances’ where we considered there is a need for greater
emphasis on either equity or efficiency. The Council also discussed whether some key values,
such as ‛dignity’ and ‛humanity’ should always be taken into account no matter which area or
what the circumstances are.
At the end of the meeting we created a list of key societal values that we thought should be
considered across public health, social care and health care.
 Accountability
 Collective responsibility
 Dignity
 Education
 Fairness
 Honesty
 Humanity
 Individual rights
 Justice
 Maximising total benefit/benefit for most/utilitarianism
 Quality of life
  Respect
 Right to health and welfare for all
 Safeguarding the vulnerable
 Value/quality of service
We felt that these values should underpin all three areas of public health, social care and health
care, not just when looking at trade-offs between equity and efficiency but as guiding principles
for all of NICE’s work. However, we felt that, depending on the situation, some of these are
more pertinent than others. Although we found it difficult to define how they should influence
the trade-offs between equity and efficiency when making decisions, we hope we have provided
insights to form the basis for further exploration by NICE.
The theme of ‛good communication’ came up throughout our discussions, in the context of how
societal values are felt and experienced when the reasoning behind decisions is not effectively
communicated. A lack of good communication could lead to patients or service users feeling that
the decision did not match up with their expected values and not feel ‛fair’. The tension between
‛individual rights’ and wider society was also a recurrent theme and we often found it difficult to
find a balance between the two, for example how the individual right to drink alcohol can create
problems for society and what should constitute ‛‛the greater good’’ in that situation.
Values in Indian constitution
(i) Sovereignty: By declaring us as a sovereign entity, Preamble emphasizes
complete political freedom. It implies that our state is internally powerful and
externally free. She is free to determine for herself without any external
interference. There is none within her to challenge her authority. Only this
attribute of sovereignty has made her a member in the comity of nations.
Without sovereignty she has no essence. If a state can not freely determine
what it wants and how to achieve it, it loses the rationale to exist. Further,
sovereignty gives the state the dignity of existence. It would not receive respect
from within as well from outside if it does not possess the sovereign status. This
suggests that sovereignty is one of the most important values of a state.
Therefore, the government is duty bound to defend its sovereignty by
preventing any kind of threat to it coming from any entity and direction. Though
our Constitution does not specify where the sovereign authority lies but by
mentioning the source of our Constitution as µWe the people of India¶ it
announces to the world that the ultimate sovereignty rests with the people of
India as a whole. Political sovereignty is the hinge of our polity. Accordingly, it is
implied that the Constitutional authorities and organs of government derive
their power only from the people. Therefore, our political system should ensure
the support and approval of people to it. Article-51A(c), on the other hand, says
that it shall be the duty of every citizen to uphold and protect the sovereignty,
unity and integrity of India.
(ii) (ii) Socialism: The word µsocialist¶ was added to the Preamble by the 42nd
amendment act of 1976 however, several articles of our Constitution were
already there giving credence to the ideal. The fathers of our Constitution had a
wider vision of social transformation. Despite all social, economic and political
inequality present and inherent in Indian traditional society, our Constitution
started a crusade against that order. The Constitution has deliberately imposed
on us the ideal of socialist pattern of society ± a kind of Indian model of
socialism to suit to our needs and temperament. It stands to end all forms of
exploitation in all spheres of our existence. Our Constitution directs the state to
ensure a planned and coordinated social advance in all fields while preventing
concentration of wealth and power in few hands. Our Constitution supports
land reforms, promotes the well-being of working class and advocates for social
control of all important natural resources and means of production for the
wellbeing of all sections. To ensure a basic minimum to all has been the crux of
many of our public policies today. Government of India has adopted mixed
economy, introduced five year plans and has framed many such laws to achieve
the value of socialism in a democratic set up. To achieve the objective of
socialism Part-IV of our Constitution has outlined the principles to be followed.

(iii) (iii) Secularism: India is a home to almost all major religions in the world. To
keep the followers of all these religions together secularism has been found to
be a convenient formula. The ideal of secularism in Indian context implies that
our country is not guided by any religion or any religious considerations.
However, our polity is not against religions. It allows all its citizens to profess,
preach and practice any religion of their liking. Articles from 25 to 28 ensure
freedom of religion to all its citizens. Constitution strictly prohibits any
discrimination on the ground of religion. All minority communities are granted
the right to conserve their distinctive culture and the January - 2011 33 Orissa
Review right to administer their educational institutions. The Supreme Court in
S.R Bommai v. Union of India held that secularism was an integral part of the
basic structure of the Constitution. Secularism thus is a value in the sense that it
supports to our plural society. It aims at promoting cohesion among different
communities living in India. Despite the Constitutional provisions and
safeguards it is unfortunate that we still remain insufficiently secular. That has
resulted in communal riots. Therefore, to achieve true secularism has remained
a challenging objective.

(iv) (iv) Democracy: India is a democracy. We have adopted parliamentary

democracy to ensure a responsible and stable government. As a form of
government it derives its authority from the will of the people. The people elect
the rulers of the country and the latter remain accountable to the people. The
people of India elect their governments at all levels (Union, State and local) by a
 system of universal adult franchise; popularly known as µOne man one vote¶.
Elections are held periodically to ensure the approval of the people to the
governments at different levels. All the citizens without any discrimination on
the basis of caste, creed, colour, sex, religion or education are allowed freedom
of speech, thought and expression and also association. Democracy contributes
to stability in the society and it secures peaceful change of rulers. It allows
dissent and encourages tolerance. It rules by persuasion, not by coercion. It
stands for a constitutional government, rule of law, inalienable rights of citizens,
independence of judiciary, free and fair elections and freedom of press etc.
Therefore, to develop a democratic political culture has been an important
objective. (v) Republic: As opposed to a monarchy, our Constitution prefers to
remain a republic. The office of the head of the state is elective. This idea
strengthens and substantiates democracy that every citizen of India (barring
some who are constitutionally disqualified) after attaining a particular age is
equally eligible to become the head of the state if he is elected as such. Political
equality is its chief message. Any sort of hereditary rule is thus regarded as a
disvalue in India.

(v) (vi) Justice: Justice is called a total value. The fathers of our Constitution knew
that political freedom would not automatically solve the socio-economic
problems which have been deep rooted. Therefore, they stressed that the
positive constructive aspect of political freedom has to be instrumental in the
creation of a new social order, based on the doctrine of socio-economic justice.
The message of socio-economic justice mentioned in the preamble to our
Constitution has been translated into several articles enshrined in part-III and
part- IV of the Constitution. A number of practical measures have been taken
over the years to create more favourable social conditions for the millions of
downtrodden. These include several developmental policies to provide
safeguard to minorities, backward, depressed and tribal people. Our
constitution abolishes untouchability; prohibits exploitation of the women,
children and the weak and advocates for reservation to raise the standard of the
people oppressed over ages. Whenever our government undertakes any
developmental project it always adds a human face to it. Therefore, this ideal of
a just and egalitarian society remains as one of the foremost objectives.

(vi) (vii)Liberty: The blessings of freedom have been preserved and ensured to our
citizens through a set of Fundamental Rights. It was well understood by the
fathers of our Constitution that the ideal of 34 Orissa Review January - 2011
democracy was unattainable without the presence of certain minimal rights
which are essential for a free and civilized existence. Therefore, the Preamble
mentions these essential individual rights such as freedom of thought,
expression, belief, faith and worship which are assured to every member of the
community against all the authorities of States by Part-III of the Constitution.
 There are however less number of success stories. Unless all dissenting voice is
heard and tolerated and their problems are addressed liberty will be a distant
dream.

(vii) (viii) Equality: Every citizen of India is entitled to equality before law and equal
protection of law. As a human being everybody has a dignified self. To ensure its
full enjoyment inequality in all forms present in our social structure has been
prohibited. Our Constitution assures equality of status and opportunity to every
citizen for the development of the best in him. Political equality though given in
terms of vote but it is not found in all spheres of politics and power. µEquality
before law¶ in order to be effective requires some economic and education
base or grounding. Equality substantiates democracy and justice. It is therefore
held as an important value.
(viii) (ix) Fraternity: Fraternity stands for the spirit of common brotherhood. In the
absence of that, a plural society like India stands divided. Therefore, to give
meaning to all the ideals like justice, liberty and equality our Constitution gives
ample stress on fraternity. Democracy has been given the responsibility to
generate this spirit of brotherhood amongst all sections of people. This has been
a foremost objective to achieve in a country composed of so many races,
religions, languages and cultures. Article-51A(e) therefore, declares it as a duty
of every citizen of India to promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic
and regional or sectional diversities. Article 51A(f) further asks each citizen to
value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. However, Justice
D.D. Basu believes that, ³Fraternity will be achieved not only by abolishing
untouchability amongst the different sects of the same community, but by
abolishing all communal or sectional or even local or provincial anti-social
feelings which stand in the way of unity of India.´ 7

(ix) (x) Dignity of the individual: Fraternity and dignity of the individuals have a close
link. Fraternity is only achievable when the dignity of the individual will be
secured and promoted. Therefore, the founding fathers of our Constitution
attached supreme importance to it. Our Constitution therefore directs the state
through the Directives enshrined in the Part-IV of our Constitution to ensure the
development of the quality of life to all sections of people. Our Constitution
acknowledges that all citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an
adequate means of livelihood (Art.-39 a) and just and humane conditions of
work (Art.-42). Article-17 has abolished the practice of untouchability by
declaring it as a punishable offence. Our Constitution too directs the state to
take steps to put an end to exploitation and poverty.

(x) (xi) Unity and integrity of the Nation: To maintain the independence of the
country intact and enduring, unity and integrity of the nation is very essential.
 Therefore, the stress has been given on the ideal of fraternity which would
foster unity amongst the inhabitants. Without a spirit of brotherhood amongst
the people the ideals of unity and integration of people and nation seem
unattainable. Our Constitution expects from all the citizens of India to uphold
January - 2011 35 Orissa Review and protect the unity and integrity of India as a
matter of duty. involved in politics, intra-party conflicts, and perpetual paralysis
of parliamentary sessions and people¶s increasing apathy in participation in
developmental programmes and electoral exercises. Even, at times people are
hinting at the need for the review of our Constitution and switching over to
presidential model. Therefore, sufficient introspection is required from all
quarters viz., government to individual via political parties and civil society to
make our democracy a vibrant and effective one. Constitution is not failing but
we are failing the Constitution. Granville Austin has very appropriately said,
³Constitutions do not µwork¶, they are inert, dependent upon being µworked¶
by citizens and elected and appointed leaders.´ To conclude, what we need to
develop is the right type of political culture for sustaining the Constitution which
is not just the result of the labour of few months and years as put by the
members of the Constituent Assembly but the result of struggle and toil of
millions of people in the national movement spanning over nearly a century
almost.

Aesthetic Value in General

A complex process goes into evaluating artistic value. As a result of cultural differences, aesthetics
has been the subject of much debate across the globe, and a person’s perception of beauty is
largely determined by their cultural background. In the West, many people appreciate Classical
design, which is influenced by ancient Greece and Rome. However, in the East, such a design may
not appeal to them. Artworks are judged based on their aesthetic value, so while the materials can
be identical, they can have radically different price tags based on the way they appear and who
created them.

 There are many fields in which aesthetic value is important, not just art. Real estate, in which the
appearance of a home affects its sale price, must also consider aesthetics, as must furniture and
clothing design.
 Aesthetics is also taken into consideration when engineers design products as attractive designs can
increase the value of the product in consumers’ minds. Keyboards, for example, can be arranged in
several ways, and those that are unusual or distinguishable are likely to be more expensive.
 A concern with nature can also fall under this category. Although some natural landscapes may be
regarded as more attractive than others in many cultures, the concept of nature having inherent
aesthetic value is widely accepted.
 National parks in the United States were established not to serve as development sites for citizens
but to preserve the natural landscape of the countries. Nature reserves were not established for
citizen use but the benefit of their beauty.
 The coursework offered at colleges and universities aims to enhance students’ ability to make
informed decisions regarding beauty and aesthetics.
 Researchers from psychology and social science are also interested in this area because they want
to know how cultures develop ideas about beauty, and how those ideas display themselves in
cultural manifestations.

Aesthetics as a concept
Art, philosophy, social science, and cultural history all fall under the umbrella of aesthetics. Thus,
aesthetics can have different meanings depending on the field of study. The fundamental purpose of
aesthetics is to examine the beauty of art and the value of works of art. The method involves judging
objects from many perspectives, for example, from an emotional standpoint, from a practical
perspective, from a rarity point of view, and an experience point of view.

 Observing beauty (defined as the qualities of an object), which generates pleasure when this
affective response is positive, can give one a feeling of pleasure.
 The classically aesthetic concept of beauty considers balance, symmetry, order, and magnitude to
be key features.
 According to this perspective, aesthetics refers to the characteristics of the observed object, i.e.,
from the standpoint of the ‘transmitter’. Hume, in contrast, contends that objects do not have innate
qualities of beauty but that they are modified by human education and nature.
 The same principle applies to Kant’s concept of the ‘aesthetics of reception’. From these two
complementary views of aesthetics, modern aesthetics defines aesthetics as between transmitting
and receiving, which form a foundation of the modern approach.
 In some aesthetic views, such as those in the philosophy of art, beauty is not considered to have
physical properties but is seen as a relation between an object and its observer, as if it were a
conduit connecting the sender and receiver.
 Another view of aesthetic experience encompasses social and moral aspects of arts, including
meanings and representations in addition to beauty
 Assessing the aesthetic value

When it comes to copyright, customs law, and obscenity, judges have traditionally avoided making
decisions about aesthetic value. The exact reason for this refusal was explained by Oliver Wendell
Holmes in 1903 in terms often quoted by contemporary jurists:

 Until they reach the obvious and narrowest limits, people only educated in law would be risky to
exercise final judgement on work.
 The absence of other criteria may even lead to the work of a genius being overlooked. It would take
the public some time to learn new things about aesthetic values and to be able to appreciate them
until the public had acquired them.
 A common view holds that objective standards of judicial reasoning will not be used by judges or
other members of the legal community.
 A judge’s belief that aesthetic value cannot be determined objectively enough to satisfy the court’s
needs is questionable.
 This supposed subjectivity is not supported by a closer reading of Justice Holmes’ 1903 statement.
 To think that Holmes said the public needs to learn “the language in which their author writes” before
being able to appreciate a genius seems rather ironic. According to the statement, once we learn to
appraise a work, we can accurately assess its quality.
 Taking a rational approach to the work, reasonable people — competent observers — will all arrive
at the same conclusion. Taking an objective approach to aesthetic value is the key to “objectivity”.

A link between aesthetics and value

Landscape quality and management practices have a direct or indirect effect on aesthetic value.
Human perception has traditionally placed a greater focus on the general nature of landscape
patterns, mostly structural. While the aesthetic and the natural properties of landscapes have been
recognised, the definition of naturalness is still vague, primarily because the definition is based on
human perceptions and not a clear biophysical assessment. Ecological value offers operational
indicators of ecological value, whereas naturalness provides a conceptual framework. Nevertheless,
landscape aesthetics do not measure biodiversity, and this field is only just starting to incorporate it
into its evaluation.